1 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 0(0), 1–11 | DOI: 10.14502/tekstilec.68.2025025 | First published November 10, 2025 Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 4.0 licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Authors retain ownership of the copyright for their content, but allow anyone to download, reuse, reprint, modify, distribute and/or copy the content as long as the original authors and source are cited. No permission is required from the authors or the publisher. This journal does not charge APCs or submission charges. Tamara Georgievska, 1 Stefan Trajkovikj, 2 Katerina Atkovska, 3 Kiril Lisichkov 1 1 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University, Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Institute for chemical and control engineering, Rugjer Boshkovikj 16, 1000 Skopje, Republic of North Macedonia. 2 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University, Faculty of Natural Science and Mathematics, Institute of Chemistry, Arhimedova 3, 1000 Skopje, Republic of North Macedonia 3 Ss. Cyril and Methodius University, Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, Institute for inorganic technology, Rugjer Boshkovikj 16, 1000 Skopje, Republic of North Macedonia Recent Advances in Textile Functionalization Using Essential Oil-Based-Microcapsules with Antimicrobial Properties Nedavni napredek funkcionalizacije tekstilij z mikrokapsulami na osnovi protimikrobnih eteričnih olj Scientific review/Pregledni znanstveni članek Received/Prispelo 2–2025 • Accepted/Sprejeto 3–2025 Corresponding author/Korespondenčna avtorica: Tamara Georgievska, PhD E-mail: tami.georgievska@gmail.com Tel: + 389 76 435 749 ORCID iD: 0009-0003-1976-334X Abstract Antimicrobial textiles are functionalized textiles designed to inhibit or terminate the growth of microorgan- isms. In light of the increasing emphasis on eco-friendly processes, the application of essential oils presents a viable alternative to synthetic drugs (antibiotics). The aim of this study was to evaluate recent advances in mi- croencapsulation methods of essential oils with antimicrobial activity that can be applied on medical textile for dermal use by employing the PRISMA methodology. Essential oils have been microencapsulated using various methods: coacervation, spray-drying, emulsion method and in situ polymerization. Among these, coacervation is still extensively utilized, though associated scale-up challenges persist. Many essential oils have demonstrat- ed antibacterial properties against Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis) and Gram-negative (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae) bacteria, as well as antifungal activity (Can- dida albicans). The growth inhibition of these microorganisms was assessed in the presence of the following essential oils and their active substances with the highest biological-antimicrobial activity: cinnamon (tran- scinnamaldehyde), lime (α-terpineol, terpineol, and limonene), tea tree (terpinen-4-ol), rosemary (1,8-cineole and α-pinene), peppermint (l-menthol, menthone, methyl acetate and limonene), lavender (linalool and linalyl acetate), thyme (carvacrol) and clove (eugenol). The findings indicate that functionalized textile with micro- capsules exhibits enhanced antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria compared to Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli), which could be attributed to the bacteria’s thick wall. However, there is a notable lack of data regarding cytotoxicity and the sensory evaluation of functionalized textile. The potential utilization of essential oils was explored in the development of eco-friendlier functionalized textile with antimicrobial 2 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 0(0), 1–11 properties. However, additional research is required to maximize the antimicrobial activity of microcapsules to overcome challenges in the scale-up to pilot process, and to improve the immobilization in textiles. Keywords: antimicrobial properties, sustainability, essential oils, microcapsules, textile functionalization Izvleček Protimikrobne tekstilije so funkcionalizirani materiali, zasnovani za zaviranje ali preprečevanje rasti mikroorganizmov. Ker si prizadevamo za uporabo okolju prijaznih tehnologij, je uporaba eteričnih olj mogoča kot alternativa sintetičnim zdravilom, kot so antibiotiki. Namen raziskave je bil oceniti razvoj metod mikroenkapsuliranja eteričnih olj s protimi- krobnim delovanjem, ki jih je mogoče s pomočjo metodologije PRISMA uporabiti pri pripravi medicinskih tekstilij za dermalno uporabo. Eterična olja so bila mikrokapsulirana z različnimi tehnikami, vključno s koacervacijo, sušenjem z razprševanjem, emulzijsko metodo in polimerizacijo in situ. Med omenjenimi metodami je koacervacija še vedno naj- pogosteje uporabljena kljub izzivom, povezanim z razširitvijo procesa na industrijsko raven. Posamezna eterična olja izkazujejo širokospektralno protibakterijsko delovanje proti grampozitivnim (Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis) in gramnegativnim bakterijam (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae) ter protiglivično učinkovitost proti Candida albicans. Najvišjo biološko-protimikrobno aktivnost so pokazale aktivne snovi eteričnih olj cimeta (trans-cinamaldehid), limete (α-terpineol, terpineol, limonen), čajevca (terpinen-4-ol), rožmarina (1,8-cineol, α-pinen), poprove mete (L-mentol, menton, metil acetat, limonen), sivke (linalol, linalil acetat), timijana (karvakrol) in klinčkov (evgenol). Ugotovljeno je bilo, da mikrokapsulirane funkcionalizirane tekstilije izkazujejo učinkovitejše protibakterijsko delovanje proti grampozitivnim bakterijam kot proti gramnegativnim, kar je mogoče pripisati razliki v strukturi celične stene mikroorganizmov. Kljub spodbudnim rezultatom pa so podatki o citotoksičnosti in senzorič- nih lastnostih protimikrobnih tekstilij še vedno omejeni. Potrebne so nadaljnje raziskave za povečanje protimikrobne učinkovitosti mikrokapsul, optimiziranje postopkov industrijske izdelave in izboljšanje vezave mikrokapsul na tekstilna vlakna. Ključne besede: protimikrobne lastnosti, trajnost, eterična olja, mikrokapsule, funkcionalizacija tekstilij 1 Introduction Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the major global public health threats of the 21st century, and is characterized by the reduction in the efficacy of antibiotics [1]. AMR has been exacerbated by COVID-19 pandemic, due to the over prescription of antimicrobial agents by physicians and the easy availability of over-the-counter (OTC) antibiotics in pharmacies and drug stores [2]. According to the CDC’s July 2024 Report on Antimicrobial Re- sistance Threats, AMR increased by 20% during the COVID-19 pandemic relative to the pre-pandemic period [2]. Globally, bacterial infections on the skin and subcutaneous tissues rank as the sixth leading infectious syndrome contributing to the mortality associated with AMR [3]. Natural products, particularly essential oils (EOs), are potential candidates to combat AMR due to their antioxidant and pro-oxidant properties [4]. EOs are plant extracts derived from various parts such as petals and flowers, grasses, seeds, leaves, stems, roots and rhizomes, woods and resins [5]. According to the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.) and to the Association Française de Normal- isation, an essential oil is defined as a “product ob- tained from a natural raw materials of plant origin, either through distillation using water or steam, a mechanical process from the epicarp of Citrus sp. fruits or through dry distillation [6,7]. The essential oil is separated by physical means from the aqueous phase. EOs are multicomponent systems contain- Recent Advances in Textile Functionalization Using Essential Oil-Based-Microcapsules with Antimicrobial Properties 3 ing a variety of volatile, lipophilic and odoriferous chemical compounds, including terpenes, alcohols, sesquiterpenes, amides, phenols, acids, ketones, aldehydes, esters, ethers and oxides [8]. EOs have been extensively investigated for their biological activities [9], including antibacterial properties. Active substances, with natural antimicrobial prop- erties are derived from thyme (Thymus vulgaris), oregano (Origanum compactum), clove (Eugenia caryophyllata), mint (Mentha piperita), sage (Salvia officinalis), lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) and others (Figure 1). Figure 1: Species from which essential oils with anti­ microbial properties can be extracted: a) Eugenia caryophyllata (https://www.pioneerherbal.com), b) Thymus vulgaris (https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu), c) Salvia officinalis (https://www.greensmile.cy), d) Origanum compactum (https://aliksir.com), e) Mentha piperita (https://www.la-saponaria.com) and f) Lavandula angustifolia (https://www.seedscape.net.au) Due to their fragrance, EOs are widely explored in the textile industry and employed as natural an- tibacterial agents [10, 11]. Antibacterial activity has been demonstrated against various bacterial strains, including Escherichia coli, Shigella dysenteria, Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus cereus, Salmonella typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus [12]. EOs are thus broadly used in research and development laboratories to design value-added textiles with cosmetic and medical applications. Three groups of antimicrobial textiles can be distinguished: antibac- terial textiles that inhibit bacteria growth, antifungal textiles that prevent fungal mycelium and spore germination, and antiviral textiles that modify the virus surface structure [13]. Although commercial antimicrobial products have been developed, the most efficient compounds (silver nanoparticles, triclosan and quartenary ammonium compounds) are regulated under Regulation 528/2012 [14]. While the shift towards sustainability is still in its early stages, consumers increasingly prefer eco-friend- ly choices. In light of this trend and the looming threat of AMR, the application of EOs can be considered an alternative to synthetic drugs (antibiotics), as it was the case in ancient times. The earliest references to the use of sandalwood and cinnamon essential oils date back to ancient Hindu scriptures called Vedas [15]. The Egyptians used plants for medicinal purposes, surgery, food preservation, mummification and heal- ing practices or massages [16]. A graphical illustration is presented in Figure 2. Figure 2: Graphical illustration of medical textile functionalization with microcapsules 4 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 0(0), 1–11 However, the main disadvantage of EOs is their susceptibility to environmental conditions (oxygen, light, temperature and humidity), making them prone to decomposition and easy volatilization [17]. These drawbacks can be mitigated through technological and/or formulation modification in the microencapsulation process. The potential use of microencapsulation tech- nology for encapsulating EOs in medical textile has been previously discussed [18]. Nevertheless, not all microencapsulation methods are suitable for textile applications. Commonly used techniques in textile functionalization are: • physical: spray-drying and solvent evaporation, • physico-chemical: simple and complex coacer- vation and molecular inclusion, and • chemical: in situ polymerization, photopoly- merization and interfacial polymerization. This study addresses recent developments in microencapsulation methods for EOs, types of EOs with antimicrobial activity, textile functionalization methods with microcapsules and tested microorgan- ism strains. The focus is on summarizing the anti- microbial activity of various EOs, the production of microcapsules, and their use in creating eco-friendly, biocompatible, and nontoxic functional antimicro- bial textiles with biological, aromatherapeutic and antioxidant properties. 2 Methodology A comprehensive literature search was conducted using the Scilit database, focusing on the keywords “essential oil”, “antimicrobial activity”, “fabrics” and “antibacterial activity”. The selection criteria included studies published between 2014 and 2024, and was limited to articles in English. Both peer-re- viewed journal articles and ‘grey’ literature, such as conference papers, were included. Eligible studies were required to report antimicrobial efficiency testing, microencapsulation methods and textile functionalization techniques with a clear research purpose. For purposes of screening and selection, the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Re- views and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) was followed. Evaluation was performed based on ‘title and abstract’, followed by qualitative content analysis by two reviewers. Any discrepancies between the reviewers were resolved by triple-checking the ar- ticles and through discussion with a third reviewer. After selecting eligible articles, obtained results and cited studies were screened for inclusion. Data extracted from the included studies encompassed microencapsulation techniques, types of essential oils, microorganism strains, types of textile/fabrics and functionalization methods. Due to absence of a standardized quality tool for the assessment of studies involving functionalized textiles with an- timicrobial activity, articles with clearly presented relevant data were considered for evaluation. 3 Results 3.1 Results from the qualitative literature search The following parameters were included in the prior advanced tool search: publication period (2014–2024) and English language. All journal articles that had results on antimicrobial activity of microcapsules and a lack data on antimicrobial activity of func- tionalized textile alongside textile functionalization were excluded. Book chapters, preprints and review articles were also excluded. A total of 84 studies were identified from the Scilit database with three dupli- cates. The screening of the title and abstract led to the exclusion of fifteen articles, while eight more were excluded after full-text screening. The final number of relevant studies was 16. The full selection process and outcomes are summarized in Figure 3. 3.2 Characteristics of included studies Details of included studies and their outcomes are presented in Table 1. Five studies reported [19–21, 24, 32] that their microcapsules were obtained through coacervation, two using the spray-drying process [28, 34], seven using the emulsion method [23, 25–27, Recent Advances in Textile Functionalization Using Essential Oil-Based-Microcapsules with Antimicrobial Properties 5 29–31] and one using the in situ polymerization method [33], while one article [22] did not provide data regarding the microencapsulation method. In one study [31], microcapsules with thyme essential oil were obtained as a commercial product. Essential oils from cinnamon [19, 27] and clove [29, 34] were each reported in three studies. Lime [20, 24] and tea tree [21, 22] essential oils were each reported in two studies. Thyme [31], ginseng [30], peppermint [32], eucalyptus [26] and sandalwood [26], and rosemary [28] essential oil were each reported once. The majority of the textile functionalization methods (Table 1) included padding (N = 4), pad-dry-cure (N = 4), pad-dry method (N = 2), printing, finishing, in situ procedure and exhaustion process (N = 1, each), while one study covered the fibre spinning method. The most commonly tested bacteria were Staphylococcus aureus (Gram positive) and Esche­ richia coli (Gram negative). Additionally, antibacte- rial efficiency against the microorganisms Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus epidermis¸ Bacillus cereus and Salmonella typhimurium was assessed. In one ar- ticle, antifungal activity against Candida albicans was evaluated. Cotton fabrics (N = 9) were predominantly investigated, followed by viscose fibres, cellulosic fibres, nylon-polyurethane fabrics, linen fabrics, PLA Figure 3: Qualitative literature search results fabrics and polyester fabrics (N = 1, each). Research studies that elucidated both microencapsulation, followed by textile functionalization and extensive characterization (washing durability, sensory evalua- tion, biocompatibility study and cytotoxicity effects), are limited. 4 Discussion Results from the systematic review suggest that functionalized textile with essential oil-based mi- crocapsules possess antimicrobial activity. This is further confirmed by different previously conducted literature-scientific reviews that are not part of this systematic review [18, 35–37]. Based on the review analysis, the coacervation method, one of the oldest methods, is widely explored in microencapsulation studies. However, the commercialization of coacer- vation is hindered by high-costs and a time-intensive multistep manufacturing process (polymer hydra- tion, emulsification, coacervation, shell hardening and drying). The reviewed articles did not provide explicit data regarding advances in industrially fea- sible and scalable coacervation methods. Therefore, further studies are required to design an industrially scalable coacervation process following up on the work performed by Tang [38]. Considering technological advances, eco-friend- lier trends and the optimization of resources, Sharma and Chakraborty [34] optimized process parameters in the spray-drying method using the Design of Experiments approach (DoE), employing the Box-Behnken and Central composite design. This research methodology adds value and should encourage researches to employ DoE in their studies. Beşen [22] suggested that optimization in technological and formulation parameters should be carried out to achieve equally high antibacterial activity against strains, which could be further achieved by using the DoE approach. Although polyester fibre made of poly(ethylene terephthalate) holds the highest market share (> 50%) in the textile industry, the reviewed data showed that 6 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 0(0), 1–11 Table 1: Summary of textile functionalization using microcapsules with antimicrobial activity Microencapsulation technique Wall material(s) Essential oil Microorganism strains Functionalization method Type of fabrics Ref. Coacervation Chitosan Cinnamon Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus Padding Cellulosic fibres surface [19] Coacervation Alginate and gelatine Lime Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Staphylococcus epidermidis Pad-dry-cure Cotton fabrics [20] Coacervation Poly(vinyl)-alcohol, gum Arabic and β-cyclodextrin; ethyl-cellulose Tea tree Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus Padding Cotton fabrics [21] No data Ethyl Cellulose Tea tree Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus Padding Cotton fabrics [22] Emulsion β-cyclodextrin Lavender, thyme and clove Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli Exhaustion Knitted polyester fabrics [23] Complex coacervation Chitosan and gum Arabic Lime oil Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus and Salmonella typhimurium Dipping Cotton fabrics [24] Emulsion Chitosan and β-cyclodextrin Cinnamon, lavender, thyme and savory Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus In situ procedure PLA fabric [25] Emulsion Chitosan Eucalyptus; Sandalwood Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus Pad-dry-cure Cotton fabrics [26] Emulsion Chitosan Cinnamon + propolis Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus Padding Knitted cotton textile [27] Spray-drying Chitosan-gelatine complex Rosemary Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus Pad dry method Linen fabric [28] Spray-drying Chitosan-gelatine complex Rosemary Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus Pad dry method Linen fabric [28] Emulsion Chitosan Clove Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus Pad-dry-cure Cellulosic fabric [29] Emulsion Melamine–formaldehyde prepolymer Ginseng oil Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae Pad-dry-cure Nylon-polyurethane fabric [30] Simple coacervation Arabic gum Peppermint oil Escherichia coli Finishing process 100% cotton denim fabric [32] In situ polymerization method Melamine–formaldehyde polymer Lavender, rosemary and sage Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus Printing 100% cotton woven fabric [33] Spray-drying Chitosan Clove oil Bacillus sp. and Escherichia coli Pad-dry method Cotton fabrics [34] Recent Advances in Textile Functionalization Using Essential Oil-Based-Microcapsules with Antimicrobial Properties 7 majority of functionalized textile are cotton fabrics. Cotton fabric is preferred to synthetic fabric as it is biodegradable and naturally occurring. The function- alization of such fabrics with bio-based, green and renewable antibacterial molecules will help improve environmental sustainability. It is evident from the reviewed articles that Escherichia coli, as Gram-negative bacteria, and Staphylococcus aureus, as Gram-positive bacteria, were mainly evaluated. Research has proven that functionalized textiles with EO-based-microcapsules exhibit antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. However, the lower inhibition of Escherichia coli could be observed in certain studies. This can be attributed to Escherichia coli’s thick cell wall, which hinders the penetration of antibacterial compounds. Despite extensive research on the antimicrobial potential of EOs as a green alternative to antibiotics in engineered-textile, their toxicological effects are still insufficiently investigated. This research area is crucial for the commercialization of EOs-based-functional- ized textile, and for meeting requirements for permit- ted daily exposure contained in the EMA Guidelines (2014) [39] on setting health-based exposure limits for use in risk identification in the manufacture of dif- ferent medicinal products in shared facilities. Affygi- lity Solutions’ catalogue includes monographs for lavender, peppermint and coconut oil, suggesting that the industrial scale-up process of microencapsulation and functionalization methods of textiles are chal- lenging from technological, economical, toxicological and health-based perspectives. The technological limitations of applied micro- encapsulation techniques in textile functionalization are mainly attributed to one critical quality attribute (CQA): the particle size distribution of microcap- sules. In functionalized-medical textiles, this CQA is directly correlated with a patient’s acceptance. More attention must thus be paid to sensory evaluations, which currently lack extensive results. Since EOs are multicomponent systems, the quantitative analysis of assay poses another challenge in commercializing EOs-based-textiles. 5 Conclusion The microencapsulation of volatile EOs is widely investigated as a promising technique for designing textile with functional properties. Their application in fabric functionalization to produce medical textiles has been intensively explored due to eco-orientated consumerism. This study highlight- ed the use of essential oils such as cinnamon, lime, peppermint, thyme, lavender, clove and tea tree. Coacervation is the most commonly employed method for essential oil microencapsulation in textile functionalization, followed by emulsion and spray-drying techniques. Published results indicate durable antimicrobial efficacy against both typical Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, with higher efficacy observed against Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus) bacteria. One commonly employed textile functionalization method is the pad-dry-cure method. Functionalized textiles embedded with mi- crocapsules containing essential oils represent a significant potential for applications in medical treatments. Specifically, in the context of dermal wound healing, such textiles can serve as effective agents for the prevention or inhibition of infections and inflammation. Additionally, microcapsules exhibiting antifungal efficacy may be incorporated into athletic socks to reduce the incidence of fungal infections. Furthermore, medical textiles designed with immobilized microcapsules endowed with antimicrobial properties hold promise for the development of advanced military apparel, offering protection against microbial proliferation and the associated risks of infection. The gaps that remain in the broad and diverse disciplines conducting research on antimicrobial textile with essential oil-based microcapsules must be narrowed over time. Further research arises from identified gaps in the field of textile function- alization, and is highlighted below: 1. The sensory evaluation and dermatological testing of medical textiles with immobilized 8 Tekstilec, 2025, Vol. 0(0), 1–11 microcapsules must be performed in future research studies. If needed, further optimization on the particle size distribution or the overall technological process should be carried out. Such studies would increase the scientific worth of antimicrobial textiles. Dermatological testing should be performed in future studies to assess whether a product causes irritation and inflam- mation when in contact with the skin. 2. Toxicological studies of essential oils are ex- tremely limited. Scientific-based toxicological studies of essential oils with proven antimicro- bial activity must be performed. This would be a prerequisite in setting the dosage in antimicro- bial textiles. 3. Studies focusing on release kinetics, mechanism of release, EO concentration and microencap- sulation optimization, as well as the function- alization process, optimization and transdermal delivery, are not focused on evaluating the over- all benefit of such technological development and the “therapeutic” benefit of value-added textile. 4. Performing stability studies of microcapsules and functionalized textile using microcapsules to set the shelf-life of finished products (func- tionalized textile). Until now, no literature has been identified that investigates for how long microcapsules maintain their antimicrobial efficacy. Microcapsule textile functionalization is undoubtedly a challenging task for scientists but is expected to receive more attention in future. To overcome current knowledge gaps, an interdisci- plinary approach in research groups is essential for the commercialization of antimicrobial textiles with essential oil-based microcapsules. Authors’ contributions: conceptualization: T.G., S.T., K.A., K.L.; methodology T.G.; data curation T.G., S.T., K.A.; writing-original draft preparation: T.G., S.T.; writing-review and editing K.A., K.L.; visual- ization S.T.; supervision K.L. Conflict of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Data availability statement: All data analysed in this review were obtained directly from publicly accessible Scilit database using their readily available filters under advanced search. References 1. 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