57
Key words: alien plants, 
macrophytes, invasion, urban river 
communities.
Ključne besede: tujerodne vrste, 
makrofiti, invazivnost, urbane rečne 
združbe.
Corresponding author:
Hanna O. Kazarinova
E-mail:  
hanna.kazarinova@karazin.ua
Received: 4. 1. 2024
Accepted: 22. 8. 2024
Phytocenotic and ecological characteristics 
of urban river communities invaded by 
Pistia stratiotes L. and Pontederia crassipes 
Mart. in Ukraine
Abstract
Pistia stratiotes L. and Pontederia crassipes Mart. are alien species used in aquarism 
and aquaculture with a high invasive capacity. The aim of the study was to establish 
phytocenotic and ecological features of populations of these species in urban river 
ecosystems. The research was conducted in 2014–2023 on water bodies of the 
Kharkiv city, Ukraine. Local populations of these species were found in three rivers 
and vegetation relevés were carried out according to standard phytosociological 
methods. Alien species occurred with high constancy in the communities of 
Lemnetea O. de Bolòs et Masclans 1955 and with a minor occurrence in fragments 
of communities of Phragmito-Magnocaricetea Klika in Klika et Novák 1941. The 
obtained results of phytoindication show a variability of humidity, aeration, and 
thermal regime in which the populations of these species occur. The environmental 
characteristics such as low temperatures, light, salt and nitrogen regime are limiting 
for occurrence of populations. Climatic and hydrological conditions of the city’s 
river ecosystems of the city are favorable for spread of communities with the 
present Pistia stratiotes L. and Pontederia crassipes Mart.
Izvleček
Pistia stratiotes L. in Pontederia crassipes Mart. sta tujerodni vrsti, ki se uporabljata 
v akvaristiki in ribogojstvu z visoko sposobnostjo invazivnosti. Cilj raziskave je 
bil ugotoviti fitocenotske in ekološke značilnosti populacij teh vrst v urbanih 
rečnih ekosistemih. Raziskava je bila izvedena v letih 2014–2023 na vodnih 
telesih mesta Harkov v Ukrajini. Lokalne populacije teh vrst so bile najdene v 
treh rekah, vegetacijski popisi pa so bili izvedeni po standardnih fitosocioloških 
metodah. Tujerodne vrste so se z visoko stalnostjo pojavljale v združbah razreda 
Lemnetea O. de Bolòs et Masclans 1955 in z manjšo stalnostjo v fragmentih 
združb razreda Phragmito-Magnocaricetea Klika v Klika et Novák 1941. Dobljeni 
rezultati fitoindikacije kažejo na variabilnosti vlažnosti, zračnosti in toplotnega 
režima, v katerih se pojavljajo populacije teh vrst. Okoljske razmere, kot so nizke 
temperature, svetloba, slanost in režim dušika, so omejujoče za uspevanje populacij. 
Podnebne in hidrološke razmere mestnih rečnih ekosistemov so ugodne za širjenje 
združb z vrstama Pistia stratiotes L. in Pontederia crassipes Mart.
Hanna O. Kazarinova1
1 V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University, Kharkiv, Ukraine
DOI: 10.3986/hacq-2025-000724/1 • 2025, 57–65
24/1 • 2025, 57–65
58
Hanna O. Kazarinova
Phytocenotic and ecological characteristics of Pistia stratiotes and  
Pontederia crassipes urban river communities 
Introduction
Invasions of aquatic macrophytes are negative and dan-
gerous phenomena that can cover the water areas of natu-
ral and artificial reservoirs. Dense mats of plants cause 
shallowing, increase the rates of water siltation, block 
sunlight, reducing primary production, disturbance in 
the gas exchange of reservoirs, decrease levels of oxygen 
and increased levels of nitrate, ammonium and phospho-
rus, that leads to eutrophication, increase mortality rates 
of fish and macro-invertebrates (Attionu, 1976; EPPO, 
2017; May, 2006). In addition, such water invasions lead 
to economic losses and significantly complicate economic 
and environmental protection activities in the affected 
water bodies (Coetzee et al., 2017). At the same time, 
eliminating the consequences of large-scale invasions of 
aquatic macrophytes is a rather difficult task and requires 
large financial and resource costs (Global Invasive Species 
Programme (GISP), 2001; May, 2006).
An example of such an invasion was the appearance and 
further spread of Pistia stratiotes L. in 2013 in the reser-
voirs of the Siverskyi Donets River valley (Kharkiv region, 
Ukraine). This made it necessary to solve the problem of 
the negative impact of large-scale phytoinvasion on natu-
ral hydroecosystems (Kazarinova, 2016). After the first 
detection in 2013, this species appeared every year in vari-
ous reservoirs and rivers of the Siversky Donets basin, in 
2014 it was already recorded within the Kharkiv city in the 
course of the Udy River (49°57’24.8»N 36°09’59.9»E).
Pistia stratiotes L. (Araceae), or water lettuce, is an al-
ien species of pantropical origin, noted in Ukraine since 
the 80s of the last century (Dubyna et al., 2017). It is a 
pleistophyte, floats freely on the water surface, has rapid 
vegetative reproduction by stolons and the ability to form 
a large number of seeds with high germination rates (Ka-
zarinova, 2016). P. stratiotes is spread by water currents 
and wind, as well as by birds, which allows vegetative and 
generative diaspores of plants to overcome significant 
distances between isolated water bodies (Adebayo et al, 
2011). Plants are capable of rapid vegetative reproduction 
with the help of stolons that develop in the axils of the 
lower leaves. New individuals are formed at the ends of 
stolons, which form stolons of the second order. Adult 
plants are able to form up to 8 inflorescences, which are 
contained in the axils of the leaves in the center of the ro-
sette (Kazarinova, 2016). According to our research, this 
species forms 4–8 fruits in September-October with an 
average seed productivity 7.1 seeds per fruit, which are 
characterized by high germination. The optimal condi-
tions for seed germination are high water temperature, 
which is observed most often in anthropogenically modi-
fied ecosystems (Kazarinova, 2016). Our field and labora-
tory studies confirm the viability of seeds that have been 
frozen and the overwintering of P. stratiotes in natural wa-
ter bodies (Kazarinova, 2016). 
Pontederia crassipes Mart. (Pontederiaceae) or water 
hyacinth is an alien species of subtropical-tropical South 
American origin (Amazon River Basin). According to 
Prokopuk et al. (2021), this species was first registered 
in Ukraine in 2020 in the reservoirs of Kyiv city. How-
ever, Yu.V. Benhus already found Pontederia crassipes in 
Kharkiv city in 2009 (Benhus & Neko, 2023). Due to 
occurrence in different types of water bodies, rapid devel-
opment and wide distribution, P. crassipes and P. stratiotes 
have been included by various wildlife agencies around 
the world among the 100 most invasive and harmful ex-
otic species (Sierra-Carmona et al., 2022).
Both species are widely and, unfortunately, uncontrol-
lably used in urban aquaculture, aquarism, which makes 
cities a source of their penetration into hydroecosystems 
with subsequent spread and formation of stable local 
populations in various types of water bodies. This is fa-
cilitated by the competitiveness and euritopicity of these 
plant species (Prokopuk & Zub, 2022).
In this regard, we aimed to assess the distribution of 
local populations of Pistia stratiotes and Pontederia cras-
sipes in hydroecosystems, to establish the phytocenotic 
and ecological features of plant communities with the 
participation of these alien species using the example of 
Kharkiv city.
Study area 
Kharkiv city is located in the North-East of Ukraine be-
tween the Central Russian Highlands and the Donetsk 
Lowlands. The city territory is a hilly plain cut by river 
valleys, streams and ravines. This territory is a relatively 
deep erosion basin formed by the activity of the Kharkiv, 
Lopan, Udy and Nemyshlya Rivers, which belong to the 
Siversky Donets basin. The Kharkiv, Lopan and Nemy-
shlya Rivers with their tributaries are small, and the Udy 
River is medium. The hydrological characteristics of these 
rivers are given in a number of publications (Shvebs & 
Ihoshyn, 2003; Karpets, 2008). In addition, there are 
small reservoirs on the territory of the city – Zhurav-
livske, Oleksiivske, Lozovenkivske, Novobavarske and a 
number of ponds (Gamulya & Zvyagintseva, 2010). The 
rivers divide the city into three parts, which differ little in 
area, but have a characteristic relief. Most of the city’s ter-
ritory (about 55%) consists of elevated areas (105–192 m 
above sea level). Low areas (90–105 m) make up 45.5% 
of the city’s territory, mid areas (105–166 m) a similar 
48.2%, and higher altitudes (166–192 m) only 4.3% 
(Zviahintseva et al., 2023)
24/1 • 2025, 57–65
59
Hanna O. Kazarinova
Phytocenotic and ecological characteristics of Pistia stratiotes and  
Pontederia crassipes urban river communities 
Field research was conducted during 2014–2023 in 
various areas of the city, so that the research covered the 
main water bodies of Kharkiv. First, these are the Kharkiv, 
Lopan, Udy and Nemyshlya Rivers. In addition, small 
reservoirs within the city were surveyed – Zhuravlivske, 
Oleksiivske, Zhovtneve, Lozovenkivske, Novobavarske 
and a number of ponds.
Standard floristic and phytosociological methods were 
used during field research. Determination of the phyto-
coenotic diversity of aquatic vegetation was based on the 
analysis of 10 vegetation relevés on plots of 15–25 m2 
along three rivers within the city area, where populations 
of alien species were found (Figure 1). 
We studied the local populations of Pistia stratiotes and 
Pontederia crassipes in the following habitats (coordinates 
according to WGS84):
Number of 
location
Type of  
water body
Date Water 
temperature, °C 
The presence of  
alien species
Geographical coordinates
Longitude Latitude
1 Udy river 19.09.2014 24 Pistia stratiotes  (projective cover 25%) 36°09'59.8"E 49°57'25.1"N
2 Udy river 19.09.2014 24 Pistia stratiotes  (projective cover 15%) 36°10'07.4"E 49°57'23.2"N 
3 Zhovtneve Reservoir 19.09.2014 23 Pistia stratiotes  (projective cover 25 %) 36°09'57.1"E 49°57'26.9"N
4 Kharkiv river 20.08.2016 22 Pistia stratiotes  (projective cover 40%) 36°14'36.6"E 49°59'32.9"N 
5 Kharkiv river 30.09.2020 14 Pistia stratiotes  (projective cover 35%) 36°14'40.0"E 49°59'33.4"N 
6 Lopan river 6.09.2021 18
Pistia stratiotes  
(projective cover 30%),  
Pontederia crassipes  
(projective cover 5%)
36°12'26.6"E 50°00'40.6"N
7 Lopan river 6.09.2021 18
Pistia stratiotes  
(projective cover 5%),  
Pontederia crassipes  
(projective cover 5%)
36°12'19.9"E 50°00'47.0"N
8 Lopan river 6.09.2021 18
Pistia stratiotes  
(projective cover 5%),  
Pontederia crassipes  
(projective cover 10%)
36°12'02.0"E 50°01'03.5"N
9 Lopan river 6.09.2021 19
Pistia stratiotes  
(projective cover 5%),  
Pontederia crassipes  
(projective cover 15%)
36°12'02.9"E 50°01'01.8"N 
10 Lopan river 6.09.2021 18
Pistia stratiotes  
(projective cover 45%),  
Pontederia crassipes  
(projective cover 15%)
36°11'45.2"E 50°01'19.1"N 
Table 1: Studied locations of water bodies in Kharkiv.
Tabela 2: Preučevane lokacije vodnih teles v Harkovu.
1. The course of the Udy River below the Zhovtneve 
Reservoir (three plots on the same bank 49°57’26.9"N 
36°09'57.1"E; 49°57'25.1"N 36°09'59.8"E; 49°57' 
23.2"N 36°10'07.4"E);
2. The course of the Kharkiv River near the Horbatyi 
Bridge (two plots on different banks 49°59'32.9"N 
36°14'36.6"E; 49°59'33.4"N 36°14'40.0"E);
3. The course of the Lopan River near Pavlivskyi Bridge 
(one plot 50°00'40.6"N 36°12'26.6"E);
4. The course of the Lopan River below the conflu-
ence of the right tributary Sarzhynka River (one plot 
50°00'47.0"N 36°12'19.9"E);
5. The course of the Lopan River near the industrial zone 
(two plots on different banks of the river 50°01’03.5"N 
36°12'02.0"E; 50°01'01.8"N 36°12'02.9"E);
6. The course of the Lopan River near Rudakivskyi 
Bridge (one plot 50°01'19.1"N 36°11'45.2"E).
24/1 • 2025, 57–65
60
Hanna O. Kazarinova
Phytocenotic and ecological characteristics of Pistia stratiotes and  
Pontederia crassipes urban river communities 
Materials and methods
The studies were carried out from the end of August to the 
second half of September during 2014–2021. The water 
temperature in the studied areas ranged from +14–+19 °C 
in Kharkiv river (2020–2021) to +22–+24 °C in Udy 
river (2014–2016). Field research in 2022 was not con-
ducted due to the shelling of the city and mine danger. 
On September 9–10, 2023, areas of the Lopan River and 
the Kharkiv River were surveyed, both alien species were 
not recorded.
All stands were recorded according to the method of 
Braun-Blanquet (Braun-Blanquet, 1964) on sites with 
a more or less uniform cover of aquatic vegetation. We 
chose 10 plants at different points of the plot in all sam-
pling locations and measured the diameter of adults and 
the length of leaves. The water temperature was also 
measured at all locations. Quantitative participation of 
species was calculated using the Braun-Blanquet abun-
dance scale, where “r”<less than 1% plot cover, 3–5 in-
dividuals; “+” <5%, few individuals; “1”<5%; numerous 
individuals; “2” 5–25%; “3” 25–50%; “4” 50–75%; “5” 
75–100%. Vegetation relevés were stored in Turboveg 
2.91 database (Hennekens & Schaminée, 2001). Classifi-
cation and ecological indicator values analysis was carried 
out using program Juice 7.0.127 (Tichý, 2002). Further 
determination of plant communities was carried out ac-
cording to the Prodromus of the Vegetation of Ukraine 
(Dubyna et al., 2019). The method of synphytoindica-
tion was used to determine the ecological optima of plant 
communities in relation to the leading environmental 
factors (Didukh, 2011). For this, 12 quantitative indica-
tors were used, with values of ecological characteristics as-
cribed to more than three thousand species. Quantitative 
indicators for plant communities were calculated based 
on the average indicators of species’ tolerance amplitudes 
of all informative species recorded in a plot, accounting 
for their projective cover. 
ϒ = k1x1 + k2x2 +…knxn / k1 + k2 +…kn, where x1…n – 
the mean of species’ tolerance amplitudes in accordance 
with scale, k1…n – the coefficients of cover, n – number of 
informative species (Didukh, 2011).
The taxonomy of species is given in accordance with 
Plants of the World Online (POWO, 2023).
Figure 1: Locations of the investigated plots in Kharkiv city: 1 – Kharkiv city area; 2 – The Lopan River; 3 – The Udy River; 4 – The Kharkiv River.
Slika 1: Lokacije raziskanih ploskev v mestu Harkov: 1 – območje mesta Harkov; 2 – reka Lopan; 3 – reka Udy; 4 – reka Harkov.
24/1 • 2025, 57–65
61
Hanna O. Kazarinova
Phytocenotic and ecological characteristics of Pistia stratiotes and  
Pontederia crassipes urban river communities 
Results
As a result of field research, local populations of alien spe-
cies were recorded in three out of four rivers surveyed. We 
did not detect any of the species in the surveyed reservoirs 
or ponds of the Kharkiv city (Figure 2). 
Pistia stratiotes was first registered in Kharkiv in 2014 in 
the Udy River. Probably, the species got to the river from 
places of trade in aquarium plants, which were located 
nearby. In 2016, P. stratiotes appeared in the Kharkiv Riv-
er, where we continuously monitored the population from 
2016 to 2020. The size of adult plants reached 12–15 cm 
in diameter. Up to 5–6 plants were combined into a single 
system of shoots through stolons. In the autumn of 2016, 
large individuals had flowers and seeds at water tempera-
tures from +13°C (October) to +3 °C (November). No 
seed formation was observed in 2020.
The local population of Pontederia crassipes Mart. was 
first discovered in August 2021 on the Lopan River in 
the city center. The plants formed aquatic thickets with a 
projective cover of 5 to 15% together with a population 
of P. stratiotes whose projective cover ranged from 5 to 
40%. The size of adult individuals of P. stratiotes reached 
37–38 cm in diameter, up to 5–6 plants connected by 
stolons into a system of shoots. Individuals of Pontederia 
crassipes had diameter of up to 30 cm, the size of indi-
vidual systems of shoots was up to 50 cm.
Based on the results of classification, a phytocoenotic 
table of plant communities with the participation of both 
alien species was constructed and published in the confer-
ence materials (Kazarinova, 2023). Both species occurred 
with high abundance in the communities of Lemnetea 
O. de Bolòs et Masclans 1955 and with low abundance 
in the fragments of communities Phragmito-Magnocari-
cetea Klika in Klika et Novák 1941, which are constantly 
mown along the rivers of the city. The plant communities 
were characterized by a small floristic richness (from 6 to 
11 species), with a total projective cover of 40 to 100% 
and occupied shallow areas of three rivers with a depth of 
10–50 cm.
Figure 2: Aquatic plant communities with present alien species Pistia stratiotes L. and Pontederia crassipes Mart.: A) the Udy River (19. 9. 2014); B) 
the Kharkiv River (20. 8. 2016); C) the Lopan River (6. 9. 2021); D) the Lopan River (6. 9. 2021).
Slika 2: Vodne rastlinske združbe s prisotnima tujerodnima vrstama Pistia stratiotes L. in Pontederia crassipes Mart.: A) reka Udy (19. 9. 2014); B) 
reka Harkov (20. 8. 2016); C) reka Lopan (6. 9. 2021); D) reka Lopan (9. 6. 2021).
A
B
C
D
24/1 • 2025, 57–65
62
Hanna O. Kazarinova
Phytocenotic and ecological characteristics of Pistia stratiotes and  
Pontederia crassipes urban river communities 
Figure 3: Zone of tolerance of plant communities in the hyperspace of Didukh`s ecological indicator values: A) with Pistia 
stratiotes; B) with Pistia stratiotes and Pontederia crassipes
Legend: Hd – soil humidity, fH – variability of soil humidity, Rc – acidity, Sl – total salt regime, Ca – carbonate content, 
Nt – nitrogen content, Ae – soil aeration, Tm – the radiation balance (thermal climate), Om – the aridity or humidity of climate 
(ombroregime), Kn – continentality of climate, Cr – the rigours of winter (cryoclimate), Lc – light.
Slika 3: Cona tolerance rastlinskih združb v hiperprostoru vrednosti Didukhovih ekoloških indikatorskih vrednosti: A) z vrsto 
Pistia stratiotes; B) z vrstama Pistia stratiotes in Pontederia crassipes
Legenda: Hd – vlažnost tal, fH – variabilnost vlažnosti tal, Rc – kislost, Sl – skupni režim soli, Ca – vsebnost karbonatov, 
Nt – vsebnost dušika, Ae – zračnost tal, Tm – sevalna bilanca (toplota podnebja), Om – suhost ali vlažnost podnebja (ombrorežim), 
Kn – celinskost podnebja, Cr – ostrina zime (krioklima), Lc – svetloba.
The vegetation of the surveyed areas is represented by 
Hydrocharitetum morsus-ranae van Langendonck 1935 
with a projective cover of the diagnostic species Hydro-
charis morsus-ranae L. up to 80%, Ceratophylletum demersi 
Corillion 1957 with a projective cover of Ceratophyllum 
demersum L. up to 60%, Myriophyllo-Nupharetum Koch 
1926 with a projective cover of Nuphar lutea (L.) Sm. 
up to 50%. During 2022–2023, Phragmitetum australis 
Savič 1926, Typhetum angustifoliae Pignatti 1953, Spar-
ganietum erecti Roll 1938, Glycerietum maximae Nowiński 
1930 corr. Šumberová, Chytrý et Danihelka in Chytrý 
2011 spread along the banks of the Kharkiv River and 
almost half of the Lopan River bed.
According to the results of ecological analyses, plant 
communities with Pistia stratiotes and Pontederia crassipes 
show sensitivity to low temperatures, light, total salt re-
gime and nitrogen content. A comparison of ecological 
indicator values of plant communities indicates an in-
crease in the amplitude to variability of humidity for coe-
noses with Pontederia crassipes compared to communities 
with Pistia stratiotes (Figure 3).
Phytoindicative analysis based on ecological indicator 
values for 10 vegetation relevés is illustrated in Table 2. 
Studied plant communities are formed in water condi-
tions with fluctuation from stable water level (hydrocon-
trastophobic) to irregular water level (hemihydrocontras-
tophilic conditions). 
Regarding soil reaction, plant communities are formed 
in neutrophilic conditions and have a small amplitude. 
According to the total salt regime, plant communities 
grow in eutrophic conditions. According to the carbonate 
content, coenoses exhibit hemicarbonatophobia. Accord-
ing to the nitrogen content, communities show nitroph-
ily. The ecological indicator values of the detected plant 
communities according to the soil aeration indicates their 
formation in weakly aerated environment (aerophobic 
and megaaerophobic conditions).
Plant communities have fairly wide ranges of tolerance 
to the influence of climatic factors, as well as a shift in 
the climate humidity towards drier conditions according 
to conducted phytoindication analysis by this indicator.
24/1 • 2025, 57–65
63
Hanna O. Kazarinova
Phytocenotic and ecological characteristics of Pistia stratiotes and  
Pontederia crassipes urban river communities 
According to the radiation balance and humidity of 
climate, the coenoses are differentiated in the range of 
values that correspond to submicro-submesothermal 
(35–50 kcal/cm2) and meso-subaridophyte conditions 
(humidity index according to Didukh (2011) from 
-1000 mm to -200 mm). According to the continental-
ity of climate, the amplitude of plant communities cov-
ers indicators from hemi-oceanic to hemi-continental 
climate, which corresponds to 120–140% according to 
Ivanov formula for the estimation of continental cli-
mate (Didukh, 2011) and explained by the location of 
Ukraine. According to characteristic of winter extreme 
conditions (the effect of low temperatures), the ecological 
amplitude of coenoses corresponds to sub-cryophytic-
hemicryophytic conditions with temperature variations 
of the coldest months from -18°C to -6°C. According to 
the light regime, plant communities are able to grow in 
subheliophytic conditions with slight shading.
Results of phytoindicative analysis show forming of 
studied plant communities in conditions of variability 
of humidity, minimal soil aeration, its neutral reaction, 
eutrophication, supply with nitrogen content and insig-
nificant carbonate content. Phytoindication by climatic 
indicators show wide ranges of tolerance of plant com-
munities under submicro-submesothermic, meso-subari-
dophytic, subcryophytic-hemicryophytic conditions.
Discussion 
Ecological analysis of studied aquatic and riparian veg-
etation according to the method of synphytoindication 
(Didukh, 2011) show the spread of plant communities 
with alien species in areas characterized by fluctuations in 
humidity, soil aeration and the temperature regime of wa-
ter bodies. According to our previous studies (Kazarinova, 
2016), such ecological indicators as the effect of low tem-
peratures, light, total salt regime and nitrogen content 
are limiting for plant communities with the participation 
of Pistia stratiotes. This is also confirmed by research of 
coenopopulations of P. stratiotes in water bodies of Kyiv 
city (Prokopuk & Zub, 2022). The same results were ob-
tained in the study of distribution of Pontederia crassipes 
in South Africa (Coetzee & Hill, 2012). The leading role 
of temperature regime of water bodies in the growth and 
spread of invasive species in natural ecosystems is con-
firmed by different studies (Kazarinova, 2016; Jaklič et 
al., 2020). The intensity of growth and distribution of 
alien species depends both on the viability of the seeds 
that got into water bodies, and on the presence of favora-
ble conditions for overwintering plants and seed germina-
tion during the cold period of the year (Kazarinova, 2016; 
Šajna et al., 2023). We established that anthropogenically 
altered ecosystems with shifted microclimatic indicators 
can serve as a kind of “buffers” during the penetration of 
invasive species into natural ecosystems. 
Modeling of the distribution of alien species in hydro-
ecosystems indicates the possibility of their colonization 
of new territories in the future (Mosyakin & Kazarinova, 
2014) with P. crassipes potentially expanding beyond its 
northern range, with the greatest potential for future 
expansion in Europe (Kriticos & Brunel, 2016). Since 
the temperature regime in urban conditions is milder, it 
promotes the introduction and spread of alien tropical 
species. The large cities are sources of invasions of alien 
macrophytes due to the escape of the latter from aqua-
culture or the deliberate use of water bodies for the repro-
Environmental 
factors
Plant communities with participation  
Pistia stratiotes
Plant communities with participation  
Pistia stratiotes and Pontederia crassipes
Mean Minimum Maximum Std. Dev. Mean Minimum Maximum Std. Dev.
Hd 20,13 20,00 20,30 0,15 17,48 14,50 19,30 1,86
fH 2,90 2,60 3,30 0,36 5,68 4,80 8,00 1,33
Rc 8,43 8,00 9,10 0,59 8,10 7,60 8,70 0,51
Sl 8,83 8,60 9,00 0,21 7,94 7,20 8,60 0,60
Ca 6,17 5,70 6,60 0,45 5,34 4,40 6,10 0,67
Nt 7,30 6,70 8,00 0,66 7,44 6,70 8,00 0,57
Ae 11,90 10,50 13,30 1,40 11,34 10,00 13,00 1,09
Tm 7,97 6,70 9,60 1,48 8,46 7,70 9,40 0,66
Om 8,83 7,90 10,20 1,21 10,48 9,50 11,20 0,90
Kn 7,90 7,10 8,80 0,85 8,64 7,90 9,20 0,47
Cr 6,97 6,30 7,50 0,61 7,92 7,30 8,70 0,61
Lc 7,20 6,90 7,40 0,26 7,54 7,10 8,00 0,38
Table 2: Ecological indicator values of studied plant communities according to twelve indicators.
Tabela 2: Vrednosti dvanajstih ekoloških indikatorskih vrednosti raziskovanih rastlinskih združb.
24/1 • 2025, 57–65
64
Hanna O. Kazarinova
Phytocenotic and ecological characteristics of Pistia stratiotes and  
Pontederia crassipes urban river communities 
duction of decorative macrophytes. Another factor is the 
presence of industry-related facilities with an open water 
cycle (Dubyna et al., 2017).
The war had a significant impact on the development 
of Ukrainian cities, including Kharkiv. Many industrial 
facilities and objects of critical infrastructure have been 
destroyed or stopped activities, which will undoubtedly 
have an impact on the further development and spread 
of alien species in hydroecosystems. Due to the shutdown 
of some thermal power station, there is no influence of 
heated waters on the thermal conditions of water bod-
ies and the spread of tropical macrophytes. The shelling 
of the oil depot (March 2024) caused about 3,000 tons 
of oil products to enter the water bodies of the city and 
region, which led to a significant increase in the level of 
water pollution. Further research will help establish the 
consequences of such processes for the biodiversity of wa-
ter bodies in urban environment.
 Research on the introduction of alien macrophytes 
within the Kyiv city (Prokopuk et al., 2021) show that 
the aquatic communities in urban hydroecosystems are 
succeptible to the penetration of alien species due to the 
weakness of coenotic connections and the small species 
diversity in aquatic plant communities. This process is 
facilitated by the eutrophication of water bodies, the re-
duction of species diversity and changes in the structure 
of hydrobiocenoses. This is confirmed by research of alien 
macrophytes conducted in Europe (EPPO, 2017)
According to our own research and based on the data of 
other researchers (Dubyna et al., 2017; Prokopuk et al., 
2021), the spread of tropical alien species in water bodies 
is ephemeral: the mass development of such communi-
ties gradually turns into a lull, which is accompanied by 
a change in the phytocenotic composition of aquatic coe-
noses with the gradual formation of alien species as their 
permanent components.
Conclusions
Alien species are distributed with high abundance in the 
Lemnetea communities and with a lesser abundance in 
fragments of the Phragmito-Magnocaricetea communities. 
The leading indicators that determine ecological differ-
ence of the investigated plant communities from typical 
aquatic phytocenoses are thermal regime of water bod-
ies, light, effect of low temperatures (the rigours of the 
winter), total salt regime. The communities are formed 
in conditions of variability of humidity, minimal soil 
aeration, its neutral reaction, eutrophication, supply with 
nitrogen and insignificant carbonate content. Phytoin-
dication according to climatic indicators showed wide 
ranges of tolerance of plant communities under the value 
of radiation balance 30–50 kcal/cm2, the humidity index 
value from -800 to -200 mm, temperature variation of 
the coldest months from -14°C to -2°C. The ecological 
values of plant communities show their adaptation to the 
climatic and hydrological conditions of the urban habi-
tats, namely increased indicators of the thermal regime, 
significant content of organic and mineral substances 
in water bodies. We think that the ability of alien tropi-
cal macrophytes to reproduce and overwinter outside of 
thermally abnormal waters will increase as a result of ris-
ing average annual temperatures and lengthening of the 
growing season in temperate continental climates. A high 
level of nutrients in the water will favor the development 
of these species. We can not exclude the possibility of the 
appearance of other alien species through human intro-
duction (movement of population, goods, transport, the 
release of aquarium species into natural water bodies).
ORCID iDs
Hanna O. Kazarinova  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9881-121X
References
Adebayo, A. A., Briski, E., Kalaci, O., Hernandez, M., Ghabooli, S., 
Beric, B., Chan, F. T., Zhan, A., Fifield, E., Leadley, T., & MacIsaac, 
H. J. (2011). Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and water lettuce 
(Pistia stratiotes) in the Great Lakes: playing with fire? Aquatic 
Invasions, 6(1), 91–96. https://doi.org/10.3391/ai.2011.6.1.11
Attionu, R. H. (1976). Some effects of water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes 
L.) on its habitat. Hydrobiologia, 50(3), 245–254. https://doi.
org/10.1007/BF00020998
Benhus, Yu. V., & Neko, D. V. (2023). Znakhidky chuzhoridnykh 
vydiv roslyn na terytorii mista Kharkova i Kharkivskoi oblasti. 
Znakhidky chuzhoridnykh vydiv roslyn ta tvaryn v Ukraini. Seriya: 
«Conservation Biology 3-75 in Ukraine», 29, 50–56. https://uncg.org.
ua/znakhidky-chuzhoridnykh-vydiv-roslyn-ta-tvaryn-v-ukraini/
Braun-Blanquet, J. (1964). Pflanzensoziologie. Grundzüge der 
Vegetationskunde. Springer.
Coetzee, J. A., & Hill, M. P. (2012). The role of eutrophication in 
the biological control of water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes, in South 
Africa. BioControl, 57, 247–261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10526-011-
9426-y
Coetzee, J. A., Hill, M. P., Ruiz-Téllez, T., Starfinger, U., & Brunel S. 
(2017). Monographs on invasive plants in Europe N° 2: Eichhornia 
crassipes (Mart.) Solms, Botany Letters, 164(4), 303–326. https://doi.or
g/10.1080/23818107.2017.1381041
Didukh, Ya. P. (2011). The ecological scales for the species of Ukrainian 
flora and their use in synphytoindication. Phytosociocentre. https://www.
botany.kiev.ua/doc/diduh_monog.pdf
Dubyna, D. V., Dziuba, T. P., Dvoretzkiy, T. V., Zolotariova, O. K., 
Taran, N. Yu., Mosyakin, A. S., Iemelianova, S. M., & Kazarinova, 
G. O. (2017). Invaziini vodni makrofity Ukrainy. Ukrainian botanical 
journal, 74(3), 248–262. https://doi.org/10.15407/ukrbotj74.03.248
24/1 • 2025, 57–65
65
Hanna O. Kazarinova
Phytocenotic and ecological characteristics of Pistia stratiotes and  
Pontederia crassipes urban river communities 
Dubyna, D. V., Dziuba, T. P., Yemelianova, S. M., Bagrikova, N. O., 
Borysova, O. V., Borsukevych, L. M., Vynokurov, D. S., Gapon, S. 
V., Gapon, Yu. V., Davydov, D. A., Dvoretsky, T. V., Didukh, Ya. P., 
Zhmud, O. I., Kozyr, M. S., Konishchuk, V. V., Kuzemko, A. A., 
Pashkevych, N. A., Ryff, L. E., Solomakha, V. A., …, & Iakushenko, 
D. M. (2019). Prodromus roslynnosti Ukrainy. Naukova dumka. http://
geobot.org.ua/files/publication/2106/prodr_roslinn_ukr_2019.pdf
Gamulya, Yu. G., & Zvyagintseva, K. A. (2010). Osobennosti 
zonirovaniya mestoobitaniy prirodnoy i antropogennoy rastitel’nosti 
g. Kharkova. The Journal of V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University. 
Series «Biology», 11(905), 43–54. http://seriesbiology.univer.kharkov.
ua/ukr/11(2010)/pdf/43.pdf
Global Invasive Species Programme (2001). Global Strategy on Invasive 
Alien Species. Convention of Biological Diversity, SBSTTA Sixth Meeting. 
Montreal. www.biodiv.org
Hennekens, S. M., & Schaminée, J. H. J. (2001). TURBOVEG, 
comprehensive data base management system for Vegetation data. 
Journal of Vegetation Science, 12(4), 589–591. https://doi.
org/10.2307/3237010
Jaklič, M., Koren, Š., & Jogan, N. (2020). Alien water lettuce 
(Pistia stratiotes L.) outcompeted native macrophytes and altered the 
ecological conditions of a Sava oxbow lake (SE Slovenia). Acta Botanica 
Croatica, 79(1), 35–42. https://doi.org/10.37427/botcro-2020-009
Kazarinova, H. O. (2016). Syntaksonomiya, antropohenna dynamika ta 
okhorona vyshchoi vodnoi roslynnosti dolyny r. Siverskyi Donets. Avtoref. 
dys. na zdobuttia nauk. stupenia kand. biol. nauk: spets. 03.00.05 
«Botanika». https://nrat.ukrintei.ua/searchdoc/0416U001553/
Kazarinova, H. O. (2023). Alien species Pistia stratiotes L. and 
Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms in Kharkiv, Ukraine. VI Scientific 
and Practical Conference of Young Scientists «Modern Hydroecology: 
The Role of Scientific Research in Addressing Current Issues» (10–11 
October 2023, Kyiv), 57–60. http://hydrobio.kiev.ua/images/zbirka_
confer2023.pdf
Karpets, K. M. (2008). Otsinka stanu malykh richok terytorii 
Kharkova (na prykladi r. Nemyshlya). Visnyk of V. N. Karazin Kharkiv 
National University, series «Geology. Geography. Ecology», 770, 183–189. 
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336362867_Ocinka_stanu_
malih_ricok_teritorii_Harkova_na_prikladi_r_Harkiv
Kriticos, D. J., & Brunel, S. (2016). Assessing and Managing the 
Current and Future Pest Risk from Water Hyacinth, (Eichhornia 
crassipes), an Invasive Aquatic Plant Threatening the Environment and 
Water Security. PLoS ONE, 11(8), e0120054. https://doi.org/10.1371/
journal.pone.0120054
May, S. (2006). Invasive Aquatic and Wetland Plants (Invasive Species). 
Chelsea House.
Mosyakin, A. S., & Kazarinova, H. O. (2014). Modelyuvannya 
invaziynoho poshyrennya Pistia stratiotes (Araceae) na osnovi GIS-
analizu klimatychnykh faktoriv. Ukrainian Botanical Journal, 71(5), 
549–557. https://doi.org/10.15407/ukrbotj71.05.549
Pistia stratiotes L. (2017). EPPO Bulletin, 47(3), 537–543.  https://doi.
org/10.1111/epp.12429
POWO (December 11, 2023). Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by 
the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org
Prokopuk, M., Zub, L., & Bereznichenko, Y. (2021). A City as a 
Source of Introduction for Tropical Alien Species (Egeria densa Planch., 
Pistia stratiotes L. & Eichornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms) in Natural 
Ecosystems with a Temperate Climate. Research Square. Preprint 
(Version 1). https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1095787/v1
Prokopuk, M., & Zub, L. (2022). Ecological features of the alien 
species Pistia stratiotes L. in different habitats of the secondary 
distribution range (Ukraine). Hacquetia, 21(2), 361–370. https://doi.
org/10.2478/hacq-2022-0001
Sierra-Carmona, C. G., Hernández-Orduña, M. G., & Murrieta-
Galindo, R. (2022). Alternative Uses of Water Hyacinth (Pontederia 
crassipes) from a Sustainable Perspective: A Systematic Literature 
Review. Sustainability, 14(7), 3931.  https://doi.org/10.3390/
su14073931
Shvebs, H. I., & Ihoshyn, M. I. (2003). Kataloh richok i vodoim 
Ukrainy. Navchalno-dovidkovyi posibnyk. Astroprynt.
Šajna, N., Urek, T., Kušar, P., & Šipek, M. (2023). The importance 
of thermally abnormal waters for bioinvasions – a case study of Pistia 
stratiotes. Diversity, 15(3), 421. https://doi.org/10.3390/d15030421
Tichý, L. (2002). JUICE, software for vegetation classification. 
Journal of Vegetation Science, 13(3), 451–453. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1654-1103.2002.tb02069.x
Zviahintseva, K., Kazarinova, H., Abramova, G., & Mashtaler, 
O. (2023). Ecological features and anthropogenic transformation 
of wetlands as part of urban floras of Ukraine. Acta Biologica 
Universitatis Daugavpiliensis, 23(1), 13–27.  https://doi.org/10.59893/
abud.23(1).002