63
Language integration of forced and 
economic migrants in Croatia
Ranka ĐURĐEVIĆ
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb
Jelena CVITANUŠIĆ
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb
This paper presents an overview of the language integration of new migrants 
(refugees and asylum seekers, additionally foreign workers) in Croatia. Special 
emphasis is placed on the current practice and future needs for teaching and 
testing Croatian as L2 regarding forced migration (refugees, asylum seekers 
and asylees) and the increasing economic migration, which Croatia is current-
ly experiencing. The roles of state and educational institutions, as well as of 
the policy and legal framework of (language) integration of vulnerable groups 
of learners is described. 
Keywords: Croatian as L2, forced and economic migration, language 
integration
1 Immigrants in the Republic of Croatia
Until recently, Croatia was typically viewed as an emigrant count-
ry, both in the literature and everyday discourse. However, citizens 
of former Yugoslav, non-EU member countries, such as Bosnia and 
Herzegovina and Serbia, have been consistently immigrating to Cro-
atia, whether for long-term stays or temporary work purposes. The-
se migrants easily integrate into Croatian society due to the lack of 
Đurđević, R., Cvitanušić, J.: Language integration of forced and economic migrants in 
Croatia. Slovenščina 2.0, 12(2): 63–79. 
1.01 Izvirni znanstveni članek / Original Scientific Article
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4312/slo2.0.2024.2.63-79
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/
64
Slovenščina 2.0, 2024 (2) | Articles
linguistic or significant cultural barriers.1 Thus, since language inte-
gration posed minimal challenges for the predominant immigrant po-
pulation, the state likely did not prioritize systematic language inte-
gration efforts for immigrants. 
Apart from immigrants from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia, 
and other citizens of former Yugoslav countries, Croatia has also at-
tracted immigrants from other nations and more distant linguistic 
and cultural backgrounds, for various reasons. These include marria-
ge, remigration (descendants of earlier Croatian emigrants returning), 
employment in international companies, starting a business, people 
with research and teaching positions, and those studying abroad. Si-
milar to in other host countries, some of these individuals find langu-
age courses on their own, and for some formal language learning is 
ensured by the very fact that they came to Croatia with the support of 
an institution. For example, language classes for the descendants of 
Croatian emigrants are offered by those institutions which take care of 
Croats living abroad, while for students, researchers, scientists, and so 
on they are provided by some academic institutions.
However, in the context of the broader contemporary migrations 
that have taken place over the past decade, Croatia has seen an increa-
sing number of migrants from two new groups: refugees2 from conflict 
areas (such as Syria, Turkey, Iraq, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Pakistan, 
Egypt, Morocco, Congo, DR of Congo, Somalia, and since 2022, Ukrai-
ne and the Russian Federation) and foreign workers arriving through 
employment agencies (e.g. from Nepal, India, Bangladesh, and the 
Philippines). In recent years, the Croatian economy has faced a shor-
tage of labour in sectors such as construction, tourism and hospitality, 
industrial work, transportation, and retail. This led to the cancellation 
of the quota system for foreign worker employment and a noticeable 
increase in foreign workers filling unskilled positions.3 In the following 
1 Although some research shows that even migrants from these countries encounter certain 
challenges, specifically due to the fact that their language is so close to Croatian, but not 
“real Croatian” (more in Grgić, 2018).
2 Up until 31 March 2024, 6,043 people had sought international protection in Croatia, with 
972 having been granted asylum, and 144 subsidiary protections (https://mup.gov.hr/prist-
up-informacijama-16/statistika-228/statistika-trazitelji-medjunarodne-zastite/283234).
3 Although workers from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia are still the predominant group, 
by 31st of May 2024, Croatia had issued 15,922 work and residence permits for citizens of 
65
Language integration of forced and economic migrants in Croatia
text, the term foreign workers will be used to refer to those coming to 
Croatia through employment agencies for unskilled jobs. 
From the perspective of integration, these two groups differ in the 
following characteristics:
1) State institutions and, to a large extent, NGOs and the civil sec-
tor, primarily address the basic existential needs of refugees. Even 
though the existential needs of foreign workers are somewhat dif-
ferent, current practice shows that employers most often find ac-
commodation for foreign workers (but do not finance it), although 
the law does not oblige them to do so.
2) Refugee status is governed by the International and Temporary 
Protection Act (Official Gazette, No. 70/15, 127/17; 2015, 2018.). 
Persons in need of international protection fall into several cate-
gories: applicants for international protection, asylees, foreigners 
under subsidiary protection, and foreigners under temporary 
protection. Regardless of category, they all have the right to ele-
mentary and high school education. The status of foreign wor-
kers is regulated by the Aliens Act (Official Gazette, No. 133/20, 
114/22, 151/22), which remains in effect. A draft proposal for 
amendments to this Act was introduced in early 2024 but has not 
yet been adopted. 
3) Among the refugees, there is a significant number of families with 
children and also unaccompanied minors, which, in addition to 
taking care of their accommodation, raises the issue of including 
children and minors in the educational system. On the other hand, 
foreign workers don’t need the assistance of this kind. They come 
to Croatia based on the work permissions system, mostly alone, 
without children and the need for further education. 
4) When it comes to persons under international protection, asylees 
are required to attend courses in the Croatian language, history, 
and culture as part of their integration into Croatian society (Official 
Gazette, No. 70/15, 127/17, articles 64 (4), 74 (1)). These courses 
Nepal, 8,504 for citizens of India, 6,323 for citizens of the Philippines, and 5,338 for citizens 
of Bangladesh. In 2023, citizens of these countries received the following number of work 
and residence permits: Nepal 23,493, India 15,627, the Philippines 10,999, Bangladesh 
8,749 (https://mup.gov.hr/gradjani-281562/moji-dokumenti-281563/stranci-333/statisti-
ka-169019/169019).
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Slovenščina 2.0, 2024 (2) | Articles
are financed by the state budget (Article 74 (3)) and organized by 
the Ministry responsible for education. Asylees and foreigners un-
der subsidiary protection are required to cover the fee of the cour-
se if they fail to fulfil this requirement (Article 74 (2)). The Act does 
not explicitly state whether the users are also required to pass the 
exam. Unfortunately, since there is no published data on the imple-
mentation of the programme so far, for example on the number of 
participants who enrolled and completed the language course, the 
composition of the participants’ groups, etc., we cannot provide 
any information about the successful or systematic implementati-
on of this programme.
5) The current law does not require foreign workers to know or learn 
Croatian unless they choose to apply for long-term residency in the 
Republic of Croatia. In such cases, they are required to take the 
Croatian language and Latin script examination, which is governed 
by the Ordinance on the Regulation of Croatian Language and Latin 
Script Examination for Long-Term Residence (hereinafter Ordinan-
ce) (Official Gazette, No. 100/21), which mandates proficiency at 
the B1 level according to the CEFR.
2 Croatian language assessment 
The above-mentioned Croatian language and Latin script examinati-
on for the regulation of foreign citizens’ long-term stay contains pre-
scribed parts and the method of their implementation and evaluation 
(Ordinance, Articles 4 (3, 4, 5, 6) and Article 5 (1)). It is prescribed 
that the exam consists of five parts, which correspond to the language 
skills of listening and reading comprehension, oral and written pro-
duction, with a particular skill of mastering grammatical structures. 
The exam therefore consists of listening and reading comprehension, 
knowledge of grammatical structures, written production – parts that 
are tested in writing – and oral communication, which is taken orally. 
Each part of the exam is evaluated with a grade of “satisfactory” or 
“failed”. For the assessment of listening and reading comprehensi-
on, and knowledge of grammatical structures, a score of at least 60% 
must be obtained for each of these. The applicant is considered to 
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Language integration of forced and economic migrants in Croatia
have passed the exam if the criteria for each part of the exam have 
been satisfied. The Ordinance also provides a descriptor for each of 
the language skills. Regarding the comprehension of listening texts, 
the applicant is expected to be able to understand the main messages 
of radio and television programmes on current events or topics if they 
are expressed slowly and clearly; in terms of understanding written 
texts, the applicant is expected to be able to understand texts on fami-
liar topics written in adapted and simple language as well as descrip-
tions of events, things and situations. It is expected that in speech in-
teraction and production, the applicants can manage in most everyday 
situations and spontaneously talk about familiar topics such as family, 
work, education, leisure, society, money, food, drink, and housing, as 
well as to be able to describe in simple terms their plans, experien-
ces, and events, and to summarize a story, book or film. In written 
production, the applicants must show that they can write a simple but 
cohesive text on a familiar topic, a personal letter describing their own 
experiences and impressions, a resume and a description of a picture. 
The knowledge of language structures is assessed through the prac-
tical use of the language, without considering theoretical knowledge 
(examining basic knowledge of the morphology of nouns, pronouns, 
adjectives and verbs, use of cases, use of the present, perfect, future 
and imperative, use of prepositions). The descriptor is modelled after 
the descriptor for level B1 in CEFR (Council of Europe, 2001) and the 
Descriptive Framework of reference level B1 for the Croatian language 
(Gulešić Machata et al., 2013).
The exam can be taken at the following institutions: the Faculty of 
Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb; Faculty of Hu-
manities and Social Sciences, University of Rijeka; Faculty of Humani-
ties and Social Sciences, J.J. Strossmayer University of Osijek; Faculty 
of Humanities and Social Sciences in Zadar; and Faculty of Humanities 
and Social Sciences, J. Dobrila University in Pula.4 At all these institu-
tions there are departments/centres for learning Croatian as L2, with 
Croaticum – Centre for Croatian as a Second and Foreign Language 
(Department of Croatian Studies, Faculty of Humanities and Social 
4 https://mup.gov.hr/stranci-281595/ispit-iz-poznavanja-hrvatskog-jezika-i-latinicnog-pis-
ma/283364
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Slovenščina 2.0, 2024 (2) | Articles
Sciences of the University of Zagreb) (hereinafter Croaticum) as the ol-
dest and the biggest among them. For all of them language testing for 
different purposes is only one of their activities, and none is specialized 
nor has a special department for such testing. However, since 2014 
the National Centre for External Evaluation of Education (hereinafter: 
the Centre)5 has conducted the Croatian language exam for B2 level, 
for the purpose of studying at Croatian universities. As a specialized 
testing centre, it prepares exams by consulting all the relevant experts 
(i.e. psycholinguists, psychometricians, and statisticians). Additionally, 
for preparation of Croatian L2 exams it also engages professionals in 
teaching and researching Croatian as L2. It is common practice that 
Croaticum’s teachers and researchers participate as team members in 
the preparation of the Croatian L2 exam in the Centre. 
However, on the website of the Ministry of Science, Education and 
Youth6 it is possible to find a list of 76 accredited education institutions 
that organize these exams,7 although there is some inconsistency in 
this data, as it includes both faculties and the universities they are part 
of, thus counting them twice. Searching through the websites of the 
institutions where the exam can be taken, it is noticed that there is no 
standard fee for the exam and not all of these institutions provide an 
overview of the test with a sample exam, or at least they are not avai-
lable online. Sample exams are available only on the website of Croa-
ticum and the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences in Pula.8 The 
websites of the other institutions only describe the different sections 
of the exam and the administration procedures prescribed by the Or-
dinance. In addition to showing that each institution decides for itself 
with regard to certain aspects of conducting exams (different prices, 
5 It is a national institution that conducts external evaluations in preschools, primary schools, 
and secondary schools.
6 https://mzom.gov.hr/istaknute-teme/odgoj-i-obrazovanje/obrazovanje-odraslih/popis-usta-
nova-koje-provode-ispit-iz-znanja-hrvatskoga-jezika-i-latinicnog-pisma-za-strance/4827
7 In Article 154 (1) of the Aliens Act (Official Gazette, No. 133/20), it is said that the Croatian 
language and Latin script exam may be conducted by universities or university components 
that run programmes and testing in the Croatian language, and high school institutions, the 
National Centre for External Evaluation of Education and institutions for adult education if 
they have permission to conduct exams in the Croatian language and the Latin script from the 
Ministry responsible for education. According to the available information, there are no other 
criteria for gaining permission to conduct the exam.
8 https://ffpu.unipu.hr/ffpu/kroatistika/hrvatski_za_strance/provjera_znanja_hrvatskoga_
jezika_kao_inoga
69
Language integration of forced and economic migrants in Croatia
(un)availability of exam samples etc.), it also testifies to the fact that 
there are no standardized, prescribed or at least uniform exams, which 
is an indication that the conditions for taking exams are not the same 
for everyone, because they depend on where they are taken. 
Even though there was a paper published back in 2008 by two 
well-known experts in the field of Croatian as L2 about the “linguistic 
and sociolinguistic premises which should be fulfilled in order to crea-
te, standardize and professionally perform exams of Croatian language 
on an official level” (Udier and Jelaska, 2008, p. 254), which included 
“training experts for testing, researching and describing Croatian as L2, 
designing exams using modern methods and consistency in its conduc-
tion” (2008, p. 251), in the Ordinance these premises are only visible in 
the descriptors for the parts of the test that rely on the descriptive fra-
mework for the B1 reference level for Croatian (Grgić et al., 2013). No 
guidelines about the qualifications and competences of the examiners 
were included, although the authors (Udier and Jelaska, 2008), ela-
borated those regarding the professional context of the examination. 
They also pointed out the importance of establishing a special exami-
nation department within the institution in which Croatian is taught as 
L2 and an umbrella organization that would take care of preparing and 
implementing the examination, ensuring its high quality. Unfortunately, 
more than 15 years later it remains rare to find such a well-described 
procedure for the examination.
3 Language empowerment of the immigrants
Language competence is a key to successful integration in a new co-
untry, especially in cases of long-term settlement (Council of Europe 
/ Language Policy Unit (Strasbourg) – Project LIAM). As noted earlier, 
the issue of language integration emerged in Croatia with the arrival of 
growing numbers of refugees from conflict zones. More recently, the 
importance of language learning for foreign workers has also gained 
prominence. For example, interviews that Butković et al. (2022) con-
ducted with representatives of the Croatian Employment Service and 
the Ministry of the Interior – important institutions in the process of is-
suing work permits for citizens of third countries – show an awareness 
70
Slovenščina 2.0, 2024 (2) | Articles
about the lack of a (systematic) migration strategy (Butković et al., 
2022, p. 45). Namely, although the previous migration policy ceased to 
be valid in 2015, a new migration policy has not been adopted yet (ibid: 
22), which among other problems results in a lack of adequate access 
to professional training or language learning for foreign workers. Even 
if such programmes are implemented, they are mostly irregular and 
are carried out on a project basis. Foreign workers generally cannot 
afford the language courses offered in foreign language schools, and 
employers usually do not offer to subsidize this or offer their own clas-
ses (ibid: 46). 
The media also follow this topic,9 emphasizing language issues 
related to occupational safety (especially in industries where workers 
must undergo safety training, such as construction and processing) 
and work performance (particularly in hospitality and tourism), which 
was stressed by the Croatian Employers’ Association.10 
Non-governmental organizations have also highlighted the diffi-
culties that foreign workers, refugees, and all other foreigners in Cro-
atia face with regard to language integration. A good example is the 
conference Croatian in Croatia.11 The organizer – the Centre for Pea-
ce Studies (CMS) – gathered stakeholders from different departments 
and institutions dealing with foreigners in Croatia. The goal was to start 
a dialogue about overcoming the language barrier in Croatian society 
through more accessible language courses and translators, conside-
ring the increasing number of people who do not use the Croatian lan-
guage at home and/or who do not understand the Croatian language 
enough to communicate.
When it comes to the language integration of refugees, in accor-
dance with the Law on Asylum (2007, 2013) the Ministry of Educati-
on issued the Programme for Learning Croatian Language, History, and 
9 https://www.index.hr/vijesti/clanak/u-hrvatskoj-je-sve-vise-radnika-iz-azije-kako-ih-uklju-
citi-u-drustvo/2421213.aspx; https://www.otvoreno.hr/gospodarstvo/u-hrvatskoj-je-sve-vi 
se-stranih-radnika-krajnje-je-vrijeme-za-njihovu-integraciju/474425
10 Jasminka Martinović, director of branch associations in the Croatian Association of Employers, 
https://vijesti.hrt.hr/hrvatska/novi-zakon-o-stranim-radnicima-uvodi-ucenje-jezika-1137 
3891
11 The conference was held in June 2024 as a part of the ASAP project (Accessing services, 
Sharing Approaches and Practices), financed by the EU Fund for Asylum, Migration and Inte-
gration, and co-financed by the Office for NGOs of the Government of the Republic of Croatia.
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Language integration of forced and economic migrants in Croatia
Culture for Asylees and Foreigners Under Subsidiary Protection for the 
Purpose of Integration into Croatian Society (2014). This aims to enable 
students to achieve A1 proficiency level according to the CEFR upon 
course completion, with a recommended minimum of 280 hours of in-
struction. Furthermore, the programme includes eight units with gene-
ral objectives and outcomes for each of the four language skills, as well 
as cultural content. Guidelines for language proficiency assessment 
are also prescribed (Đurđević and Podboj, 2016; Ocvirk et al., 2019).
However, despite being well-designed, Cvitanušić (2022, p. 141) 
claims that the Programme has not been implemented well for several 
reasons, with the eligibility criteria for funding allocation, such as from 
the Asylum, Migration and Integration Fund (AMIF) which funds the Mi-
nistry of Education’s project Integration of Asylees and Foreigners un-
der Subsidiary Protection into Croatian Society, Education, and Prepa-
ration for Labour Market Inclusion, being highlighted. More specifically, 
it appears that the main criteria are not the expertise and experience 
of teachers who should teach these vulnerable12 groups of learners, 
while at the same time adherence to all principles of L2 teaching, in-
cluding the institution’s available capacity, expected quality and orga-
nization of instruction, and the quality and suitability of teaching ma-
terials, are also neglected. Another problem is the lack of official data 
on the success of the implementation of and attendance at these co-
urses. Đurđević and Podboj (2016) have pointed out that due to the 
irregular implementation of such courses, it is mainly volunteers and 
civil society organizations which take on the task of organizing them. 
According to Cvitanušić (2022, p. 141), organizations that stand out in 
their persistence, enthusiasm, and success in teaching Croatian as L2 
for refugees are the Jesuit Refugees Service (JRS), Centre for Peace 
Studies (CMS), and Are You Syrious (AYS).13 At one point, some local 
government units, such as the City of Zagreb, began funding Croatian 
language courses either through public calls for human rights-promoting 
12 This term is present in both recent and older literature (e.g., Kleinmann, 1983; Bobrow, 
2011, Kaplan et al., 2015, etc.), and refers to students characterized by stressful and trau-
matic experiences, possibly including PTSD, which can affect their cognitive and affective 
abilities.
13 A non-governmental organization established in 2015 as a civil initiative aimed at aiding 
refugees on the so-called Balkan route, one of the most important and active supports for 
refugees and asylum seekers in Croatia.
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Slovenščina 2.0, 2024 (2) | Articles
organizations, or through the City of Zagreb’s Action Plan for the imple-
mentation of the Charter on Integrating Cities.14 
In 2017, the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences in Zagreb 
voluntarily initiated two projects dedicated to increasing the language 
integration of refugees and asylum seekers. One of these projects was 
a joint organization of the Course of Croatian Language and Culture for 
Asylum Seekers and Refugees (hereinafter: Course) by the Faculty and 
AYS, which started in the 2017/2018 academic year. AYS’s role was to 
select among its beneficiaries those who had refugee status, had not 
attended similar courses before, could use the Latin script, and had 
basic communication skills in Croatian. They then took a written and 
oral exam based on which 15 participants were selected, as they were 
considered ready to join classes aimed at achieving the B1.1 proficien-
cy level according to the CEFR. The course was taught by final-year stu-
dents of Croatian studies, who wanted to gain professional experience 
through volunteer work with this group of vulnerable language learners. 
They were prepared for teaching Croatian as L2 through several stages 
by lecturers from Croaticum. The course started in the winter seme-
ster of the 2018/2019 academic year as one of Croaticum’s accredited 
Croatian Language and Culture 2.1 and 2.2 (B1.1) programmes, lasting 
for 15 weeks and consisting of 75 lessons. At the end of the semester, 
participants who successfully completed the programme and passed 
both the written and oral exams, which assessed their competencies 
in all language skills (listening and reading comprehension, vocabula-
ry and grammar knowledge, and written and oral production) received 
a certificate for the B1.1 proficiency level, which is the level required 
for integration into the labour market and long-term residency in the 
country.15 From the first generation of participants until the winter se-
mester of the 2022/2023 academic year, when the course was held 
in this form for the last time, seven groups, or slightly more than 100 
participants, participated in the programme. Approximately half of the 
participants were awarded the certificate for the B1.1 proficiency le-
vel, which indicates that they obtained a sufficient number of points in 
14 https://www.zagreb.hr/UserDocsImages/ljudska%20prava/web/Akcijski%20plan%20
GZ%20za%20provedbu%20Povelje%20Integriraju%C4%87ih%20gradova%202023-24.
pdf
15 https://narodne-novine.nn.hr/clanci/sluzbeni/2021_09_100_1800.html
73
Language integration of forced and economic migrants in Croatia
all five language skills tested by Croaticum’s internal exam, which they 
took at the end of the semester.
Another contribution from the Faculty of Humanities and Soci-
al Sciences in Zagreb was the launch and delivery of a new elective 
course, offered to graduate students of Croatian studies in the winter 
semester of the 2018/19 academic year. The name of the course it-
self, Croatian as L2 and Service-Learning,16 demonstrates that it is the 
result of thoughtful consideration and recognition of the necessity for a 
concrete response from the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences 
to the needs of the broader community, and specifically to the langua-
ge integration of asylees and asylum seekers. As such, and in line with 
the principles on which this course was based, students, nearing the 
end of their formal education took on the challenges of fieldwork and 
applied the knowledge they had acquired to classroom practice. Howe-
ver, before they began the actual implementation, and in accordance 
with the principles of service-learning, they had to independently de-
sign a project and thoroughly devise all its stages. In the first stage of 
the course, students designed the project The Course of Literacy in The 
Latin Script for Asylum Seekers and Asylees, which in many ways was 
pioneering and remains unique. 
The second stage included planning the project implementation 
and establishing communication with a social partner, which in this 
case was AYS. This NGO acted as the intermediary between the faculty 
and the end users, with their representatives helping to identify and 
select course participants based on predefined criteria. 
The participants had to be asylum seekers or asylees (therefore 
belonging to a vulnerable group of learners), who are illiterate in the 
(Croatian) Latin script. The group of participants thus formed was he-
terogeneous in terms of mother tongues. The most prevalent language 
16 Nives Mikelić Preradović, a professor at the Department of Information and Communication 
Sciences at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb, and a re-
searcher who has extensively studied the method of service-learning in Croatia, coordinating 
and supervising over 50 student projects of service-learning, explains in her book (2009, 
p. 7) that service-learning is an educational method allowing students to apply the knowl-
edge and skills acquired in academic courses to develop a project addressing a certain social 
issue. In other words, it is an innovative pedagogical approach that integrates meaningful 
work for the common good or social engagement into the curriculum, enabling students to 
earn ECTS credits through learning derived from active engagement in the community and 
addressing real social issues.
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Slovenščina 2.0, 2024 (2) | Articles
was Arabic, but three other languages also appeared: Persian or Farsi, 
Kurdish Sorani, and Tigrinya. The participants came from Iraq, Syria, 
Afghanistan, Iran, and Eritrea.
Upon mastering (Croatian) Latin script in reading and writing, 
asylum seekers and asylees were able to participate in Croatian lan-
guage courses, thereby personally and professionally integrating into 
Croatian society, which met the requirement of responding to social 
needs. Moreover, since learning the alphabet is possible only within the 
context of words and sentences, the participants acquired the basic 
lexicon at the same time, i.e. the teaching units to a greater or lesser 
extent included basic oral communication in the Croatian language. All 
the participants mastered the wording of introductions and greetings, 
and thus developed the skill of basic oral communication in the Croati-
an language (Ocvirk et al., 2019).
An additional academic advancement in this field is reflected in the 
individual initiatives of several experts in the field of Croatian as L2, 
who highlighted the need to support NGOs in effectively addressing 
the challenges of language training for refugees in Croatia, as well as 
raising awareness among relevant institutions about this issue. In this, 
the same lecturers from Croaticum continued, as volunteers, to offer 
workshops for volunteers from an NGO in the field of foreign language 
teaching. Additionally, there was a unique research study conducted 
about the role and self-perception of volunteers in language training 
for refugees and their specific needs in this demanding role (Podboj 
and Cvitanušić, 2022).
Based on the data collected through a survey, the authors conclu-
ded that the dominant attitude among volunteers17 teaching Croati-
an as L2 is that formal qualifications are not necessary for successful 
language training, although they are welcomed, especially in order to 
clarify to learners in a simple and methodologically appropriate way 
(without the use of metalanguage) only those language rules that are 
necessary for mastering the language at the basic level.18
17 As Croatian is a grammatically gendered language, these authors opted to use the feminine 
grammatical form volonterka, instead of the masculine and form volonter (which is also con-
sidered to be gender-neutral) precisely to highlight the much greater involvement of female 
volunteers in this type of volunteer work. 
18 The questionnaire was anonymous and was filled out by 28 people, 22 of whom were women, 
75
Language integration of forced and economic migrants in Croatia
Furthermore, as was highlighted by participant responses and cor-
roborated by the relevant literature, the challenges in teaching refuge-
es are not just about the potential lack of skills or experience among 
volunteers, but also about significant organizational issues. Namely, 
the biggest challenges for successful volunteer engagement when it 
comes to teaching in organized courses are the short duration of these 
programmes and lack of adequate teaching materials specifically de-
signed for this target group. Additionally, the respondents also noted a 
decline in motivation and insufficient time for learning among the refu-
gee population (ibid: 101).
Taking all these points into account, it can be concluded that lan-
guage training is an interdepartmental issue. Indeed, this awareness 
already existed 15 years ago, when the Ministry of the Interior ordered 
the inclusion of asylees in semester courses at Croaticum for a period 
of two years. This topic was also discussed at the UNHCR Round Ta-
ble Integration of persons granted protection in the Republic of Croatia: 
What have we achieved and what are the next steps? which took place 
on June 14, 2010, and included a talk by the former head of Croaticum 
titled Asylees and Learning Croatian. 
A more recent example of this need is the announcement by the 
Ministry of Labour, Pension System, Family, and Social Policy in colla-
boration with the Croatian Employment Services regarding the distri-
bution of language learning vouchers (beginning in early 2024). This 
system would enable language learning for third-country nationals in 
sectors and professions where language proficiency is crucial for effec-
tive job performance, as well as for remigrants from abroad and their 
descendants, and for foreigners under temporary protection. The lear-
ning is implemented through short, informal programmes (70 hours). 
For Croatian as L2 programmes for foreign workers, this system requi-
res employers to partially co-finance the cost of education, depending 
on the number of employees hired. The system has not yet fully come 
into effect, so it remains to be seen what impact it will have.
ranging in age from 18 to 72. Most of the respondents who participated in the research were 
not formally educated to teach languages. Nine of them stated that they had a formal qualifi-
cation, of which four completed studies of Croatian language and literature or had a Croatology 
major, and five of them took majors in other neo-philological subjects. Most of the participants 
attended some form of a workshop for teaching Croatian as a foreign language to refugees.
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From the overview presented above, it can be concluded that the 
language integration policy for refugees and foreign workers in Croatia 
is not systematic and fully transparent. 
4 Conclusion
In the last 20 years, Croatia has transformed from an emigration to an 
immigration destination, facing at all levels a chaotic approach to both 
the language assessment and language training of the immigrant popu-
lation. When it comes to the legal framework for regulating permanent 
residence in the Republic of Croatia, which prescribes the passing of an 
exam at the level B1 of knowledge of the Croatian language, from one 
look at the unreviewed list of as many as 76 institutions that (allegedly) 
conduct this exam, it can be concluded that there is not a systematic 
nor professional nor a transparent approach to this important praxis. 
Each organizational unit decides completely autonomously about the 
protocol, prices and content of their Croatian language exams (and an 
example of the exam is only available for viewing on the websites of 
two of the 76 institutions), which raises the issue of a lack of uniform 
criteria and conditions for obtaining a certificate of language proficien-
cy at the legally prescribed level.
The current circumstances of the linguistic integration of refugees 
are not much more encouraging. Despite the existence of a rather de-
tailed legal framework, a clear and transparent approach to this topic 
is still missing, and the necessary interdepartmental and interinstituti-
onal cooperation in which all actors would contribute to responding to 
such an important social need has not been established.
The predominant pioneering initiatives are made by organizations 
that are dedicated to refugee integration in general, such as the Jesuit 
Refugee Service (JRS), Centre for Peace Studies (CMS), and Are You 
Syrious (AYS), with certain activities done and promoted by Croaticum. 
Language integration of foreign workers coming from more distant 
linguistic and cultural backgrounds was not addressed by institutions 
until the recent introduction of language learning vouchers. We belie-
ve that a legal obligation on employers to ensure language training for 
their employees would represent a significant step forward in terms of 
77
Language integration of forced and economic migrants in Croatia
foreign workers’ successful integration into Croatian society, and a ri-
cher cultural exchange within the community. Moreover, it is known that 
non-native speakers who have mastered at least a basic level of com-
munication competence in the language of the country they have mo-
ved to can advocate for themselves and their interests more confidently.
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Jezikovna integracija prisilnih in ekonomskih migrantov na 
Hrvaškem
Članek prinaša pregled jezikovne integracije t. i. novih migrantov (begun-
ci, prosilci za azil in tuji delavci). Poseben poudarek je namenjen dosedanji 
praksi in prihodnjim potrebam poučevanja in testiranja hrvaškega jezika kot 
drugega in tujega jezika v povezavi s prisilnimi migracijami (begunci, prosilci 
za azil in osebe s priznanim azilom) ter z naraščajočim obsegom ekonomskih 
migracij, s katerimi se trenutno sooča Hrvaška. Opisane so vloge državnih in 
izobraževalnih institucij ter politike in pravni okvir (jezikovne) integracije ran-
ljivih skupin učencev.
Ključne besede: hrvaščina kot drugi in tuji jezik, prisilne in ekonomske mi-
gracije, jezikovna integracija