DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page I Dynamic Relationships Management Journal CONTENTS Volume 14, Number 1, May 2025 From the President of the Slovenian Academy of Management Metka Tekavčič ..................................................................................................................................... 1 Relationships at Risk: The Exploration and Confirmation of Customer Detachment and its Drivers Falkor Eckardt, Hester Spies ................................................................................................................. 3 Leadership and Cultural Intelligence: Past, Present, Future Sanja Živković ....................................................................................................................................... 23 Mapping the Field of Multilevel Ambidexterity Research Within Organizations Using Bibliometric Analysis Sara Melkić .......................................................................................................................................... 39 Is There an Upside to Leader Narcissism? Geir Thompson, Robert Buch, W. Keith Campbell, Lars Glasø ............................................................. 59 Exploring the Synergy: The Role of Shared and Servant Leadership in the Innovation Process Through Bibliometric Analysis Bojana Markovska Klepec, Miha Škerlavaj ........................................................................................... 79 Finding Meaning at Work: Entrepreneurship as a Way of Achieving Higher Meaningfulness Blaž Abe ............................................................................................................................................... 101 Author Guidelines ................................................................................................................................ 115 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page II Aims & Scope The Dynamic Relationships Management Journal is an international, double blind peer‐reviewed bi‐annual publication of academics’ and practitioners’ research analyses and perspectives on relationships management and organizational themes and topics. The focus of the journal is on management, organization, corporate governance and neighboring areas (including, but not limited to, organizational behavior, human resource management, sociology, organizational psychology, industrial economics etc.). Within these fields, the topical focus of the journal is above all on the establishment, development, main‐ tenance and improvement of dynamic relationships, connections, interactions, patterns of behavior, structures and networks in social entities like firms, non‐profit institutions and public administration units within and beyond individual entity bound‐ aries. Thus, the main emphasis is on formal and informal relationships, structures and processes within and across individual, group and organizational levels. DRMJ articles test, extend, or build theory and contribute to management and organizational practice using a variety of empirical methods (e.g., quantitative, qualitative, field, laboratory, meta‐analytic, and combination). Articles format should include, but are not restricted to, traditional academic research articles, case studies, literature reviews, method‐ ological advances, approaches to teaching, learning and management development, and interviews with prominent exec‐ utives and scholars. Material disclaimer Responsibility for (1) the accuracy of statements of fact, (2) the authenticity of scientific findings or observations, (3) expressions of scientific or other opinion and (4) any other material published in the journal rests solely with the author(s). The Journal, its owners, publishers, editors, reviewers and staff take no responsibility for these matters. Information for Readers Dynamic Relationships Management Journal (ISSN 2232‐5867 ‐ printed version & ISSN 2350‐367X ‐ on‐line version, available in (full text) at the DRMJ website) is published in 2 issues per year. For ordering the printed version, please contact the editor at matej.cerne@ef.uni‐lj.si. Call for papers The Dynamic Relationships Management Journal (DRMJ) is inviting contributions for upcoming issues. The manuscript can be submitted per e‐mail to the editor (matej.cerne@ef.uni‐lj.si). Before the submission, authors should consult Author Guidelines. There is no submission or publication fee. Open Access statement This is an open access journal which means that all content is freely available without charge to the user or his/her institution. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author. This is in accordance with the BOAI definition of open access. Please read »Copyright / licensing conditions« statement for addition info about legal use of published material. 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DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 1 FROM THE PRESIDENT OF THE SLOVENIAN ACADEMY OF MANAGEMENT Prof. Dr. Metka Tekavčič University of Ljubljana School of Economics and Business Dear readers, Financial stability remains a key priority. We are grateful for continued ARIS co‐funding for both of It is a great honor and responsibility to take over our journals, and for the dedicated work of our Trea‐ the presidency of the Slovenian Academy of Manage‐ surer, Rebeka Koncilja Žgalin. In terms of public vis‐ ment (SAM), an association with a clear vision: to con‐ ibility, we will enhance promotional activities and nect, support, and advance scholarship and practice explore new opportunities for donor support. in the field of management. I sincerely thank the pre‐ vious President, Assist. Prof. Dr. Jože Kropivšek, and In 2025, Dynamic Relationships Management his team for their committed leadership and many Journal (DRMJ), led by Editor‐in‐Chief Prof. Dr. Matej valuable contributions, including strengthening com‐ Černe, will continue its trajectory of development. munication platforms, sustaining publishing activities, We will actively promote the journal through per‐ and fostering academic dialogue through events and sonal networks and international conferences, in‐ debate evenings. We build upon solid foundations, cluding EAWOP, Odyssey, and AOM in Copenhagen. and I look forward to continuing this important work A transition to an online submission system (in col‐ in close collaboration with my colleagues. laboration with the University of Ljubljana Press) is under consideration. We remain optimistic about in‐ In 2025, the Academy will further deepen its clusion in the Emerging Sources Citation Index and mission through a set of well‐focused activities. Two AJG rankings, which would significantly raise DRMJ’s debate evenings (led by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nina Tomaže‐ visibility and impact. vič) will address timely topics in management and organization. The Terminology Section, led by Assoc. Our journal published in Slovene language, Man‐ Prof. Dr. Dubravka Celinšek, will continue its work on agement Challenges (Editor‐in‐Chief is Prof. Dr. Zlatko the SAM glossary, in active dialogue with linguists, Nedelko) will continue to pursue its mission of ad‐ editors, and other professionals. The section brings dressing key management and organizational chal‐ together a group of committed scholars from across lenges in Slovenia. We aim to enrich the journal by Slovenia, who will examine and translate terms rel‐ encouraging submissions from both postgraduate evant to their fields and share them with the aca‐ students and practitioners, thus enhancing the rele‐ demic and professional community. vance and quality of contributions. To ensure the journal’s continued growth, we also plan to review Recognizing that membership is the corner‐ the editorial board and increase efforts to attract a stone of our Academy’s sustainability and growth, broader pool of authors beyond our current network. we aim to significantly expand our member base in 2025. A special emphasis will be placed on engaging We also plan to further strengthen our collab‐ master’s and doctoral students as well as recent oration with the Academy of Management (AOM) graduates—bringing fresh energy and perspectives in 2025. Building on existing connections, we aim to into our work. Promotional efforts will be supported co‐host events and explore opportunities for joint by updated materials and strengthened collabora‐ publishing or regional initiatives, particularly in the tion with university career centers. At the same Western Balkans. These efforts not only enhance time, we will increase our presence on social media our international visibility but also position the and highlight the added value of membership across Slovenian Academy of Management as a valuable professional channels. partner in global academic networks. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 1 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 2 Metka Tekavčič: From the President of the Slovenian Academy of Management To improve the Academy’s outreach and en‐ gagement—especially among younger scholars and practitioners—we will increase our presence on so‐ cial media platforms. By sharing relevant content, promoting events, and highlighting member achievements, we aim to build a more dynamic and connected community. A renewed focus will be placed on platforms that align with our mission and audience, supported by fresh visual materials and active collaboration with university career centers. I believe that the years ahead offer not only challenges, but exciting opportunities for our Academy. With your engagement, ideas, and dedi‐ cation, we will continue to grow as a vibrant com‐ munity—one that bridges research and practice, theory and application, local impact and global rel‐ evance. We will continue contributing to a space that fosters and promotes ethical conduct, respon‐ sible leadership, and respect for diversity in re‐ search, education, and practice. We will advocate for fairness, equality and equity, and for high ethical standards as the foundation of our work and soci‐ etal impact. I warmly invite you to stay connected with the Academy and to contribute actively—whether by submitting to our journals, joining events, collabo‐ rating on projects, or simply spreading the word. With best wishes for productive times ahead, Prof. Dr. Metka Tekavčič President of the Slovenian Academy of Management 2 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 3 Vol. 14, No. 1, 3‐21 doi:10.17708/DRMJ.2025.v14n01a01 RELATIONSHIPS AT RISK: THE EXPLORATION AND CONFIRMATION OF CUSTOMER DETACHMENT AND ITS DRIVERS Falkor Eckardt North‐West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa falkoreckardt@gmail.com Hester Spies Hasan School of Business, Colorado State University‐Pueblo, USA & North‐West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa hester.spies@csupueblo.edu Abstract The importance of relational bonds in building and maintaining long‐term customer relationships is widely acknowledged. The threats that weaken these relational bonds and endanger relationship continuation, such as detachment, are how‐ ever, largely ignored in extant literature. Detachment studies, particularly within the field of marketing, are rather scarce and focus predominantly on customers detachment from a brand without considering the interpersonal relationship with an employee. To address this gap, this paper strives to conceptualise the concept of customer detachment within cus‐ tomer‐wealth manager relationships and determine the constructs that drive it. A quantitative cross‐sectional research design was implemented, collecting 536 useable online questionnaires via non‐probability convenience and quota sam‐ pling methods. Exploratory structural equation modelling (ESEM) was used to model the collected data. With the excep‐ tion of customer alienation, the results revealed that disaffection, disillusionment, dissatisfaction and negative emotions were significantly related to customer detachment. In conclusion, efforts to counteract detachment will play a significant role in maintaining relationships, including interpersonal relationships between customers and wealth managers. Both academics and practitioners should focus on disaffection, disillusionment, dissatisfaction, and negative emotions, as these constructs could influence the occurrence and level of detachment among their customers. Keywords: Alienation, Customer Detachment, Disaffection, Disillusionment, Dissatisfaction, Negative Emotions Declaration of interest The are no conflicts of interest to be declared by the authors. All authors involved in the study have both reviewed and agreed with the contents of the manuscript and further maintain that there is no financial interest to report. We (the authors) certify that the submission’s content is both original and is not under review at any other publication institution. 1 INTRODUCTION forged between them as it lays the foundation for both relationship longevity and organisational success Various marketing researchers agree that the (Spies, Eckardt, & De Beer, 2022; Moussa & Touzani, essence of any successful and profitable customer‐or‐ 2017). Customer attachment, which several studies ganisational relationship revolves around the bond have addressed over the years, is widely accepted as Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 3 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 4 Falkor Eckardt, Hester Spies: Relationships at Risk: The Exploration and Confirmation of Customer Detachment and its Drivers being a key component of building successful cus‐ with factors that could drive it, none of their sugges‐ tomer‐organisational relationships as it promotes the tions were empirically tested. Building upon the work development of strong customer relational bonds of Eckardt and Spies (2023), this study aims to empiri‐ that, in turn, foster high levels of customer satisfac‐ cally investigate the role of detachment specifically in tion, trust, commitment, loyalty, and retention (Spies customer–employee relationships by identifying the et al., 2022). While attachment has been adequately factors that drive it. The examination of customers’ de‐ reviewed in extant literature, little to no research has tachment from an employee (in this case, wealth man‐ addressed its equally important counterpart, detach‐ ager) and the factors that drive it will not only ment. Primarily a psychology concept, detachment theoretically and empirically clarify and explicate the can be defined as an individual’s psychological state role of detachment in customer–wealth manager re‐ of distance concerning an offending attachment figure lationships, but also contribute to the detachment re‐ resulting from a weakening or dissolution of the affec‐ search stream in marketing, which may encourage tive bond between them (Eckardt & Spies, 2023; Mai future research on the topic. & Conti, 2008). The loss of an affective bond can put Relying on studies from psychology with an in‐ strain on the individual’s relationship with the offend‐ terpersonal relationship focus and the research con‐ ing attachment figure resulting in a desire to distance ducted by Eckardt and Spies (2023), this study themselves from the relationship or even terminate identified dissatisfaction, negative emotions, disaf‐ it altogether (Perrin‐Martinenq, 2004). Considering fection, disillusionment, and alienation as factors detachment’s deleterious effects on relational bonds, that could affect customer detachment. While em‐ the need to review the concept within a business re‐ pirical evidence linking dissatisfaction (Ali, Attiq, & lationship setting becomes evident. Talib, 2020) and negative emotions (Lu, Lu, & Wang, A thorough literature review reveals that despite 2012) towards detachment can be found, the re‐ the negative consequences detachment may hold for maining proposed drivers of disaffection, disillusion‐ customer relationships, only a handful of studies have ment, and alienation, are supported solely by addressed the concept within a marketing context. marketing and psychology literature. By empirically These studies include brand detachment (Hemets‐ testing these new and existing drivers, this study berger, Kittinger‐Rosanelli, & Friedmann, 2009; Mai & makes an original contribution to the body of knowl‐ Conti, 2008; Perrin‐Martinenq, 2004), store detach‐ edge in understanding customer detachment. ment (Borghini, Sherry, & Joy, 2020) and fashion/de‐ While the importance and contribution of study‐ sign detachment (Mellander & McIntyre, 2021; ing customer detachment in building relationships are Thornquist, 2017). While each of these studies ad‐ evident, no research has yet, to the best of the re‐ dresses various aspects of detachment, none touch on searcher’s knowledge, examined customer detach‐ how it influences dyadic human interpersonal relation‐ ment in the South African wealth management ships such as those between a customer and em‐ industry. Thus, gaining insight into customers’ detach‐ ployee. Eckardt and Spies (2023) also highlight this gap ment could guide wealth managers in their efforts to by stating that no insight is available on the role of de‐ build successful customer relationships within emerg‐ tachment, specifically within a customer‐employee re‐ ing markets such as South Africa. Wealth managers lationship, restricting marketers and researchers will also be able to use the results of this research current understanding of the detachment concept. study to create preventative and reconciliatory cus‐ Utilizing a systematized literature review these authors tomer detachment strategies allowing them to ensure bridged the gap by suggesting how the detachment enduring and profitable customer relationships. Fi‐ concept can be extended into customer‐employee re‐ nally, by examining and confirming the hypothesised lationships. Their thorough literature review also re‐ drivers of customer detachment this study will not vealed possible factors that could influence customer only empirically explain the role of customer detach‐ detachment, providing a better understanding of the ment in customer‐wealth management relationships concept. Whilst their literature study did provide a but also contribute to the attachment, detachment sound foundation for detachment to potentially be ex‐ and relationship marketing research stream, which tended to customer‐employee relationships together may encourage future research on the topic. 4 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 5 2 LITERATURE OVERVIEW The concept of detachment has also been ad‐ dressed to a lesser extent within the field of marketing 2.1 Detachment (Borghini et al., 2020; Mellander & McIntyre, 2021), Detachment is commonly defined as the pro‐ mainly focusing on customer’s detachment from a cess in which an individual distances themselves brand (Mai & Conti, 2008; Perrin‐Martinenq, 2004). from an attachment figure due to the gradual weak‐ Existing research reveals that the detachment process ening of the bond between them (Mai & Conti, is generally triggered by negative events or outcomes 2008; Moon & Yang, 2015). One of the earliest ref‐ that severely disappoint the customer, causing them erences to detachment was made by attachment to begin doubting their previously held perceptions theorist Bowlby (1969), who observed that children, of the brand it is related to (Evanschitzky et al., 2020; when separated from their mother, would display Hemetsberger et al., 2009; Perrin‐Martinenq, 2004). detachment‐like behaviours while she was away and Eckardt and Spies (2023) and Moon and Yang (2015) upon her return. Bowlby viewed this behaviour as posit that once the process has begun, the affective a sign of recovery, as once the child had detached, or relational bond between the customer and the they no longer rejected any comfort and assistance brand will begin to deteriorate. Subsequently, the cus‐ offered by strangers but rather accepted it (Johnson, tomer will begin distancing him‐/herself from the re‐ 2019). Since Bowlby’s identification of detachment, lationship by reducing the extent to which they several other studies within the field of psychology purchase the organisation’s offerings and interact with have expanded upon the concept within relational them. According to Perrin‐Martinenq (2004), in addi‐ contexts (Borghini et al., 2020; Fuhrman & Holm‐ tion to distancing and reduced patronage, customers beck, 1995; Marlowe, Hodgson, Lamson, 2010; Pace who become detached may find themselves thinking & Zappulla, 2013; Reibstein & reibstein, 1998; Sac‐ less about the brand and may also be motivated to cardo & Calvo, 2020). terminate the relationship altogether should it con‐ One of these contexts includes an adolescent’s tinue to deteriorate. progression towards autonomy, also referred to as his/her journey towards gaining independence or 2.2 The potential for detachment in customer‐ the ability to self‐regulate and govern (Ryan & Lynch, employee relationships 1989; Ryan, Deci, & Vansteenkiste, 2016). During this journey, detachment can occur if the adolescent is While detachment has been addressed in inter‐ exposed to family settings characterised by a lack of personal, relational and even brand contexts (Had‐ support or acceptance and negative or conflictive re‐ den et al., 2016; Holmes, 1982; Mai & Conti, 2008; lationships. In instances of negative family function‐ Marlowe et al., 2010; Perrin‐Martinenq, 2004), it has ing such as these, detachment will generally yet to be tested within a customer‐employee setting. manifest as feelings of mistrust towards, and de‐ However, considering the information discussed creased desire to rely upon the support and guid‐ above from both the fields of psychology and mar‐ ance of the offending attachment figure (Eckardt & keting, it is possible to surmise how customer de‐ Spies, 2023; Pace & Zappulla, 2013). Similarly, within tachment may occur. First, an initial trigger event, the sphere of adult romantic relations, affective or such as service or product failures directly related to emotional detachment can occur due to an unsatis‐ an offending attachment figure, would cause cus‐ factory relationship (Hadden, Rodriguez, Knee, Di‐ tomers to experience dissatisfaction and negative Bello, & Baker, 2016; Katz & Woodin, 2002). Despite emotions (Hemetsberger et al., 2009; Vidal, Paché, the individual’s dissatisfaction with the relationship, & Fenneteau, 2016). Should this dissatisfaction be he/she does not usually experience any elevated left unaddressed or consistently recur, customers will negative affect but rather a decrease in both positive then begin to doubt the previous positive percep‐ and negative affective states, which in turn can result tions he/she had towards the reliability or even com‐ in either or both partners leading separate lives be‐ petency of the offending attachment figure. Once haviourally and emotionally (Mai & Conti, 2008; Per‐ these doubts are established, customers will likely rin‐Martinenq, 2004; Pokorska, 2016). begin distancing themselves from the relationship Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 5 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 6 Falkor Eckardt, Hester Spies: Relationships at Risk: The Exploration and Confirmation of Customer Detachment and its Drivers and become increasingly reluctant to rely on the of‐ drive individuals to ultimately sever the bond that fending figure’s support or purchase their offerings exists between them and distance themselves from (Mai & Conti, 2008). These outcomes, combined the relationship (Eckardt, 2023). with any viable or attractive alternatives, may also Studies by Abbasi et al. (2019), Evanschitzky et lead customers to terminate their relationship with al. (2020) and Liceaga (2013) offer support for the the offending figure altogether and even switch to a previous statement by revealing that disaffection will competitor (Perrin‐Martinenq, 2004). generally motivate individuals to separate and dis‐ tance themselves both emotionally and cognitively 2.3 Relationship disaffection from the source of their previous affections. In line with this information, studies by Eckardt and Spies Relationship disaffection is commonly defined (2023), Mai and Conti (2008) and Perrin‐Martinenq as a gradual loss of emotional attachments that re‐ (2004) suggest that disaffection could also be linked sult in a decline in caring, emotional estrangement to detachment not only within a romantic relation‐ and an increased sense of apathy and indifference ship setting but also within a customer‐employee toward a relational partner (Abbasi, Drouin, Mc‐ context. The rationale supporting this argument is Daniel, & Dibble, 2019). According to Asfajir and that the detachment process, once triggered by var‐ Ramezani (2017) and Evanschitzky et al. (2020), dis‐ ious negative events or outcomes, will motivate cus‐ affection does not occur instantaneously but rather tomers to distance themselves from the offending results from a process where disappointments, dis‐ source or attachment figure resulting in a reduced satisfaction, and unresolved conflicts culminate in an sense of affection and/or desire to maintain the re‐ individual losing their sense of affection for the rela‐ lationship. Taking this information into account, this tionship. According to Kersten (1990) the disaffec‐ study proposes the following hypothesis: tion process consists of three phases throughout which individuals in the relationship undergo several H1: Relationship disaffection will have a significant emotional and behavioural changes. During the first effect on respondents’ detachment from their phase, individuals will generally experience a sense wealth manager. of discontentedness or feelings of being unfulfilled. As a result, issues and grievances will generally be‐ come more apparent between individuals paving 2.4 Customer disillusionment way for the further disaffection (Evanschitzky, 2020; According to Maher, Igou, and Van Tilburg Kersten, 1990). The second stage is characterised by (2020) disillusionment can be defined as being de‐ the gradual loss of feelings such as love and affection feated in either or both expectation and hope. In followed by an increase of negativity or apathy be‐ context of interpersonal relationships disillusion‐ tween partners. At this point in the relationship in‐ ment represents the de‐idealisation of one’s roman‐ dividuals will start to focus more on each other’s tic partner during which their flaws and the shortcomings in turn leading to a diminished sense potential limitations of the relationship become ap‐ of intimacy and connection between them (Kersten, parent (Niehuis, Reifman, & Lee, 2015). While not 1990; Mohammadi & Mohammadian, 2018). In the necessarily detrimental in nature, disillusionment final stage of the disaffection process the emotional can have a negative impact on relationships should ties that once bonded the individuals together will it remain un‐addressed or if the de‐idealisation itself have weakened to such an extent that both partners is profound (Kersten, 1990). In instances where the will no longer display any interest in further main‐ disillusionment cannot be addressed and dissatis‐ taining the relationship (Evanschitzky, 2020; Moham‐ faction with the relationship persists, individuals will madi & Mohammadian, 2018). In line with the gradually become disaffected and ultimately de‐ information discussed above, disaffection consti‐ tached (Evanschitzky et al., 2020; Niehuis et al., tutes the loss of emotional ties or bonds that form a 2015). Evanschitzky et al. (2020) add that unmet ex‐ part of the detachment process as the loss of these pectations constitute a powerful element of disillu‐ positive affective states are what enable or even sionment. These authors explain that consistent 6 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 7 disappointments over time lead to significant levels maintaining the current relationship. Should the of dissatisfaction which drive individuals to re‐eval‐ costs of maintaining the relationship, whether phys‐ uate the costs and benefits of the relationship. ical or emotional, outweigh the benefits the individ‐ ual will become increasingly inclined to detach from Within a marketing context, unmet customer ex‐ the offending figure (Eckardt & Spies, 2023; Evan‐ pectations will also lay the foundation for their even‐ schitzky et al., 2020; Hadden et al., 2016). Similarly, tual disillusionment, as each time an organisation being unable to satisfy a customer’s needs and fail‐ fails to meet their expectations (i.e., negative discon‐ ing to provide consistent support can cause them to firmation), the customer becomes increasingly dis‐ detach (Eckardt & Spies, 2023). Eckardt and Spies satisfied (Supioni, 2015). Over time, the culmination (2023) explain that when a customer loses confi‐ of this dissatisfaction leads the customer to re‐eval‐ dence in both the bond they share with the offend‐ uate and, consequently, form a de‐idealised percep‐ ing attachment figure and the figure’s ability to meet tion of his/her relationship with the organisation, their needs, it will increase their likelihood of detach‐ preventing continued disappointment (Evanschitzky ing as means to cope with the disappointment. Tak‐ et al., 2020; Pervan & Martin, 2012). Pervan and Mar‐ ing the information provided above into account, the tin (2012) and Supioni (2015) maintain that once a following hypothesis is proposed for this study: customer is disillusioned, he/she will begin to dis‐ tance themselves from the relationship with the or‐ H3: Customer dissatisfaction will have a significant ef‐ ganisation by reducing patronage and even exposure fect on respondents’ detachment from their wealth to them. Similarly, when an affective bond that exists manager. between the customer and the organisation deterio‐ rates due to dissatisfaction, he/she may decide to dis‐ tance themselves from the relationship by reducing 2.6 Customer alienation the extent to which they purchase the organisation’s offerings and interact with them (Eckardt & Spies, In accordance with literature from the field of so‐ 2023; Moon & Yang, 2015). According to Perrin‐Mar‐ cial psychology, alienation can be viewed as a sense tinenq (2004) and Rabbanee (2012), it is the deterio‐ of exclusion felt by an individual due to a subjective ration of these affective bonds or ties between a state of mind driven by his/her expectations and val‐ customer and a brand essentially contributes to the ues (Yener, 2014). Additionally, the term alienation customer’s eventual state of detachment. Thus, tak‐ can also be associated with an individual’s sense of ing the information discussed above into considera‐ separation or estrangement from other individuals, a tion, this study proposes the following hypothesis: country and various entities or institutions (Krishnan, 2008). Within a marketing context, alienation refers H2: Disillusionment will have a significant effect on re‐ to a customer’s lack of identification with and feelings spondents’ detachment from their wealth manager. of separation from the various norms and values that characterise marketplace practices, interactions and 2.5 Customer dissatisfaction relationships (Junaid, Hou, & Hussain, 2019; Mady, 2011). There are several emotions that an alienated Customer dissatisfaction can be defined as the customer may experience which can include but is not affective state experienced by a customer when limited to powerlessness, normlessness and isolation he/she experiences a product or service failure (For‐ (Eckardt, 2023). Powerlessness is characterised by a nell & Wernerfelt, 1987; Kim, Kim, & Heo, 2019). customer’s belief that their actions will not be enough Based on literature from the field of psychology, sat‐ to obtain the outcomes or benefits they seek either isfaction generally correlates negatively with detach‐ in the marketplace or with an organization and its em‐ ment (Pace & Zappulla, 2013). The reason for this ployees (Ortiz, Chih, & Tsai, 2018; Yener, 2014). Norm‐ negative correlation is that within various forms of lessness occurs when established social norms fail to interpersonal relationships, when an individual’s at‐ regulate appropriate behaviour, causing customers to tachment figure is consistently unable to satisfy their suspect that organizations or their staff might act un‐ needs, they will begin to re‐evaluate the benefits of ethically or unjustly to achieve their own objectives Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 7 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 8 Falkor Eckardt, Hester Spies: Relationships at Risk: The Exploration and Confirmation of Customer Detachment and its Drivers (Bai et al., 2019; Mady, 2011; Ortiz et al., 2018). Isola‐ subject to events that dissatisfy him/her, such as ser‐ tion denotes a customer’s feelings of disenchantment vice failures, it can induce a negative emotional re‐ or separation from the marketing community and its sponse. To come to terms with these negative institutions, practices, and relationships (Mady, 2011; emotions, customers will likely adopt one of several Ortiz et al., 2018; Yener, 2014). coping strategies to reduce the effect of the resulting Burns (2010) and Yener (2014) maintain that dissonance (Ali et al., 2020). One of these strategies when a customer experiences feelings of alienation can include customers distancing themselves from the such as those described above it can affect their be‐ source of his/her distress (i.e., the offending attach‐ haviour in a variety of ways including a desire to dis‐ ment figure) to mitigate or circumvent the potentially tance themselves from institutions, social structures harmful outcomes thereof (Chen & Pham, 2019; Jung and by extension, relationships from which he/she & Park, 2018). This form of emotion‐based coping, may feel alienated. As distancing oneself from an of‐ also known as psychological distancing, essentially al‐ fending source or attachment figure is also consis‐ lows the customer to deal with his/her negative feel‐ tent with information pertaining to detachment in ings by detaching themselves from the source of their both the field of psychology (Bickelhaupt, Lohman, distress (Lu et al., 2012). A study conducted by Eckardt & Neppl, 2021; Denckla & Bornstein, 2015) and and Spies (2023) supports the arguments above and marketing (Mai & Conti, 2008; Perrin‐Martinenq, adds that within a marketing context customers could 2004) the following can be hypothesised: also detach as a means to cope with negative situa‐ tions or emotional distress. Therefore, this study pro‐ H4: Customer alienation will have a significant effect on poses the following hypothesis: respondents’ detachment from their wealth manager. H5: Negative emotions will have a significant effect on 2.7 Negative emotions respondents’ detachment from their wealth manager. According to Ali et al. (2020), Charsetad, Vazife‐ hdoost, and Nikoomaram (2016) and, Harmeling, Figure 1 provides a visual representation of the Magnusson, and Singh (2015), when customers are customer detachment model proposed by this study. Figure 1: A conceptual model of the drivers of customer detachment Source: Author’s own depiction 8 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 9 3 METHODOLOGY due to becoming detached were able to participate in the study. The next set of questions measured 3.1 Research design, population, sampling and various demographic variables associated with re‐ data collection spondents who participated in the study before pro‐ This study made use of a cross‐sectional, quan‐ gressing to the measurement of the study’s titative research design to collect data. This research proposed factors: customer detachment, disaffec‐ design was chosen to adhere to budgetary and time tion, disillusionment, dissatisfaction, alienation, and constraints whilst maintaining the reliability neces‐ negative emotions. These proposed factors were all sary to examine and establish the customer detach‐ measured using closed‐ended questions combined ment concept and its proposed drivers. The research with a five‐point Likert‐scale response format. Using participants selected for this study included South this format, participants could indicate their agree‐ Africans who use wealth management services and ment to a particular statement on a scale of 1 to 5; had distanced themselves from their wealth man‐ 1 indicating that they “strongly disagreed”, and 5 ager due to becoming detached. However, as various that they “strongly agreed”. To the best of the re‐ rules and regulations prevent wealth managers from searcher’s knowledge, prior to this study, no scales disclosing personal details about their customers, had yet been developed for customer disaffection and as a complete list of South African wealth man‐ and disillusionment in the field of marketing; thus, agement customers was not freely available, a sam‐ scales were adapted from studies based in psychol‐ ple frame could not be constructed. ogy, namely, Kayser (1996) and Pervan and Martin Thus, this study was required to utilise a com‐ (2012) respectively. However, valid and reliable bination of non‐probability sampling techniques, measurement scales for dissatisfaction (Brady & namely online convenience sampling in the form of Robertson, 2001; Dagger & O’Brien, 2010), alien‐ computer‐administered surveys and quota sam‐ ation (Akbari, Abdolvand, & Ghaffari, 2016), nega‐ pling, to gather data. While online convenience tive emotions (Koenig‐Lewis & Palmer, 2014) and sampling was chosen based on travel and social dis‐ detachment (Mai & Conti, 2008; Perrin‐Martinenq, tancing restrictions at the time of data collection, 2004) could be found in extant marketing literature quota sampling was included to ensure a relatively and were each adapted accordingly. even inclusion of respondents from different gender groups. In line with these sampling methods, a link 3.3 Data analysis to the study’s questionnaire was posted on social media platforms such as Facebook and LinkedIn, The data collected for this study was analysed along with a short message that requested and en‐ using two statistical programmes. The first program couraged members of various community groups to IBM SPSS (version 27) was used to calculate descrip‐ participate in the study. According to Malhotra tive statistics and Cronbach’s alpha coefficients. The (2015), a minimum of 400 responses would be suffi‐ second program Mplus version 8.3. was used to as‐ cient for statistical analysis purposes. However, sess the validity and reliability of the measurement upon completion of the data collection period, a scales via exploratory structural equation modelling total of 536 usable responses were obtained. (ESEM) and to test the relationships between respon‐ dents’ disaffection, disillusionment, dissatisfaction, alienation, negative emotions, and detachment. Sev‐ 3.2 Measurement instrument eral fit indices namely, Root Mean Square Error of Ap‐ A structured questionnaire comprising of multi‐ proximation (RMSEA), Standardized Root Mean item scales was used as the measurement instru‐ Square Residual (SRMR), The Tucker Lewis Index (TLI) ment for this research study. The questionnaire and Comparative Fit Indexes (CFI) were also calcu‐ included an introductory/preamble section that ex‐ lated and consulted in tandem with the ESEM to con‐ plained the study’s purpose and screening ques‐ firm the model fit. RMSEA is used as an absolute tions that ensured only respondents who had measure of fit that determines the degree to which distanced themselves from their wealth manager the overall and structural models predict the ob‐ Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 9 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 10 Falkor Eckardt, Hester Spies: Relationships at Risk: The Exploration and Confirmation of Customer Detachment and its Drivers served covariance (Kenny, Kaniskan, & McCoach, 4 RESULTS 2015; O’Rourke & Hatcher, 2013), whereas the SRMR 4.1 Sample profile analyses the average discrepancy between observ‐ able correlations in the input matrix and the correla‐ Based on the data recorded, the majority of tions predicted by the model (Brown, 2015; participants had been using their wealth manager’s Malhotra, Nunan, & Birks, 2017). According to Shi, services for between 1 to 5 years (40.5%), with in‐ Lee, and Maydeu‐Olivares (2019) and Cho, Hwang, surance (53.9%) being the most popular wealth Sarstedt, and Ringle (2020), RMSEA values of ≤ 0.10 management service provided. The gender of re‐ and SRMR of values ≤ 0.08 can be considered accept‐ spondents was relatively balanced between female able. Subsequently, the TLI compares the x2 indices participants comprising 51.5% and males 46.5%. Fi‐ for the model tested to a null model, which serves to nally, most participants at the time of data collec‐ prove that all measured variables are uncorrelated tion were between 20 to 29 years of age (26.9%), (Bentler, 1990). Similarly, the CFI compares the sam‐ married (42.4%) and employed full‐time (52.1%). ple covariance matrix with the null model, which as‐ sumes that all latent variables are uncorrelated 4.2 Reliability (Hooper, Coughlan, & Mullen, 2008). According to Hu and Bentler (1999), if both the TLI and CFI values are For this study, scale reliability was tested using ≥ 0.95, they are considered acceptable. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, as they allowed the researcher to determine the internal consistency of For the purposes of this study, the data was the items used in the questionnaire and the extent treated as ordered categorical and therefore, to which these items were able to accurately mea‐ weighted least squares (mean‐ and variance‐ad‐ sure their relevant constructs (Allen & Bennett, justed) rather than maximum likelihood estimation 2010; Field, 2018). As seen in Table 1, Cronbach’s was used as a means to estimate the parameters of alpha coefficient values for the measurement scales the proposed model (Marsh, Morin, Parker, & Kaur, ranged between 0.801 to 0.931, which according to 2014). To determine the extent to which the six fac‐ Babin and Zikmund (2016), is an indication that all tors within the proposed detachment model corre‐ the scales are highly reliable. late with one another (i.e., detachment. disaffection, disillusionment, dissatisfaction, alienation and neg‐ ative emotions) factor correlations were calculated. 4.3 Assessing the measurement model and For the factor correlations, values of r ≥ 0.30 were confirming construct validity considered to have a medium practical effect, For the purposes of this study and in line with whereas, values of r ≥ 0.50 were viewed as having a the selected ESEM approach, a number of fit indices large practical effect (Cohen, 1988). were analysed, which include the x2 statistic, Root Table 1: Reliability of the scales Constructs Cronbach’s alpha (α) Disaffection 0.930 Disillusionment 0.923 Dissatisfaction 0.911 Alienation 0.801 Negative emotions 0.931 Customer detachment 0.867 Source: Author’s own research 10 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 11 Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) and to inspect the proposed driving factors of detach‐ Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR). ment: disaffection, disillusionment, dissatisfaction, The results of the analysis are listed in Table 2. alienation, and negative emotions, respectively. However, unlike traditional methods (e.g., CFA) that As seen in Table 2, all statistics with maximum only report the factor loadings of items onto their cut‐off values were well within the required esti‐ own factor whilst forcibly maintaining all cross‐load‐ mates. This includes the chi‐squared degrees of free‐ dom (i.e., x2/df), which was below the recommended ings at zero, the ESEM approach also allows cross‐ 5.0 cut‐off with a value of 2.59 (Barrett, 2007; Pallant, loadings of facets to the other indicated factors (i.e., 2016). Similarly, both the RMSEA and SRMR were the ESEM analysis allows for the latent variables below their maximum cut‐off values of ≤ 0.1 and ≤ within the model to correlate with one another) 0.08 with values of 0.054 and 0.017, respectively (Booth & Hughes, 2014; Van Zyl & Klooster, 2022). (Cho et al., 2020; Shi et al., 2019). Conversely, both When inspecting the target loadings of the items the CFI and TLI, which required minimum values of onto their respective factors, values of ≥ 0.50 are above 0.95, were above their cut‐off parameters with considered ideal, and values ranging between 0.30 values of 0.991 and 0.987, respectively (Bagozzi & Yi, to 0.50 are acceptable (i.e. the items adequately 2012; Bowen & Guo, 2011; Hooper et al., 2008; Hu & measure the latent factor they are associated with) Bentler, 1999). Thus, as all values are within the rec‐ (Alamer, 2022; Brace, Kemp, & Snelgar, 2009). Ac‐ ommended parameter values, the drivers of the de‐ cording to Morin, Myers, and Lee (2020), cross‐load‐ tachment model can be said to have a good fit. ing values closer to zero or at least lower than 0.3 are preferred; however, values between 0.30 and Incidentally, the confirmatory factor analysis 0.50 can still be accepted. Values closer to zero are (CFA) statistics listed in Table 2 above were included preferred for cross‐loadings as it indicates that there solely for comparison against the ESEM method and are little to no similarities between the items mea‐ thereby validate the latter’s use. Consequently, suring the other constructs included in the study when comparing the statistics for the CFA and (i.e., items measure their own latent construct only). ESEM, it can be seen that not only do the 90% con‐ fidence intervals of both models not overlap, but in As seen in Table 3, all the proposed driving fac‐ each instance, when compared, the statistical values tors of detachment displayed acceptable significant provided by ESEM outperform that of the CFA, mak‐ targeted loadings and cross‐loadings ranging from λ ing ESEM the superior model. Additionally, during = 0.31 to λ = 0.98 and λ = 0.00 to λ = 0.34, respec‐ the data analysis period, it was discovered that the tively. The largest variation in factor loadings oc‐ correlations assessed by the CFA model were very curred for disillusionment (i.e., λ = 0.31 to λ = 0.74) high; however, when tested with the ESEM model, and disaffection (λ = 0.60 to λ = 0.98). More moderate the correlations were more acceptable, further sup‐ factor loadings were recorded for dissatisfaction (λ = porting the superiority of the ESEM model. 0.48 to λ = 0.66) and alienation (λ = 0.31 to λ = 0.54). Regarding the cross‐loadings, all factors were 4.4 Parameter estimates below the recommended cut‐off value of ≤ 0.50 and were therefore deemed acceptable. Individually, the After considering the goodness of fit statistics, factor that the most items from disaffection cross‐ parameter estimates of the ESEM analysis were used loaded significantly onto was alienation. Subse‐ Table 2: Goodness of fit statistics Model x2 df x2/df CFI TLI RMSEA 90%CI SRMR CFA 997.673 309 3.23 0.985 0.983 0.064 [.060, .069] 0.026 ESEM 660.653 255 2.59 0.991 0.987 0.054 [.049, .060] 0.017 Source: Author’s own research Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 11 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 12 Falkor Eckardt, Hester Spies: Relationships at Risk: The Exploration and Confirmation of Customer Detachment and its Drivers Table 3: Factor and cross‐loadings of the measurement items Target Loading Cross‐Loadings Disaffection Disillusionment Dissatisfaction Alienation Negative Emotions 0.67** 0.13 ‐0.13* 0.04 0.09 0.82** ‐0.09 ‐0.05 0.23** ‐0.07 0.69** 0.34** ‐0.15* ‐0.19* 0.08 0.64** 0.25** 0.02 ‐0.29** 0.17 0.86** ‐0.09 0.06 ‐0.20* ‐0.03 0.60** ‐0.01 0.17* 0.08 0.07 0.98** ‐0.13** 0.02** 0.02** ‐0.13** 0.62** 0.05 0.08 0.15* 0.08 0.82** ‐0.15* 0.12 0.14* ‐0.04 0.85** ‐0.06 0.06 ‐0.07 ‐0.04 Disillusionment Disaffection Dissatisfaction Alienation Negative Emotions 0.55** 0.16** 0.22** 0.17** ‐0.02 0.74** 0.13** 0.08** 0.10** ‐0.01** 0.51** 0.06 0.22** 0.23** 0.08 0.31** 0.30** 0.19** 0.11* 0.11 Dissatisfaction Disaffection Disillusionment Alienation Negative Emotions 0.48** 0.18** 0.18** 0.18** 0.04 0.66** 0.08** 0.20** 0.02** 0.10** 0.48** 0.04 0.19** ‐0.01 0.31** Alienation Disaffection Disillusionment Dissatisfaction Negative Emotions 0.31** 0.00 0.14 0.07 0.20* 0.54** 0.10** 0.18** 0.00** 0.21** 0.45** 0.07 0.22** 0.07 0.24** Negative Emotions Disaffection Disillusionment Dissatisfaction Alienation 0.89** 0.09 ‐0.19** 0.07 0.03 0.69** 0.02 0.01 0.22** 0.05 0.69** 0.05 0.09 ‐0.10* 0.21** 0.65** 0.12* 0.09 0.16* ‐0.06 0.91** ‐0.03** ‐0.03** ‐0.04** 0.10** Source: Author’s own research Notes. Values presented in bold represent facets loading onto their own factors ([* = p < 0.05; ** = p < 0.001.) quently, except for negative emotions, the items the other items but loaded best onto disillusion‐ from disillusionment cross‐loaded relatively well ment. Finally, the items from alienation cross‐ onto all the other factors, with dissatisfaction dis‐ loaded best onto negative emotions, whilst the playing the most significant results. Similarly, dissat‐ items from negative emotions cross‐loaded most isfaction’s items cross‐loaded relatively well onto all significantly onto dissatisfaction. 12 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 13 *Note: the implication for items cross‐loading i.e. disaffection (DA), disillusionment (DI), dissatis‐ well (i.e. < 0.30 and p < 0.05) is that the item in faction (DS), alienation (AL), negative emotions (NE) question effectively measures its own latent con‐ and detachment (DE), were all significant ranging struct/factor and it is not a potential measure for from medium (r = 0.38) to large effect sizes (r = 0.88). any of the other constructs being measured. That is to say, each item(s) is a means of measure for its own latent construct only. See the discussion above 4.6 Assessing the structural model for more details. The results of the structural paths displayed in Table 5 indicate that all the hypotheses, except H4 4.5 Correlation analysis (p = 0.817; H4 rejected), were supported. Specifi‐ cally, disaffection (β = 0.41; SE = 0.05; p ˂ 0.001), dis‐ To ascertain the extent to which the six factors illusionment (β = 0.18; SE = 0.05; p ˂ 0.001), within the proposed detachment model correlate dissatisfaction (β = 0.32; SE = 0.05; p ˂ 0.001) and with one another, factor correlations were calcu‐ negative emotions (β = 0.15; SE = 0.06; p = 0.009) lated. Table 4 illustrates the statistics for the corre‐ were all positively and significantly related to cus‐ lation matrix for the latent variables. tomer detachment, thus supporting H1, H2, H3 and As shown in Table 4, the correlation coefficients H5. A summary of the significant relationships iden‐ between the proposed detachment model factors, tified by this study is presented in Figure 2. Table 4: Correlation matrix of the latent variables DA DI DS AL NE DE DA 1.00 DI 0.74** 1.00 DS 0.70** 0.51** 1.00 AL 0.54** 0.38* 0.57** 1.00 NE 0.77** 0.71** 0.71** 0.68** 1.00 DE 0.88** 0.75** 0.81** 0.58** 0.82** 1.00 Source: Author’s own research Notes. Medium effect size (0.30 ≤ r < 0.50) **Large effect size (r ≥ 0.50) (Cohen, 1988) Table 5: Structural paths of the latent variables Path β weight SE p‐value Result H1 Disaffection ➞ Detachment 0.41 0.05 0.001 Significant H2 Disillusionment ➞ Detachment 0.18 0.05 0.001 Significant H3 Dissatisfaction ➞ Detachment 0.32 0.05 0.001 Significant H4 Alienation ➞ Detachment 0.01 0.04 0.817 Not significant H5 Negative emotions ➞ Detachment 0.15 0.06 0.009 Significant Source: Author’s own research Notes. β: standardised beta coefficient; SE: standard error; p‐value: two‐tailed statistical significance Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 13 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 14 Falkor Eckardt, Hester Spies: Relationships at Risk: The Exploration and Confirmation of Customer Detachment and its Drivers Figure 2: Summary of significant relationships Source: Author’s own depiction 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS support to the notion put forth by Perrin‐Martinenq 5.1 Theoretical contributions (2004) that in the process of becoming detached, cus‐ tomers will usually lose his/her previously held posi‐ This study aimed to address the gap in detach‐ tive perceptions and affection for the relationship or ment‐related research within the field of marketing offending attachment figure. Disillusionment, the by empirically examining the possibility of detach‐ second proposed driver, also proved to be statistically ment occurring within a customer‐employee rela‐ significantly related to customer detachment. This tionship setting and by providing a list of drivers that outcome reinforces the arguments of Evanschitzky et could lead to it. In order to achieve this goal, various al. (2020) and Pervan and Martin (2012) that consis‐ literature studies pertaining to detachment were tently failing to meet customer expectations will re‐ consulted and reliable scales for empirical testing sult in a de‐idealised perception of the offending were adapted from both the fields of psychology attachment figure, in turn, motivating the customer and marketing, which was analysed and interpreted. to detach as a means to cope with expected future The interpreted results not only empirically con‐ disappointments. It should be noted that despite the firmed the existence of detachment in customer‐ respective arguments supporting the link between employee relationships but also confirmed that disaffection and disillusionment to customer detach‐ several of the drivers proposed by Eckardt and Spies ment, neither of the proposed relationships has been (2023) were related to customer detachment. empirically tested until now. Therefore, this paper The first of these proposed drivers, namely dis‐ empirically contributes to theory by confirming the affection, proved to be statistically significantly re‐ link between disaffection and disillusionment, indi‐ lated to customer detachment. This outcome offers vidually, towards customer detachment. 14 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 15 In terms of customer dissatisfaction and neg‐ 5.2 Managerial implications ative emotions, the results revealed that both Taking the results discussed above into account, these factors are statistically significantly related it is advised that in order to prevent the loss of suc‐ to customer detachment. These findings align with cessful and profitable long‐term customer relation‐ research presented by Ali et al. (2020), who found ships, wealth managers should take strides to avoid that customers’ dissatisfaction could impact their detachment from occurring within their customer detachment to their brand. Similarly, evidence pro‐ base, particularly, in regard to the effects of disaffec‐ vided by Lu et al. (2012) reveals that customers will tion, disillusionment, dissatisfaction and negative often detach as a means of dealing with negative emotions. emotions and the circumstances that gave rise to them. Unlike the drivers discussed above, alien‐ As disaffection occurs due to the cumulative ation did not prove to be statistically significantly effect of disappointments, dissatisfaction and un‐ related to customer detachment. An argument for resolved conflicts (Abbasi & Alghamdi, 2017; Evan‐ this outcome could be that while a customer may schitzky et al., 2020), wealth managers may wish feel a sense of exclusion or alienation in regard to to systematically review instances that have a relationship with a particular attachment figure, evoked negative reactions in their customers, with it does not necessarily mean that they wish to de‐ particular focus placed on recurring themes and in‐ tach themselves from it. Conversely, to resolve stances that have remained unresolved for any ex‐ their feelings of alienation and exclusion, cus‐ tended period. Additional steps to combat tomers may actually desire to get closer to or disaffection can include the creation of a team strengthen his/her relationship with the offending dedicated not only to monitoring customer satis‐ attachment figure. faction levels but also taking actions to address any issues before they have the chance to escalate. Considering the above discussion, this study Subsequently, disillusionment refers to being de‐ provides new insight into the relationships be‐ feated in both expectation and hope (Maher et al., tween relationship disaffection, disillusionment, 2020), implying that the emotional state experi‐ dissatisfaction, negative emotions, alienation, and enced by the disillusioned customers is a loss of detachment, which makes an original contribution faith in the wealth manager’s ability to ever meet to the body of knowledge in understanding cus‐ their needs. Therefore, to counteract customer dis‐ tomer detachment. This study also expands both illusionment, wealth managers should strive to cul‐ the attachment and detachment domain as a tivate an image of being able to meet the needs of model was developed and empirically tested to ex‐ their customers and then consistently review if plain customer detachment in customer‐employee that image is being upheld. Moreover, wealth man‐ relationships after reviewing and integrating the‐ agers can also take steps to ensure that customers ories from multidisciplinary literature. Moreover, have realistic expectations regarding the manage‐ this research has expanded the empirical under‐ ment of their funds. For example, transparent standing of the formation of detachment by con‐ communication that informs customers exactly firming how disaffection, disillusionment, what services can and cannot be realistically pro‐ dissatisfaction, and negative emotions contribute vided. This could include scheduling regular meet‐ to the eventual detachment of customers from ings with customers to ensure that their views and employees or service providers. expectations continue to align with the services This study can also be regarded as the first to being offered. link disaffection, disillusionment, dissatisfaction, Finally, while strategies to pre‐empt any in‐ and negative emotions to customer detachment in stances of customer dissatisfaction from occurring a customer‐employee relationship setting. In so may not be feasible, wealth managers may instead doing, it does not only support the attachment the‐ opt to review the way in which they resolve negative ory, but also clarifies the factors that contribute to‐ emotions experienced by customers. An example of wards a detached customer. this could include training wealth management em‐ Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 15 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 16 Falkor Eckardt, Hester Spies: Relationships at Risk: The Exploration and Confirmation of Customer Detachment and its Drivers ployees to utilise pre‐prepared strategies or protocols Similarly, while the current paper does con‐ when dealing with specified customer grievances to tribute to the understanding of detachment and its prevent them from escalating. An additional strategy causes in customer‐employee relationships, other that may assist wealth managers in handling cus‐ equally important variables that could have influ‐ tomer dissatisfaction includes regular training in con‐ enced the process may have been overlooked. For flict resolution and emotional intelligence. The example, various demographic variables such as techniques and insight provided by this form of train‐ age, income and relationship status could be tested ing would enable wealth managers to better manage as potential moderators against the current and fu‐ and mitigate negative emotions during customer in‐ ture hypothesised drivers of customer detachment. teractions and thus prevent dissatisfaction from es‐ During the course of this study, insight into the calating before the situation can be resolved. wealth management industry and the potential ef‐ fects of detachment therein was predominantly ob‐ 5.3 Limitations and recommendations for future tained from limited existing literature. Consequently, research additional external factors or related incidents out‐ side of the wealth manager’s control that could in‐ The research findings discussed in this article fluence the detachment process such as market are based on responses obtained from respondents conditions, portfolio performance and even changes in a single service setting (i.e., wealth management) in customer preferences or needs could have been using non‐probability online convenience sampling. overlooked. To overcome this limitation, future stud‐ Thus, it is recommended that future research on ies on the topic should strive to obtain information this topic both uses probability sampling and strives pertaining to the industry and the potential drivers to encompass additional service areas, as the cur‐ of detachment directly from wealth managers them‐ rent results cannot be generalised outside of their selves through such means as interviews and/or specified service setting. focus groups. Subsequently, while the constructs tested in Finally, extant literature suggests that detach‐ this study assisted in both confirming the occur‐ ment is not an instantaneous outcome but rather a rence of detachment in customer‐employee rela‐ process that occurs over time. Therefore, the results tionships and explaining its role therein, other of this study which were obtained at a single point equally important drivers of detachment identified in time may not fully capture the dynamics of how by Eckardt & Spies (2023) were not included. Thus, customer detachment evolves. Therefore, future re‐ future research on the topic could aim to examine search could opt for a longitudinal approach to data the excluded drivers as possible antecedents cus‐ collection and analysis allowing for a deeper under‐ tomer detachment. standing of detachment’s temporal aspects to be achieved. As noted above, the current study aimed to both explore the occurrence of detachment among wealth management customers and to test several potential drivers thereof. However, in adhering to these goals the study neglected to test the relation‐ ships between the drivers themselves thereby lim‐ iting a better understanding of detachment from being achieved. Consequently, it is recommended that future studies concerning the drivers of cus‐ tomer detachment assess not only the interconnec‐ tions among them but also their sequential occurrence within the overall detachment process thereby highlighting their influence on the detach‐ ment phenomenon. 16 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 17 EXTENDED SUMMARY/IZVLEČEK Uspešni in dobičkonosni odnosi med strankami in organizacijami so zakoreninjeni v vezeh, ki se med njimi oblikujejo. Navezanost stranke je dobro raziskana dimenzija teh odnosov, saj spodbuja zadovoljstvo strank, zaupanje, zavezanost, lojalnost in njihovo zadržanje. Vendar pa je enako pomem‐ ben koncept odtujenosti stranke, ki je opredeljena kot psihološka oddaljenost od figure navezanosti zaradi oslabljenega odnosa, v kontekstu marketinga prejela omejeno pozornost. Negativne posledice odtujenosti na odnose narekujejo potrebo po njenem preučevanju v poslovnem kontekstu. Odtu‐ jenost, ki jo je prvotno opazil teoretik navezanosti Bowlby v odnosih med materjo in otrokom, je bila predvsem v psihologiji raziskana v različnih relacijskih kontekstih. Mladostniki se lahko odtujijo zaradi negativne družinske dinamike, medtem ko lahko odrasli doživljajo nenavezanost v nezadovoljivih ro‐ mantičnih odnosih. V trženju je bila odtujenost preučevana predvsem v povezavi z odnosi stranka‐ blagovna znamka. Ta je pogosto sprožena z negativnimi dogodki, ki razočarajo stranke in s tem slabijo njihove čustvene vezi. Vendar pa odtujenost stranke v odnosih med stranko in zaposlenim ostaja neraziskana. Do nje lahko pride zaradi začetnih sprožilnih dogodkov, kot so napake pri storitvah ali izdelkih, kar vodi v nezadovoljstvo in negativna čustva. Kasnejši dvomi o zanesljivosti ali kompetent‐ nosti figure navezanosti lahko povzročijo oddaljevanje in zmanjšano zanašanje nanjo, kar lahko privede do prekinitve odnosa. Naslednji elementi predstavljajo možne dejavnike nenavezanosti: Nezadovoljstvo v odnosih: Kopičenje razočaranj, nezadovoljstva in nerešenih konfliktov, ki povzročijo, da posamezniki izgubijo naklonjenost do odnosa, kar vodi v brezbrižnost, apatijo in na koncu nenavezanost. Razočaranje strank: Pojavi se, ko stranke večkrat doživljajo neizpolnjena pričakovanja, kar vodi do konca idealiziranega dojemanja figure navezanosti in s tem motivira odtujenost kot mehanizem spoprijemanja. Nezadovoljstvo strank: Pogosto posledica napak pri izdelkih ali storitvah; nezadovoljstvo strank lahko vodi v odtujenost, saj lahko neizpolnjene potrebe spodbudijo posameznike, da se oddaljijo od vira svoje stiske. Odtujevanje strank: Označuje pomanjkanje identifikacije z vrednotami in normami trga, kar lahko vodi do tega, da se stranke oddaljijo od institucij in odnosov, ki utelešajo te vrednote in norme. Negativna čustva: Povzročena z dogodki, kot so napake pri storitvah; negativna čustva lahko vodijo v nenavezanost kot strategijo spoprijemanja, ki strankam omogoča, da se soočijo s stisko z oddaljevanjem od njenega vira. Ta študija empirično potrjuje obstoj nenavezanosti strank v odnosih med strankami in zaposlen‐ imi ter njeno povezavo z nezadovoljstvom, razočaranjem in negativnimi čustvi. Da bi preprečili odtu‐ jenost in ohranili dolgoročne odnose s strankami, bi morali nasloviti razočaranja, reševati konflikte, ohranjati pozitivno podobo in učinkovito upravljati z negativnimi čustvi. Prihodnje raziskave naj uporabijo verjetnostno vzorčenje in raziščejo dejavnike odtujenosti, ki v tej študiji niso bili obravna‐ vani, da bi razširili naše razumevanje odtujenosti strank v različnih storitvenih kontekstih. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 17 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 18 Falkor Eckardt, Hester Spies: Relationships at Risk: The Exploration and Confirmation of Customer Detachment and its Drivers REFERENCES: Booth, T., & Hughes, D. J. (2014). Exploratory structural equation modeling of personality data. Assessment, Abbasi, I. S., & Alghamdi, N. G. (2017). Polarized couples 21(3), 260‐271. in therapy: Recognizing indifference as the opposite https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1073191114528029 of love. 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Marketplace alienation of consumers in Turkey. IIB International Referred Academic Social Sci‐ ences Journal, 5(1), 36‐37. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 21 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 22 22 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 23 Vol. 14, No. 1, 23‐38 doi:10.17708/DRMJ.2025.v14n01a02 LEADERSHIP AND CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE: PAST, PRESENT, FUTURE Sanja Živković Heartist Center, Croatia sanja.zivkovic@heartistcenter.com Abstract Cultural intelligence has become crucial in organizational leadership due to increasingly intercultural business and work environments. This paper aims to advance the research field of leadership and cultural intelligence by revealing its past, present, and future. Science mapping of the intellectual and conceptual structure of the field was conducted using three bibliometric techniques: co‐citation analysis, bibliographic coupling, and co‐word analysis. Based on articles from the Web of Science database published from 2003 to 2023, we provided a systematic and focused bibliometric review of research on leadership and cultural intelligence in the last two decades. The findings indicate that the past of the research field has been connected with the theoretical foundations and empirical evidence on the influence of cultural intelligence on leader performance and effectiveness in intercultural settings. The present is focused on the role of cultural intelligence in transformational leadership and team leadership in global, virtual and culturally diverse environments. The future of the research field could be directed toward addressing the identified knowledge gaps re‐ lated to inclusive leadership, employee well‐being, engagement and retention, and organizational cultural intelligence. The ultimate purpose of advancing the research field is to inspire the development and demonstration of cultural in‐ telligence in leadership practice. Keywords: Leadership, Cultural Intelligence, Intercultural Environment, Bibliometric Analysis, Review 1 INTRODUCTION tional migrants in the world population has in‐ creased (McAuliffe & Triandafyllidou, 2021). This Business and work environments are becoming trend could intensify due to diverging demographic increasingly intercultural. Leadership as “the pro‐ trends and economic disparities (The World Bank, cess of influencing others to understand and agree 2023). The growing cultural diversity of the work‐ about what needs to be done [...] to accomplish force imposes a need for inclusive leadership. Such shared objectives” (Yukl, 2006, p. 8) is more com‐ leadership recognizes differences among people as plex and challenging in such environments. Leaders a source of strength and advancement, both on need to continuously adapt and interact with em‐ the individual and organizational levels (Hays‐ ployees, business partners and other stakeholders Thomas, 2022). It implies building an organiza‐ whose values, norms and behaviors may differ sig‐ tional culture where all individuals feel accepted, nificantly. Cultural intelligence as the capability to valued and rewarded, regardless of their cultural function effectively in intercultural contexts (Ang & backgrounds (Garg & Sangwan, 2021). Fostering di‐ Van Dyne, 2008; Early & Ang, 2003) has become cru‐ versity, equity, and inclusion requires leaders’ cial in organizational leadership. awareness, knowledge, motivation, and behaviors Interculturality within organizations is ex‐ that contribute to the well‐being and effectiveness pected to grow due to further workforce migration of employees from different cultures, all of which and demands for greater diversity, equity, and in‐ are components of cultural intelligence (Van Dyne clusion. In recent decades, the share of interna‐ et al., 2012). Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 23 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 24 Sanja Živković: Leadership and Cultural Intelligence: Past, Present, Future Cultural intelligence in leadership is therefore ex‐ 2 LITERATURE REVIEW pected to be even more relevant in the future. Al‐ though the construct of cultural intelligence has 2.1 Intelligence and leadership attracted increasing attention from leadership re‐ Intelligence is considered essential to the emer‐ searchers in recent years, their primary focus has gence and effectiveness of leadership (Antonakis et been on emotional intelligence (Pitsi et al., 2023). The al., 2019). The definitions of intelligence proposed existing bibliometric reviews of the field are related by organizations, psychologists, and researchers in to research on cultural intelligence and specific lead‐ artificial intelligence are predominantly referring to ership constructs, such as multinational, multicul‐ one’s capability, ability, or capacity to understand, tural, and school leadership (Anathuri et al., 2022; learn, and adapt (Legg & Hutter, 2007). According to Bratianu & Paiuc, 2022; Paiuc, 2021a). They combine the traditional approach based on Binet’s scale and performance analysis and science mapping that differ Spearman’s theory of general intelligence, this psy‐ in their purpose. Our review encompasses research chological construct refers only to one’s cognitive on cultural intelligence and all leadership constructs ability to solve certain problems (Davis et al., 2011), and focuses exclusively on science mapping of the without the consideration of contextual and situa‐ field. Additionally, it refers to the period from 2003, tional factors. The contemporary approaches are ad‐ when Early and Ang introduced the construct of cul‐ dressing this limitation by identifying multiple tural intelligence, to the end of 2023, thus presenting dimensions of intelligence and taking environmental a systematic overview of the leadership and cultural factors into account. Sternberg (1986) proposed four intelligence literature in the last two decades. major loci of intelligence: biological loci (structural This paper aims to advance the research field and process aspects, and the interaction between of leadership and cultural intelligence, with the ul‐ them); cognitive loci (ordinary cognition and timate purpose of inspiring the development and metacognition); motivational loci (the intensity and demonstration of cultural intelligence in leadership direction of cognitions); and behavioral loci (actions practice to improve the well‐being and effectiveness as a function of cognitive processes). This multilocus of individuals and organizations operating in inter‐ framework provided the theoretical foundation for cultural environments. We attempt to answer the the conceptualization and empirical validation of the following research question: What is the past, pre‐ construct of cultural intelligence (Ang et al., 2015a). sent, and future of the research field? For this pur‐ While a certain level of general intelligence can pose, science mapping of the intellectual and be considered a foundation for the effectiveness of conceptual structure of the field was conducted leadership (Antonakis et al., 2019), research on the using three bibliometric techniques: co‐citation role of intelligence in leadership indicated the need analysis, bibliographic coupling, and co‐word anal‐ for a broader conceptualization of intelligence (Ang ysis. The triangulation of these techniques enables et al., 2015a; Davis et al., 2011; Riggio et al., 2002). a snapshot of the past, present, and future of the Riggio et al. (2002) mention that constructs such as research field (Lamovšek & Černe, 2023) by uncov‐ “emotional maturity”, “social skills and insight”, and ering foundational, periodical, and key themes “tact” were all related to leadership effectiveness by (Donthu et al., 2021). early researchers, and they are all closely related to The introductory part of the paper is followed the different types of intelligence that are relevant by a literature review. To broaden the understanding in contemporary leadership research. These specific of the relevance of cultural intelligence in leader‐ intelligence constructs that connect intelligence with ship, we first briefly describe the related constructs the adaptation to social, emotional and intercultural of intelligence and culture in general in connection environments are social intelligence (Thorndike & with leadership. The methods and results are then Stein, 1937), emotional intelligence (Mayer & Sa‐ presented, followed by a discussion that includes lovey, 1993; Salovey & Mayer, 1990), and cultural in‐ practical implications, limitations, and further re‐ telligence (Ang & Van Dyne, 2008; Earley & Ang, search recommendations. Finally, the conclusion 2003). A combination of multiple forms of intelli‐ highlights the study’s key contributions. gence can “make leaders effective in a range of lead‐ 24 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 25 ership situations because they involve abilities to stand, learn from, and foster the inclusion of individ‐ adapt to a variety of social and interpersonal situa‐ uals from many different cultures. Therefore, the cul‐ tions” (Riggio et al., 2002, p. 3). Multiple intelli‐ tural dimension approach does not adequately meet gences are thus of particular importance to leading the needs of organizational leadership in intercul‐ teams and organizations in continuously changing tural environments. The construct that contributes and culturally diverse environments. to addressing that problem is cultural intelligence. 2.2 Culture and leadership 2.3 Cultural intelligence and leadership Differences in culture can influence the concep‐ The utility of the cultural intelligence (CQ) con‐ tion, enactment, and development of leadership struct introduced by Earley and Ang (2003) has been (Koopman et al., 1999; Lumby & Foskett, 2009). Cul‐ demonstrated in leadership research. According to ture should also be considered in the conceptualiza‐ Ang et al. (2015a), cultural intelligence is distinct from tion of intelligence; “otherwise the concept is lacking other perspectives on intelligence and culture. One some utility” (Ang & Van Dyne, 2015, p. xiii). A variety of the most important distinctions they emphasize is of learnt behaviors and practices are referred to as cul‐ that cultural intelligence enables effectiveness across ture, “regardless whether people engage in them con‐ different intercultural environments, and not just in sciously or unconsciously” (Kemmelmeier & Kusano, a specific culture. Therefore, cultural intelligence in‐ 2018, p. 622). According to Hofstede, “culture is the tegrates the capabilities that are universally applica‐ collective programming of the mind with three soft‐ ble and useful across cultures. In this sense, “cultural ware levels that operate in every person: human na‐ intelligence is culture‐free” (Ang et al., 2015b, p. 433). ture, culture, and personality” (Paiuc, 2021b, p. 83). In the intelligence literature, cultural intelligence is This programming of the mind happens through “life conceptually positioned “as a set of abilities or capa‐ experiences, symbols, heroes, rituals and values” (Eken bilities, as opposed to personality or interests” (Ang et al., 2014, p. 157). Culture is dynamic (Livermore, & Van Dyne, 2015, p. 8). Van Dyne et al. (2012) ex‐ 2009) and collective (Eken et al., 2014). Trompenaars plained cultural intelligence as “an individual’s capa‐ and Hampden‐Turner (2011) distinguished between bility to detect, assimilate, reason, and act on cultural corporate culture and national culture, while culture cues appropriately in situations characterized by cul‐ itself can make distinctions between nations, occupa‐ tural diversity” (p. 297). These situations can appear tions, and organizations (Eken et al., 2014). in different intercultural contexts, including national, organizational, and other cultures. Accomplishing cross‐cultural and intercultural effectiveness of leadership requires more than a Individual cultural intelligence reflects the con‐ knowledge of different cultures (Deng & Gibson, temporary approach to viewing intelligence as a mul‐ 2008). Although cultural dimensions such as individ‐ tifactor capability by encompassing metacognitive, ualism/collectivism and uncertainty avoidance (Hof‐ cognitive, motivational, and behavioral dimensions stede, 2011) can explain preferences that distinguish (Ang & Van Dyne, 2015; Ang & Van Dyne, 2008; Ang countries, they are not taking into account the et al., 2007; Van Dyne et al., 2010). These dimen‐ uniqueness of individuals and the fact that “cultures sions also served as a basis for the development of do not equate with nations” (Paiuc, 2021b, p. 83). In a Cultural Intelligence Scale (CQS) in the form of a addition, the global interconnectedness is impacting self‐report (Ang et al., 2007) and observer report individuals’ values, norms and behaviors making (Van Dyne et al., 2008). Metacognitive CQ refers to them more similar across countries that were tradi‐ one’s awareness before and during interactions with tionally considered culturally distinct. Leadership as‐ people from different cultures and relates to plan‐ sessment and development programs are largely ning approaches, observing thoughts, questioning similar around the world (Lumby & Foskett, 2009). assumptions, reflecting on reactions, and adjusting Considering that business and work environments attitudes. Cognitive CQ is the general cultural knowl‐ are becoming increasingly intercultural, leaders need edge and knowledge of cultural differences related to have universally relevant capabilities to under‐ to social, economic, legal, educational, and other sys‐ Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 25 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 26 Sanja Živković: Leadership and Cultural Intelligence: Past, Present, Future tems. Motivational CQ is the capability based on in‐ one’s own and others’ emotions, these constructs trinsic and/or extrinsic interest and self‐efficacy re‐ are distinct because individuals who are highly emo‐ lated to the drive to learn about different cultures tionally intelligent in their domestic cultural setting and function effectively in intercultural situations may not be as emotionally intelligent when inter‐ and settings. Behavioral CQ refers to the capability acting with people from different cultures (Crowne, to demonstrate appropriate both verbal and nonver‐ 2009; Earley & Peterson, 2004). Thus, the construct bal behaviors in intercultural environments by ad‐ of cultural intelligence is of particular importance to justing to the cultural specifics of each encounter. leadership research in intercultural contexts. Organizational cultural intelligence was concep‐ tualized by identifying its managerial, competitive, 3 METHODS and structural aspects (Ang & Inkpen, 2008). The levels of cultural intelligence of individual members Bibliometric methods refer to a quantitative ap‐ of the senior management team are combined in proach to reviewing published research but they are managerial CQ. The extent to which organizations employed to draw conclusions concerning qualita‐ have processes and practices for international tive aspects (Wallin, 2005). Bibliometric analysis al‐ knowledge integration is referred to as competitive lows researchers to advance a research field by CQ. The organization’s capability to plan and build providing a systematic, objective and reproducible effective routines for relationships with interna‐ overview of the literature that can contribute to tional business partners refers to structural CQ. both theory development and practice improve‐ Based on this conceptualization, Lima et al. (2016) ment (Mukherjee et al., 2022). This method is in‐ developed a scale for measuring organizational CQ creasingly used by researchers across scientific that consists of five factors: leadership behavior, fields due to the potential to produce high research adaptability, intentionality, training, and inclusion. impact as well as the availability and advancement Livermore et al. (2022) suggested that organiza‐ of online scientific databases and bibliometric soft‐ tional CQ can be developed by integrating it into an ware (Donthu et al., 2021). organization’s mission, adapting routines to align with the diversity in cultural values across the orga‐ The two main categories of bibliometric analysis nization, and fostering inclusion through organiza‐ techniques are performance analysis and science tional practices related to hiring and promotion, mapping. Performance analysis examines the impact information sharing, decision making, and learning and productivity based on the contributions of re‐ and development. search constituents (e.g., authors, journals, and coun‐ tries), while science mapping uncovers knowledge To understand the specifics of cultural intelli‐ clusters in the research field based on the relation‐ gence that are relevant to leadership research, it is ships between research constituents (Donthu et al., crucial to clarify its distinctiveness in connection 2021; Lamovšek & Černe, 2023). To answer the re‐ with social and emotional intelligence. The con‐ search question in this study, we conducted a biblio‐ struct of “cultural intelligence is a subset of social metric analysis using a science mapping technique intelligence, as cultural intelligence skills are variants that can offer insight into the structure of the research of social intelligence” (Crowne, 2009, p. 155). In field. The intellectual structure indicates the most in‐ other words, cultural intelligence requires social in‐ fluential authors, publications, or journals, whereas telligence. However, individuals who have high so‐ the conceptual structure reveals the main themes and cial intelligence in one cultural environment, such patterns of the research field (Khare & Jain, 2022). as a country, organization, or professional group, do not necessarily behave in a socially intelligent man‐ Science mapping was conducted by employing ner in other cultural or intercultural environments. three bibliometric techniques: co‐citation analysis, Cultural intelligence can be therefore considered an bibliographic coupling, and co‐word analysis. Co‐ci‐ upgrade of social intelligence. Furthermore, al‐ tation analysis uses the frequency with which two though cultural intelligence and emotional intelli‐ units are cited together “to construct measures of gence partially overlap in terms of awareness of similarity between documents, authors or journals” 26 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 27 (Zupic & Cater, 2015, p. 3). It derives thematic clusters 4 RESULTS based on cited publications and uncovers seminal publications that represent the knowledge founda‐ 4.1 Co‐citation analysis tion and the past of the research field (Donthu et al., The unit of analysis was cited references and 2021). Bibliographic coupling “uses the number of the minimum number of citations of a cited refer‐ references shared by two documents as a measure ence was set to 20. The full counting method was of the similarity between them” (Zupic & Cater, 2015, applied. Of the 9,619 cited references, 26 items met p. 5). Since the thematic clusters are based on the cit‐ the threshold. The total strength of the co‐citation ing publications, when the analysis includes docu‐ links with other cited references was calculated for ments published in the recent period it is connected each of the 26 items. Table 1 shows the top 10 most to the present of the field (Donthu et al., 2021). Co‐ influential works (cited publications) according to word analysis “uses the words in documents to es‐ the total link strength based on co‐citation analysis. tablish relationships and build a conceptual structure of the domain” (Zupic & Cater, 2015, p. 6). It can con‐ Figure 1 illustrates the co‐citation network con‐ tribute to forecasting the future of the research field sisting of three clusters: Conceptualization and mea‐ by uncovering the key themes and identifying knowl‐ surement of cultural intelligence, Nomological edge gaps (Donthu et al., 2021). network of cultural intelligence, and Sub(dimen‐ sions) of cultural intelligence. A bibliometric analysis protocol encompassed the selection of a digital database, search strategy, and in‐ Cluster 1: Conceptualization and measurement clusion criteria. The search was conducted in the Web of cultural intelligence. Cluster 1 marked in red in‐ of Science Core Collection (WoS) database on January cludes 12 items. The most influential publications 21, 2024. The searched terms were “leadership” AND are the seminal works of Earley and Ang (2003) and “cultural intelligence” included in the title, abstract, Ang et al. (2007) which represent the knowledge and/or keywords. The search was limited to the period foundation of the research field considering that 2003‐2023 to present a systematic overview of the lit‐ they conceptualize the construct of cultural intelli‐ erature on leadership and cultural intelligence in the gence and develop the Cultural Intelligence Scale for last two decades. It included all research fields and its measurement in the form of self‐report. This clus‐ journal articles in English only. The total number of ar‐ ter also includes publications of Earley (2002) and ticles found amounted to 333. Since the search re‐ Earley and Mosakowski (2004) that indicated the im‐ sulted in articles also related to research on leadership portance of intercultural understanding and con‐ concerning organizational and other cultures, we re‐ tributed to the establishment of the construct of fined the search by including in the criteria that key‐ cultural intelligence. Several publications in this clus‐ words must include “leadership” and “cultural ter discuss the effects of cultural intelligence on intelligence”. The final number of articles found and cross‐border leadership effectiveness (Rockstuhl et included in the bibliometric analysis amounted to 163. al., 2011), innovation (Elenkov & Manev, 2009), off‐ Most articles were from the fields of management shore outsourcing success (Ang & Inkpen, 2008), and (74), business (32), and education research (22). global leadership success (Alon & Higgins, 2005). VOSviewer software (version 1.6.18) developed Cluster 2: Nomological network of cultural in‐ by Van Eck and Waltman (2010) was used to con‐ telligence. Cluster 2 marked in green includes 7 duct the bibliometric analysis and create a network items. The key cited publication in this cluster is visualization based on the data obtained from WoS. Handbook of cultural intelligence: Theory, measure‐ VOSviewer constructs and displays distance‐based ment, and applications edited by Ang and Van Dyne bibliometric networks “in which the distance be‐ (2008) which introduces the Cultural Intelligence tween two items reflects the strength of the relation Scale in the observer form (Van Dyne et al., 2008). between the items” (Van Eck & Waltman, 2010, p. It also extends the nomological network of cultural 525). This allows for identifying the clusters of re‐ intelligence by identifying its antecedents, other lated items represented by different colors (Van Eck correlates (general, social, emotional, and practical & Waltman, 2010). intelligence), intervening constructs, situational fac‐ Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 27 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 28 Sanja Živković: Leadership and Cultural Intelligence: Past, Present, Future Table 1: Most influential works based on co‐citation analysis Author(s) / Year Title Cit. TLS Ang et al. (2007) “Cultural intelligence: Its measurement and effects on cultural judgment and decision making, cultural adaptation and task performance” 104 695 Earley & Ang (2003) “Cultural intelligence: Individual interactions across cultures” 110 678 Ang & Van Dyne (2008) “Handbook of cultural intelligence: Theory, measurement, and applications” 45 362 Van Dyne et al. (2012) “Sub‐dimensions of the four factor model of cultural intelligence: Expanding the conceptualization and measurement of cultural intelligence” 43 341 Ang et al. (2006) “Personality correlates of the four‐factor model of cultural intelligence” 49 339 “Beyond general intelligence (IQ) and emotional intelligence (EQ): The role of Rockstuhl et al. (2011) cultural intelligence (CQ) on cross‐border leadership effectiveness in a globalized 44 334 world” Imai & Gelfand (2010) “The culturally intelligent negotiator: The impact of cultural intelligence (CQ) on negotiation sequences and outcomes” 32 283 Elenkov & Manev (2009) “Senior expatriate leadership’s effects on innovation and the role of cultural intelligence” 29 272 Templer et al. (2006) “Motivational cultural intelligence, realistic job preview, realistic living conditions preview, and cross‐cultural adjustment” 34 270 Groves & Feyerherm (2011) “Leader cultural intelligence in context: Testing the moderating effects of team cultural diversity on leader and team performance” 35 269 Notes: Cit. – citations; TLS – total link strength Figure 1: Co‐citation network 28 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 29 tors, and individual and interpersonal outcomes. The conceptual study by Triandis (2006) included in Other publications in this cluster are focused on the this cluster described various aspects of cultural in‐ outcomes of cultural intelligence related to inter‐ telligence in an organizational context. personal trust (Rockstuhl & Ng, 2008), negotiation (Imai & Gelfand, 2010), general, work and interac‐ tion cross‐cultural adjustment (Templer et al., 2006), 4.2 Bibliographic coupling team performance and leader performance (Groves The unit of analysis was documents and the & Feyerherm, 2011). minimum number of citations of a document was Cluster 3: Sub(dimensions) of cultural intelli‐ set to 15. The full counting method was applied. Of gence. Cluster 3 marked in blue includes 7 items. The the 163 documents, 50 items met the threshold for most influential publication in this cluster is of Van which the total strength of the bibliographic cou‐ Dyne et al. (2012) which deepens the understanding pling links with other documents was calculated. of metacognitive, cognitive, motivational and behav‐ Table 2 shows the top 10 most influential works (cit‐ ioral dimensions of cultural intelligence by conceptu‐ ing publications) according to the total link strength alizing their sub‐dimensions. This cluster also includes based on bibliographic coupling. publications that provided a review of previous con‐ The bibliographic coupling network consists of four ceptual and empirical studies of cultural intelligence clusters: Leadership development and effectiveness in (Ng et al., 2012), explained behaviors that are consid‐ global, international and culturally diverse environ‐ ered intelligent in culturally diverse environments ments, Adaptive, empowering and transformational (Brislin et al., 2006), and offered insight into how cer‐ leadership approaches, Cross‐cultural adaptation, per‐ tain types and level of exposure to other cultures re‐ formance and transformational leadership, and Global, sult in increased cultural intelligence (Crowne, 2008). virtual and multicultural teams (Figure 2). Table 2: Most influential works based on bibliographic coupling Author(s) / Year Title Cit. TLS Jyoti & Kour (2017a) “Factors affecting cultural intelligence and its impact on job performance: Role of cross‐cultural adjustment, experience and perceived social support” 43 475 Setti et al. (2022) “Enhancing expatriates’ assignments success: the relationships between cultural intelligence, cross‐cultural adaptation and performance” 32 428 Aldhaheri (2017) “Cultural intelligence and leadership style in the education sector” 18 389 “A new training program in developing cultural intelligence can also improve Azevedo & Shane (2019) innovative work behavior and resilience: A longitudinal pilot study of graduate 32 361 students and professional employees” Jyoti & Kour (2017b) “Cultural intelligence and job performance: An empirical investigation of moderating and mediating variables” 21 359 Ramsey et al. (2017) “Developing global transformational leaders” 31 357 Erez et al. (2013) “Going global: Developing management students’ cultural intelligence and global identity in culturally diverse virtual teams” 150 342 Ng et al. (2009) “From experience to experiential learning: Cultural intelligence as a learning capability for global leader development” 288 337 Van Dyne et al. (2012) “Sub‐dimensions of the four factor model of cultural intelligence: Expanding the conceptualization and measurement of cultural intelligence” 217 336 Ramsey et al. (2016) “Emergence of cultural intelligence and global mindset capital: a multilevel model” 16 323 Notes: Cit. – citations; TLS – total link strength Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 29 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 30 Sanja Živković: Leadership and Cultural Intelligence: Past, Present, Future Figure 2: Bibliographic coupling network Cluster 1: Leadership development and effective‐ cluster showed that cultural intelligence contributes ness in global, international and culturally diverse en‐ to the school leaders’ capability to adapt their lead‐ vironments. Cluster 1 marked in red includes 18 ership approaches within a culturally diverse envi‐ items. The most influential citing publication is of Ng ronment (Aldhaheri, 2017) and is positively related et al. (2009) which examined the moderating role of to empowering leadership (Solomon & Steyn, 2017), cultural intelligence in the relationship between in‐ while transformational leadership was found to be ternational work assignments and outcomes relevant a mediator in the relationship between cultural in‐ to global leadership development. This cluster also telligence and employee voice behavior (Afsar et al., includes the previously mentioned most influential 2019). This cluster also includes the publications cited studies that introduced the conceptualization that confirmed the positive effects of leader cultural of the sub‐dimensions of cultural intelligence (Van intelligence on perceived supervisor support (Guang Dyne et al., 2012) and showed that cultural intelli‐ & Charoensukmongkol, 2022) and pro‐diversity cli‐ gence is a more significant predictor of leader cross‐ mate (Charoensukmongkol & Phungsoonthorn, border effectiveness than general and emotional 2022). Several other studies in this cluster indicate intelligence (Rockstuhl et al., 2011). Other publica‐ a positive relationship between cultural intelligence tions in this cluster indicated that cultural intelligence of students and employees on their innovative be‐ is positively related to international leadership poten‐ havior, mediated by interpersonal trust and work tial (Kim & Van Dyne, 2012), transformational lead‐ engagement (Afsar et al., 2021; Azevedo & Shane, ership (Keung & Rockinson‐Szapkiw, 2013), and 2019; Kistyanto et al., 2022). leaders’ knowledge sharing (Chen & Lin, 2013) and Cluster 3: Cross‐cultural adaptation, perfor‐ performance (Groves & Feyerherm, 2011) in cultur‐ mance and transformational leadership. Cluster 3 ally diverse teams. marked in blue includes 9 items. The publications in Cluster 2: Adaptive, empowering and transfor‐ this cluster indicated that cultural intelligence is pos‐ mational leadership approaches. Cluster 2 marked itively related to leader job performance (Jyoti & in green includes 16 items. The publications in this Kour, 2017a, 2017b), expatriate contextual/manage‐ 30 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 31 rial performance (Setti et al., 2022), firms’ innova‐ Table 3: Most frequent keywords based on co‐word tion performance (Berraies, 2020), and employees’ analysis job performance (Nam & Park, 2019). The relation‐ Keyword Occur. TLS ship between cultural intelligence and performance was found to be mediated by cross‐cultural adapta‐ cultural intelligence 82 92 tion (Jyoti & Kour, 2017a, 2017b; Setti et al., 2022) leadership 19 26 and knowledge sharing (Berraies, 2020). This cluster emotional intelligence 12 17 also reveals the interconnectedness of cultural in‐ global leadership 10 14 telligence and transformational leadership. Re‐ search confirmed that cultural intelligence was a expatriates 7 12 significant predictor of transformational leadership multicultural teams 6 11 (Nam & Park, 2019; Ramsey et al., 2017) and a mod‐ trust 6 11 erator in the relationship between transformational diversity 7 10 leadership and expatriate adjustment and perfor‐ transformational leadership 7 10 mance (Lee et al., 2013). CQ 4 8 Cluster 4: Global, virtual and multicultural cross‐cultural management 5 8 teams. Cluster 4 marked in yellow includes 7 items. The most influential publications in this cluster ex‐ social intelligence 4 8 amined the impact of cultural training in the form team performance 4 8 of a virtual multicultural team project. They re‐ global virtual teams 4 7 vealed that such training increased cultural intelli‐ global mindset 7 6 gence and global identity of students (Erez et al., 2013) and improved global team members’ cultural Notes: Occur. – occurrences; TLS – total link strength intelligence which, in turn, positively influenced in‐ dividual‐level task performance (Presbitero & Toledano, 2018), as well as that individuals with high cultural intelligence were considerably more likely Figure 3 illustrates the co‐word network consist‐ to emerge as leaders in culturally diverse teams ing of three clusters: Multiple intelligences and cul‐ (Lisak & Erez, 2015). In addition, the team leader’s turally diverse teams, Global and transformational cultural intelligence was found to be a moderator in leadership, and Leadership in cross‐cultural contexts. the relationship between perceived cultural dissim‐ ilarity and team member’s cultural intelligence Cluster 1: Multiple intelligences and culturally (Presbitero, 2020). diverse teams. Cluster 1 marked in red includes 12 keywords: “emotional intelligence”, “multicultural 4.3 Co‐word analysis teams”, “trust”, “social intelligence”, “team perfor‐ mance”, “global virtual teams”, “creativity”, “inno‐ The unit of analysis was author keywords and vative behavior”, “interpersonal trust”, “knowledge the minimum number of occurrences of a keyword sharing”, “performance”, and “cultural diversity”. was set to 3. The full counting method was applied. Of the 465 keywords, 27 met the threshold for Cluster 2: Global and transformational leader‐ which the total strength of the co‐occurrence links ship. Cluster 2 marked in green includes 7 keywords: with other keywords was calculated. The keywords “cultural intelligence”, “global leadership”, “transfor‐ “quantitative” and “uae” were removed before mational leadership”, “CQ”, “global mindset”, “inter‐ forming the co‐word network since they were not national experience”, and “self‐efficacy”. relevant to uncovering the key research themes. Cluster 3: Leadership in cross‐cultural contexts. Table 3 includes a list of the top 15 most frequent Cluster 3 marked in blue includes 6 keywords: “lead‐ keywords according to the total link strength based ership”, “expatriates”, “diversity”, “cross‐cultural man‐ on co‐word analysis. agement”, “multinational enterprises”, and “culture”. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 31 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 32 Sanja Živković: Leadership and Cultural Intelligence: Past, Present, Future Figure 3: Co‐word network 5 DISCUSSION of the construct of cultural intelligence and its poten‐ tial applications in leadership research. Considering We presented a bibliometric review of research that a significant body of knowledge on leadership al‐ on cultural intelligence and all leadership constructs ready existed, leadership researchers focused their published from 2003 to 2023. A search in the Web of literature reviews on cultural intelligence. The most Science database resulted in only 163 articles that in‐ influential cited publications in the last two decades cluded both “leadership” and “cultural intelligence” are the works of Earley and Ang (2003), Ang et al. as keywords, which indicates that this research field (2007), Ang and Van Dyne (2008), and Van Dyne et is still in its development phase. Therefore, revealing al. (2012), which introduce or extend the conceptu‐ its past and present and, in particular, identifying the alization, measurement and nomological network of potential directions of its development in the future cultural intelligence. Early empirical research in the can contribute to the advancement of the research field that is most influential and relevant to under‐ field of leadership and cultural intelligence. Mapping standing the specific effects of cultural intelligence on of the intellectual structure was based on the most leadership outcomes indicated that cultural intelli‐ influential cited and citing publications. The analysis gence is positively related to leader cross‐border ef‐ of the content of these publications and author key‐ fectiveness (Rockstuhl et al., 2011) and leader words enabled the mapping of the conceptual struc‐ performance in culturally diverse teams (Groves & ture that uncovered fundamental, periodical, and key Feyerherm, 2011). The past of the research field of themes relevant to capturing the past, present, and leadership and cultural intelligence has therefore future of the field. been connected with the theoretical foundations of Past of the research field. The co‐citation analysis cultural intelligence and empirical evidence on the in‐ showed that the research field of leadership and cul‐ fluence of cultural intelligence on leader perfor‐ tural intelligence started by gaining an understanding mance and effectiveness in intercultural settings. 32 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 33 Present of the research field. Bibliographic cou‐ consideration of emotional and social intelligence pling indicated that the research field of leadership in research on the relationship between cultural and cultural intelligence continued to examine the intelligence and leadership was needed to ad‐ impact of cultural intelligence on leadership perfor‐ vance the understanding of their interconnected‐ mance and effectiveness in global, international and ness and distinctiveness. Although the concept of culturally diverse environments. Since Cluster 2 organizational cultural intelligence was intro‐ (Adaptive, empowering and transformational lead‐ duced in the literature, the co‐word analysis ership approaches) encompasses research pub‐ showed that it was not one of the key research lished in the period from 2016 to 2023, it most themes. The future of the research field of lead‐ closely reflects the present of the research field. The ership and cultural intelligence could be directed researchers’ focus on these themes is understand‐ toward addressing the identified knowledge gaps able due to the growing need to adapt leadership related to inclusive leadership, employee well‐ approaches in constantly changing environments being, engagement and retention, and organiza‐ and to empower employees in such environments tional cultural intelligence. through individualized consideration regardless of cultural differences, and all of this can be considered an integral part of transformational leadership 5.1 Future research recommendations (Bass, 1985; Bass & Riggio, 2006). The most influen‐ On the basis of the identified knowledge gaps tial citing publications included in three out of four in the field of leadership and cultural intelligence clusters examined the interconnectedness of cul‐ and the contemporary demands of employees and tural intelligence and transformational leadership other stakeholders toward organizational leadership (Afsar et al., 2019; Keung & Rockinson‐Szapkiw, in intercultural environments, we suggest three key 2013; Lee et al., 2013; Nam & Park, 2019; Ramsey thematic areas on which future research could be et al., 2017). Another important current stream of directed. research indicates that being part of global, virtual, and multicultural teams develops cultural intelli‐ First, inclusive leadership is needed to lever‐ gence and that cultural intelligence contributes to age cultural diversity within work environments for the emergence and performance of leadership in individual and organizational advancement. Al‐ such teams. Thus, it can be concluded that the pre‐ though already researched constructs of transfor‐ sent of the research field of leadership and cultural mational and empowering leadership may involve intelligence is focused on the role of cultural intelli‐ fostering inclusion to accomplish shared objec‐ gence in transformational leadership and team lead‐ tives, inclusive leadership additionally facilitates ership in global, virtual and culturally diverse belongingness, ensures justice and equity, pro‐ environments. motes diverse contributions, and highlights the value of the uniqueness of individuals (Randel et Future of the research field. The co‐word al., 2018). Thus, future research could focus on ex‐ analysis showed that the key themes of research amining the role of leader cultural intelligence in on leadership and cultural intelligence were inclusive leadership, both as a predictor and mod‐ global and transformational leadership, multicul‐ erator of the relationship between inclusive lead‐ tural and global virtual teams and their perfor‐ ership and outcomes on the leader, employee, and mance, and emotional and social intelligence. organizational levels. These findings suggest that the research field in the past two decades has focused only on two Second, employee well‐being, engagement and broadly conceptualized leadership constructs but retention are of increasing importance for effective not specifically on inclusive leadership which is of human resource management. We therefore sug‐ key importance in increasingly diverse work envi‐ gest that future studies conducted in intercultural ronments. In addition, an emphasis was on team‐ contexts explore the influence of leader cultural in‐ and leader‐level performance, while employee‐ telligence on these employee‐level outcomes. In ad‐ level outcomes have been under‐researched. The dition, employee well‐being, engagement and Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 33 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 34 Sanja Živković: Leadership and Cultural Intelligence: Past, Present, Future retention could also be examined as mediators in ership development specialists could use the find‐ the relationship between leader cultural intelligence ings of this study as a rationale for obtaining sup‐ and effectiveness on the level of a leader, team, and port from organizational leadership and human organization. In this way, future research could con‐ resources managers when proposing tailored tribute to understanding not only to what extent leadership development programs that include cultural intelligence can be positively related to in‐ the development of cultural intelligence. tercultural effectiveness but also why and how such an effect occurs. 5.3 Limitations Third, organizational cultural intelligence could become one of the significant factors in the The main limitation of this study is that the bib‐ liometric review is based exclusively on articles from effectiveness of organizations and their leadership. the Web of Science Core Collection database. Al‐ Future qualitative studies could explore the per‐ though the consolidation of different bibliometric ceptions of both leaders and employees regarding data formats increases the possibility of human er‐ leadership values and behaviors that contribute to rors, the inclusion of articles from other databases initiating and implementing practices that reflect could have affected the results of bibliometric anal‐ organizational cultural intelligence, such as build‐ yses, especially of the co‐word analysis. Therefore, ing and nurturing relationships with international the generalizability of the conclusions regarding business partners, integrating cultural knowledge, knowledge gaps in research on leadership and cul‐ and fostering an inclusive work environment (Ang tural intelligence is undermined. & Inkpen, 2008; Livermore et al., 2022). Quantita‐ tive research could focus on examining the influ‐ ence of organizational cultural intelligence on 6 CONCLUSION leadership and organizational effectiveness, as well as on employee well‐being. This study contributes to the leadership and cultural intelligence literature by providing a sys‐ tematic and focused bibliometric review of re‐ 5.2 Practical implications search in the last two decades. By mapping the Even though the primary purpose of this intellectual and conceptual structure using multi‐ study was to provide a basis for researchers to fur‐ ple bibliometric techniques, we offered insights ther advance the field of leadership and cultural into the past and present of the research field and intelligence, it offers insights that are also useful provided ideas in which direction it could develop for various practitioners. The results of the biblio‐ in the future. The qualitative literature review on metric review could raise awareness of leaders, the constructs of intelligence, culture, and cultural human resources managers, and leadership devel‐ intelligence in connection with leadership comple‐ opment specialists operating in intercultural busi‐ ments the bibliometric review based on quantita‐ ness and work environments on the influence of tive indicators, therefore this study allows both individual cultural intelligence on outcomes on researchers and practitioners to broaden their un‐ the level of a leader, team, and organization. Or‐ derstanding of the relevance of cultural intelli‐ ganizational leadership at all levels could improve gence in leadership. The ultimate purpose of their performance and effectiveness in culturally advancing the research field is inspiring the devel‐ diverse settings by developing and demonstrating opment and demonstration of cultural intelligence meta‐cognitive, cognitive, motivational, and be‐ in leadership practice to improve the well‐being havioral cultural intelligence. Human resources and effectiveness of individuals and organizations managers could incorporate the assessment of operating in intercultural environments. cultural intelligence into the leadership recruit‐ ment processes, as well as in leadership selection to identify candidates among current employees for leadership succession and development. Lead‐ 34 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 35 EXTENDED SUMMARY/IZVLEČEK Kulturna inteligentnost je postala ključnega pomena v organizacijskem vodenju zaradi vse bolj medkulturnega poslovnega in delovnega okolja. Namen prispevka je prispevati k razvoju raziskoval‐ nega področja vodenja in kulturne inteligentnosti s prikazom njegove preteklosti, sedanjosti in pri‐ hodnosti. Mapiranje znanstvenega področja glede njegove intelektualne in konceptualne strukture je bilo izvedeno z uporabo treh bibliometričnih tehnik: analize so‐citiranja, bibliografske povezanosti in analize skupnega pojavljanja besed. Na podlagi člankov iz podatkovne zbirke Web of Science, ob‐ javljenih med letoma 2003 in 2023, smo pripravili sistematičen in ciljno usmerjen bibliometrični pre‐ gled raziskav o vodenju in kulturni inteligentnosti v zadnjih dveh desetletjih. Ugotovitve kažejo, da je bila preteklost raziskovalnega področja povezana s teoretičnimi temelji in empiričnimi dokazi o vplivu kulturne inteligentnosti na uspešnost in učinkovitost vodij v medkulturnih kontekstih. Trenutno raziskovanje se osredotoča na vlogo kulturne inteligentnosti v transformacijskem in timskem vodenju v globalnem, virtualnem in kulturno raznolikem okolju. Prihodnji razvoj raziskovalnega področja bi se lahko usmeril v naslavljanje ugotovljenih vrzeli v znanju, povezanih z vključujočim vodenjem, blag‐ injo zaposlenih, zavzetostjo in zadržanjem kadrov ter organizacijsko kulturno inteligentnostjo. Končni namen nadaljnjega razvoja področja je spodbuditi krepitev in udejanjanje kulturne inteligentnosti v praksi vodenja. REFERENCES Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., & Koh, C. (2006). Personality corre‐ lates of the four‐factor model of cultural intelli‐ Afsar, B., Al‐Ghazali, B. M., Cheema, S., & Javed, F. (2021). gence. 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Leading Across Differences, 4(2), 131–138. 38 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 39 Vol. 14, No. 1, 39‐58 doi:10.17708/DRMJ.2025.v14n01a03 MAPPING THE FIELD OF MULTILEVEL AMBIDEXTERITY RESEARCH WITHIN ORGANIZATIONS USING BIBLIOMETRIC ANALYSIS Sara Melkić Faculty of Economics and Business Zagreb, University of Zagreb smelkic@efzg.hr Abstract Multilevel ambidexterity is an emerging but not yet fully explored theme in paradox research. Although organizational ambidexterity represents a well‐established and mature level of analysis, research on unit/team and job/individual ambidexterity remains in its early stages of development. A bibliometric analysis has been conducted to provide an updated and integrative literature review of the current structure, trends, and research gaps in the ambidexterity lit‐ erature. The goal was to assess the past (performance analysis), examine the present (co‐authorship, co‐[key]words or co‐occurrence, and co‐citation analyses), and anticipate future directions (bibliographic coupling) of interorgani‐ zational, organizational, unit (team), and individual (employee/job) ambidexterity. The search utilized the Web of Sci‐ ence Core Collection database, yielding 900 primary and 24,742 secondary prefiltered publications covering the period up to September 2024. The findings from science mapping guide scholars toward future theoretical and strategic frameworks that help organizational practitioners address the balancing challenges encountered at multiple levels of analysis. Keywords: Multilevel Ambidexterity, Organizational Ambidexterity, Unit Ambidexterity, Individual Ambidexterity, Bib‐ liometric Analysis This work has been supported in part by the Croatian Science Foundation under Project number UI‐2020‐02‐8889. 1 INTRODUCTION a complex, paradoxical concept involving informa‐ tion processing (Rosari et al., 2024), ambidexterity Within the last two decades, multilevel am‐ is still evolving, continuously expanding our under‐ bidexterity has become a significant yet implicit standing and involving novel business challenges. stream of paradox research that offers valuable in‐ From a practical standpoint, multilevel ambidex‐ sights for organizations seeking to balance ambidex‐ terity is a fundamental organizational challenge; trous polarities. Ambidexterity per se represents managers continuously strive to develop specific am‐ how organizations balance exploring new opportu‐ bidextrous capabilities, skills, and abilities to engage nities with exploiting existing core capabilities the workforce in sufficient exploitation (to secure (Jansen et al., 2016). The balance between revolu‐ present viability) while simultaneously dedicating tionary and incremental change influences short‐ enough effort to exploration (to ensure sustainabil‐ term performance (March, 1991), competitive ity). Raisch and Birkinshaw (2008) were among the advantage, and longevity (Chakma et al., 2024). As first to emphasize that the level of analysis plays a Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 39 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 40 Sara Melkić: Mapping the Field of Multilevel Ambidexterity Research Within Organizations Using Bibliometric Analysis critical role in the development of ambidexterity The lowest level of analysis is represented by in‐ studies. Recent ambidexterity studies indicate that dividual ambidexterity, which highlights a person’s this innovation–efficiency tension should be realized ability to alternate between innovative (exploratory) across various domains (organizational units) and and operational (exploitative) thinking through cog‐ among individual employees (Snehvrat et al., 2017). nitive and behavioral capabilities (Mom et al., 2015, However, the theoretical understanding and busi‐ 2019; Raisch & Birkinshaw, 2008). Often used inter‐ ness knowledge are limited and inadequate regard‐ changeably, the term employee ambidexterity is nar‐ ing how ambidexterity can be applied in various rower in focus, concentrating on how employees domains (Chakma et al., 2024) and managed in prac‐ within an organization balance their job roles to con‐ tice within multilevel organizational structures tribute to both innovation and efficiency (Caniëls et (Turner et al., 2013). The origins and outcomes of al., 2017; Caniëls & Veld, 2019; Mom et al., 2009). ambidexterity have predominantly been studied at a single (i.e., organizational) level of analysis, but re‐ These interconnected concepts collectively im‐ searchers increasingly recognize the need to evalu‐ pact an organization’s ability to balance exploration ate its multilevel effects (Cantarello et al., 2012; (innovation) and exploitation (efficiency). However, Katou, 2021; Kontopoulos et al., 2021). the understanding of how they can operate across levels of analysis remains insufficient. Interorgani‐ More comprehensively, ambidexterity has been zational ambidexterity links establish a synergistic examined internally and externally at micro and foundation for a top‐down and bottom‐up cascad‐ macro levels. Raisch and Birkinshaw (2008) notably ing multilevel effect in which each level influences discussed the distinction between internal and exter‐ the other. The interplay among various levels—or‐ nal ambidexterity. While internal (organizational) am‐ ganizational, team, and individual—can significantly bidexterity refers to an organization’s ability to improve an organization’s goal of balancing all‐level manage both exploration and exploitation within its polarities for integrative ambidexterity. boundaries (Birkinshaw & Gibson, 2004; He & Wong, 2004; Jansen et al., 2012), external (interorganiza‐ The substantial volume of published ambidex‐ tional) ambidexterity ties directly to organizational terity research and its continuous growth demands ambidexterity and entails distributing ambidextrous that scholars contextualize each case effectively (Ro‐ behaviors through partnerships, alliances, or collab‐ manelli et al., 2021) by reflecting the interdisciplinar‐ orations with external entities (Lavie et al., 2010; ity of the field and the interconnectedness of its O’Reilly & Tushman, 2004). On the other hand, Kon‐ structures. This is why rigor and diverse quantitative topoulos et al. (2021) distinguished between micro‐ bibliometric analysis for citation databases should be level scholars, who focus on individual/employee/job conducted regularly (Zupic & Cater, 2015) to deter‐ ambidexterity, and macro‐level scholars, who con‐ mine the trajectory of scientific progress, ultimately centrate on interorganizational, organizational, and aiding practitioners in achieving multilevel align‐ team/unit ambidexterity. ment. Multilevel ambidexterity research has reached unprecedented maturity in scope and size, making it Moving downwards, team ambidexterity repre‐ more suitable than ever for a bibliometric review. sents a collective capability between the organiza‐ tional and individual levels. It represents an effort to In an insightful paper, Turner et al. (2013) pre‐ balance organizational exploration (innovative) and sented a systematic review aimed at developing a exploitation (operational) strategies as well as the dy‐ research framework that integrates intellectual cap‐ namics among team members (Gibson & Birkinshaw, ital resources—organizational, social, and human 2004). Whereas team ambidexterity emphasizes the capital—across multiple levels of analysis. Addition‐ collective behavioral dynamics of a small working ally, a notable single‐level qualitative study and bib‐ group that balances exploration and exploitation, the liometric review by Popadić and Milohnić (2016) closely related yet broader term unit ambidexterity illustrated two decades of organizational ambidex‐ generally refers to the strategic ability of a specific terity’s structural development. Likewise, several (formal) organizational unit, such as a department or prolific scholars have made initial efforts to review division (Jansen et al., 2018; Kostopoulos et al., 2015). the existing knowledge base on organizational am‐ 40 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 41 bidexterity using the Scopus database (Amjad & strategic frameworks. The paper also discusses fu‐ Nor, 2020; Chakma et al., 2024; Kononiuk, 2022) or ture research directions, highlighting the necessity Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) database for robust theory development supported by (Garcia‐Lillo et al., 2017). However, only Zahoor et methodological improvements and a qualitative ap‐ al. (2021) interconnected the field of organizational proach. ambidexterity in the context of interorganizational alliances by merging evidence from both databases. Previous studies have been carried out applying var‐ 2 METHOD ious research designs, types of ambidexterity, and Using citation databases as their primary source, industries, giving mixed and unconnected findings bibliometric studies can handle large datasets effi‐ that are influenced by the researchers’ specific ciently, making them more effective than manual ap‐ choices (Popadić & Milohnić, 2016). proaches to quantitative and qualitative data analysis The papers above provided informative insights (Ramos‐Rodríguez & Ruíz‐Navarro, 2004). The analysis with interesting preliminary findings that yielded spe‐ in this paper employed the WoSCC as the most com‐ cific theoretical and practical contributions; however, monly used database for bibliometric reviews (Zupic they were primarily concentrated on past and pre‐ & Cater, 2015); it serves as a platform that encom‐ sent research rather than future directions. Further‐ passes a wide range of significant scientific findings more, no author has yet conducted a comprehensive across the social sciences. Given that bibliometric bibliometric analysis on multilevel ambidexterity, de‐ methodologies utilize extensive inclusion criteria that spite Rosari et al. (2024) suggesting that research encompass time, methods, and references (Vogel et should approach the ambidexterity phenomenon al., 2021), the initial search, conducted in late Septem‐ across various levels. Therefore, the purpose of the ber 2024, included the selected six keywords (“in‐ present study was to assess the past (performance terorganizational ambidexterity” OR “organizational analysis), examine the present (co‐authorship, co‐ ambidexterity” OR “team ambidexterity” OR “unit am‐ word, and co‐citation analyses), and anticipate future bidexterity” OR “individual ambidexterity” OR “em‐ directions (bibliographic coupling) of ambidexterity ployee ambidexterity”) and returned 1,633 in the multilevel context. The search utilized the publications meeting the elementary research field WoSCC database, yielding 900 primary (identified size requirement for bibliometric review tools of 500+ from our keyword search) and 24,742 secondary pub‐ papers (Donthu et al., 2021). lications (i.e., cited by the primary ones). In particular, The keyword “ambidexterity” was chosen in‐ the paper was intended to address four research stead of the suggested abbreviations “ambidex*” or questions: (RQ1) Which authors have had the most “ambidext*” (Örtenblad, 2010) to provide a more significant influence on multilevel ambidexterity re‐ focused term. Additionally, the keywords “job am‐ search regarding networking, productivity, and cita‐ bidexterity”, “multilevel ambidexterity”, and “multi‐ tions? (RQ2) What are the primary topics associated level ambidexterity” did not make any difference in with multilevel ambidexterity research? (RQ3) What results, so they were omitted. To implement a com‐ does the intellectual structure of the multilevel am‐ prehensive methodological approach, the paper an‐ bidexterity literature look like? (RQ4) What relevant alyzes a more extensive sample than previous emerging and future directions exist for multilevel bibliometric reviews of single‐level ambidexterity. ambidexterity research? By identifying relevant WoSCC sources of articles, This bibliometric analysis maps an updated and selecting search terms along with their synonyms, integrative quantitative literature overview on am‐ building a search strategy that establishes a 20‐year bidexterity in the multilevel context. It provides es‐ viable timespan (from 2004 until 2024) focused on sential insights for scholars interested in multilevel topics to highlight the latest trends that have ambidexterity to conceptualize more deeply. It emerged since the last research, and developing sci‐ guides managers and professionals in navigating ence mapping after in the analysis, the paper im‐ various polarities across various organizational lev‐ proved the overall quality of bibliometric studies as els that demand their awareness and updated recommended by Romanelli et al. (2021). Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 41 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 42 Sara Melkić: Mapping the Field of Multilevel Ambidexterity Research Within Organizations Using Bibliometric Analysis To conclude the process with 900 publications, making—scanning, sensing, and substantiating to a gradual refinement approach was implemented navigate the complexity and uncover actionable through a series of six inclusion criteria: Document and meaningful insights. The performance analysis Type, WoS Categories, Language, WoS Index, Cita‐ serves as an evaluative method for assessing re‐ tion Topics Meso, and Citation Topics Micro. The search constituents’ productivity (Romanelli et al., selected publications, mainly journal articles, were 2021) and impact/contribution (Lim & Kumar, 2024) in English and focused on management and busi‐ by using a variety of metrics. Conversely, science ness studies. Additionally, the analysis incorpo‐ mapping, often called bibliometric networks, in‐ rated the SSCI (Social Sciences Citation Index), volves clustering knowledge around key themes, which serves as a vital source of information for trends, and gaps in scientific literature. This method conducting bibliometric analyses in the field of so‐ analyzes intellectual interactions and structural cial sciences. The gathered bibliometric data were connections among authors, institutions, and key‐ meticulously examined for unrelated papers and words (Donthu et al., 2021; Romanelli et al., 2021). erroneous entries to ensure reliable insights. As By introducing this quantitative tool for consider‐ the final step before analyzing via VOSviewer soft‐ able data extraction, the paper provides a “big‐pic‐ ware, the complete extracted records and their ture” view of the field’s performance and the cited references were imported. To ensure the re‐ interconnectedness (or lack thereof) in its intellec‐ peatability of the search, the complete search tual structure (Donthu et al., 2021; Romanelli et al., strategy, including the search terms and criteria, is 2021). This approach helps interpret theoretical detailed in Figure 1. and practical implications (Lim & Kumar, 2024) and bridges the gap between quantitative data and The bibliometric analysis included perfor‐ qualitative interpretation. mance assessment and science mapping (Lim & Kumar, 2024), utilizing the 3Ss concept of sense‐ Figure 1: Search strategy and methodological procedure 42 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 43 3 RESULTS employee ambidexterity (Caniels et al., 2017), and most recently, interorganizational ambidexterity (Lo 3.1 Performance analysis & Theodoraki, 2021). Performance analysis is one of the standard As a result, after two decades of ambidexterity components of bibliometric analysis, and it quantifies research, a growing body of work now discusses this the impact and productivity of authors, journals, in‐ phenomenon through a multilevel lens, although the stitutions, or countries. It answers “who, when, mainstream publications have primarily examined or‐ where, and what” questions (Romanelli et al., 2021) ganizational ambidexterity. Nevertheless, in the last by assessing publication (i.e., trends, output) and ci‐ two decades (see Figure 2), research on multilevel tation (i.e., counts) metrics (Lim & Kumar, 2024). It ambidexterity has experienced significant growth in represents an attempt to objectively identify patterns both publications and citations. Starting in 2020, this and understand the root causes to set the stage for trend appears to follow an inverted U‐shaped curve. descriptive, in‐depth interpretation (Lim & Kumar, The publication trend has mirrored that of citations, 2024). The present paper is focused on publication‐ with the highest number of publications recorded in and author‐based performance metrics with paper 2020 (n=130) and the peak in citations occurring in reviews based on the WoSCC search strategy results. 2022 (n=8,390). Since then, both metrics have shown a declining trend. An introductory phase character‐ 3.1.1 Publication‐based descriptives ized the initial decade of publications; however, since 2015, more than 50 papers have been published The WoSCC search resulted in 900 publications yearly. Just a year prior, this trend was observed in ci‐ on multilevel ambidexterity spanning 859 scientific tations for the first time, surpassing a thousand cita‐ journals. Gibson and Birkinshaw (2004) wrote a pi‐ tions annually. Although the annual citation growth oneering paper with multilevel insights explaining rate from 2004 to 2024 was 82.34%, marked by nu‐ contextual organizational ambidexterity, defined as merous fluctuations, the growth rate has slowed to the capacity to achieve alignment and adaptability just 7% in the last five years, indicating a downward at a business‐unit level simultaneously. Over the trend caused by saturation. The publication score for years, scholars have progressively introduced new 2024 (n=40) is still awaiting updates from WoSCC at levels of ambidexterity, expanding the concept be‐ the end of the year, including data from the last three yond its initial focus. For example, unit ambidexter‐ months, and given that the number of citations—par‐ ity was introduced by O’Connor and DeMartino ticularly for older, highly cited works—tends to in‐ (2006), followed by team ambidexterity (Haas, crease over time, expectations suggest that this 2010), individual ambidexterity (Torres et al., 2015), upward trend is likely to persist. Figure 2: Publications and citations on multilevel ambidexterity across years (2004–2024) Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 43 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 44 Sara Melkić: Mapping the Field of Multilevel Ambidexterity Research Within Organizations Using Bibliometric Analysis The journal quality analysis revealed that 40% tices and behavior with organizational, team, and of multilevel ambidexterity papers (n=364) were employee ambidexterity emerged as the dominant published in prominent scholarly management and theme in the International Journal of Human Re‐ business journals indexed in WoSCC. Among the 16 source Management (27 documents). journals with more than 15 published documents, Table 2 presents the top 10 most cited publications only one is not classified in the Q1 quartile (see on multilevel ambidexterity. Gibson and Birkinshaw’s Table 1). The Journal of Business Research (46 doc‐ (2004) paper, “The Antecedents, Conse quences, and uments) has established itself as the leading aca‐ Mediating Role of Organizational Ambidexterity,” demic outlet for multilevel ambidexterity research, stands out as the oldest and the most cited publication focusing on knowledge management concerning in‐ with 2,493 total citations. The paper is regarded as one novation, new business models, R&D, and en‐ of the most significant contributions to ambidexterity trepreneurship. This research often explores the research theory. Its impact has shaped much of the balance between exploration and exploitation in in‐ foundational understanding of how organizations bal‐ terorganizational and organizational contexts. Man‐ ance alignment and adaptability and how it affects the agement Decision (31 documents) is another unit level. Smith and Lewis (2011) lead in citations per prominent outlet emphasizing the organizational year, averaging 148.71, for their highly cited paper, “To‐ ambidexterity–performance relationship. It pub‐ ward a Theory of Paradox: A Dynamic Equilibrium lished studies such as those on enhancing organiza‐ Model of Organizing,” which has amassed a total of tional adaptability and innovation through strategic 2,082 citations. The authors explored the paradoxical flexibility, knowledge management, and job satis‐ tensions present in organizational environments. They faction, particularly at team and individual (em‐ proposed a dynamic equilibrium model demonstrating ployee) ambidexterity levels. The relationship how cyclical responses to these tensions foster sustain‐ between human resource management (HRM) prac‐ able performance and future success. Table 1: Publication sources with 15 or more documents published Journal WoSCC category quartile Number of documents published Journal of Business Research Q1 46 Management Decision Q1 31 International Journal of Human Resource Management Q1 27 Long Range Planning Q1 27 International Business Review Q1 25 Technological Forecasting and Social Change Q1 25 IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management Q1 24 Industrial Marketing Management Q1 24 Journal of Management Studies Q1 21 Journal of Business Industrial Marketing Q1 18 Business Process Management Journal Q1 17 Journal of Knowledge Management Q1 17 Human Resource Management Q1 16 Journal of Product Innovation Management Q1 16 Organization Science Q1 15 Technology Analysis Strategic Management Q2 15 44 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 45 Recognizing that older publications authored by 3.1.2 Author‐based descriptives prominent researchers typically achieve higher an‐ nual citation scores, it is evident that their influence The analysis identified 2,078 scholars across 69 in the field remains significant over time. Similarly, countries, with the United States (n=211), the United a few recently published papers have already gar‐ Kingdom (n=204), and China (n=160) being the most nered high citation scores. For example, Del Giudice represented. Forty‐six authors have published five or et al. (2021) investigated how digital innovation is more papers. Among all authors, the first 11 most influenced by the three pillars of self‐tuning mod‐ cited scholars emerged as leaders in the field, ac‐ els—agility, adaptation, and ambidexterity. Bucceri counting for nearly 11.22% of all publications. In com‐ et al. (2020) examined how new international ven‐ parison, five scholars were recognized as the most tures shape ambidextrous innovation and dynamic productive, each having published at least seven pa‐ marketing capabilities necessary to support interna‐ pers (see Table 3). Julian Birkinshaw (6,464 citations) tional performance. Mahmood and Mubarik (2020) is the most cited author, followed by Marianne Lewis positioned their study between innovation and po‐ (4,466 citations). Birkinshaw’s co‐authors, Sebastian larities of organizational ambidexterity in the con‐ Raisch (4,342 citations) and Michael L. Tushman text of the fourth industrial revolution. Despite (3,510 citations), rank prominently on the citation list, being published in various journals, the common alongside Lewis’s co‐author, Wendy K. Smith (4,025 thread among these promising papers is their focus citations). All five authors have established them‐ on innovation ambidexterity. selves in ambidexterity and organizational paradoxes, Table 2: Top 10 cited publications Author(s) Topic Source Title Total Citations citations per year Gibson & Birkinshaw (2004) The antecedents, consequences, and mediating Academy of Management role of organizational ambidexterity Journal 2,493 118.71 Smith & Lewis (2011) Toward a theory of paradox: A dynamic Academy of Management equilibrium model of organizing. Review 2,082 148.71 Raisch & Birkinshaw (2008) Organizational ambidexterity: Antecedents, outcomes, and moderators Journal of Management 1,487 87.47 Organizational ambidexterity: Balancing Raisch et al. (2009) exploitation and exploration for sustained Organization Science 1,280 80 performance Exploitation–exploration tensions and Andriopoulos & Lewis (2009) organizational ambidexterity: Managing Organization Science 1,268 79.25 paradoxes and innovation O’Reilly & Tushman (2013) Organizational ambidexterity: Past, present, Academy of Management and future Perspectives 1,239 103.25 Unpacking organizational ambidexterity: Cao et al. (2009) Dimensions, contingencies, and synergistic Organization Science 927 57.94 effects Schad et al. (2016) Paradox research in management science: Academy of Management Looking back to move forwards Annals 685 76.11 Jansen et al. (2009) Structural differentiation and ambidexterity: The mediating role of integration mechanisms Organization Science 658 41.13 Simsek (2009) Organizational ambidexterity: Towards a Journal of Management multilevel understanding Studies 598 37.38 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 45 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 46 Sara Melkić: Mapping the Field of Multilevel Ambidexterity Research Within Organizations Using Bibliometric Analysis maintaining similar rankings regarding publication with multilevel ambidexterity research include Eras‐ output and productivity. To offer a more balanced as‐ mus University Rotterdam from the Netherlands (48 sessment of scholarly contributions, we evaluated documents) and four universities from the United productivity based on the number of active years in Kingdom: University of London (28 documents), Uni‐ publication. This analysis revealed that Wendy K. versity of Birmingham (23 documents), University of Smith and Shlomo Y. Tarba have the highest annual Warwick (23 documents), and Cranfield University productivity, with an average of 1.75 publications per (15 documents). Additionally, the University of St. active year, followed by Sebastian Raisch and Neil Gallen from Switzerland has contributed 20 docu‐ Turner, who average 1.50 publications per active year. ments, while the Chinese Academy of Sciences has Despite having joined the field in this decade with published 15 documents. Collectively, these seven in‐ fewer than 1,000 citations, Turner and his co‐authors stitutions represent 19.11% of total publications, in‐ (2013) have made significant theoretical and practical dicating that multilevel ambidexterity has yet to gain contributions to multilevel ambidexterity through broader acceptance across academic institutions. their review paper entitled “Mechanisms for Manag‐ ing Ambidexterity: A Review and Research Agenda.” 3.1.3 Number of publications identified through In terms of co‐authorship patterns, the majority the search strategy of publications were produced by a three‐author team (37.44%), followed by two‐ (23.11%) and four‐ The added value of the quantitative bibliomet‐ author (22.56%) teams. Only 7.22% of publications ric analysis is illustrated through a simple graphic are solo‐authored. The leading institutions affiliated depicting multilevel ambidexterity (see Figure 3). Table 3: Most cited and most productive authors Author Affiliation Citations Publications Annual Productivity1 Birkinshaw, Julian University of London (UK) 6,464 9 1.12 Lewis, Marianne W. University of Cincinnati (USA) 4,466 6 1.20 Raisch, Sebastian University of Geneva (SWI) 4,342 12 1.50 Smith, Wendy K. University of Delaware (USA) 4,025 7 1.75 Tushman, Michael L. Harvard University (USA) 3,510 7 1.16 Jansen, Justin J. P. Erasmus University (NED) 1,971 16 1.23 Simsek, Zeki University of South Carolina (USA) 1,508 7 1.16 Volberda, Henk W. University of Amsterdam (NED) 1,371 8 1.00 Tarba, Shlomo Y. University of Birmingham (UK) 1,361 14 1.75 Turner, Neil Cranfield University (UK) 748 9 1.50 Junni, Paulina Aalto University (FIN) 740 6 1.20 1 Publications per active year 46 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 47 Figure 3: Levels of analysis in multilevel ambidexterity research It is categorized into external (interorganizational) to answer key questions such as “what,” “why,” and and internal ambidexterity. Internal ambidexterity is “how” to understand comprehensive relationships. further divided into three levels: organizational, team It helps to uncover the core theories, concepts, con‐ (unit), and individual (employee) ambidexterity. This texts, topics, methods, or motivations that shape graphic displays the number of publications resulting the research landscape. Various mapping methods from the keyword selection and search strategy and are frequently employed, utilized in this paper to the number of papers exploring the interrelations be‐ analyze the current state of research by conducting tween levels (see Figure 3). This figure assists scholars co‐authorship, co‐(key)words or co‐occurrence, and in identifying potential literature gaps and provides in‐ co‐citation analyses. Furthermore, bibliographic sights into the frequency of keyword usage. coupling will be applied to forecast potential future research directions. 3.2 Science mapping 3.2.1 Co‐authorship analysis Science mapping (bibliometric networks; bib‐ liometric mapping) seeks to uncover scientific fields’ Co‐authorship analysis examines how scholars knowledge structure and dynamics (Zupic & Cater, interact, engage, and form informal social networks 2015). It visualizes structure in scientific literature that lead to formal collaborations. It assesses these by analyzing connections among authors and insti‐ collaborations among authors, institutions, and tutions, publications, citations, and keywords (Ro‐ countries by analyzing the number of joint publica‐ manelli et al., 2021). It is used to evaluate the social tions they have produced together (Hicks, 2004; and intellectual foundations of a discipline, aiming Zupic & Cater, 2015). Network metrics offer insights Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 47 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 48 Sara Melkić: Mapping the Field of Multilevel Ambidexterity Research Within Organizations Using Bibliometric Analysis into trends in interinstitutional partnerships, re‐ sized enterprises. The third largest (blue, N=4) is search practices, and synergies over time (Reyes‐ centered around Liu, Malik, Stokes, and Tarba, who Gonzales et al., 2016). They highlight authors’ serve as full‐time or visiting university professors in relative significance, geographic distribution, gender the United Kingdom. The fourth largest cluster (yel‐ representation, and the dynamics within research low, N=4) primarily comprises Dutch scholars teams. Works by multiple authors generally receive Jansen, Tempelaar, and Volberda. Simsek, a member more citations than solo‐authored papers, reflecting of this group, is a professor in the United States. The a broader influence (Katz & Hicks, 1997), but smallest cluster (purple, N=3) consists of Italian “knowledge brokers”—those who bridge various re‐ scholars Del Giudice, Ferraris, and Papa, affiliated search groups—may not consistently be recognized with the universities of Rome and Turin, whose re‐ through their publication or citation counts (Donthu search interest connects organizational ambidexter‐ et al., 2021). ity with innovation. Out of the 2,123 authors recognized in VOSviewer, this work is concentrated on researchers 3.2.2 Co‐(key)words/co‐occurrence analysis who met the criterion of having published at least Co‐(key)words, also known as a co‐occurrence five papers. Five “invisible colleagues” clusters were analysis, is a widely utilized science mapping tech‐ identified (see Figure 4). The largest cluster (red, nique that identifies and thematically links key‐ N=6) consists of scholars recognized as pioneers in words within a collection of scholarly publications paradox and ambidexterity research (Birkinshaw, (Donthu et al., 2021). The resulting clusters consist Lewis, Smith, Tushman, Zimmermann, and Raisch), of diverse yet related highlighted keywords, aiming who are the key brokers between these and other to better illustrate the terminology and knowledge clusters. The second largest cluster (green, N=4) pri‐ landscape across fields. Analyzing the frequency and marily comprises scholars from the United Kingdom impact of keywords organized into clusters of (Tarba), Finland (Junni), Pakistan (Khan), and Taiwan broader keywords makes it possible to identify spe‐ (Chang). Their research is predominantly focused on cific authors, research groups, and emerging topics HRM practices within organizational ambidexterity, within the field to understand academic discourse mergers and acquisitions and small and medium‐ (Lozano et al., 2019). Figure 4: Co‐authorship networks 48 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 49 Figure 5: Co‐(key)words/co‐occurrence networks The study was based on author keywords as the 3.2.3 Co‐citation analysis primary unit of analysis to mitigate the potential influ‐ Co‐citation occurs when two or more secondary ence of indexer bias in case essential components of the text have not been chosen accurately (Zupic & documents based on frequency are cited together Cater, 2015). Out of 2,255 detected keywords, 89 met by a third primary document, indicating a relation‐ the threshold (the minimum number of occurrences of ship between the cited works (Small, 1973). It iden‐ a keywords was five). The map finding showcased that tifies influential papers within a field by examining all the topics concern the topic of ambidexterity (289 how frequently they are co‐cited with other signifi‐ occurrences), and exploration (139 occurrences), ex‐ cant works, showcasing their impact on subsequent ploitation (134 occurrences), organizational ambidex‐ research (Garfield, 2006) or thematic categories terity (118 occurrences), and innovation (74 (Zupic & Cater, 2015). It can identify interdisciplinary occurrences) are the most widely used labels (see Fig‐ research areas, relevant literature, or research gaps. ure 5). Organizational ambidexterity is linked to individ‐ Cited references were used as the unit of analy‐ ual ambidexterity (16 occurrences) but does not sis, with a minimum threshold of 50, resulting in 103 correlate with any other level of ambidexterity; further‐ publications (out of 38,893 cited documents) being more, no other levels of ambidexterity are represented included and classified into three thematic clusters in the map. The findings of this analysis consist of nine (with a minimum cluster size of 20) (see Figure 6). The clusters (the minimum size was four) covering diverse most substantial co‐citation is March’s (1991) influ‐ yet complementary themes (see Table 4). Notably, mul‐ ential paper “Exploration and Exploitation in Organi‐ tilevel ambidexterity research is forward‐looking and zational Learning,” published in Organization Science addresses challenges encompassing intriguing and con‐ with 678 citations and a total link strength of 11,632. temporary emerging topics. In this topic division, it is evident that scholars do not prioritize any specific level Co‐citation cluster 1 (red) is the largest and of ambidexterity as the primary focus; instead, they in‐ most influential cluster of publications (N=50), pri‐ corporate it within the context of their selected themes. marily comprising qualitative papers focused on Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 49 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 50 Sara Melkić: Mapping the Field of Multilevel Ambidexterity Research Within Organizations Using Bibliometric Analysis Table 4: Co‐(key)words clusters Cluster Items Themes Main sub‐themes ambidextrous innovation, ambidextrous leadership, business model, 1 18 AMBIDEXTROUS INNOVATION & business model innovation, dynamic capability, exploitative innovation, TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP exploratory innovation, innovation strategy, intellectual capital, new product performance, transformational leaders, top management teams 2 15 EXPLORATION VS. EXPLOITATION ambidexterity, culture, organizational design, organizational structure, TENSION paradox, projects, strategy, tension, uncertainty, cognition, disruptive innovation, emerging markets, entrepreneurship corporate social responsibility, corporate sustainability, digital 3 14 SUSTAINABLE INNOVATION PRACTICES & DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION transformation, digitalization, dynamic capabilities, innovation performance, SME, sustainability, open innovation, family firm 4 11 AMBIDEXTROUS ORGANIZATIONAL contextual ambidexterity, strategic ambidexterity, leadership, top LEADERSHIP management teams, organizational context, integration, corporate entrepreneurs, product innovation 5 9 AMBIDEXTROUS ORGANIZATION ambidextrous learning, companies, organization, task analysis, organizational performance 6 7 EXPLORATION INTERNAL FACTORS alliances, entrepreneurial orientation, learning, new ventures, market orientation, radical innovation 7 6 EXPLORATION EXTERNAL FACTORS emerging economies, environmental uncertainty, innovation, strategic flexibility, knowledge management 8 5 ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN & business process management, human capital, organization design, INDIVIDUAL OPTIMIZATION organizational learning 9 4 AMBIDEXTERITY exploration, exploitation, meta‐analysis, performance Figure 6: Co‐citation clusters 50 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 51 navigating organizational ambidexterity to enhance 3.2.4 Bibliographic coupling performance, ambidextrous leadership, and multi‐ Bibliographic coupling occurs when two docu‐ level frameworks exploring the relationship be‐ ments cite the same third document, indicating their tween organizational ambidexterity and relevance and a relationship based on shared ideas or interorganizational, team, and individual levels. No‐ findings through these common references (Kessler, tably, 50% of the documents in this cluster were 1963; Reyes‐Gonzales et al., 2016). It resembles co‐ci‐ published in just five journals: Organization Science tation analysis, which refers to the present, but it is (7), Journal of Management Studies (6), Academy of focused on frequently published recent primary pa‐ Management Journal (4), Academy of Management pers that reference the same secondary sources em‐ Review (4), and The Leadership Quarterly (4). Addi‐ phasizing the future (Vogel et al., 2021). By effectively tionally, 66% of the papers are co‐authored by two clustering recent publications, the analysis detects (38%) or three (28%) authors, while 18% (N=9) are emerging thematic or niche areas of interest within a single‐authored. A leading representative in the red discipline and tracks the evolution of research trends, cluster is the highly cited work by Gibson and Birkin‐ showcasing potential future directions. shaw (2004), entitled “The Antecedents, Conse‐ quences, and Mediating Role of Organizational The bibliographic coupling method was used to Ambidexterity,” published in the Academy of Man‐ analyze 210 papers published between January agement Journal (591 citations). 2022 and September 2024 without establishing a minimum citation threshold. The analysis revealed Co‐citation cluster 2 (green) comprises 33 doc‐ five equally distributed clusters with a minimum uments and is focused primarily on managing explo‐ cluster size of 27 (see Figure 7). Among these pub‐ ration and exploitation and their impact on lications, only 4.7% were single‐authored. Most au‐ performance through knowledge and process man‐ thors engaged in collaborative writing, with agement. Compared to other clusters, almost 67% publications co‐authored by groups of two (17.1%), of the publications are concentrated in three top‐ three (34.76%), or four individuals (28.57%). The tier scientific journals: Strategic Management Jour‐ majority of papers were published in journals ori‐ nal (11 or 22%), Organization Science (7), and ented to innovation and technology in the context Academy of Management Review (4). Like cluster 1, of business and management: IEEE Transactions on 18.18% of the publications are solo‐authored, while Engineering Management (11 documents), Indus‐ over half (N=17) were written in pairs. The most in‐ trial Marketing Management (8 documents), Tech‐ fluential paper in this cluster is Levinthal and nological Forecasting and Social Change (7 March’s (1993) “The Myopia of Learning,” published documents), International Business Review (6 doc‐ in Strategic Management Journal. uments), and European Journal of Innovation Man‐ Co‐citation cluster 3 (blue), the smallest cluster agement (6 documents). (N=20), consists predominantly of documents fo‐ The document with the highest coupling cused on empirical studies, multivariate methods in strength is by Audretsch and Guerrero (2023), pub‐ social and psychological research, moderation and lished in the Journal of Technology Transfer. The au‐ mediation models of exploration and exploitation, thors explored organizational ambidexterity, and team‐level behavior. Scholars in this cluster pri‐ emphasizing its dual tasks and the research gap in marily published in co‐authorship teams of two, technology‐ and entrepreneurship‐oriented journals three, or four individuals (N=17 or 85%). Aside from regarding ambidexterity tensions. They presented two books, the publications appeared in various five studies examining the interplay between en‐ journals, with Organization Science (4) and Journal trepreneurship, innovation, and management of Management (3) standing out. Alongside March’s across various global organizations. most influential work, the second most cited paper in this cluster is Raisch and Birkinshaw’s (2008) “Or‐ Within the first cluster (N=51, red), the paper ganizational Ambidexterity: Antecedents, Out‐ with the highest strength is by Ju and Elliott (2024), comes, and Moderators,” published in the Journal published in the Journal of Business & Industrial of Management. Marketing. They investigated the antecedents of or‐ Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 51 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 52 Sara Melkić: Mapping the Field of Multilevel Ambidexterity Research Within Organizations Using Bibliometric Analysis Figure 7: Bibliographic coupling clusters ganizational ambidexterity in foreign ventures knowledge management, HRM, the link between within emerging markets, focusing on firm‐ and in‐ organizational ambidexterity and performance, and dustry‐level factors that influence the simultaneous the mediating and moderating factors influencing pursuit of exploration and exploitation as an inno‐ these relationships. vation strategy. Also within this cluster, Mendes et al. (2023), in their paper published in the Journal of In addition to the aforementioned paper by Ju Technology Transfer, examined how ambidextrous and Elliott (2024), the third cluster (N=50, blue) fea‐ companies in industrial clusters balance exploration tures a study by Escorcia‐Caballero et al. (2024), and exploitation to enhance innovation and innova‐ published in Technology Analysis & Strategic Man‐ tion performance. Papers in the red cluster cover in‐ age‐ ment, in which the authors examined the rela‐ novation, knowledge management, international tionships among exploitation, exploration, and ambidexterity, innovation ambidexterity, and tech‐ ambidexterity in organic agro‐food processing com‐ nological learning and strategies. panies to assess their impact on market perfor‐ mance while providing managerial guidance for In the second same‐sized cluster (N=51, green), enhancing ambidexterity. The cluster encompasses the standout publication is by Ambilichu et al. themes related to entrepreneurship, innovation, (2023) and published in the European Management business models, and various forms of ambidexter‐ Review. They investigated how strategic leadership ity, including structural, sequential, and contextual influences the performance of UK accountancy ambidexterity. firms, with findings showing that ambidexterity par‐ tially mediates this relationship. Additionally, El In the fourth cluster (N=31, yellow), the paper Manzani et al. (2023), in a paper published in the with the highest strength is by Boemelburg et al. European Journal of Innovation Management, em‐ (2023), published in Human Resource Management. pirically analyzed the direct impacts of soft quality The study represents a multilevel model illustrating management practices and market orientation am‐ how the interplay between formal and informal or‐ bidexterity on product innovation ambidexterity. Pa‐ ganizational contexts fosters employee ambidexter‐ pers in the green cluster explore themes such as ity and behavior. In addition to focusing on 52 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 53 employee and individual ambidexterity and multi‐ is the first to focus on the multilevel nature of am‐ level approaches, the cluster also covers topics such bidexterity, its analysis is strategically framed within as moderation‐mediation models and team am‐ a 20‐year context in management and business do‐ bidexterity. mains to enhance specific and in‐depth under‐ standing using the SSCI, which exclusively covers The smallest cluster (N=27, purple) is focused social sciences. on family‐owned firms, SMEs, top management, leadership, and ventures. In the paper with the Performance analysis revealed that multilevel highest strength, by Hu et al. (2023) in the Journal ambidexterity has evolved from a niche research of Business Research, the researchers examined the topic into a more mainstream one, examining am‐ influence of organizational ambidexterity on firm bidexterity across various levels. Over time, schol‐ performance, using family management and formal‐ ars have introduced new levels, expanding the ization as boundary conditions. Additionally, Van concept beyond its original scope. The multilevel Doorm et al. (2022), in a paper published in Long ambidexterity field is widely published in leading Range Planning, explored how having a family CEO scholarly journals, with four prominent co‐author‐ and top management team’s family affiliations im‐ ship networks polarized between Western coun‐ pact ambidexterity. tries (e.g., the United States and the United Kingdom) and Eastern countries (e.g., China). Pub‐ lication and citation trends are closely aligned, 4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION with authors who publish more frequently gaining more citations over time. Notably, many leading This paper provides a comprehensive biblio‐ scholars in multilevel ambidexterity are also promi‐ metric review, integrating performance analysis and nent in the field of organizational paradoxes, in science mapping to deliver an objective, data‐driven which they maintain similar rankings. Older publi‐ overview of multilevel ambidexterity literature. Fol‐ cations dominate citation trends, as more highly lowing five key recommendations from Mukherjee cited documents experience proportional citation et al. (2022), it is intended to “uncover knowledge growth over time. clusters, map nomological networks depicting the field’s current state, explore social patterns driving Science mapping techniques identified knowl‐ knowledge development, examine the field’s evolu‐ edge clusters and intellectual structures for pre‐ tionary nuances, and identify knowledge gaps.” sent and future research, indicating evolution Based on the sensemaking approach (Lim & Kumar, (Chakma et al., 2024). Co‐authorship analysis re‐ 2024), the paper represents an attempt to accu‐ vealed the presence of closed groupings in which rately present the field’s performance and intellec‐ authors cluster based on factors such as country of tual structure to present past and present situations origin or institutional affiliation. Highly cited lead‐ and inform future research. In its final phase, the ers often collaborate with peers of similar status, paper adheres to credibility (rigorous methods), producing further highly cited papers. Co‐ confirmability (objective findings and transparent (key)word or co‐occurrence analysis highlighted search strategy and analytical process), and depend‐ that new research topics predominantly revolve ability (reproducibility checks) standards to substan‐ around ambidexterity, particularly organizational tiate its findings. ambidexterity and its polarities. While organiza‐ tional ambidexterity is linked to individual am‐ To enhance existing studies on ambidexterity, bidexterity, no other levels are visibly connected. the bibliometric analysis was conducted using the Nine contemporary topic clusters were identified, WoSCC database, which includes a broad range of primarily focused on organizational ambidexterity, influential papers. Six unabbreviated keywords with other levels notably absent. Additionally, co‐ (covering core ambidexterity terms related to levels citation analysis revealed three seminal thematic and their widely used synonyms) were applied for clusters: (1) navigating organizational ambidexter‐ a more comprehensive yet precise search of multi‐ ity to improve performance, ambidextrous leader‐ level ambidexterity research. Although this paper ship, and multilevel frameworks examining the Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 53 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 54 Sara Melkić: Mapping the Field of Multilevel Ambidexterity Research Within Organizations Using Bibliometric Analysis relationships between organizational ambidexter‐ Echoing the observations made by Popadić and ity and interorganizational, team, and individual Milohnić (2016), this paper reveals the prevailing levels; (2) managing exploration and exploitation ambiguity within the field, highlighted by many and their impact on performance via knowledge studies. Most papers utilize one or a few levels of and process management; and (3) empirical stud‐ ambidexterity. However, authors typically approach ies, multivariate methods in social and psycholog‐ these concepts in a conceptual rather than an em‐ ical research, and team‐level behavior, including pirical (multivariate) manner, not as the keyword moderation and mediation models of exploration selection suggests. Unfortunately, the analysis does and exploitation. not clarify whether the findings on multilevel am‐ bidexterity arise from organizations’ actual needs Furthermore, bibliographic coupling identified or merely reflect current academic trends. Addi‐ five promising research streams that have emerged tionally, the study is susceptible to established lit‐ in the past three years. These streams are focused erature patterns emphasizing well‐known citations, on topics such as organizational ambidexterity in re‐ making it unclear whether these citations are based lation to theory or other fields (e.g., innovation and on intrinsic quality (Garcia‐Lillo et al., 2017). The entrepreneurship), mediating–moderating research analysis also fails to include papers that may have models, the evolution of organizational ambidexter‐ been published recently, given that the WoS plat‐ ity into interorganizational ambidexterity within form requires time to update its listings. As a solo‐ emerging industries or markets, deeper exploration authored paper, the potential for subjective bias in of team ambidexterity, and an increased focus on the qualitative interpretation of findings cannot be structural, sequential, and contextual forms of am‐ eliminated (Lim & Kumar, 2024). While there is no bidexterity. Collaborative writing trends are ex‐ definitive bibliographic search method that can pected to continue, with future publications likely yield the best results for comprehensive research to be more concentrated in journals focused on in‐ areas such as multilevel ambidexterity, the results novation and technology. can be influenced by keyword selection, filtering To sum up the analyses, the literature on mul‐ criteria, and the exclusive reliance on a single tilevel ambidexterity is an emerging but still under‐ database, which may not capture the complete explored area in paradox research; some levels of spectrum of relevant literature. ambidexterity are well‐established and mature, The paper offers practical contributions by ad‐ while others are in the early stages of development hering to Mukherjee et al.’s (2022) five key recom‐ (Nosella et al., 2012). Organizational ambidexterity mendations, which include “enabling an objective will continue to serve as a benchmark in future re‐ assessment and reporting of research productivity search as a critical bridge between interorganiza‐ and impact, examining the coverage or reach of tional, team (unit), or individual (employee) research, identifying social dominance or hidden ambidexterity and performance. A review of re‐ biases, highlighting anomalies for further explo‐ search outputs shows that multilevel ambidexterity ration, and evaluating relative performance for is not a distinct research field but is positioned as a equitable decision‐making.” In addition to encour‐ psychological or strategic phenomenon intersecting aging scholars to advance the development of the other areas. As such, multilevel ambidexterity rep‐ field across all levels of ambidexterity, the paper resents a crossroads of management, business, and also offers guidance for managers and practition‐ broader domains, making it particularly challenging ers on how to integrate diverse ambidextrous for qualitative analysis. This raises questions about strategies at various organizational levels effec‐ its utility—if the concept becomes overly flexible, it tively. Furthermore, it emphasizes the importance risks losing analytical clarity and power (Popadić & of identifying various multilevel ambidexterity Milohnić, 2016). The study highlights the repetition practices or processes and aligning them with ex‐ of the same authors and papers, indicating the diffi‐ isting policies to navigate or mitigate ambidex‐ culty of surpassing the dominance of existing lead‐ trous polarities within their organizations for ers in this rapidly growing field. better performance. 54 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 55 5 FUTURE DIRECTIONS To address empirical limitations, future studies could enhance the interpretation of findings The concept of ambidexterity within organiza‐ through collaboration with other researchers for a tions remains inconclusive or consistently redefined more objective and comprehensive perspective. within the research community. However, future While the existing methodology is adequate, it studies are expected to refine its conceptualization could be expanded to include advanced analyses by increasingly framing ambidexterity as a paradox‐ such as content analysis, sentimental analysis, fac‐ ical construct, offering more profound insights into tor analysis, or social network analysis, as sug‐ its multidimensional nature and implications within gested by Chakma et al. (2024). Additionally, organizations. Given that ambidexterity naturally incorporating publications from the Scopus cascades across organizational levels and operates database alongside the updated WoSCC used in dynamically within real‐world contexts, its multi‐ this research could enrich future studies on multi‐ level nature can no longer be overlooked or by‐ level ambidexterity. Adopting a more dynamic ap‐ passed by researchers from a conceptual or proach (Zahoor et al., 2021) through longitudinal empirical (multivariate) perspective. Researchers studies could provide insights into how multilevel should place greater emphasis on advancing the ambidexterity evolves in practice (Turner et al., concept of external ambidexterity. In contrast, 2012). Future researchers might also consider con‐ within the realm of internal ambidexterity, in‐ ducting bibliometric analyses on each ambidexter‐ creased attention should be directed toward sec‐ ity level (e.g., team or individual) to expand the ondary (team/unit ambidexterity) and tertiary scope to examine ambidexterity dimensions (inter‐ (individual/employee ambidexterity) levels (Nosella nal vs. external) separately (Gibson & Birkinshaw, et al., 2012). Furthermore, future studies should be 2004) in conjunction with comparative studies designed to theoretically delineate the distinctions among these levels or dimensions. Moreover, fo‐ between team‐ or unit‐level ambidexterity and in‐ cusing on specific or emerging industries or sectors dividual‐ or employee‐level ambidexterity. One cer‐ (Chakma et al., 2024) could foster interdisciplinary tainty is that organizational ambidexterity will insights or uncover unique manifestations of am‐ remain a foundational reference point, acting as a bidexterity within diverse organizational contexts. critical link that connects interorganizational, team In the substantiating phase, demonstrating the rel‐ (unit), and individual (employee) ambidexterity evance of findings across various subfields (Lim & with performance outcomes, whether examined Kumar, 2024) could enhance transferability, and from a bottom‐up or top‐down perspective or employing temporal analyses and methodological through mediating or moderating factors. Within triangulation would enhance the dependability of this context, the dualities of organizational am‐ research outcomes (Donthu et al., 2022). Ulti‐ bidexterity—exploration and exploitation—will per‐ mately, replicating this study in the future could sist as a sine qua non, essential for understanding yield valuable insights into the field’s evolution its role and interplay in achieving sustained perfor‐ (Snehvrat et al., 2017). mance and adaptability, whether through multi‐ plicative or additive integration. This yet‐to‐ be‐uncovered but anticipated knowledge is ex‐ pected to be pivotal in enabling managers and prac‐ titioners to effectively navigate and integrate diverse ambidextrous strategies across multiple or‐ ganizational levels. Given theoretical directions on ambidexterity, they are expected to be closely in‐ tegrated with the contexts of innovation, en‐ trepreneurship, and knowledge management, fostering collaborative writing with an increased tendency toward publication in innovation‐ and technology‐focused journals. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 55 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 56 Sara Melkić: Mapping the Field of Multilevel Ambidexterity Research Within Organizations Using Bibliometric Analysis EXTENDED SUMMARY/IZVLEČEK Večnivojska ambidekstrija je nastajajoča, a še vedno premalo raziskana tema v okviru prouče‐ vanja organizacijskih paradoksov. Čeprav je organizacijska ambidekstrija že dobro uveljavljena in kon‐ ceptualno izoblikovana raven analize, raziskave o ambidekstriji na ravni enot oziroma timov ter na ravni delovnih mest oziroma posameznikov ostajajo v zgodnji fazi razvoja. Z namenom priprave posodobljenega in integrativnega pregleda literature o trenutni strukturi, raziskovalnih trendih in vrzelih na področju ambidekstrije je bila izvedena bibliometrična analiza. Cilj je bil ovrednotiti pretekli razvoj (analiza uspešnosti), preučiti sedanjost (analiza soavtorstva, sopojavljanja ključnih besed in so‐citiranja) ter predvideti prihodnje usmeritve raziskovanja (analiza bibliografske povezanosti) na ravneh medorganizacijske, organizacijske, enotne (timske) in individualne (zaposleni oziroma delovno mesto) ambidekstrije. Iskanje je bilo opravljeno v podatkovni zbirki Web of Science Core Collection, pri čemer je bilo zajetih 900 primarnih in 24.742 sekundarnih predhodno filtriranih znanstvenih objav, ki pokrivajo obdobje do septembra 2024. Ugotovitve mapiranja znanstvenega področja usmerjajo raziskovalce k oblikovanju prihodnjih teoretičnih in strateških okvirov, ki bodo organizacijskim prak‐ tikom pomagali pri obvladovanju izzivov uravnoteženja na različnih ravneh analize. REFERENCES Caniels, M.C.J., Neghina, C., & Schaersaert, N. (2017). Ambidexterity of employees: the role of empower‐ Ambilichu, C. A., Omoteso, K., & Yeikin, L. S. 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Bibliometric methods in man‐ ploitation and exploration for sustained performance. agement and organization. Organizational Research Organization Science, 20(4), 685‐695. Methods, 18(3), 429–472. 58 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 59 Vol. 14, No. 1, 59‐77 doi:10.17708/DRMJ.2025.v14n01a04 IS THERE AN UPSIDE TO LEADER NARCISSISM? Geir Thompson Hauge School of Management, NLA University College geir.thompson@nla.no Robert Buch Oslo Business School, OsloMet – Oslo Metropolitan University W. Keith Campbell Department of Psychology, University of Georgia Lars Glasø Department of Leadership and Organisational Behaviour, BI Norwegian Business School Abstract This study explores the interplay between narcissism and leadership effectiveness, introducing an innovative perspec‐ tive that highlights the mediating role of political skill. Data was collected from 238 supervisors and 1,531 followers across various organizational levels. Using structural equation modeling and bootstrapping analyses, we tested our hypotheses and investigated a potential inverted U‐shaped relationship between narcissism, follower performance, and abusive supervision. Our findings revealed a predictive relationship between leader narcissism and political skill, which in turn mediated the effects of narcissism on follower outcomes. Specifically, political skill transformed narcis‐ sistic traits into behaviors that positively influenced follower performance, job satisfaction, and reduced abusive su‐ pervision. However, when political skill was excluded from the model, narcissism negatively impacted job satisfaction and follower performance. Keywords: Narcissistic Leadership, Political Skill, Job Satisfaction, Performance, Abusive Supervision 1 INTRODUCTION 2007; Gerstner et al., 2013; Watts et al., 2013). How‐ ever, the negative facets of narcissism often surface Narcissism and its relationship with leadership in risky behaviors and an overemphasis on self‐en‐ have long been central topics of inquiry for social hancement, frequently to the detriment of organi‐ scientists, sparking debates that explore both its fa‐ zations and employees (Judge et al., 2006; Peterson vorable and unfavorable outcomes (Blair et al., et al., 2012). In extreme cases, narcissistic tenden‐ 2008; Campbell & Campbell, 2009; Campbell et al., cies may escalate into unethical or even illegal ac‐ 2011; Rosenthal & Pittinsky, 2006; Sedikides & tions (Blair et al., 2008; Watts et al., 2013). Campbell, 2017). On the positive side, narcissism has been associated with the emergence of leader‐ The ongoing debate between the “bright” and ship traits (Brunell et al., 2008) and bold, transfor‐ “dark” sides of narcissism in leadership remains cen‐ mative decision‐making (Chatterjee & Hambrick, tral to the literature. Numerous studies emphasize Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 59 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 60 Geir Thompson, Robert Buch, W. Keith Campbell, Lars Glasø: Is There an Upside to Leader Narcissism? the negative consequences, highlighting traits such outcomes. Political skill refers to the ability to un‐ as arrogance and self‐centeredness (Benson, 2006; derstand others, adapt one’s behavior to achieve Benson & Hogan, 2008). On the other hand, some desired responses, build alliances, and project au‐ scholars argue that this focus overlooks the con‐ thenticity (Ferris et al., 2007). This skillset enables structive contributions narcissism can bring to orga‐ narcissistic leaders to navigate social and organiza‐ nizations (Kohut, 1996; Miller, 1991; Maccoby, tional dynamics more effectively, presenting them‐ 2000). The concept of “productive narcissism” sug‐ selves as genuine while leveraging their influence to gests that narcissistic leaders can be highly benefi‐ achieve both personal and organizational goals. cial, particularly in situations requiring strong vision, Our study contends that narcissism can lead to audacity, and transformative leadership (Maccoby, the development of political skill, which, in turn, 2000, 2004). Narcissistic leaders, when managed ef‐ mediates the relationship between narcissism and fectively, can inspire organizations by articulating key leadership outcomes, including follower perfor‐ bold visions and steering them into uncharted ter‐ mance, job satisfaction, and reduced abusive super‐ ritory, traits that align narcissistic leadership with vision. By highlighting political skill as a mediating charismatic leadership (Maccoby, 2000, 2004). mechanism, this research contributes to a deeper The dual nature of narcissism—its capacity for understanding of how narcissistic traits, when both productivity and destructiveness—has led re‐ paired with adaptive interpersonal skills, can result searchers to explore various factors that might influ‐ in more constructive leadership behaviors. ence its impact on leadership effectiveness. One The practical implications of this study are sig‐ approach involves redefining narcissism, moving be‐ nificant. By identifying political skill as a mechanism yond the traditional dichotomy of “good vs. bad” that transforms narcissistic tendencies into effective traits. Rosenthal and Pittinsky (2006) propose a more leadership behaviors, this research suggests path‐ nuanced framework that focuses on the underlying ways for leadership development. Specifically, orga‐ motives and outcomes of narcissistic behaviors. In nizations could focus on enhancing political skill in this perspective, narcissistic leadership may be char‐ narcissistic leaders to mitigate negative behaviors acterized by egocentric desires that drive actions, and maximize the potential for positive outcomes. but these actions could manifest in ways that appear transformational or pseudo‐transformational de‐ Furthermore, our study fills a notable gap in the pending on the context (Rosenthal & Pittinsky, 2006). leadership literature by offering a more balanced view of narcissism, moving beyond the binary as‐ Another avenue of exploration examines the sumption that dark traits are inherently harmful. moderating factors that can influence the effects of This research aligns with a growing body of work narcissism on leadership. For instance, narcissism that explores the positive potential of ostensibly may be perceived as beneficial in unethical or negative traits (Smith et al., 2018), suggesting that volatile contexts (Hoffman et al., 2013), but less so leadership outcomes are shaped not just by traits, in stable, ethical environments. The effectiveness of but by the presence of complementary skills such narcissistic leaders may also shift over time, with po‐ as political skill. tential benefits diminishing as leaders gain more ex‐ perience (Brunell et al., 2008; Campbell & Campbell, 2006). Additionally, the curvilinear relationship be‐ 2 THEORY AND HYPOTHESES tween narcissism and leadership effectiveness has DEVELOPMENT been discussed, where moderate levels of narcis‐ sism may be optimal for leadership success, but ex‐ Narcissism is characterized by a set of traits cessive narcissism leads to negative outcomes that collectively form an inflated and grandiose (Grijalva et al., 2015). self‐concept. This self‐concept is often accompa‐ nied by a belief in one’s inherent superiority over In our research, we introduce a new perspec‐ others, a relatively low capacity for interpersonal tive by proposing that political skill mediates the re‐ empathy and warmth, insensitivity to the concerns lationship between narcissism and leadership of others, and a general disregard for social norms 60 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 61 and restraints. It thrives on a constant need for ex‐ However, it’s important to recognize that nar‐ ternal validation and is sustained through a variety cissism can also manifest in more positive ways, of self‐regulatory behaviors, including boasting, characterized by a heightened performance orien‐ seeking attention and admiration, and associating tation, a strong need for achievement (Miller & with high‐status individuals. These methods, al‐ Droge, 1986), a robust drive for professional ad‐ though driven by the narcissist’s desire for affirma‐ vancement (Raskin et al., 1991), unwavering confi‐ tion, are often counterproductive and detrimental, dence in achieving positive outcomes (Sudha & akin to a tornado sapping energy from its sur‐ Shahnawaz, 2020), and the ability to make a lasting roundings (Campbell & Green, 2007; Morf & impact by articulating long‐term goals and maintain‐ Rhodewalt, 2001). ing high motivation (Brummelman et al., 2016). The narcissistic personality trait can also shape leader‐ It is important to clarify that the focus here is ship styles (Sedikides & Campbell, 2017; Campbell on grandiose narcissism, as described above. This et al., 2011) just like any other personality trait discussion does not encompass the two other forms (Fleeson and Gallagher, 2009), ultimately influenc‐ of narcissism: vulnerable narcissism, which repre‐ ing organizational outcomes. Their enthusiasm, sents a neurotic and introverted expression of nar‐ charm, and charisma make them valuable team cissism (Grijalva et al., 2014), or narcissistic players and effective task achievers (Grijalva et al., personality disorder, the clinical manifestation of 2015; Nevicka et al., 2011), ultimately leading to en‐ narcissism characterized primarily by grandiosity hanced performance (Sudha et al., 2020). Further‐ but also featuring elements of vulnerability (Miller more, because transformational leadership entails et al., 2011; Miller et al., 2013). However, it is worth formulating and communicating a compelling vision noting that narcissistic personality disorder is often and fostering intellectual engagement (Bass, 2006), considered to exist on the same spectrum as trait narcissistic leaders can project a bold and lucid vi‐ narcissism (see Foster & Campbell, 2007; Krueger et sion of the organization’s future, inspiring subordi‐ al., 2005; Miller et al., 2009). Additionally, grandiose nates to elevate their expectations and motivation narcissism is not subdivided into “productive” and toward shared objectives. Narcissists possess the “destructive” categories, as there is no clear empir‐ ability to advocate for immediate changes or even ical or conceptual basis for such a division (e.g., disruptive innovations within the organization while Campbell et al., 2005). exuding confidence in their capacity to manage Narcissistic leaders exhibit characteristics akin challenging transitions (Campbell et al., 2011). to those of narcissistic individuals. For instance, This study explores another potentially positive Furnham (2010) attributes to narcissistic leaders a aspect of narcissistic leaders: their political skill. Po‐ pronounced sense of self‐importance, marked by litical skill, defined as the ability to perceptively un‐ the exaggeration of their achievements and talents, derstand social dynamics, strategically adjust and an expectation of being acknowledged as supe‐ behavior, forge alliances, and project authenticity rior without necessarily demonstrating commensu‐ (Ferris et al., 2007), is particularly well‐suited to the rate performance. Many of these leaders are inherent characteristics of narcissistic leaders, who preoccupied with fantasies of boundless success, often exhibit a strong need for admiration, social power, brilliance, and wealth. They hold the belief dominance, and control (Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001). that they are exceptional and unique, and that they This skill empowers narcissistic leaders to effectively can only truly relate to, or should associate with, navigate complex organizational settings in ways other individuals or institutions of similar status. that promote both personal goals and organiza‐ They demand an excessive amount of admiration tional objectives. Unlike emotional intelligence, and respect from those around them, driven by which emphasizes empathy and internal emotional their heightened sense of entitlement, which leads regulation, political skill is distinguished by its focus them to anticipate exceptionally favorable treat‐ on external adaptability and impression manage‐ ment and automatic compliance with their per‐ ment, establishing it as an ideal mediator for narcis‐ ceived needs. sistic leadership. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 61 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 62 Geir Thompson, Robert Buch, W. Keith Campbell, Lars Glasø: Is There an Upside to Leader Narcissism? While other constructs, such as charisma or We then focus on the implications of this rela‐ emotional intelligence, might theoretically serve as tionship for leader outcomes, particularly the po‐ mediators, political skill is uniquely suited to this tential for increased follower performance and role due to its strategic adaptability in navigating reduced abusive behavior by leaders. Narcissism is both organizational and social dynamics. This adapt‐ positively associated with attaining leadership roles ability enables narcissistic leaders to align their per‐ (Pittinsky & Rosenthal, 2006), but this trait alone sonal ambitions with organizational needs, offering does not ensure effective leadership performance. a nuanced framework for understanding how nar‐ The relationship between narcissism and perfor‐ cissism’s impact on organizational outcomes can mance has produced mixed results, with some stud‐ vary depending on complementary skills like politi‐ ies suggesting that narcissists receive higher peer cal skill. ratings as leaders (Chemers et al., 2000; Sümer et al., 2001), while others report a negative trend As narcissistic leaders cultivate political skills, (Judge et al., 2006). These varying results have been they become more effective at forming strategic linked to temporal factors, as narcissists’ initially alliances and networking with high‐status individ‐ positive leadership ratings tend to wane over time. uals, ranging from social media platforms (McCain & Campbell, 2018) to structured environments like This study proposes an additional perspective military settings (Clifton et al., 2009). This devel‐ by examining how political skill mediates the effects opment allows them to position themselves favor‐ of narcissistic traits on leader outcomes. Specifi‐ ably within the organization, using their networks cally, we argue that political skill enables narcissistic to further their objectives, such as introducing em‐ leaders to effectively translate their social influence ployees to new contacts, projects, and collabora‐ into positive organizational outcomes. In contexts tion opportunities. This, in turn, provides emplo‐ like social media, narcissists’ ability to build exten‐ yees with new prospects for career advancement, sive networks (McCain & Campbell, 2018) trans‐ which may motivate them to increase their perfor‐ lates into new opportunities for their followers, mance and demonstrate their value in these new such as introductions to key contacts and projects. contexts. As these leaders leverage their political skills to cre‐ ate a supportive environment, they foster condi‐ Crucially, political skill serves as a mechanism tions that can elevate follower performance by through which narcissistic leaders translate their providing access to new resources and develop‐ desire for social influence into effective leadership ment opportunities. behaviors. It allows them to come across as sincere and genuine, even when their actions are moti‐ In the workplace, narcissistic leaders’ political vated by self‐interest, thereby masking any manip‐ skill allows them to better understand and navigate ulative intentions (McAllister et al., 2018). Through complex social dynamics, using this understanding their expertise in impression management, they to select the most appropriate behaviors, such as in‐ can align their self‐presentation with the expecta‐ spirational appeals, consultation, collaboration, and tions of others, fostering positive relationships and rational persuasion (Sedikides & Campbell, 2017; cooperation (Atay & Okur, 2011, p. 381; Paunonen Yukl & Gardner, 2020). These behaviors help en‐ et al., 2006). These dynamics make political skill a hance the leader’s influence and facilitate positive central process that connects the inherent traits of responses from followers (Ewen et al., 2013; narcissistic leaders with their ability to achieve Kolodinsky et al., 2007; Bing et al., 2011). For in‐ practical outcomes, thus providing a bridge be‐ stance, when a narcissistic leader aims to motivate tween their self‐centered motivations and effective the team towards an ambitious goal, their political organizational influence. Consequently, we propose skill enables them to communicate an inspiring vi‐ the following hypothesis: sion that connects the team’s efforts with broader recognition and success. This helps to build a sense Hypothesis 1: Narcissism is positively associated of pride and significance among employees, foster‐ with political skill. ing a climate of enthusiasm and high performance. 62 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 63 By mediating the relationship between narcis‐ adaptive leadership behaviors. Narcissistic leaders sism and follower outcomes, political skill allows nar‐ with higher levels of political skill can leverage this cissistic leaders to channel their traits into behaviors ability to better perceive and interpret stressful en‐ that positively influence their team’s performance. vironmental stimuli in a manner that neutralizes Thus, political skill acts as a conduit through which their detrimental effects, leading to a sense of calm the otherwise self‐centered traits of narcissism can self‐confidence and reducing stress among their fol‐ be transformed into behaviors that benefit the orga‐ lowers (Ferris et al., 2007). Political skill allows these nization. Meta‐analytic findings consistently demon‐ leaders to adapt their behavior to meet established strate that political skill is a reliable predictor of both social standards, align with expectations, and task and contextual performance ratings (Bing et al., achieve desired goals in a way that is consistent with 2011). Further studies have supported the positive organizational norms. This adaptive capacity means relationship between political skill and employee that they can modulate their natural tendencies to‐ performance outcomes (Meurs, Perrewé, & Ferris, ward retaliation and instead engage in behaviors 2011; Brouer et al., 2013; Munyon et al., 2015). that are more constructive and supportive. Therefore, we put forth the following hypotheses: Political skill thus serves as a mediating process, Hypothesis 2a: channeling the narcissistic leader’s drive for power Narcissistic leadership will be indi‐ and self‐enhancement into behaviors that align with rectly positively related to follower performance prosocial norms. These leaders learn to recognize through the mediator of leader political skill. that building trust and loyalty through positive in‐ Hypothesis 2b: fluence tactics is more effective in achieving their Narcissistic leadership is directly long‐term goals than aggressive or retaliatory ac‐ negatively related to follower performance. tions. For instance, a politically skilled narcissistic leader might choose to address conflicts through private, supportive conversations with followers Previous research has consistently indicated a rather than through public criticism. This approach positive association between narcissism and abusive fosters a sense of trust and loyalty among employ‐ supervision (Finney et al., 2021; Furnham, 2010; ees, transforming the leader’s self‐interest into be‐ Tepper, 2007). Narcissistic leaders tend to react with haviors that are seen as sincere and considerate. heightened sensitivity and anger when they per‐ ceive threats (Horowitz & Arthur, 1988; Edwards et The ability of politically skilled narcissistic lead‐ al., 2013). This emotional response can lead them ers to read situations and adjust their behaviors to believe that they are completely justified in ex‐ aligns with self‐regulation theory, which involves de‐ hibiting aggressive and abusive behavior. For in‐ liberate efforts to modify one’s responses to achieve stance, Westphal and Deephouse (2011) observed desired outcomes (Baumeister et al., 1994). This that narcissistic CEOs engaged in retaliatory actions self‐regulatory capacity enables narcissistic leaders against journalists who wrote negative stories about to suppress their inclination for aggressive re‐ their companies and themselves. This retaliation sponses and instead engage in behaviors that build often took the form of passive‐aggressive tactics, positive relationships with followers (Campbell et such as limiting or severing future communication al., 2004). Empirical evidence has shown that self‐ with the offending reporters. Kjærvik and Bushman regulation is associated with prosocial behaviors (2021), in a meta‐analytic review, identified a con‐ (Lanaj et al., 2016) and sustained commitment to nection between narcissism and aggression, partic‐ goals despite distractions (Duckworth & Gross, ularly in provocative situations. It appears that 2014). Through the mediating role of political skill, unless narcissists receive unwavering loyalty and narcissistic leaders can translate their desire for adulation, they may resort to retaliatory behavior. power and self‐enhancement into more effective, context‐appropriate behaviors (Ferris et al., 2007). However, political skill can act as a mechanism through which the potentially harmful tendencies In this way, political skill serves as a critical inter‐ of narcissistic leaders are transformed into more mediary that allows narcissistic traits to be expressed Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 63 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 64 Geir Thompson, Robert Buch, W. Keith Campbell, Lars Glasø: Is There an Upside to Leader Narcissism? in a manner that is less aggressive and more aligned We propose that political skill serves as a me‐ with positive leadership practices. It transforms the diating mechanism that translates the characteris‐ way these leaders pursue power, encouraging them tics of narcissistic leaders into outcomes that to use influence tactics that appear sincere and con‐ positively influence follower job satisfaction. Narcis‐ ceal any self‐serving motives. Existing research has sistic leaders, driven by their need for self‐enhance‐ identified numerous beneficial outcomes associated ment and validation, often develop political skills to with self‐regulation (Waldman et al., 2018), support‐ navigate complex social environments and achieve ing the idea that political skill helps to reshape the their personal goals. As these leaders refine their expression of narcissistic tendencies into more so‐ political skill, they become more adept at under‐ cially appropriate leadership behaviors. Conse‐ standing and responding to the needs of their fol‐ quently, we propose our third hypothesis: lowers, thereby creating a more supportive and engaging work environment. This, in turn, can lead Hypothesis 3: Narcissism is indirectly negatively re‐ to higher levels of job satisfaction among followers. lated to abusive behavior through the mediator of Specifically, political skill enables narcissistic leader political skill. leaders to select behaviors that strategically align with follower needs and organizational goals, thus allowing them to go beyond mere self‐centered mo‐ Finally, we delve into the examination of the in‐ tivations. For instance, leaders who possess political terplay between narcissism, political skill, and job skill are more likely to assign tasks that match fol‐ satisfaction. Job satisfaction, a widely explored or‐ lowers’ competencies and interests, provide individ‐ ganizational outcome, is succinctly defined as an in‐ ualized support, and encourage followers to pursue dividual’s attitude towards their job (Brief, 1998). challenging goals. By using their political skill to While scholars continue to debate over a universally adapt their behavior to different follower needs and accepted definition (see Weiss, 2002, for a review), situations, these leaders foster a positive and moti‐ job satisfaction is generally understood as an overall vating atmosphere that enhances followers’ percep‐ assessment of one’s job—a positive or negative tions of their work and the leader’s competence. evaluative judgment of their job or job situation (Spector, 1994; Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). In this way, political skill mediates the relation‐ ship between narcissism and follower job satisfac‐ Satisfied employees hold a pivotal role in en‐ tion by transforming the leader’s initial self‐focused suring organizational efficiency and long‐term suc‐ drive into behavior that is seen as considerate and cess (Zehir et al., 2011). Previous research has supportive. Rather than simply amplifying the ef‐ consistently revealed a positive linear relationship fects of narcissism, political skill functions as the between political skill and follower job satisfaction mechanism through which narcissistic leaders can (Treadway et al., 2004; Gallagher & Laird, 2008; turn their social awareness into practical actions Meisler, 2014). Collectively, these studies furnish that positively impact follower attitudes and job sat‐ empirical evidence that political skill plays a crucial isfaction. This process helps to bridge the gap be‐ role in directly shaping workplace outcomes. How‐ tween the potentially negative aspects of ever, very few studies have empirically explored the narcissism, such as self‐enhancement, and the cre‐ relationship between narcissism and job satisfaction ation of a positive work environment. within an organizational context (Mathieu, 2013; Michel & Bowling, 2013). Furthermore, researchers Empirical research supports the idea that lead‐ have often confined their investigations to the con‐ ers who use political skill effectively can shape pos‐ nection between narcissism and the job satisfaction itive follower attitudes, resulting in increased job of individuals displaying narcissistic traits (Bruk‐Lee satisfaction (Douglas & Ammeter, 2004; Treadway et al., 2009; Lehtman & Zeigler‐Hill, 2020; Chand et et al., 2004). Thus, we expect that narcissistic traits, al., 2020). The dynamic interplay between leaders when expressed through the mediating role of po‐ and their followers in this context remains largely litical skill, will enhance followers’ trust in their uncharted territory. leader and perceptions of the leader’s competence, 64 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 65 ultimately leading to higher follower job satisfac‐ For sample 1, our survey encompassed employ‐ tion. In light of this reasoning, we propose the fol‐ ees from various sectors, including the energy sector, lowing hypothesis: laboratory testing service, construction companies, and communication services, all located in Norway. Hypothesis 4: Narcissism is indirectly positively re‐ We were able to collect usable data from a total of lated to job satisfaction through the mediating ef‐ 782 subordinates and 147 supervisors, resulting in fect of leader political skill. an overall response rate of 69%. In sample 2, we fo‐ cused on employees from a large retail food outlet in Norway and obtained data from 749 subordinates 3 METHODS and 91 supervisors, with an overall response rate of 3.1 Setting and Sample 65%. Across both samples, the participant demo‐ graphics showed a predominantly male representa‐ Two samples were used to assess our hypothe‐ tion, accounting for 71.4% of participants in sample ses. In both samples, data were gathered through sur‐ 1 and 78.3% in sample 2. The average age of the veys administered to both supervisors and their direct leaders in sample 1 was 42.1 years, whereas in sam‐ reports. The surveys were distributed to participants ple 2, it was 32.33 years. Furthermore, in sample 1, during their work hours, and participation was en‐ leaders had an average of 15.24 years of education, tirely voluntary. Each leader and follower had a des‐ while in sample 2, this average was 12.72 years. ignated workgroup with a direct supervisor. The questionnaires were distributed and collected elec‐ tronically, with each supervisor and their direct re‐ 3.2 Measures ports receiving a unique link to access the Work Performance. In both samples each super‐ questionnaires. In the first sample, we collected data visor provided assessments for all their subordinates’ on narcissism, political skill, and follower performance work performance on a 7‐point Likert scale for each directly from leaders, while obtaining measures of item (item stems: Dependability, Planning, Know‐ abusive supervision from the followers themselves. In how and Judgment, Overall Current Performance, the second sample, we followed the same procedure and Expected Future Performance; anchors: 1 = un‐ but also gathered information on political skill from satisfactory, 7 = outstanding) (Liden & Graen, 1980). the followers to minimize potential method variance. Additionally, in the second sample, we introduced a Narcissism. Both samples measured narcissism measure of follower satisfaction as a variable of inter‐ by having leaders fill out a 16‐item scale adapted est. In line with the findings of Meurs et al. (2011), we from Raskin and Terry (1988), (sample items: “I think recognize that self‐rated and follower‐rated political I am a special person;” “I know that I am good be‐ skill may relate differently to various outcomes. Meurs cause everybody keeps telling me so;” anchors: 1 = et al. found that self‐rated political skill was negatively strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree). While the NPI related to emotional exhaustion, while follower‐rated was initially designed as a forced‐choice measure, we political skill was linked to job performance ratings. In have adapted it to a 7‐point Likert scale to better suit our study, we chose to assess political skill through fol‐ the aims of our research. The Likert scale enables par‐ lower ratings to minimize common method bias and ticipants to express varying degrees of agreement, al‐ to capture an external perspective on how leaders’ lowing for a more nuanced assessment of narcissistic political skills influence their followers. While self‐ traits. This modification aligns with practices from rated political skill may reflect internal outcomes like previous studies, which have demonstrated strong emotional exhaustion, follower‐rated political skill is psychometric properties for Likert‐scale versions of more likely to be linked to follower perceptions and the NPI. Our choice to employ the Likert format was work‐related outcomes, such as performance and sat‐ driven by its capacity to capture the intensity of nar‐ isfaction. This distinction will be discussed in the in‐ cissistic traits across a continuum, something a terpretation of our results, acknowledging that each forced‐choice format may not fully accommodate. perspective provides unique insights into the effects Moreover, existing research supports the reliability of political skill in leadership. and validity of Likert‐scale adaptations of the NPI, af‐ Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 65 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 66 Geir Thompson, Robert Buch, W. Keith Campbell, Lars Glasø: Is There an Upside to Leader Narcissism? firming its appropriateness for our study (Miller et al. and interpersonal skills, both of which can impact 2014, Gentile et al. 2013, Ackerman et al. 2011). leader‐follower dynamics (Ng & Feldman, 2010). Gen‐ Political skill. For sample 1 political skill was mea‐ der was a relevant control as well, given that men gen‐ sured by means of leaders’ self‐report, whereas for erally display higher levels of narcissism than women sample 2 leaders’ political skill was measured by (Carter et al., 2015), and gender differences can affect means of follower evaluation. In both samples leaders leadership style and perceptions of effectiveness, influ‐ and followers used an 18‐item scale adapted from Fer‐ encing follower outcomes (Eagly & Karau, 2002). Addi‐ ris et al. (2005), (sample items: “I/my leader have/has tionally, we controlled for tenure, since it often aligns developed a large network of colleagues and associ‐ with organizational commitment and familiarity with ates at work whom I can call on for support when I re‐ workplace norms, shaping a leader’s influence and in‐ ally need to get things done;” “I/my leader pay/s close teraction style (Bedeian, Ferris, & Kacmar, 1992). Finally, attention to people’s facial expressions;” anchors: 1 = we accounted for span of supervision, recognizing that strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = slightly disagree, 4 leaders managing larger teams may have less opportu‐ = neutral, 5 = slightly agree, 6 = agree, 7 = strongly nity for individualized interactions, which could affect agree). This instrument was employed to measure in‐ how narcissistic traits and political skill play out within dividuals’ ability to effectively understand others at their groups (Keller, 1994). work, and to influence others to act in ways that en‐ Translation and Pilot Test. All the questionnaires hanced personal and/or organizational objectives. were initially created in English. Despite the expecta‐ Abusive supervision. In both samples each sub‐ tion that Norwegian respondents would have a good ordinate completed a 15‐item version of the instru‐ command of English, a translation‐back conversion ment by Tepper & al. (2008) for measuring abusive process was employed. This rigorous method was supervision. Sample items: “My supervisor tells me adopted to mitigate the potential for misunderstand‐ my thoughts and feelings are stupid;” “My supervi‐ ings or misinterpretations and to guarantee that the sor doesn’t give me credit for jobs requiring a lot of meaning of each item remained equivalent during the effort.” Respondents indicated their agreement with translation process (Brislin et al., 1973; Cavusgil & Das, each item using a 5‐point Likert scale; 1 = never, 2 = 1997). Furthermore, the questionnaires underwent seldom, 3 = occasionally, 4 = often, 5 = always. pilot testing involving a focus group comprising five su‐ Job satisfaction. Sample 2 measured employ‐ pervisors. This testing phase was instrumental in eval‐ ees’ job satisfaction via a three‐item scale adopted uating the relevance and suitability of the instruments from Cammann et al. (1983), with sample items: “All within a for‐profit organizational context. Importantly, in all, I am satisfied with my job;” “In general, I like this pilot study did not reveal any shortcomings in the working here;” anchors: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = design or administration of the questionnaires, affirm‐ disagree somewhat, 3 = slightly disagree, 4 = neither ing their appropriateness for the study. agree nor disagree, 5 = slightly agree, 6 = agree somewhat, 7 = strongly agree. 4 RESULTS Control variables. In Sample 2, we controlled for 4.1 Measurement Model leader education, age, gender, tenure, and span of su‐ pervision to account for factors that could offer alter‐ Initially the measurement models were tested native explanations for our hypothesized relationships. using confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) to deter‐ We included leader education because it often shapes mine whether the items loaded satisfactorily on their leadership behaviors, with research showing that more specified factors. Because we had control over the educated leaders tend to adopt transformational and multi‐level data structure and therefore were able to participative styles that influence follower performance account for potential non‐independence in sample 1 and job satisfaction (Waldman et al., 2001; Elenkov & (followers nested within supervisors), we performed Manev, 2005). We also controlled for age, as narcissism the CFA using cluster robust standard errors at the su‐ levels typically decline with age (Foster et al., 2003), and pervisor level. We used the weighted least squares because age may correlate with leadership experience (WLSMV) estimator of the Mplus program and 66 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 67 treated the data as ordinal (Muthén et al., 1997). The 4.2 Descriptive Statistics and Correlations results of the CFA in sample 1 revealed acceptable fit (χ2 [1371] = 1814.78, p < 0.01; RMSEA = 0.02; CFI = Table 1 and Table 2 show descriptive statistics 0.95; NNFI/TLI = 0.95) according to frequently rules and intercorrelations among the independent and of thumbs (Hair et al., 2010). Similar fit indices were the dependent variables in the sample 1 and sample achieved in sample 2 (χ2 [1794] = 5588.73, p < 0.01; 2 variables. The coefficient alpha estimates for the RMSEA = 0.053; CFI = 0.95; NNFI/TLI = 0.95)1. multi‐item scales are listed on the primary diagonal Table 1: Means, standard deviations, reliabilities and intercorrelations for Sample 1 M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1. Gender .29 .45 2. Age 42.07 7.75 ‐.07 3. Education 15.24 2.62 .04 ‐.04 4. Tenure 51.72 58.42 ‐.11** .43** ‐.18** 5. Span of supervision 11.11 8.70 ‐.05 ‐.11** ‐.26** ‐.24** 6. Narcissism 3.21 .87 ‐.05 ‐.02 ‐.17** ‐.04 .29** (.87) 7. Political skill 5.40 .60 .02 ‐.07 .11** ‐.06 .07* .44** (.88) 8. Performance 5.63 .95 .04 .06 .02 .04 ‐.19** ‐.04 .16** (.91) 9. Abusive supervision 1.22 .34 ‐.07* .16** ‐.07 .18** .04 ‐.04 ‐.10 ‐.21** (.90) Cronbach alphas on primary diagonal; * p < .05; ** p < .01. Table 2: Means, standard deviations, reliabilities and intercorrelations for Sample 2 M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1. Gender .22 .41 2. Age 32.33 7.95 .04 3. Education 12.72 1.98 .15** .00 4. Tenure 60.52 43.53 .05 .53** ‐.00 5. Span of supervision 14.93 6.36 ‐.12** .03 .15** .11** 6. Narcissism 3.81 .87 ‐.22** .03 ‐.09* .08* ‐.03 (.89) 7. Political skill 5.68 1.05 ‐.02 ‐.09* .02 .04 .00 .10** (.97) 8. Performance 5.01 12.28 .02 .00 .12** .10** .05 .09* .21** (.93) 9. Abusive supervision 1.26 .52 ‐.01 .08* ‐.05 ‐.05 ‐.04 .02 ‐.34** ‐.14** (.95) 10. Follower satisfaction 5.97 1.09 ‐.06 ‐.13** .04 ‐.02 .01 ‐.06 .34** .19** ‐.25** (.66) Cronbach alphas on primary diagonal; * p < .05; ** p < .01. 1 Due to a clerical error due to a misunderstanding the students assisting us collecting the data unfortunately did not identify group structure, so the CFA for sample 2 was performed using the same procedure as in sample 1 withouth cluster robust standard errors. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 67 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 68 Geir Thompson, Robert Buch, W. Keith Campbell, Lars Glasø: Is There an Upside to Leader Narcissism? of the intercorrelation matrices. With the exception ship between narcissism and abusive supervision via of job satisfaction (α = .66) in sample 2, which fell political skill was revealed (standardized effect = ‐ slightly below the commonly‐used threshold value .07, p < .05). Adding the aforementioned control of .70, the alpha coefficients were in an acceptable variables resulted in a model that failed to converge. range for all the variables of interest. Accordingly, we report the results of a SEM model without any control variables in sample 1. Although the relatively low correlations between the control 4.3 Hypothesis Testing variables and the outcomes can be seen in Table 1, To test the hypotheses in both samples, struc‐ they were able to be included in sample 2. tural equation model (SEM) analyses were per‐ We report standardized path coefficients. The formed using MPlus. To test the indirect effects, the structural equation model was estimated with the delta method in Mplus was used (equivalent to the use of the weighted least squares (WLSMV) estima‐ Sobel test). The SEM models estimated provided a tor. To formally test hypotheses related to the indi‐ good fit with the data in both sample 1 (χ2 [1371] = rect relationship, we used the delta method 1814.78, p < 0.01; RMSEA = 0.02; CFI = 0.95; procedure in MPlus using the Sobel test Fit indices: NNFI/TLI = 0.95) and sample 2 (χ2 [1794] = 2663.18, χ2 [1794] = 5588.73, p < 0.01; RMSEA = .053; CFI = p < 0.01; RMSEA = 0.03; CFI = 0.98; NNFI/TLI = 0.98) .95; NNFI/TLI = .95. (Hair et al., 2010). Figure 1 shows the results of the Figure 2 shows the results of the SEM analysis SEM analysis for sample 1. In support of Hypothesis for sample 2. In further support of Hypothesis 1, 1, narcissism was positively associated with political narcissism was positively associated with political skill (β = .51, p < .01). In support of Hypothesis 2, skill (β = .10, p < .05). Providing additional support the standardized indirect effect (β = .15, p < .05) sug‐ for Hypothesis 2, sample 2 also demonstrated a sig‐ gested a positive indirect relationship from narcis‐ nificant positive indirect relationship from narcis‐ sism to performance via political skill. In addition, in sism to performance via political skill (standardized accordance with Hypothesis 3, an indirect relation‐ indirect effect = .02, p = .075). In addition, in accor‐ Figure 1: Results of structural equation modeling analysis for Sample 1 Fit indices: χ2 [1371] = 1814.78, p < 0.01; RMSEA = 0.02; CFI = 0.95; NNFI/TLI = 0.95. 68 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 69 Figure 2: Results of structural equation modeling analysis for Sample 2 dance with Hypothesis 3, sample 2 also supported 4.4 Ancillary Analyses an indirect relationship between narcissism and Drawing from the research conducted by abusive supervision via political skill (standardized effect = ‐.05, p < .05). Finally, in support of Hypoth‐ Blickle, Böhm and Wihler (2023) post hoc analysis esis 4, the results of sample 2 gave a positive indi‐ was undertaken to explore whether moderate levels rect relationship between narcissism and job of narcissism could potentially enhance perfor‐ satisfaction via political skill (standardized effect = mance, while both low and high levels of narcissism .05, p < .05). might be associated with poorer performance. This investigation aimed to unveil a potential curvilinear To further examine the validity of our indirect relationship, manifesting as an inverted U‐shaped effects, bootstrapping analyses were used (MacKin‐ pattern. To substantiate the presence of such an in‐ non et al., 2002; Preacher & Hayes, 2008). This in‐ verted curvilinear relationship between narcissism volved a resampling procedure in which the indirect and follower performance as well as abusive super‐ effect was repeatedly estimated in each resampled vision, hierarchical moderated regression analyses dataset (Preacher & Hayes, 2008). The study applied were employed. In these analyses, the quadratic 5,000 bootstrap samples. The indirect effects were term of narcissism, denoted as “narcissism considered significant if zero was not included squared,” was introduced into the equations pre‐ within the confidence interval (CI) (Preacher & dicting performance and abusive supervision. Hayes, 2004). Consistent with the initial results, the bootstrapping analyses related to sample 1 revealed However, the results did not support the signifi‐ significant indirect effects from narcissism to perfor‐ cance of the quadratic term in predicting follower mance (95% CI [.092, .196]) and from narcissism to performance (β = .01, non‐significant for sample 1; abusive supervision (95% CI [‐.111, ‐.005]). Similarly, β = .01, non‐significant for sample 2) and abusive the results related to sample 2 revealed significant supervision (β = .01, non‐significant for sample 1; β indirect effects from narcissism to performance = ‐.06, non‐significant for sample 2). Furthermore, (95% CI [.004, .039]), from narcissism to abusive su‐ the quadratic term did not emerge as statistically pervision (95% CI [‐.080, ‐.007]), and from narcis‐ significant when predicting follower satisfaction (β sism to job satisfaction (95% CI [.007, .088]). = .02, non‐significant) in sample 2. In essence, the Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 69 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 70 Geir Thompson, Robert Buch, W. Keith Campbell, Lars Glasø: Is There an Upside to Leader Narcissism? findings did not reveal the anticipated curvilinear outcomes, highlighting that context and comple‐ relationship between narcissism and the studied mentary skills can significantly influence the effects variables, highlighting the absence of an inverted U‐ of personality traits on leadership effectiveness. shaped pattern in these associations. Although our post hoc results did not support the expected pat‐ The present study enriches this ongoing dis‐ tern, several factors could explain this outcome. course by shedding light on the role of political skill First, the relationship between narcissism and fol‐ as a mediator that channels the influence of narcis‐ lower outcomes may be more complex than initially sistic traits into more positive leadership outcomes. theorized. Contextual factors, such as the leader’s Unlike prior research that primarily focused on the political skill, organizational culture, or follower direct, often negative, effects of narcissism (Furn‐ characteristics, could moderate the effects of nar‐ ham, 2010; Tepper, 2007), our study examines how cissism, preventing a clear curvilinear pattern from political skill can transform these traits into behav‐ emerging. Furthermore, low variation in narcissistic iors that improve follower outcomes. Specifically, traits within our sample could have contributed to our analyses reveal that narcissism is positively as‐ the lack of a curvilinear effect. With limited diversity sociated with political skill, which, in turn, mediates in narcissism levels, the expected U‐shaped pattern its relationship with various follower outcomes such may not have been observable. as performance, job satisfaction, and reduced abu‐ sive supervision. 5 DISCUSSION Our findings are particularly significant in demonstrating that political skill can act as a mech‐ How do these findings contribute to advancing anism through which narcissistic leaders convert research in this field? Ongoing discourse in social sci‐ their self‐focused tendencies into more constructive ence centers on contrasting perspectives regarding actions. Previous research has noted the potential the impact of narcissistic leaders on both followers of political skill to enhance leader effectiveness and organizations. Some researchers emphasize the (Treadway et al., 2004; Douglas & Ammeter, 2004; negative effects of narcissistic leadership, such as Ferris et al., 2007). However, the current study ex‐ toxic work environments and increased abusive su‐ tends this literature by showing that political skill al‐ pervision (Aasland et al., 2010; Newton et al., 2008; lows narcissistic leaders to align their actions with Pelletier, 2010). In contrast, other scholars have high‐ organizational goals, making them more adaptable lighted potentially positive and constructive aspects and responsive to follower needs. This adaptability of productive narcissism, such as the ability to inspire helps to build trust and improve follower attitudes, and drive ambitious goals (Board & Fritzon, 2005; ultimately leading to higher job satisfaction. In this Bollaert & Petit, 2010; Carnevale et al., 2019; way, political skill serves as a crucial intermediary Ouimet, 2010; Rosenthal & Pittinsky, 2006). that helps transform the potentially toxic traits of narcissism into more effective leadership practices. The enduring debate over whether narcissism is advantageous or detrimental to leadership effec‐ Furthermore, we recognize the importance of tiveness remains central to the literature on leader measuring political skill from multiple perspectives. narcissism (Campbell et al., 2011). However, a re‐ In sample 1, political skill was assessed through self‐ cent trend in leadership studies challenges the con‐ reports by leaders, while in sample 2, we obtained ventional view that bright traits are always follower evaluations of their leaders’ political skill beneficial and dark traits are invariably harmful. to minimize potential method variance. This ap‐ Scholars such as Smith et al. (2018) have started to proach helps reduce the risk of common method explore the potential benefits of dark traits like nar‐ bias and enhances the robustness of our findings. cissism, especially when paired with adaptive skills Importantly, in line with Meurs et al. (2011), we ac‐ like political skill, and the possible drawbacks of knowledge that self‐rated and follower‐rated politi‐ traits traditionally seen as positive. These insights cal skill may relate differently to various outcomes. help to broaden our understanding of the nuanced Meurs et al. found that self‐rated political skill was interplay between personality traits and leadership negatively related to emotional exhaustion, while 70 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 71 follower‐rated political skill was linked to job perfor‐ (2019), the presumed causal power of the longitudi‐ mance ratings. In our study, we found that self‐rated nal design has been overstated, and its advantages political skill was strongly associated with leader‐re‐ over the cross‐sectional approach in most cases have ported outcomes, while follower‐rated political skill been questioned. Spector argues that a cross‐sec‐ correlated more with follower perceptions of satis‐ tional design can furnish valuable evidence of rela‐ faction and performance. This difference aligns with tionships among variables while allowing for the the idea that self‐ratings may reflect internal expe‐ elimination of potential alternative explanations riences such as emotional exhaustion, while fol‐ through the inclusion of control variables and alter‐ lower ratings provide an external perspective on native data sources. In our study, we incorporated leader behavior and its impact on followers. several control variables to scrutinize alternative ex‐ planations for the hypothesized relationships, includ‐ The consistency of the mediation effects across ing leader education, age, gender, tenure, and span both samples suggests that political skill plays a criti‐ of supervision. To mitigate common method vari‐ cal role in translating narcissistic tendencies into pos‐ ance, we gathered ratings from different sources: itive leadership outcomes, regardless of the source leader self‐ratings of narcissism and political skill, of the evaluation. The present study thus contributes leader ratings of follower work performance, follower to a deeper understanding of how political skill can ratings of abusive supervision and leader political mediate the relationship between narcissistic traits skill, and follower self‐ratings of job satisfaction. and follower outcomes, offering a more nuanced perspective on how these traits can be channeled to‐ Additionally, we assured leaders and followers ward constructive leadership practices. of the confidentiality of their responses, following the guidance of Podsakoff et al. (2003) to minimize com‐ In conclusion, our findings challenge the as‐ mon method bias. However, it is important to note sumptions put forth by Furnham (2010) and Tepper the limitation inherent in measuring narcissism (2007) that narcissism is inevitably associated with through self‐reporting, as it may raise concerns about abusive supervision. Instead, when mediated by po‐ potential inflation, unreliability, and bias. Narcissists litical skill, narcissism is positively linked to non‐abu‐ tend to rate themselves more favorably, but it re‐ sive leadership behavior, enhancing follower mains unclear whether these self‐ratings are inflated performance and job satisfaction. This suggests that or if others rate them less favorably due to personal political skill may be a valuable mechanism through biases. Still, future research might address this by in‐ which narcissistic leaders can temper their self‐pro‐ corporating third‐party evaluations from colleagues motional tendencies and align their behavior with or supervisors to obtain more objective perspectives organizational and follower needs. Future research on narcissistic behaviors. Another promising ap‐ should continue to explore the complexities of the proach would be to use a multi‐method design, relationship between dark traits, adaptive skills, and blending self‐reports with behavioral observations or leadership effectiveness, particularly focusing on peer ratings, to achieve a more rounded and unbi‐ how political skill can be developed to maximize ased view of narcissistic traits in leadership. These positive leadership outcomes. strategies could help mitigate the biases inherent in self‐reporting, allowing for a clearer understanding of how narcissism influences leadership outcomes. 5.1 Limitations and Future Research While this study sought to reduce common The design of this study may have constrained method bias by psychologically separating predictor the depth of evidence available to support our re‐ and criterion variables, future research could ex‐ search. Our utilization of a one‐time cross‐sectional plore alternative methods. Furthermore, the study’s research design to capture a snapshot of leader‐fol‐ data collection at a single point in time using non‐ lower dynamics, while commonly used, is often con‐ experimental methods limited our ability to estab‐ sidered less robust. Generally, a longitudinal research lish causal relationships or rule out reverse causality. design is favored for its capacity to unveil causal rela‐ Future investigations employing experimental or tionships. Nevertheless, as articulated by Spector longitudinal designs are warranted. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 71 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 72 Geir Thompson, Robert Buch, W. Keith Campbell, Lars Glasø: Is There an Upside to Leader Narcissism? To enhance the robustness of our findings, fu‐ Consequently, training narcissistic leaders to de‐ ture research could gather ratings on leader narcis‐ velop their political skill could be an effective inter‐ sism from both leaders and their close subordinates vention to maximize their positive influence and or other sources. Additional measures of subordi‐ mitigate the risks associated with their narcissistic nate performance could also be included. Moreover, traits. Training narcissistic leaders to develop their given that this study primarily utilized Scandinavian political skill could help them channel their influ‐ business samples, the generalizability of our results ence more positively. Self‐awareness, empathy, and to other cultural groups and organizational contexts conflict management are crucial components of po‐ should be verified through replication. litical skill development. Training could involve re‐ flective exercises, feedback from followers, and In conclusion, our findings contribute to the role‐playing to enhance these abilities (Brunell et growing field of research on the positive aspects of al., 2008). However, challenges such as resistance to dark leader traits, specifically narcissism, by exam‐ feedback may arise due to narcissistic leaders’ sen‐ ining key outcome variables and highlighting the sitivity to criticism (Vazire et al., 2008). To address mediating role of political skill. This study provides this, training programs should create a supportive valuable insights into how political skill can trans‐ environment where leaders can receive constructive form narcissistic tendencies into more constructive feedback. Long‐term coaching and follow‐up ses‐ leadership behaviors. Further research is needed to sions are also necessary to ensure behavior change explore these dynamics and their broader implica‐ is sustained. A multi‐method approach incorporat‐ tions for leadership effectiveness and organizational ing self‐reports, peer ratings, and behavioral obser‐ outcomes. vations could provide a more comprehensive assessment of narcissistic behaviors and improve 5.2 Practical implications feedback accuracy (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Future research should explore the most effective methods The findings of this study suggest that political for political skill training in narcissistic leaders and skill plays a critical role in modulating the impact of investigate the organizational contexts where such narcissism on leadership effectiveness. While nar‐ interventions can be most impactful. By fostering cissistic leaders can exert a strong influence on fol‐ political skill, organizations can help narcissistic lowers, their traits often result in negative leaders leverage their strengths while reducing po‐ outcomes, including lower job satisfaction and in‐ tential negative consequences, ultimately enhanc‐ creased abusive supervision (Harms & Spain, 2015). ing their leadership effectiveness. EXTENDED SUMMARY/IZVLEČEK Ta študija preučuje preplet med narcizmom in učinkovitostjo vodenja ter uvaja inovativno per‐ spektivo, ki poudarja posredovalno vlogo politične spretnosti. Podatki so bili zbrani pri 238 nadrejenih in 1.531 podrejenih na različnih organizacijskih ravneh. Z uporabo modeliranja strukturnih enačb in bootstrap analiz smo preverili postavljene hipoteze ter raziskali morebitno obrnjeno U‐obliko razmerja med narcizmom, delovno uspešnostjo podrejenih in zlorabljajočim vodenjem. Ugotovitve so pokazale napovedno povezavo med narcizmom vodje in politično spretnostjo, pri čemer je poli‐ tična spretnost posredovala učinke narcizma na izide pri podrejenih. Konkretno je politična spretnost preoblikovala narcistične lastnosti v vedenja, ki so pozitivno vplivala na delovno uspešnost po‐ drejenih, zadovoljstvo pri delu ter zmanjšala prisotnost zlorabljajočega vodenja. Ko pa je bila politična spretnost izključena iz modela, je narcizem negativno vplival na zadovoljstvo pri delu in uspešnost podrejenih. 72 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 73 REFERENCES Brummelman, E., Thomaes, S., & Sedikides, C. (2016). Separating narcissism from self‐esteem. Current Di‐ Aasland, M. S., Skogstad, A., Notelaers, G., Nielsen, M. B., rections in Psychological Science, 25(1), 8‐13. & Einarsen, S. (2010). The prevalence of destructive Brunell, A. B., Gentry, W. A., Campbell, W. 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Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 77 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 78 78 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 79 Vol. 14, No. 1, 79‐100 doi:10.17708/DRMJ.2025.v14n01a05 EXPLORING THE SYNERGY: THE ROLE OF SHARED AND SERVANT LEADERSHIP IN THE INNOVATION PROCESS THROUGH BIBLIOMETRIC ANALYSIS Bojana Markovska Klepec School of Business and Economics, University of Ljubljana bmarkovska@yahoo.co.uk Miha Škerlavaj School of Business and Economics, University of Ljubljana BI Norwegian Business School Abstract This study explores the intersection of shared and servant leadership in fostering innovation by using bibliometric techniques to analyze 434 scholarly publications. Using co‐citation, co‐word and bibliographic coupling analyses, this study identifies research trends, thematic clusters and gaps in the literature. The results show that while shared and servant leadership have a significant impact on the innovation process, their role is still under‐researched and frag‐ mented. This study contributes to leadership theory by highlighting the role of shared leadership in team‐based col‐ laboration and decentralized decision making, while extending the theoretical foundations of servant leadership in terms of ethical leadership, psychological safety and sustainability of innovation. By integrating these models, we con‐ tribute to the development of hybrid leadership approaches that promote a trust‐based culture and context‐sensitive strategies for innovation‐driven organizations. Furthermore, we explore how the transition from hierarchical to shared and servant leadership fosters agility, knowledge sharing and innovation, especially in knowledge‐intensive industries that rely on cross‐functional collaboration. Future research should investigate shared and servant leadership in all phases of the innovation process, especially in the later innovation phases, to address role ambiguity and ensure align‐ ment between people‐centered leadership and strategic innovation requirements. Keywords: Shared leadership, Servant leadership, Innovation, Bibliometric analysis 1 INTRODUCTION A large body of research has examined the im‐ pact of different leadership styles on the innovation Leadership plays a central role in the innovation process, including transformational and transac‐ process as it influences the conditions that foster cre‐ tional (Alrowwad, Abualoush, & Masa’deh, 2020; ativity, collaboration and the implementation of new Singh, Del Giudice, Chierici, & Graziano, 2020; ideas (Amabile, 1996; Mumford, Scott, Gaddis & Pieterse, Van Knippenberg, Schippers, & Stam, Strange, 2002). The dynamic nature of innovation re‐ 2010; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman & Fetter quires a leadership style that goes beyond traditional 1990). There has also been a growing interest in hierarchical structures and enables a more inclusive, new‐genre leadership models that emphasize col‐ participative and service‐orientated approach (Yukl, lective and service‐oriented leadership principles 2013). As organizations seek to improve their inno‐ (Hannah, Sumanth, Lester, Cavarretta, 2014; Avolio, vation capabilities, leadership research has evolved Walumbwa & Weber, 2009). Among these, shared to explore new paradigms to meet these changing leadership and servant leadership have emerged as demands (Bass & Riggio, 2006). particularly relevant for fostering an innovation‐ Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 79 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 80 Bojana Markovska Klepec, Miha Škerlavaj: Exploring the Synergy: The Role of Shared and Servant Leadership in the Innovation Process Through Bibliometric Analysis friendly environment by distributing authority, em‐ to innovative goals (Krog & Govender, 2015). Ser‐ powering teams and prioritizing the well‐being and vant leadership also cultivates a supportive envi‐ development of followers (Wang, Waldman, & ronment where employees feel valued, which Zhang, 2014; Wu, Cormican and Chen, 2020; Van fosters trust, empowerment and creativity (Eva et Dierendonck, 2011; Eva et al., 2019; Liden et al., al., 2019; van Dierendonck, 2011; Greenleaf, 1977). 2014; Zhu, Liao, Yam, & Johnson, 2018; Pearce & It increases psychological safety and encourages Conger, 2002). risk‐taking and knowledge sharing ‐ important drivers of innovation in knowledge‐intensive indus‐ Shared leadership is characterized by a decen‐ tries (Edmondson, 2018; van Dierendonck & Patter‐ tralized approach in which leadership tasks are dis‐ son, 2015; Liden, Wayne, Liao, & Meuser, 2014; tributed among team members instead of focusing Yoshida, Sendjaya, & Cooper, 2014; Zada, Zada, Ali, on a single person (Carson, Tesluk, & Marrone, Jun, Contreras‐Barraza & Castillo, 2022; Zhang, 2007). This model encourages mutual influence and Zheng, Zhang, Xu, Liu & Chen, 2021). Research collaboration and enables flexible decision‐making highlights its positive impact on employee creativity and knowledge sharing, which are critical for inno‐ and organizational innovation (Liden et al., 2008; vation (Ensley, Hmieleski & Pearce, 2006). Shared Neubert, Hunter, Tolentino, 2016; Jaiswal & Dhar, leadership improves adaptability and innovation by 2017) through key dimensions such as empower‐ distributing influence and decision‐making among ment, humility, providing directions, authenticity, team members. In contrast to hierarchical models, interpersonal acceptance and stewardship (van it encourages collaboration, knowledge sharing and Dierendonck, 2011). collective responsibility (Pearce & Conger, 2002; Carson et al, 2007; Hoch, 2013; D’Innocenzo et al, Both shared leadership and servant leadership 2016) and leverages diverse expertise to improve are increasingly being researched as drivers of inno‐ problem solving and agility (Ensley et al, 2006; vation. However, the broader conceptual landscape Wang, Waldman, & Zhang, 2014). Studies empha‐ remains fragmented and the intersections of these size its role in fostering creative risk‐taking, psycho‐ leadership styles with innovation‐related topics such logical safety and team motivation (Zhu, Song, as knowledge sharing, creativity, and team collabo‐ Wang & Li, 2023; Nicolaides et al., 2014), which ration remain insufficiently summarized (Bunjak, drive innovation, especially in knowledge‐intensive Bruch, & Černe, M, 2022; Hoch, 2013; Lee, Lee, and industries (Hoch & Dulebohn, 2013; Carmeli, Reiter‐ Seo, 2015; Yang, Liu, and Gu, 2017). Despite growing Palmon, & Ziv, 2010). However, research predomi‐ evidence of their benefits, shared and servant lead‐ nantly focuses on early stages of innovation such ership require further investigation, especially in as ideation, where collaboration and idea genera‐ later stages of innovation (Sousa & van Dieren‐ tion thrive (Zhu, Liao, Yam, & Johnson, 2018; Day, donck, 2017). Challenges such as role ambiguity also Gronn, & Salas, 2004), while its role in implemen‐ need to be addressed to ensure a balance between tation is only studied to a limited extent (Serban & people‐centered leadership and strategic innovation Roberts, 2016; D’Innocenzo et al., 2016). In addi‐ requirements (Chiniara & Bentein, 2016). Future re‐ tion, challenges such as role ambiguity, trust search should investigate how these leadership deficits and coordination issues can hinder its effec‐ models integrate into structured innovation pro‐ tiveness (Lee, Lyubovnikova, Tian & Knight, 2020; cesses while mitigating potential implementation Day et al., 2004; Small & Rentsch, 2011; Nicolaides challenges (Jaiswal & Dhar, 2017; Yoshida et al, et al., 2014). 2014; Liden et al, 2014; Neubert et al, 2016; Zada et al, 2022; Zhang et al, 2021). Servant leadership, on the other hand, focuses on the leader’s role as a servant to their team, pri‐ This study provides a systematic overview of oritizing their needs, personal growth and profes‐ shared and servant leadership of the current litera‐ sional development (Liden, Wayne, Zhao, & ture, with a particular focus on their impact on the Henderson, 2008). By cultivating a supportive envi‐ innovation process. The research is guided by the fol‐ ronment, servant leadership fosters employee en‐ lowing research questions: 1) What are the key re‐ gagement, creativity, and long‐term commitment search trends and citation patterns in studies 80 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 81 examining the role of shared and servant leadership cal to shared and servant leadership can improve in innovation? 2) What are the fields of research as‐ agility, knowledge sharing and innovation, espe‐ sociated with shared and servant leadership? 3) How cially in knowledge‐intensive industries where has the scholarly discussion evolved regarding the cross‐functional collaboration is critical (Tønnessen, integration of shared and servant leadership in inno‐ Dhir, & Flåten, 2021; Lafuente, Vaillant, & Rabetino, vation research? 2023; Pearce & Conger, 2002; Yukl, 2010; Chen, Zada, Khan, & Saba, 2022). We address these research questions by trian‐ gulating across three bibliometric techniques: co‐ citation analysis, co‐word analysis and bibliographic 2 METHODOLOGY coupling. In addition to the bibliographic analysis in VOSviewer, we manually categorized 434 articles In order to do justice to the complexity of lead‐ into thematic clusters based on their abstracts, ership research, we have applied three bibliometric which refer to specific topics related to the innova‐ techniques: co‐citation analysis, co‐occurrence anal‐ tion process in order to gain a more nuanced un‐ ysis and bibliographic coupling. We used the derstanding of their relevance to the innovation VOSviewer software for this purpose. Bibliometric process. This clustering step, which was not prede‐ analysis has become an important method for the fined in the search phase, allows for a more flexible systematic review of academic literature, enabling and context‐dependent analysis of the role of lead‐ researchers to recognise patterns and relationships ership in fostering innovation. By systematically an‐ within academic fields (Kessler, 1963; Aria & Cuccu‐ alyzing the intellectual structure of the field, rullo, 2017; Moed, 2006). identifying research clusters and mapping emerging Bibliometric methods serve as essential tools trends, this study aims to contribute to a more in‐ for analyzing the intellectual structure of research tegrated and comprehensive understanding of fields, uncovering trends and mapping the develop‐ shared and servant leadership in relation to inno‐ ment of scientific contributions (Donthu, Kumar, vation. Mukherjee, Pandey & Lim, 2021; Zupic & Čater, With this study, we aim to advance leadership 2015; Börner, Chen, & Boyack, 2003). These meth‐ and innovation theory by exploring how shared and ods enable the identification of citation links, co‐au‐ servant leadership foster collaboration, ethical thorship networks and thematic clusters and thus leadership and sustainable innovation. Through a provide a deeper understanding of the subject area bibliographic analysis, we aim to improve our un‐ (Small, 1973; Leydesdorff, 2007). Science mapping derstanding of shared leadership by highlighting its in particular provides insights into the evolving role in team‐based collaboration and decentralized knowledge base and interrelationships within lead‐ decision‐making (D’Innocenzo et al., 2016; Nico‐ ership research (Cobo, López‐Herrera, Herrera‐ laides et al., 2014). Furthermore, we aim to extend Viedma, & Herrera, 2011). the theoretical foundation of servant leadership by Bibliometric research consists of two primary emphasizing its influence on ethical leadership, psy‐ analytical approaches: performance analysis and chological safety and sustainability of innovation science mapping. Performance analysis focuses on (Liden et al., 2008; Van Dierendonck, 2011). This quantitative assessments such as number of publi‐ study also aims to contribute to the development cations and citation impact, while science mapping of hybrid leadership models by integrating princi‐ explores relational structures by investigating cita‐ ples of shared and servant leadership that cultivate tion networks, analyzing co‐words and bibliographic a trust‐based culture leading to the development coupling (Moral‐Muñoz, Herrera‐Viedma, Santiste‐ of context‐sensitive approaches tailored to innova‐ ban‐Espejo, & Cobo, 2020; Waltman, van Eck, & tion‐driven organizations and ultimately foster their Noyons, 2010). Given our interest in exploring con‐ long‐term sustainability (Greenleaf, 1977; Avolio et ceptual relationships within leadership research, we al, 2009; Hoch & Dulebohn, 2017; Eva, Robin, Send‐ prioritized science mapping techniques. jaya, van Dierendonck, & Liden, 2019). Our research aims to explore how the transition from hierarchi‐ Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 81 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 82 Bojana Markovska Klepec, Miha Škerlavaj: Exploring the Synergy: The Role of Shared and Servant Leadership in the Innovation Process Through Bibliometric Analysis 2.1 Database and Search Protocol 2.2 Co‐Citation Analysis The data was extracted from the Web of Sci‐ To examine the structure of leadership re‐ ence database using the keywords “shared leader‐ search, we conducted a co‐citation analysis, a ship” or “servant leadership”. These terms were method that assesses how often two articles are applied to all fields of scholarly publications pub‐ cited together, thus indicating thematic similarities lished between 1978 and 2025. The search yielded (Small, 1973). This approach enables the identifica‐ 3,338 relevant articles from disciplines such as man‐ tion of knowledge domains and the historical devel‐ agement (1,453), business (576) and applied psy‐ opment of a research field (Leydesdorff, 2007). chology (466). Considering the large amount of publications (N=3,338) we found in the Web of Sci‐ We took a structured approach to our analysis ence, we applied a citation threshold of ≥50 cita‐ and began by creating a map based on bibliographic tions to prioritize particularly influential works. The data. We then extracted and processed data from bib‐ number of citations is an indicator of impact and rel‐ liographic database files. For the analysis, we used a evance in scientific discourse. Our review thus fo‐ co‐citation method with cited references as the unit of cuses on well‐established contributions while analysis, using the full count as the counting method. maintaining methodological rigor. Subsequently, To refine the dataset, we set the minimum number of 434 documents were selected for analysis. citations to 20 to ensure that we focused on the most important and most frequently cited works. Figure 1: PRISMA Flow Diagram of Study Selection 2.3 Co‐Occurrence Analysis Process To explore the conceptual structure of leader‐ ship research, we conducted a co‐occurrence anal‐ ysis of keywords. In contrast to citation‐based approaches, co‐occurrence analysis examines the actual content of documents to uncover thematic patterns and underlying research topics (Callon, Courtial, Turner, & Bauin, 1983). For the co‐occurrence analysis, we first created a map based on bibliographic data and then ex‐ tracted and processed data from bibliographic database files. The analysis focused on co‐occur‐ rence, where we used authors’ keywords as the unit of analysis and used full counting as the counting method. To ensure relevance, we set the minimum threshold for the occurrence of a keyword to four in order to emphasize the most frequently used terms in the dataset. 2.4 Bibliographic Coupling To identify emerging trends and influential re‐ search contributions, we conducted a bibliographic The retrieved data was analyzed using the coupling analysis, a method that links articles based VOSviewer software, which enables the visualiza‐ on shared references. This approach enables the tion of bibliometric networks, including citation im‐ identification of contemporary research clusters and pact and thematic clusters (Van Eck & Waltman, knowledge boundaries (Glänzel & Czerwon, 1996; 2010; Chen, 2016). Kessler, 1963). 82 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 83 Bibliographic coupling was used in this analysis, 3.1 Co‐Citation Analysis with the documents as the unit of analysis and the Of the 24,501 cited references, we obtained 143 full count as the counting method. To refine the dataset, we set the threshold for the minimum oc‐ articles that formed 3 clusters (Table 1), which are ad‐ currence of a keyword to 190 to ensure that we fo‐ ditionally shown in the Co‐Citation map (Figure 1). The cused on the most important and most frequently total link strength based on these images is 175,805, linked documents. and there are 154 links between the cited articles. Through network analysis, we identified three 2.5 Clusters related to innovation conceptual clusters: Shared and Distributed Leader‐ ship in Teams; Leadership Theories and Motivation In addition to the bibliographic analysis in Frameworks and Innovation Processes and Collab‐ VOSviewer, we manually categorized the 434 arti‐ oration Technologies. cles into different clusters based on their abstracts, which are based on specific topics related to the in‐ The co‐citation analysis revealed three key con‐ novation process. ceptual clusters that illustrate the development of leadership research in relation to teamwork, motiva‐ tion and innovation. These clusters provide a struc‐ 3 RESULTS tured understanding of how leadership theories and frameworks contribute to organizational dynamics, This section presents the results of the three particularly in fostering collaboration and innovation. bibliometric analyses previously carried out with VOS Viewer. Based on these results, we conducted The Shared and Distributed Leadership in Teams a systematic literature search to identify and cate‐ cluster highlights the move away from hierarchical gorize important clusters. The analysis shows the re‐ leadership models towards more collaborative and lationships between the articles, represented by the decentralized structures. Shared and distributed number of references cited together, as well as the leadership have gained prominence in organizational link strength — a positive numerical value indicating research as they can improve team decision‐making, the degree of connection between the articles. A collective problem‐solving and adaptability in com‐ higher value for link strength indicates a stronger plex environments. The findings are consistent with link. Taken together, these links and articles form a previous research suggesting that shared leadership bibliographic network (Van Eck & Waltman, 2010). promotes knowledge integration, psychological Our final results refer to the publications with the safety and team innovation (Carson et al., 2007; highest link strength within each cluster, highlighting Pearce, 2004; Klein, Ziegert, Knight, & Xiao, 2006). the most influential studies. The studies in this cluster suggest that shared lead‐ Figure 2: Co‐Citation map 3((45#,*4('6$47%++%+'#(&' 8499#-4$#,*4('1%7"(494:*%+ /%#&%$+"*0' 1"%4$*%+'#(&' ;4,*5#,*4(' <$#2%=4$>+ !"#$%&'#(&')*+,$*-.,%&' /%#&%$+"*0'*('1%#2+ Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 83 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 84 Bojana Markovska Klepec, Miha Škerlavaj: Exploring the Synergy: The Role of Shared and Servant Leadership in the Innovation Process Through Bibliometric Analysis Table 1: Co‐Citation Analysis: Conceptual Clusters in Shared and Servant Leadership and Innovation Co‐citation Cluster Content Main Authors Main Theories Number of Documents Evolution of the Field This cluster focuses on team‐based and Shared Leadership Theory, Shift from individual Shared and distributed leadership Carson et al. (2007), Servant Leadership Theory, leadership to Distributed approaches, emphasizing Pearce (2004), Theories of Group Dynamics, collaborative, Leadership in shared leadership, group Klein et al. (2006), Decision‐Making Theories, 58 distributed Teams dynamics, and Green (1995), Social Comparison Theory, approaches, fostering collaboration in decision‐ Ashforth (1989) Theories of Organizational team innovation and making processes. Behavior adaptability. Leadership Articles in this cluster Liden et al. (2008), Servant Leadership Theory, Development of Van Dierendonck Maslow’s Theory of Human servant leadership Theories and focus on leadership Motivation styles, servant leadership (2011), Motivation, Transformational 67 and its application to Barbuto and Leadership Theory, Ethical modern Frameworks principles, and human motivation theories. Wheeler, (2006), Leadership Framework, LMX organizational Eva et al., (2019) Theory settings This cluster explores how Fry (2003), Transformational Leadership Evolution from leadership interacts with Bass (1999), Theory, Transactional individual‐centric Innovation team collaboration, Burns (1978), Leadership Theory, Shared leadership models to Processes and innovation processes, and Brown (2005, 2006), Leadership, Servant team‐based, Collaboration communication Dinh et al. (2004), Leadership, Social 18 collaborative Technologies technologies, linking Judge (2004), Comparison Theory, Theories leadership approaches leadership to Green (1995), of Group Dynamics, that drive innovation organizational dynamics Ashforth (1989) Organizational Behavior, and adaptation in and innovation. Ethical Frameworks organizations. ership not only promotes team cohesion, but also The Innovation Processes and Collaboration contributes to a sustained competitive advantage by Technologies cluster links leadership to innovation and utilizing collective intelligence. shows how leadership theories interact with techno‐ logical advances, team collaboration and dynamic or‐ The Leadership Theories and Motivation Frame‐ ganizational processes (Parris & Peachey, 2013). works cluster examines the theoretical foundations of Studies in this category emphasize the role of leader‐ leadership, in particular the theories of servant lead‐ ship in facilitating communication, managing dis‐ ership and human motivation. Servant leadership has tributed teams and fostering a climate conducive to been linked to ethical leadership, leader‐member ex‐ innovation (Fry, 2003; Bass, 1999; Dinh et al., 2004). change theory, and transformational leadership, sug‐ gesting a strong moral and relational foundation for leadership effectiveness (Liden, Wayne, Zhao, & Hen‐ 3.2 Co‐Word Analysis derson, 2008; Van Dierendonck, 2011; Barbuto & In the co‐occurrence analysis (co‐word), the Wheeler, 2006). The cluster shows how leadership ap‐ minimum number of occurrences of author key‐ proaches that emphasize trust, empowerment and words was set to 5, resulting in 42 elements of the ethical responsibility create a psychologically safe en‐ 1088 keywords. The total link strength based on vironment that is conducive to knowledge sharing and these keyword‐related images is 1,282, and there innovation. Furthermore, these findings emphasize are 44 links between keywords. These clusters are the importance of motivational theories, particularly summarized in Table 2. It contains the name of each Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, in understanding how cluster, a list of the keywords with the highest fre‐ leaders inspire and engage teams. quency and the number of all keywords included. 84 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 85 Figure 3: Co‐occurrence (co‐word) map Table 2: Co‐Word Analysis: Key Themes in Shared and Servant Leadership Co‐occurrence Number of Cluster Keywords authors’ keywords Psychological Empowerment psychological empowerment, engagement, organizational citizenship behavior, organizational and Engagement identification, empowering leadership, psychological capital and work engagement 10 Employee Empowerment, Team Creativity and empowerment, job crafting, multilevel analysis, self‐leadership, teams, intrinsic motivation, Knowledge sharing knowledge sharing, shared leadership, team creativity 10 Leadership Communication transformational leadership, meta‐analysis, leader‐member exchange, communication, and Team Dynamics followership, leader humility, team effectiveness, team leadership, teamwork 9 Innovative Leadership and employee creativity, innovation, innovative behavior, job satisfaction, performance, Organizational Behavior psychological safety, thriving, trust in leader, servant leadership 9 Entrepreneurial Leadership entrepreneurship, firm performance, hospitability, organizational citizens, personality, and Firm Performance service climate, service quality, strategic leadership 8 Ethical and Authentic authentic leadership, ethical leadership, hospitality industry, leadership development, Leadership in Organizations networks, responsible leadership, scale development, sustainability 8 Collaboration, Ethics, and Virtual Teams collaboration, ethics, leadership, literature review, team performance, trust, virtual teams 7 Collective and Distributed collective leadership, distributed leadership, gender, management, power, systematic Leadership in Management review 6 Leadership Theory and Systematic Reviews content analysis, leadership theory, measurement, review, systematic literature review 5 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 85 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 86 Bojana Markovska Klepec, Miha Škerlavaj: Exploring the Synergy: The Role of Shared and Servant Leadership in the Innovation Process Through Bibliometric Analysis Using a co‐word analysis, we identified concep‐ Leadership today is driving digital adaptation, tual clusters that characterize contemporary lead‐ virtual collaboration and entrepreneurial innovation ership discourse and emphasize its role in (Zhang & Parker, 2019). The rise of remote work re‐ knowledge sharing, ethics and innovation. These quires new competences in digital leadership and findings reveal a shift from hierarchical models to virtual team management (Morrison‐Smith & Ruiz, collaborative, ethical and innovation‐driven leader‐ 2019). Entrepreneurial leadership is also important ship paradigms and illustrate how leadership theo‐ to manage uncertainty and foster innovation ries are evolving in parallel with technological and (Trastek, Hamilton, & Niles, 2014). organizational complexity. An important trend is the shift towards 3.3 Bibliographic Coupling shared leadership, where leadership functions as a collective process rather than an individual at‐ In this group, all 434 primary articles were an‐ tribute (Carson et al., 2007; Pearce, 2004). Cross‐ alyzed, 190 of which resulted in 69 articles that functional collaboration fosters team creativity formed 3 clusters (Figure 3). The total link strength and problem‐solving especially in knowledge‐in‐ was 3,926, and there were 1,243 links between tensive industries (Raes et al., 2011). Studies also these documents. These clusters are summarized show that servant leadership promotes shared in Table 3. It shows the name of each cluster, the leadership dynamics and improves team agility content summary, the main authors and the num‐ and project success (Zhu, Liao, Yam & Johnson, ber of documents included in the final represen‐ 2018; Van Dierendonck, 2011). tation. The effectiveness of leadership increasingly The first cluster ‐ Servant Leadership and Orga‐ depends on ethical leadership, psychological em‐ nizational Behavior ‐ represents articles that focus powerment and employee well‐being (Liden et al., on leaders who prioritize the growth, well‐being and 2008; Van Dierendonck, 2011). Servant and trans‐ empowerment of their team members. The second formational leadership promote trust, trans‐ cluster – Shared Leadership and Team Collaboration parency and psychological safety and encourage ‐ includes articles dealing with decentralized deci‐ employees to take creative risks (Fehr & Gelfand, sion‐making, team‐based leadership and the distri‐ 2012; Christensen et al., 2015). Psychological em‐ bution of leadership tasks among members of an powerment strengthens knowledge sharing and organization or team. The third cluster ‐ Educational innovation (Miao et al., 2013; Jaiswal & Dhar, Leadership and Policy – contains articles dealing 2016) and reinforces the role of servant leadership with leadership approaches in education, policy im‐ in building ethical and sustainable cultures (Eva et plications and the role of leadership in academic in‐ al., 2019). stitutions. Figure 4: Bibliographic coupling map 86 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 87 Table 3: Bibliographic Coupling Analysis: Key Studies in Shared and Servant Leadership Bibliographic coupling Cluster Content Main Theories Main Authors Number of Documents Practical Implications This cluster examines Teams should embrace shared the role of shared ribute Shared leadership in fostering Shared Leadership D’Innocenzo et al., leadership practices to dist Theory, Team (2016), Nicolaides responsibilities effectively. Leadership team collaboration, Encouraging collaborative and Team how teams distribute Effectiveness Theory, et al. (2014), Lee 36 decision‐making and leveraging Collaboration leadership roles, and Social Identity (2020), Wang et al. members’ diverse expertise the impact on team Theory (2014); Wu et al. team (2020) can enhance creativity, innovation, effectiveness. and overall performance in complex, dynamic settings. This cluster focuses on Organizations should foster a Servant how servant culture of adaptability and Leadership leadership fosters Servant Leadership en et al. (2008), innovation by supporting open and employee Theory, Ethical Lid Liden (2014), Van communication and psychological Organization engagement, ethical Leadership Theory, afety in teams. Developing al Behavior decision‐making, and Organizational Dierendonck (2011), 29 s works for handling conflict positive organizational Behavior Theory Eva et al, (2019) frame and promoting learning across behavior. organizational structures can strengthen innovation capacity. This cluster explores leadership approaches Educational d Educational in educational Leadership Theory, Heck & Hallinger Educational institutions shoul integrate leadership training for Leadership settings, policy Policy (2010), Leithwood administrators to improve and Policy implications, and the Implementation (2008), Wahlstrom 4 decision‐making and policy role of leadership in Theory (2008) implementation. academic institutions. The proximity of the first and second clusters in‐ 3.4 Thematic Classification of Innovation Research dicates some overlap in the literature on shared and Beyond the bibliographic analysis in VOSviewer, servant leadership. These overlaps may include stud‐ we also manually sorted the 434 articles into differ‐ ies that compare the two styles, examine their com‐ bined effects, or explore their applicability in similar ent clusters by grouping them according to key topics contexts such as team performance or organizational related to the innovation process based on their sum‐ change. The connections between the nodes indicate maries. These clusters, shown in the table, provide a strong and more frequent links to larger thematic structured overview of the primary research areas. overlaps. Shared leadership and servant leadership are distinct areas but have commonalities, such as Table 4: Key Topic Clusters in the Innovation emphasizing the empowerment of others and foster‐ Process: Abstract Analysis ing collaboration (Eva et al., 2019, Nicholaides et al., 2014). The overlap between the clusters suggests Cluster Article count that both styles can be applied in complementary Innovation and Development 191 ways to improve organizational outcomes. Articles at Creativity and Idea Generation 81 the intersection of the clusters (closer to the bound‐ Knowledge Sharing and ary) are likely to examine how shared and servant Collaboration 69 leadership interact or compare with each other. These studies could explore hybrid models or the Organizational Change 67 contextual appropriateness of the two styles. Implementation of Ideas 26 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 87 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 88 Bojana Markovska Klepec, Miha Škerlavaj: Exploring the Synergy: The Role of Shared and Servant Leadership in the Innovation Process Through Bibliometric Analysis 3.4.1 Innovation and Development 2009). Entrepreneurial endeavors thrive especially under strong leadership that deals with uncertainty In the first cluster identified, Innovation and De‐ velopment, we classified 191 articles based on their and promotes agility (Klotz, Hmieleski, Bradley, & abstracts that deal with shared, or servant leader‐ Busenitz, 2014; Yammarino, Dionne, Chun, & ship topics related to this theme. Dansereau, 2005). Psychological safety is crucial for encouraging experimentation and creative problem Servant leadership fosters an environment in solving (De Jong et al., 2016). Servant leadership en‐ which employees feel valued, psychologically safe hances this by promoting ethical responsibility and and motivated to take creative risks (Liden et al., well‐being (Schaubroeck et al., 2012). By creating an 2014; van Dierendonck, 2011). By prioritizing trust environment in which employees feel encouraged and ethical responsibility, servant leaders foster a to innovate, leadership goes beyond decision‐mak‐ culture that supports innovation (Fehr & Gelfand, ing and actively shapes the conditions necessary for 2012). Psychological safety is particularly important learning and growth. in this context as it encourages risk‐taking and re‐ duces the fear of failure (Walumbwa, Luthans, Avey, & Oke, 2011). Schwarz et al. (2016) emphasize how 3.4.2 Creativity and Idea Generation motivation in public service — a key component of In the second identified cluster, Creativity and servant leadership ‐ promotes work performance Idea Generation, we categorized 69 articles by ana‐ and innovation. lyzing their abstracts, focusing on studies examining In contrast to hierarchical models, shared lead‐ the role of shared and servant leadership in this area. ership distributes decision‐making and increases Creativity is a prerequisite for innovation and re‐ adaptability and collective creativity (Dinh et al., quires leadership that fosters commitment, ethical 2014; Bolden, 2011; Raes, Heijltjes, Glunk, & Roe, responsibility and participative decision‐making. 2011). Research emphasizes the strong correlation Shared and servant leadership cultivates trust, psy‐ with entrepreneurial success and innovation in start‐ chological safety and collaboration and enables di‐ ups (Ensley et al., 2006). Teams that practice shared verse perspectives to take risks, experiment and drive leadership are more responsive to change and utilize change (Carson et al., 2007; Walumbwa et al., 2011). different perspectives to solve problems (Carson et Shared leadership enhances psychological safety and al., 2007; Wang et al., 2014). Studies also suggest knowledge sharing and empowers employees to take that shared leadership works better in complex and ownership of ideas and engage in creative problem dynamic environments than traditional leadership solving (Ye, Liu, & Tan, 2022; Pearce, Wassenaar & (Pearce & Sims, 2002; D’Innocenzo et al., 2016). Manz, 2014). It alleviates fear of threat and encour‐ Innovation thrives in a knowledge‐intensive en‐ ages teams to question norms (Daly, 2014). Leaders vironment where expertise is shared and utilized who encourage questioning and initiative, increase (Pearce, 2004). Servant leadership fosters a culture creativity in employees (Carsten et al., 2010; DeRue, of knowledge sharing that empowers employees to 2011). Servant leadership promotes innovation by make a meaningful contribution (Schwarz et al., emphasizing ethical leadership, trust and empower‐ 2016; Miao et al., 2014). Proactive work behaviors ment (Walumbwa et al., 2011). encouraged under both shared and servant leader‐ Creativity in virtual teams is characterized by ship— increase engagement in innovative practices knowledge sharing and psychological safety (Morri‐ (Zhang & Parker, 2019). At a strategic level, shared son‐Smith & Ruiz, 2019). Digital transformation re‐ leadership in top management strengthens deci‐ quires adaptive leadership, with digital leaders sion‐making and the utilization of knowledge (Mi‐ utilizing technology to foster collaboration and inno‐ halache et al., 2014). vation (Cortellazzo et al., 2019). In crisis situations, Sustainable innovation requires leadership that shared and servant leadership improve adaptability aligns creative endeavors with long‐term strategic and creativity, as shown by the COVID‐19 response goals (Neubert, Carlson, Kacmar, Roberts, & Chonko, (Fernandez & Shaw, 2020). Leadership effectiveness 88 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 89 is also associated with interpersonal neural synchro‐ and middle managers and show that middle man‐ nization, highlighting the role of deep connections in agers act as knowledge brokers and translate strate‐ creative collaboration (Jiang et al., 2021). gic insights into actionable knowledge. Similarly, Josefy et al. (2015) argue that larger organizations Research shows that shared and servant lead‐ need structured mechanisms for knowledge sharing ership create dynamic, participative and innovative to remain flexible in decision making. workplaces. By fostering trust, empowerment and ethical decision‐making, these models enable em‐ Servant leadership that emphasizes steward‐ ployees to challenge norms and develop break‐ ship and community building enhances trust and through ideas (Carsten et al., 2010; Morrison‐Smith collaboration, which are critical for knowledge shar‐ & Ruiz, 2019). Organizations that embrace these ap‐ ing (Schwarz et al., 2016). Organizations where proaches sustain continuous innovation and com‐ there is a climate of forgiveness — an attribute of petitive advantage (Walumbwa et al., 2011; Lemoine servant leadership— ‐ are more open in communi‐ et al., 2019; DeRue, 2011). cation and knowledge sharing (Chen, Zada, Khan, & Saba, 2022; Fehr & Gelfand, 2012). 3.4.3 Knowledge Sharing and Collaboration Servant leadership also cultivates psychological empowerment and creates conditions for knowl‐ In the third identified cluster, Knowledge Sharing edge sharing at both individual and collective levels and Collaboration, we categorized 69 articles by an‐ (Miao et al., 2014). Leaders who embrace this ap‐ alyzing their abstracts, focusing on studies examining proach promote a culture of continuous learning the role of shared and servant leadership in this area. and strategic collaboration, which is essential for sustained innovation (Miao et al., 2013). In high‐ Knowledge sharing and collaboration are fun‐ pressure environments, servant leadership miti‐ damental to organizational learning, innovation and gates workplace anxiety and maintains engagement long‐term competitiveness (Černe, Nerstad, Dysvik, and collaboration even during crises such as COVID‐ & Škerlavaj, 2014). Leadership plays a central role in 19 (Liden et al., 2008). In healthcare, servant lead‐ shaping environments in which knowledge is cre‐ ership fosters collaboration among care providers ated, shared and strategically deployed (Mumford and improves knowledge transfer, as shown by et al., 2002). Shared and servant leadership, both of Trastek, Hamilton, and Niles (2014). Similarly, Holt which promote trust, psychological safety and and Marques (2012) emphasize that leaders who proactive engagement promote expertise flows cultivate empathy create psychologically safe envi‐ across hierarchical boundaries (Dinh et al., 2014; ronments for open communication and learning. Fehr & Gelfand, 2012; Mihalache et al., 2014). Leadership effectiveness is closely linked to Shared leadership distributes decision‐making and knowledge sharing processes. Gardner, Cogliser, Davis empowers individuals to take responsibility for knowl‐ & Dickens (2010) identify collaborative leadership ap‐ edge creation (Dinh et al., 2014). Bolden (2011) high‐ proaches as important drivers of organizational learn‐ lights that shared leadership promotes organizational ing. Carmeli, Meitar and Weisberg (2006) further learning by balancing structured authority and informal emphasize the role of self‐leadership in fostering collaboration, ensuring that expertise is shared effec‐ knowledge sharing networks and suggest that organi‐ tively. Zhang and Parker (2019) reinforce this by linking zations should develop self‐leadership competencies job design to knowledge sharing outcomes, showing to enhance both individual and collective learning. that employees who actively shape their role con‐ tribute significantly to knowledge sharing. Fehr and Gelfand (2012) present a multilevel model of forgiveness in the workplace and argue At the top management level, Mihalache et al. that an organizational climate based on trust and (2014) emphasize that shared leadership fosters or‐ compassion fosters collaboration. This aligns with ganizational ambidexterity and balances exploratory Mihalache et al. (2014) who propose shared leader‐ and utilitarian learning. Raes et al. (2011) analyze ship in top management teams as a driver of knowl‐ the interactions between top management teams edge sharing and innovation. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 89 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 90 Bojana Markovska Klepec, Miha Škerlavaj: Exploring the Synergy: The Role of Shared and Servant Leadership in the Innovation Process Through Bibliometric Analysis Shared and servant leadership work synergisti‐ improvement. Yammarino et al. (2005) highlight cally to break down silos and enable cross‐func‐ how shared leadership enables organizations to tional collaboration (Dinh et al., 2014; Mihalache et manage complexity, while Nahapiet and Ghoshal al., 2014). Whether through shared or servant lead‐ (1998) emphasize the role of social capital in foster‐ ership, these approaches create workplaces where ing knowledge sharing — an essential principle in knowledge is freely shared, strategically deployed both servant and shared leadership. Servant lead‐ and continuously refined. By fostering trust, ethical ership ensures that change is focused on long‐term stewardship, and a commitment to learning, these goals through ethical guidance and vision (van leadership models ensure that organizations remain Dierendonck, 2011). Fehr & Gelfand (2012) rein‐ adaptable, innovative and competitive in an evolv‐ force this by showing how stewardship promotes or‐ ing knowledge‐based landscape (Fehr & Gelfand, ganizational resilience. 2012; Raes et al., 2011; Zhang & Parker, 2019). Avolio et al (2009) provide a comprehensive overview of leadership theories and show how au‐ 3.4.4 Organizational Change thentic, shared and collective leadership drive change. Shared leadership improves team performance in or‐ In the fourth identified cluster, Organizational ganizations and academic settings (Carson et al., 2007; Change, we classified 67 articles based on their ab‐ Wahlstrom and Louis, 2008; Heck and Hallinger, 2010; stracts that address the impact of shared or servant Leithwood and Mascall, 2008). Hoch et al. (2018) leadership on organizational change. compare leadership styles and find that servant lead‐ A common thread running through these stud‐ ership is particularly effective when it comes to man‐ ies is the realization that traditional, hierarchical aging ethical change. Liden et al. (2008) establish a link leadership models are insufficient for coping with between servant leadership and citizenship behavior modern organizational change. Instead, shared, and in organizations, while Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, servant leadership models foster an environment in Wernsing, & Peterson (2008) show that servant lead‐ which change is not dictated from above, but co‐ ership promotes trust and commitment during created through collaboration, trust and distributed change. Contractor, DeChurch, Carson, Carter, & Kee‐ decision‐making (Denis, Langley, & Sergi, 2012; Lei‐ gan (2012) use network analysis to illustrate how thwood & Mascall, 2008). These leadership styles shared leadership promotes adaptability. emphasize ethical responsibility, psychological Ultimately, the research highlights that success‐ safety and knowledge sharing and support inclusive, ful organizational change is deeply intertwined with sustainable transformation efforts, focused on long‐ leadership approaches that prioritize collaboration, term business success (Chen, Zada, Khan, & Saba, empowerment, and adaptability. Traditional hierar‐ 2022; Imam & Zaheer, 2020). Shared leadership de‐ chical models are not sufficient for managing mod‐ centralizes decision‐making and improves adaptabil‐ ern change (Denis et al., 2012; Leithwood & Mascall, ity and responsiveness (Avolio et al., 2009). 2008). Whether through distributed decision‐mak‐ Wahlstrom and Louis (2008) emphasize how shared ing, ethical guidance, or network‐based leadership responsibility strengthens professional communi‐ structures, these models position organizations to ties, while Leithwood and Mascall (2008) establish thrive in an increasingly complex and evolving land‐ a link between shared leadership and long‐term de‐ scape (Avolio et al., 2009; Wahlstrom & Louis, 2008; velopment and improved performance. Walumbwa et al., 2008). Servant leadership promotes trust and psycho‐ logical safety and empowers employees through 3.4.5 Implementation of Ideas values‐based leadership (Liden et al., 2014). Hoch, Bommer, Dulebohn, & Wu (2018) highlight its role In the Implementation of Ideas cluster, 26 arti‐ in improving engagement during transformation, cles were categorized based on their abstracts, ex‐ while Hallinger and Heck (2010) establish a link be‐ amining shared and servant leadership within this tween collaborative leadership and sustained school theme. 90 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 91 Successful implementation of innovative 3.4.6 Potential challenges, limitations, or ideas requires leadership that promotes knowl‐ unintended consequences of shared and edge sharing, trust and strategic alignment. servant leadership styles Shared and servant leadership can play a key role From the abstracts analyzed, most studies high‐ in turning creativity into sustainable results light the positive impact of shared and servant lead‐ through collaboration, empowerment and partic‐ ership on knowledge sharing, collaboration, creativity, ipative implementation (Yoshida et al., 2014; ideation and execution. However, a few articles point Zhang et al., 2021). out potential challenges, limitations or unintended Shared leadership improves knowledge inte‐ consequences of these leadership styles. gration and cross‐functional collaboration and Yang et al. (2017) investigate the moderating ef‐ promotes effective implementation (Von Krogh, fect of power distance on servant leadership and Nonaka, & Rechsteiner, 2012). It strengthens pro‐ idea implementation. Their results suggest that in ject success through team cohesion and trust cultures with high power distance, servant leader‐ (Imam & Zaheer, 2020) and promotes the team’s ship has a weaker effect on promoting innovation. adaptability to new ideas (Ali, Wang, & Johnson, This suggests that servant leadership may not be 2019). Power heterarchies, where leadership universally effective and that cultural differences shifts based on expertise, improve the execution may reduce its impact on creativity and knowledge of innovation by increasing responsiveness (Aime sharing behavior. et al., 2014). Shared leadership improves the suc‐ cess of IT projects through knowledge sharing, co‐ Josefy, Kuban, Ireland and Hitt (2015) discuss hesion and trust (Imam & Zaheer, 2020). In the organizational size and knowledge sharing dynam‐ hospitality industry, psychological safety and em‐ ics, highlighting that larger organizations often powerment support the implementation of ideas struggle with knowledge flow due to bureaucratic and innovations (Karatepe, Aboramadan, & structures. This suggests that while shared leader‐ Dahleez, 2020). ship is beneficial for collaboration, it can encounter challenges in large, hierarchical organizations where Servant leadership promotes trust, empower‐ decision‐making is traditionally centralized. ment and psychological safety, creating the condi‐ tions for effective implementation of ideas (Yoshida Imam and Zaheer (2020) emphasize the impor‐ et al., 2014). Trust in leadership is key to risk‐taking tance of cohesion and trust in shared leadership, and implementation (Jaiswal & Dhar, 2016; Zhang but also point out that decision‐making processes et al, 2021), while self‐efficacy strengthens proac‐ can become inefficient if trust is lacking, or leader‐ tive engagement (Yang et al., 2017). ship is too distributed. This suggests that shared leadership can lead to slower implementation and Shared and servant leadership promote col‐ decision paralysis in some organizational contexts. laboration, empowerment and cross‐functional in‐ tegration. Shared leadership promotes collective Fehr and Gelfand (2012) introduce the concept decision‐making and adaptability, while servant of forgiveness in the workplace and restorative jus‐ leadership promotes trust, psychological safety tice but acknowledge that excessive forgiveness in and sustained commitment. Organizations that in‐ leadership can reduce accountability and enable re‐ tegrate these approaches, supported by knowl‐ peated negative behaviors. In servant leadership, edge sharing structures and procedural justice, which emphasizes forgiveness and interpersonal ac‐ effectively translate creativity into long‐term inno‐ ceptance, this could mean lower performance ex‐ vation success (Von Krogh et al., 2012; Yoshida et pectations or leniency towards underperformance. al., 2014; Imam & Zaheer, 2020). By prioritizing Cortellazzo, Bruni and Zampieri (2019) examine trust, collaboration and strategic alignment, lead‐ digital leadership and point out that leaders need to ers promote continuous refinement of innovation strike a balance between shared leadership and that promotes sustainable growth and competitive structured authority. They argue that in digitally advantage. transformed workplaces, over‐reliance on participa‐ Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 91 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 92 Bojana Markovska Klepec, Miha Škerlavaj: Exploring the Synergy: The Role of Shared and Servant Leadership in the Innovation Process Through Bibliometric Analysis tive decision‐making can lead to inefficiencies and promotes a distributed approach in which leadership that leaders need to strike a balance between col‐ tasks are shared collectively among team members laboration and decisive action. (Pearce & Conger, 2002; Hoch, 2013). In contrast, servant leadership emphasizes the individual growth None of these studies reject shared leadership and well‐being of employees, with leaders adopting or servant leadership outright, but they point to lim‐ a service‐oriented attitude that promotes trust and itations, contextual factors and potential drawbacks motivation (Greenleaf, 1977; Eva et al., 2019). While that should be considered when applying these these leadership models differ in their approach, leadership models. they have complementary characteristics that create synergies in promoting innovation. 4 DISCUSSION A fundamental synergy lies in their shared em‐ phasis on psychological safety and trust. Servant Research shows that shared leadership is a cat‐ leaders who prioritize the needs of their employees alyst for team collaboration, decentralized decision and create a supportive environment foster high lev‐ making and adaptive problem solving (D’Innocenzo els of trust (Liden et al., 2008). Similarly, shared et al., 2016; Nicolaides, et al., 2014). In innovation‐ leadership fosters team cohesion and mutual ac‐ driven environments, shared leadership fosters countability and promotes decision‐making pro‐ cross‐functional collaboration and knowledge shar‐ cesses that are inclusive and adaptive to change ing, which are essential for breakthrough innovation (Carson et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2014). The inter‐ and sustained competitiveness (Wu, Chen, & Cormi‐ play of these elements creates an optimal environ‐ can, 2024). Organizations that practice shared lead‐ ment for creativity, knowledge sharing and ership may benefit from collective intelligence that experimentation, all of which are essential for inno‐ enables teams to respond dynamically to new chal‐ vation (Zhu, Liao, Yam, & Johnson, 2018; Yoshida et lenges (Von Krogh et al., 2012). al., 2014). The literature on servant leadership empha‐ Another important comparative finding is how sizes its role in promoting psychological safety, eth‐ each leadership style influences motivation and en‐ ical decision‐making and sustainable business gagement. Servant leadership fosters intrinsic mo‐ practices (Liden et al., 2008; Van Dierendonck, 2011; tivation by aligning leadership practices with Eva et al., 2019). Organizations with a strong servant employees’ personal and professional development leadership culture often demonstrate higher levels (van Dierendonck, 2011; Neubert et al., 2016). This of trust, employee engagement and long‐term in‐ approach is associated with higher job satisfaction novation (Eva et al., 2019). and engagement, which indirectly supports a cul‐ The conceptual overlap between shared lead‐ ture of sustainable innovation (Sousa & van Dieren‐ ership and servant leadership points to emerging donck, 2017; Jaiswal & Dhar, 2017). Shared hybrid leadership models that combine participative leadership, on the other hand, increases extrinsic decision‐making with ethical and value‐orientated motivation by promoting collective accountability leadership (Wang, Kim, & Kim, 2021; Burton, and supporting distributed expertise in decision‐ Peachey, & Wells, 2017). While shared leadership making (D’Innocenzo et al., 2016; Nicolaides et al., promotes decentralized control and collective ac‐ 2014). By integrating both approaches, organiza‐ tion (Carson et al., 2007), servant leadership pro‐ tions can simultaneously increase individual moti‐ motes that innovation efforts are aligned with vation and collective team effectiveness and thus long‐term societal and ethical considerations (Eva further drive innovation. et al., 2019). The role of communication and collaboration Both shared leadership and servant leadership also demonstrates a synergy between the two lead‐ emphasize empowerment, collaboration and decen‐ ership models. Shared leadership thrives on the tralized authority, albeit with different emphases. continuous exchange of knowledge and enables Shared leadership focuses on team dynamics and teams to adapt quickly to challenges (Ensley et al., 92 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 93 2006; Hoch & Dulebohn, 2013). Servant leadership This conversation is particularly relevant in en‐ reinforces open communication and inclusivity vironments characterized by uncertainty, where through its emphasis on empathy and active listen‐ agility and ethical responsibility should coexist. The ing and fosters a sense of belonging and engage‐ ability to balance decentralized collaboration with ment (Eva et al., 2019; Chiniara & Bentein, 2016). ethical leadership may prove essential in determin‐ This dual impact creates an ecosystem in which both ing how organizations navigate business transforma‐ team‐driven and leader‐facilitated collaboration im‐ tion and long‐term competitiveness (Eva et al., proves problem solving and innovation outcomes 2019). As leadership continues to evolve alongside (Zada et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2021). technological advancements, the interplay between influence, structure, and values will remain central Servant leadership fosters a supportive, trust‐ to discussions on fostering sustainable innovation. based culture that encourages experimentation, risk‐taking and the development of new ideas (van Dierendonck, 2011). The combination of the peo‐ 4.1 Theoretical contributions ple‐centered approach of servant leadership and the collective decision‐making of shared leadership This study advances leadership theory by bringing provides a holistic strategy to foster innovation in together new insights from organizational behavior, different organizational contexts. psychology and innovation management. The analysis of co‐citation and co‐word analysis indicate an ongoing Despite the synergies between shared and ser‐ development in leadership research that is moving vant leadership, their integration poses certain chal‐ away from individual‐centered models towards more lenges. Shared leadership, which thrives on distributed, ethical and innovation‐oriented ap‐ distributed influence, can lead to role ambiguity and proaches. Our findings highlight a paradigm shift in coordination difficulties if not carefully structured leadership thinking moving from traditional hierarchi‐ (Day et al., 2004; Small & Rentsch, 2011). Without cal models to shared and servant leadership that em‐ clear processes for accountability, teams may strug‐ phasize collaboration, empowerment and distributed gle with decision‐making, particularly in complex or authority (Dinh et al., 2014; Imam & Zaheer, 2020). rapidly changing environments. At the same time, Models of shared and servant leadership supported by while servant leadership fosters a supportive and motivational theories appear to play an important role trust‐based culture, it may not always be suited for in improving team effectiveness and knowledge shar‐ high‐pressure, competitive settings where decisive‐ ing dynamics (Chen, Zada, Khan, & Saba, 2022; Imam ness and assertiveness are essential (Canavesi & & Zaheer, 2020). By positioning leadership as a rela‐ Minelli, 2022). These dynamics raise important con‐ tional process, shared leadership and servant leader‐ siderations about how organizations can harness ship challenge traditional top‐down structures and the strengths of both leadership models while miti‐ foster an environment in which collective decision‐ gating their limitations. making and mutual accountability improve team effec‐ Both shared and servant leadership contribute tiveness (Wang et al., 2014; Wu et al., 2020). to innovation by enhancing team collaboration, psy‐ Furthermore, we highlight the critical intersection chological safety, and motivation. Their intersection of ethics and innovation in leadership effectiveness offers an opportunity to create leadership models and show how values‐led governance strategies, cen‐ that are both empowering and ethically grounded. tral to servant leadership, improve decision‐making The way these leadership styles influence different and promote sustainable organizational growth (Fehr stages of the innovation process—from ideation to & Gelfand, 2012; Christensen et al., 2015; Eva et al., commercialization—remains a critical point of dis‐ 2019). The findings highlight the increasing importance cussion (Sousa & van Dierendonck, 2017; Wang et of technology and collaboration in modern leadership al., 2014). Understanding how they interact in shap‐ and emphasize the need for an adaptive and respon‐ ing decision‐making, knowledge‐sharing, and prob‐ sive leadership style (Wu et al., 2020; Eva et al., 2019). lem‐solving can provide insight into their broader In an era increasingly defined by digital transformation, impact on organizational success. our analysis highlights the need for leaders to cultivate Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 93 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 94 Bojana Markovska Klepec, Miha Škerlavaj: Exploring the Synergy: The Role of Shared and Servant Leadership in the Innovation Process Through Bibliometric Analysis virtual leadership, agile decision‐making, and robust pact of servant leadership on ethical organizational knowledge‐sharing mechanisms and underscores how behavior, and the emergence of hybrid leadership shared and servant leadership can guide organizations models in innovation policy. This study advances the through complex and dynamic work environments understanding of shared leadership by highlighting (Morrison‐Smith & Ruiz, 2019). its role in team‐based collaboration and decentral‐ By integrating these dimensions, this study con‐ ized decision‐making (D’Innocenzo et al., 2016; Nico‐ tributes to a more holistic understanding of leadership laides et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2014; Wu et al., 2020). that emphasizes shared authority, ethical stewardship, The findings show that the shift from hierarchical to and psychological empowerment, all core tenets of distributed leadership structures promotes innova‐ shared and servant leadership. These insights provide tion, agility and knowledge sharing, especially in a strategic framework for developing resilient, high‐ knowledge‐intensive industries where collective ex‐ performing teams capable of supporting long‐term in‐ pertise and cross‐functional collaboration are essen‐ novation and agility in evolving organizational tial for competitive advantage. landscapes (Wu et al., 2020; Holt & Marques, 2012). This research extends the theoretical founda‐ Through bibliographic coupling analysis, this tion of servant leadership by emphasizing its influ‐ study highlights three primary contributions: the role ence on ethical leadership, psychological safety and of shared leadership in team collaboration, the im‐ sustainability of innovation (Liden et al., 2008; Van Table 5: Framing Theoretical Contributions Using the AC/DC Positioning Grid through co‐citation and co‐ word analysis Scope of the How does the contribution Why is it relevant? contribution … Which field? Which discussion? By which authors? (small, CONTRIBUTION (theoretically, moderate, not just practically) large) Shared and servant leadership Redefines leadership as a Advance/ Leadership shift leadership from Dinh et al. (2014), collective, participatory progress and Team hierarchical models to Imam & Zaheer Moderate process that fosters stronger Collaboration collaborative, empowerment‐ (2020) team dynamics and mutual focused approaches. accountability. Fehr & Gelfand Expands leadership theory by Ethical Servant leadership aligns (2012), Christensen Advance/ Leadership, governance with values‐driven et al. (2015), Eva et embedding ethical ip into innovation, progress Innovation innovation strategies, ensuring al. (2019); Mallen Moderate stewardsh promoting responsible and Management ethical and sustainable Broch, Dominguez decision‐making. Escrig, & Lapiedra sustainable leadership Alcami (2020). practices. In a digital landscape, servant research Advance/ Digital and shared leadership support Morrison‐Smith & Advances leadership dership, virtual collaboration, agile Ruiz (2019); Chen by addressing how digital progress Lea e transformation requires Virtual Work decision‐making, and et al., 2022; Imam Moderat s to be more adaptive, knowledge sharing. & Zaheer (2020). leader inclusive, and responsive. By fostering distributed Enhances leadership theory by Leadership authority, ethical leadership, how Advance/ Development, and psychological Wu et al. (2020); demonstrating empowerment‐based progress Organizational empowerment, servant Holt & Marques Moderate leadership increases team Psychology leadership helps teams thrive (2012) resilience, innovation, and in dynamic environments. long‐term success. Source: The AC/DC positioning grid for framing theoretical contributions (Černe, 2021) 94 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 95 Dierendonck, 2011). By fostering trust‐based cul‐ tional hierarchical models to collaborative, ethical and tures and prioritizing values‐driven innovation, ser‐ innovation‐driven approaches. As organizations in‐ vant leadership endorses innovation processes that creasingly operate in complex, knowledge‐based envi‐ are aligned with ethical decision‐making and long‐ ronments, leadership frameworks should adapt to term sustainability. This study emphasizes the impor‐ technological advances, workforce diversity and chang‐ tance of embedding servant leadership in strategic ing employee expectations. The increasing complexity frameworks, particularly in industries where ethical of work environments coupled with rapid technological considerations shape innovation practice. advancement highlights the need to examine how This study contributes to the development of these leadership styles drive knowledge creation and hybrid leadership models by integrating principles organizational agility (Wu et al., 2020; Eva et al., 2019). of shared and servant leadership to create context‐ sensitive leadership approaches for innovation‐ 4.3 Practical implications driven organizations. These models strike a balance between decentralized authority and ethical lead‐ The practical contributions of research on shared ership and provide a governance framework that and servant leadership offer actionable insights for supports stakeholder trust, collaboration and sus‐ organizations, policy makers and innovation leaders. tainable innovation ecosystems. Shared leadership improves team collaboration, agility and decentralized decision‐making and en‐ ables cross‐functional teams to respond dynamically 4.2 Current Trends and Future Research to innovation challenges by leveraging collective in‐ Directions in Shared and Servant Leadership telligence and distributed authority (D’Innocenzo et Our findings emphasize the interdisciplinary and al., 2016; Nicolaides et al., 2014). Organizations can evolving nature of shared and servant leadership stud‐ introduce co‐leadership structures and participative ies and show how leadership extends beyond tradi‐ decision‐making systems to improve adaptability, es‐ Table 6: Framing Theoretical Contributions Using the AC/DC Positioning Grid through bibliographic coupling analysis How Scope of the does the contribution Why is it relevant? contribu Which field? Which discussion? By which authors? (small, CONTRIBUTION (theoretically, tion … moderate, not just practically) large) D’Innocenzo et al., Advance/ Leadership and Shared leadership as a driver (2016), Nicolaides Demonstrates how shared progress Team of team collaboration and et al. (2014), Lee leadership enhances innovation, Collaboration decentralized decision‐making. (2020), Wang et al. Moderate agility, and knowledge‐sharing in (2014); Wu et al. dynamic environments. (2020) Servant The role of servant leadership Liden et al. (2008), Explores how servant leadership Advance/ Leadership and in fostering ethical leadership, Van Dierendonck fosters ethical governance, progress Organizational psychological safety, and (2011), Eva et al. Moderate stakeholder engagement, and Behavior innovation. (2019) long‐term innovation sustainability. Hybrid The emerging hybrid models Advance/ Leadership integrating shared and servant Eva et al. (2019); Investigates the balance between progress Models in leadership for innovation‐ Canavesi & Minelli Moderate decentralized leadership and (2022). ethical governance in Innovation Policy driven organizations. knowledge‐intensive industries. Source: The AC/DC positioning grid for framing theoretical contributions (Černe, 2021) Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 95 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 96 Bojana Markovska Klepec, Miha Škerlavaj: Exploring the Synergy: The Role of Shared and Servant Leadership in the Innovation Process Through Bibliometric Analysis Table 7: Future research directions in shared and servant leadership, classified within five main themes Main Theme: Shared Leadership as a Driver of Innovation and Agility Key Fields for Future Research Authors Focus of Future Research Role of shared leadership in accelerating the commercialization of new ideas Zhu et al. (2018) Exploring how shared leadership can accelerate the process of bringing new ideas to market Main Theme: Servant Leadership and Ethical Innovation Cultures Key Fields for Future Research Authors Focus of Future Research Influence of servant leadership on corporate Eva et al. (2019); Tanno & Investigating how servant leadership principles social responsibility, and ethical governance Banner (2018) influence ethical business practices Role of servant leadership in fostering inclusive, diverse, and psychologically safe Eva et al. (2019); Wang, Studying the role of servant leadership in fostering innovation environments Kang & Choi (2022) diversity and psychological safety in innovation teams Main Theme: The Intersection of Shared and Servant Leadership: Hybrid Approaches to Innovation Key Fields for Future Research Authors Focus of Future Research Influence of hybrid leadership models on Zhu et al. (2023);Yoshida et Assessing how hybrid leadership models impact different stages of the innovation process al, 2014 different innovation process stages, from ideation to commercialization Role of psychological safety and trust in shared Liden et al. (2008); Carson et Studying how trust‐building elements in leadership and servant leadership to foster innovation al. (2007); Wang et al. (2014) contribute to an innovative work environment van Dierendonck (2011); Comparative impact of shared and servant Ruiz‐Palomino, & Zoghbi‐ leadership on motivation and engagement Manrique‐de‐Lara, P. (2020); Comparing how different leadership styles influence Al‐Asadi et al. (2019); Grille, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation Schulte, & Kauffeld (2015) Role of communication and collaboration in Ensley et al. (2006); Hoch & Understanding how effective communication in enhancing innovation outcomes through Dulebohn (2013); Chiniara & leadership enhances collaboration and innovation shared and servant leadership Bentein (2016) outcomes Main Theme: The Role of Leadership in Business Transformation Key Fields for Future Research Authors Focus of Future Research Understanding leadership’s role in shaping digital transformation strategies Cortellazzo et al. (2019). Investigating how leadership styles impact the adoption and success of digital transformation initiatives The intersection of leadership and organizational learning in transformation Van Dierendonck & Sousa Assessing how leadership fosters continuous learning contexts (2017) and adaptability during business transformation Main Theme: Challenges in Integrating Shared and Servant Leadership Key Fields for Future Research Authors Focus of Future Research Role ambiguity and coordination difficulties in Day et al., 2004;Small & Investigating how organizations can mitigate role shared leadership Rentsch (2011); Panaccio, et ambiguity and improve coordination in shared al. (2015). leadership models Challenges of servant leadership in competitive Exploring the limitations of servant leadership in fast‐ environments Canavesi & Minelli, (2022) paced, competitive contexts where assertiveness is required Balancing the strengths and limitations of Reninforcing the need for empirical research on shared and servant leadership Zhu et al. (2023) combining shared leadership structures to enhance innovation. 96 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 97 pecially in digital and hybrid work environments 5 CONCLUSION where leadership is distributed across virtual teams. Meanwhile, servant leadership promotes ethical gov‐ The integration of shared and servant leader‐ ernance, employee wellbeing and long‐term sustain‐ ship represents a transformative opportunity to fos‐ ability, forming the basis for corporate social ter innovation and build resilient, high‐performing responsibility, stakeholder trust and values‐led inno‐ organizations. Shared leadership fosters creativity vation (Liden et al., 2008; Van Dierendonck, 2011). and team collaboration, especially in decentralized environments, while servant leadership promotes In knowledge‐intensive industries, hybrid models trust, an ethical culture and long‐term commitment. that integrate shared and servant leadership can bal‐ Their complementary strengths — collective prob‐ ance decentralized authority and ethical oversight and lem solving and individual empowerment — create foster collaborative innovation that is aligned with the a leadership model that is both dynamic and sustain‐ values of the company and society (Eva et al., 2019). able. Despite these synergies, careful implementa‐ In addition, shared and servant leadership can play an tion is essential. As shared leadership relies on important role in shaping innovation policy, influenc‐ distributed influence, clear coordination mecha‐ ing regulatory decisions, interdisciplinary collabora‐ nisms are required, while servant leadership needs tion and knowledge sharing in research institutions to be adapted to a fast‐paced environment where and public administration (Nguyen, Nguyen, & Tuan, decisiveness is required. By balancing these ele‐ 2023). Policy makers can introduce leadership‐focused ments, organizations can realize the full potential of frameworks to foster ethical and inclusive innovation both approaches. Understanding how these leader‐ ecosystems, while universities and corporate training ship styles influence the different stages of the inno‐ programs should focus on developing leadership skills vation process — from ideation to implementation tailored to a dynamic, high‐stakes environment. Taken — will provide deeper insights into their role in shap‐ together, these implications demonstrate how shared, ing business success. Integrating shared and servant and servant leadership enable and promote organiza‐ leadership into innovation frameworks offers a pow‐ tional agility, ethical innovation and political effective‐ erful way to manage complexity while fostering col‐ ness, ensuring that leadership strategies remain laboration, trust and purposeful growth. collaborative, empowering and ethically grounded in an evolving global landscape. EXTENDED SUMMARY/IZVLEČEK Ta študija preučuje stičišče deljenega in služabniškega vodenja pri spodbujanju inovativnosti z uporabo bibliometričnih tehnik z analizo 434 znanstvenih objav. Z uporabo analiz so‐citiranja, sopojavljanja besed in bibliografske povezanosti študija opredeljuje raziskovalne trende, tematske grozde in vrzeli v literaturi. Rezultati kažejo, da imata deljeno in služabniško vodenje pomemben vpliv na inovacijski proces, vendar sta njuni vlogi še vedno premalo raziskani in razdrobljeni. Študija prispeva k teoriji vodenja s poudarkom na vlogi deljenega vodenja pri timskem sodelovanju in decentraliziranem odločanju, obenem pa nadgra‐ juje teoretične temelje služabniškega vodenja v kontekstu etičnega vodenja, psihološke varnosti in tra‐ jnostne inovativnosti. Z integracijo obeh modelov prispevamo k razvoju hibridnih pristopov vodenja, ki spodbujajo kulturo, utemeljeno na zaupanju, ter kontekstualno prilagojene strategije za organizacije, us‐ merjene v inovacije. Poleg tega raziskujemo, kako prehod od hierarhičnega k deljenemu in služabniškemu vodenju spodbuja agilnost, izmenjavo znanja in inovativnost – zlasti v panogah, ki temeljijo na znanju in se opirajo na medfunkcijsko sodelovanje. Prihodnje raziskave bi se morale osredotočiti na deljeno in služabniško vodenje v vseh fazah inovacijskega procesa, zlasti v poznejših fazah, da bi naslovile nejasnost vlog in zagotovile usklajenost med na ljudeh temelječim vodenjem ter strateškimi zahtevami inovacij. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 97 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 98 Bojana Markovska Klepec, Miha Škerlavaj: Exploring the Synergy: The Role of Shared and Servant Leadership in the Innovation Process Through Bibliometric Analysis REFERENCES Canavesi, A., & Minelli, E. (2022). Servant leadership: A systematic literature review and network Aime, F., Humphrey, S. E., DeRue, D. S., & Paul, J. B. analysis. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, (2014). The riddle of heterarchy: Power transitions in 34(3), 267–289. cross‐functional teams. Academy of Management Carmeli, A., Meitar, R., & Weisberg, J. (2006). 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Journal of the American Society for Informa‐ tion Science and Technology, 58(9), 1303–1319. Liden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., Liao, C., & Meuser, J. D. (2014). Servant leadership and serving culture: Influence on individual and unit performance. Academy of Man‐ agement Journal, 57(5), 1434–1452. 100 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 101 Vol. 14, No. 1, 101‐113 doi:10.17708/DRMJ.2025.v14n01a06 FINDING MEANING AT WORK: ENTREPRENEURSHIP AS A WAY OF ACHIEVING HIGHER MEANINGFULNESS Blaž Abe School of Economics and Business, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia blaz.abe@ef.uni‐lj.si Abstract This study examines the role of entrepreneurship in fostering meaningful work. Using a qualitative approach, in‐depth interviews were conducted with entrepreneurs and employees to explore differences in their perception of work mean‐ ing. The findings suggest that entrepreneurs experience higher levels of meaningfulness at work due to greater au‐ tonomy, purpose‐driven engagement, and self‐actualization opportunities. Employees, on the other hand, often experience constraints that hinder the experience of meaningfulness. This study contributes to the understanding of work meaningfulness by highlighting the distinct factors that influence the entrepreneurial and employee work expe‐ rience. Additionally, the discussion explores implications for organizational design, policy recommendations, and the broader impact of work meaningfulness on well‐being, productivity, and economic sustainability. The research findings provide a deeper insight into the impact of meaningful work on individual and organizational success. Keywords: Meaningful Work, Meaningfulness Entrepreneurship, Employee Well‐Being, Autonomy 1 INTRODUCTION sponse, scholars from various disciplines, including psychology, philosophy, and organizational studies, Why do we wake up in the morning, go to work, have sought to understand how individuals con‐ and repeat this routine throughout our lives? At first struct meaning in their work. glance, one might assume this is an easy question to answer. However, the nature of work—how, Viktor Frankl’s (1985) existential perspective sug‐ where, and when we engage in it—has changed dra‐ gests that individuals find purpose by identifying their matically over the last several decades (Borman, why—a guiding sense of meaning amid the complex‐ Ilgen, & Klimoski, 2003). While work has always ities of life. The search for meaning is a fundamental been essential for survival, our perceptions of it human endeavor, as people naturally attempt to in‐ have evolved throughout history. Before the Indus‐ terpret information and create coherence in their ex‐ trial Revolution, farmers, craftsmen, and merchants periences (Baumeister & Vohs, 2002). Given that a bore heavy responsibilities but also enjoyed the au‐ significant portion of life is spent working, under‐ tonomy to navigate new challenges daily (Schwartz, standing the meaning of work is crucial to broader ex‐ 2015). The significance of work is so deeply in‐ istential and psychological well‐being (Ward & King, grained in identity that many surnames still reflect 2017). Research indicates that individuals do not per‐ historical occupations (e.g., Smith, referring to a ceive work merely as a means of financial sustenance blacksmith) (Standing, 2010). Today, work takes but seek deeper significance in their professional roles place in a globalized and increasingly technological (Šverko & Vizek‐Vidović, 1995). The emergence of pos‐ world, raising new challenges for individuals and or‐ itive psychology (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2014) ganizations. As Baudrillard (1994, p. 79) observed, has further catalyzed research into meaningful work, “We live in a world where there is more and more emphasizing its role in well‐being and fulfillment information and less and less meaning.” In re‐ (Cameron & Dutton, 2003; Luthans, 2002; Wong, Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 101 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 102 Blaž Abe: Finding Meaning at Work: Entrepreneurship as a Way of Achieving Higher Meaningfulness 2014). Studies have demonstrated that meaningful tally different ways. Historically, work resembled en‐ work is associated with positive organizational and in‐ trepreneurial engagement more than contemporary dividual outcomes, including job satisfaction (Kam‐ employment structures, as individuals had greater dron, 2005), motivation (Hackman & Oldham, 1980), autonomy to navigate challenges and develop skills well‐being (Arnold, Turner, Barling, Kelloway, & (Schwartz, 2015). Autonomy is a well‐established McKee, 2007), engagement (May, Gilson, & Harter, driver of well‐being and engagement (Gagné & 2004), and even physical and psychological health Bhave, 2011), yet modern hierarchical workplaces benefits (Ward & King, 2017). often constrain it (Harley, 1999). Given the increas‐ ing demand for meaningful work in today’s complex The meaning of work is commonly defined as an and evolving professional landscape, this research individual’s understanding of what they do and the aims to explore how entrepreneurs perceive and significance they attribute to it (Wrzesniewski, Dut‐ cultivate meaningful work. By comparing their ex‐ ton, & Debebe, 2003). However, research on this periences with those of employees, this study seeks topic is fragmented across multiple disciplines, lack‐ to identify key mechanisms that contribute to ing a unified framework (Rosso, Dekas, & Wrzes‐ meaningful work, offering insights for both theory niewski, 2010). Furthermore, scholars distinguish and practice in organizational settings. between meaning and meaningfulness. While mean‐ ing is an inherent component of cognition—individ‐ The following research questions are examined: uals constantly interpret and assign meaning to their experiences—meaningfulness refers to the perceived Research question 1: Which factors contribute to significance and positive value attributed to work the meaningfulness of work? (Pratt & Ashforth, 2003). This distinction has shaped ongoing debates, particularly regarding whether re‐ Research question 2: How is the meaning of work perceived by entrepreneurs? search on meaningful work has been overly eudai‐ monic (growth‐ and purpose‐oriented) at the Research question 3: What are the differences be‐ expense of hedonic (pleasure‐oriented) perspectives tween the way entrepreneurs and employees per‐ (Steger, 2012; Wong, 2014; Ward & King, 2017). ceive the meaning of work? The relational nature of meaning further com‐ plicates the discussion. Meaning in work arises from Research question 4: Do entrepreneurs or founders interactions between employees and employers, of organizations have a higher chance of achieving shaped by implicit psychological contracts (Schein, higher meaningfulness based on their unique free‐ 1978). Organizations must adapt to shifting external dom in the work context? conditions to maintain competitive advantages, with meaningful work emerging as a key factor in foster‐ ing well‐being and engagement (Burke, 2017). Orga‐ 2 MEANING AND MEANINGFUL WORK nizational culture, leadership, recruitment strategies, Baumeister & Vohs (2002) identify the connec‐ and job design all play roles in shaping meaningful tion as “the essence of meaning.” They define mean‐ work (Pratt & Ashforth, 2003). Conversely, when ing as something that connects various entities. And these factors fail to support employees’ psychologi‐ those connections form a nonphysical reality that cal needs, meaninglessness—commonly understood can help us manage what is happening around us as the absence or loss of meaningfulness—can and act as a tool for imposing stability in life. Mean‐ emerge, leading to disengagement and dissatisfac‐ ing resides in no individual alone, but depends on tion (Bailey & Madden, 2016). socio‐political as well as material‐technological con‐ Despite the extensive research on meaningful text (Hoeyer & Wadmann, 2020). Meaning in life is work, existing studies predominantly focus on em‐ widely regarded as a crucial component of human ployees within structured organizational settings. well‐being and flourishing (Ryff & Singer, 1998; Selig‐ However, entrepreneurs—who often self‐organize man, 2011; Steger, Kashdan, & Oishi, 2008) as well their work—may construct meaning in fundamen‐ as the meaning of work being an essential aspect of 102 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 103 it (Steger & Dyk, 2009). According to the analysis of ration of participants’ perspectives. Data were an‐ the 14 definitions Both‐Nwabuwe et al. (2017) de‐ alyzed through iterative coding to reveal key fined meaningful work as “the subjective experience themes and recurring narratives. The research de‐ of existential significance resulting from the fit be‐ sign was guided by principles of grounded theory tween the individual and work.” to ensure emergent insights were adequately cap‐ tured (Charmaz, 2006). Meaning could either be positive, negative or neutral (Wrzesniewski, 2003). Therefore, stating that A comparative analysis between entrepreneurs work has meaning does not necessarily mean that and employees was conducted to assess differences work is meaningful. “Meaning of work” is commonly in their perception of work meaningfulness. The‐ mistaken for meaningfulness (Rosso, Dekas & Wrzes‐ matic clusters were identified in the areas of auton‐ niewski, 2010), which is associated with positive in‐ omy, job satisfaction, work engagement, financial dividual and organizational outcomes (Bailey et al., motivation, and career growth. Additionally, demo‐ 2019; Lysova et al., 2019). Pratt and Ashforth (2003) graphic variables such as industry, years of experi‐ define meaningfulness as the amount of significance ence, and job role were considered. something holds for an individual. 4 FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS OF THE 3 METHODOLOGY AND SAMPLE RESEARCH SAMPLE 1 A qualitative research design was employed, The findings indicate that entrepreneurs derive using semi‐structured interviews with 20 partici‐ meaning from autonomy, creativity, responsibility, pants—10 enterpreneurs (Research sample 1) 10 and impact. Many left employment due to restric‐ employees (Research sample 2). Thematic analysis tions, discovering greater fulfillment in entrepreneur‐ was conducted to identify patterns related to work ship. However, autonomy comes with challenges, meaningfulness, autonomy, and job satisfaction. such as self‐management and financial risks. While Participants were selected based on purposive some struggled to define their purpose, all acknowl‐ sampling, ensuring a diverse range of industries edged a drive to build and create. The perception of and experiences. Interviews lasted between 45 meaning varied, influenced by past experiences, busi‐ and 90 minutes, allowing for an in‐depth explo‐ ness impact, and personal philosophy. Table 1: Research sample 1 Gender Age group Position Company’s industry Annual revenue in 2020 Interviewee 1 M 45‐50 CEO technology “around 40 million €” Interviewee 2 M 40‐45 board member finance 1,9 million € Interviewee 3 M 35‐40 CEO education “a few million €” Interviewee 4 M 25‐30 CTO crypto “half a million” Interviewee 5 F 30‐35 CEO social N/A Interviewee 6 M 35‐40 consultant/ investor real estate/ start‐ups N/A Interviewee 7 M 55‐60 Partner management coaching 0,14 million € Interviewee 8 M 20‐25 CEO technology 0,3 million € Interviewee 9 M 35‐40 CEO law 0,15 million € Interviewee 10 F 25‐30 CEO marketing “around 1 million €” Source: Own work. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 103 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 104 Blaž Abe: Finding Meaning at Work: Entrepreneurship as a Way of Achieving Higher Meaningfulness Table 2: Research sample 2 Gender Age group Position Years of work experience Interviewee A M 40‐50 Head of the projects in construction, SME 22 Interviewee B F 25‐30 Technical steward in a pharmaceutical company 4 Interviewee C F 60‐65 Sanitary inspector, public sector 39 Interviewee D M 55‐60 Commercialist in a SME 35 Interviewee E F 50‐55 Medical doctor in a public healthcare institution 21 Interviewee F M 35‐40 Specialist for market relations in an energetics company 10 Interviewee G F 40‐45 Data and artificial intelligence lead in a multinational company 16 Interviewee H M 65‐70 System operator in an energetics company 41 Interviewee I F 50‐55 Marketing manager in a public institution 26 Interviewee J M 25‐30 Researcher in drug development, multinational company 3 Source: Own work. 4.1 Entrepreneurs and their formation of meaning wee 3). Others prioritized their employees’ well‐ Entrepreneurs provided diverse perspectives on being and professional growth: “The most meaning‐ the meaning of work, often rooted in their personal ful thing for me is building a platform that enables experiences and career journeys. Some framed people to develop their talents. We are like a sports meaning as an extension of their vision and long‐term team performing in a big league. There are ups and goals. “If you want to create a meaningful life, you downs, but we constantly push forward” (Intervie‐ need to envision it before you build it. I created this wee 1). Similarly, Interviewee 5 emphasized the so‐ film in my head when I was young, and now, 30 years cietal role of work: “If you give work to people, you later, I am living it” (Interviewee 1). Others associated give them dignity. You protect them from economic meaning with problem‐solving, autonomy, and per‐ distress and give them social inclusion.” sonal fulfillment: “I do what I have chosen myself, and However, some questioned whether work I enjoy it. That is what fuels me” (Interviewee 7). needed to have meaning at all. “Even if I am deluding Some entrepreneurs took a deeper, psychoana‐ myself, as long as I enjoy it, it doesn’t matter” (Inter‐ lytical approach, suggesting that work fulfills subcon‐ viewee 3). Others acknowledged that meaning is scious drives. “Everyone has a unique story, but in the subjective and dependent on perspective: “Maybe end, we are all looking to find some sense through our work has no meaning. It depends on how you work. We push forward because of our deep internal look at it” (Interviewee 4). These responses suggest motivations” (Interviewee 2). Others viewed work that meaning is not always a clearly defined concept meaning as deriving from helping others and solving but rather something that evolves with personal ex‐ problems. “My purpose is to resolve problems and periences. help people. I don’t care what that is or on what level” (Interviewee 6). Many saw the process of cre‐ ating something as inherently meaningful, regardless 4.1.1 Actively thinking about meaning of the outcome. “As long as I am doing challenging While some entrepreneurs frequently reflected work, I am fine. That is what I need” (Interviewee 8). on the meaning of their work, others rarely did. Feedback was also a significant source of mean‐ Three participants actively considered work mean‐ ing. Some derived satisfaction from positive client ing, linking it to leadership and long‐term business impact: “Meaning comes from seeing the result of strategy. “I think about the meaning of work all the your work and actually having an impact” (Intervie‐ time. Every decision must fit our vision” (Intervie‐ 104 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 105 wee 10). Another participant highlighted how exis‐ stead of thinking about changing the world, I focus tential reflections improved business decision‐mak‐ on changing the lives of my employees. If I provide ing and personal motivation. them a good life, I am already making an impact” (Interviewee 10). In contrast, others saw overthinking meaning as unnecessary. “It’s better to work toward a mean‐ ingful goal than to constantly question meaning it‐ 4.2 Entrepreneurs and their formation of self. I think you ask these questions when you’re not meaning on the right path” (Interviewee 4). Some suggested that meaningful work naturally aligns with passion Entrepreneurs provided diverse perspectives on and values, reducing the need for active contempla‐ the meaning of work, often rooted in their personal tion. “I don’t think about meaning often, maybe be‐ experiences and career journeys. Some framed cause my work is already meaningful, and I don’t meaning as an extension of their vision and long‐term see any problem” (Interviewee 3). goals. “If you want to create a meaningful life, you need to envision it before you build it. I created this Despite differences in explicit reflection, most film in my head when I was young, and now, 30 years entrepreneurs made decisions that aligned with later, I am living it” (Interviewee 1). Others associated their values, whether consciously or unconsciously. meaning with problem‐solving, autonomy, and per‐ Their focus on crafting meaningful businesses, en‐ sonal fulfillment: “I do what I have chosen myself, and suring alignment with personal goals, and seeking I enjoy it. That is what fuels me” (Interviewee 7). feedback suggests an underlying pursuit of purpose. Some entrepreneurs took a deeper, psychoan‐ alytical approach, suggesting that work fulfills sub‐ 4.1.2 Impact and greater good conscious drives. “Everyone has a unique story, but in the end, we are all looking to find some sense Many entrepreneurs believed in making a posi‐ through work. We push forward because of our tive impact but were reluctant to claim they were deep internal motivations” (Interviewee 2). Others changing the world. Some, like Interviewee SJ, who viewed work meaning as deriving from helping oth‐ ran a social enterprise, felt strongly about creating ers and solving problems. “My purpose is to resolve change: “I have a feeling I am making a difference in problems and help people. I don’t care what that is the world. It’s a small thing, but I hope to inspire oth‐ or on what level” (Interviewee 6). Many saw the ers.” However, most participants had a more modest process of creating something as inherently mean‐ perspective. “I hope I’m making a change, but I know ingful, regardless of the outcome. “As long as I am I’m not ending world hunger” (Interviewee 1). doing challenging work, I am fine. That is what I Several entrepreneurs grappled with the ethics need” (Interviewee 8). of business impact. “Entrepreneurship is one of the Feedback was also a significant source of mean‐ best ways to create a powerful impact, but we are ing. Some derived satisfaction from positive client part of an unsustainable system” (Interviewee 1). impact: “Meaning comes from seeing the result of Others noted that conflicts in business sometimes your work and actually having an impact” (Intervie‐ made it hard to stay true to meaningful work. Despite wee 3). Others prioritized their employees’ well‐ these concerns, many found impact in smaller, every‐ being and professional growth: “The most day contributions. “There is nothing better than see‐ meaningful thing for me is building a platform that ing feedback from a happy client” (Interviewee 8). enables people to develop their talents. We are like A recurring theme was the role of employees a sports team performing in a big league. There are in creating impact. “We try to be an organization ups and downs, but we constantly push forward” where people feel good so they can pass on that (Interviewee 1). Similarly, Interviewee 5 emphasized positive influence” (Interviewee 1). Others empha‐ the societal role of work: “If you give work to peo‐ sized that improving employees’ lives was just as ple, you give them dignity. You protect them from meaningful as creating a large‐scale impact. “In‐ economic distress and give them social inclusion.” Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 105 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 106 Blaž Abe: Finding Meaning at Work: Entrepreneurship as a Way of Achieving Higher Meaningfulness However, some questioned whether work 4.3.3 Being your own boss needed to have meaning at all. “Even if I am delud‐ While autonomy was highly valued, some par‐ ing myself, as long as I enjoy it, it doesn’t matter” ticipants admitted it came with challenges. “When (Interviewee 3). Others acknowledged that meaning you leave a company, you feel free. But after some is subjective and dependent on perspective: time, this taste of freedom is gone” (Interviewee 3). “Maybe our work has no meaning. It depends on Several acknowledged the difficulties of self‐man‐ how you look at it” (Interviewee 4). These responses agement: “Now I often don’t even know what prob‐ suggest that meaning is not always a clearly defined lems to solve. It is difficult, but that is also the beauty concept but rather something that evolves with per‐ of it” (Interviewee 3). Despite these challenges, none sonal experiences. expressed a desire to return to employment. 4.3 Entrepreneurship vs. employment 4.3.4 Unlocking hidden potential A key research goal was to compare how en‐ Many participants reported increased engage‐ trepreneurs and employees perceive work meaning. ment and creativity after becoming entrepreneurs. While many struggled to articulate this initially, their “Entrepreneurship opened a whole new world for responses became clearer when reflecting on their me. It released inner energy and creativity I was transition from employment to entrepreneurship. never aware of” (Interviewee 6). Some linked en‐ trepreneurship to personal fulfillment: “Being in a 4.3.1 Feeling limited at work workplace that doesn’t fulfill you won’t bring maxi‐ mum engagement and commitment” (Interviewee Many participants described employment as 7). Creating their own work environment enabled restrictive. “I felt trapped, like I had no freedom” (In‐ them to align their tasks with personal strengths terviewee 9). “Being employed really limits a per‐ and aspirations. son” (Interviewee 6). They noted that their work was confined to assigned tasks, limiting creativity and decision‐making. “At a job, you can’t just try 4.3.5 Risk and responsibility something new” (Interviewee 3). Frustration with Entrepreneurship was seen as requiring greater these constraints often motivated their en‐ responsibility, which enhanced its meaning. “If you trepreneurial journey. “I felt that working in an or‐ own a business, motivation increases with respon‐ ganization was holding me down if I wanted to be sibility” (Interviewee 3). Participants noted that fi‐ creative. It was just a matter of time before I went nancial risk and accountability heightened their on an entrepreneurial journey” (Interviewee 9). engagement: “Now all the responsibility is on me. I take responsibility for what I do and what I don’t do” 4.3.2 Working as a subordinate (Interviewee 4). The idea of ownership fueled their motivation: “Entrepreneurship is risky, but less so if A common theme was dissatisfaction with having you believe in yourself. You own your decisions” (In‐ a boss. “Although the job was generally good, having terviewee 10). a superior was always bothering me” (Interviewee 4). Some felt their efforts were unappreciated: “When I was employed, someone would tell me what I did 4.3.6 Satisfaction at work wrong and correct it. Now, the market directly tells me Overall, participants reported higher job satis‐ how good my work is” (Interviewee 3). Others disliked faction after transitioning to entrepreneurship. “En‐ being dependent on someone else’s decisions: “Now I trepreneurship brings me higher satisfaction. I can’t choose how I work, when, and with whom” (Intervie‐ even imagine not doing it” (Interviewee 5). In‐ wee 9). Many believed that employment forced them creased autonomy, ownership, and control over to follow someone else’s dreams, while entrepreneur‐ their work were the primary reasons for their en‐ ship allowed them to pursue their own vision. hanced satisfaction. Some, however, described a 106 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 107 shift rather than a dramatic increase: “I was satisfied 4.7 Entrepreneurs and their purpose before, but entrepreneurship brought me fulfill‐ Entrepreneurs frequently reflected on their ment. Now I feel at peace” (Interviewee 2). deeper motivations. “Always do your best, work with your best intentions, and don’t stop. You can’t 4.4 Entrepreneurship and personality build a good enterprise if you are not a good per‐ son” (Interviewee 2). Some struggled to articulate Entrepreneurs attributed their drive to personal their exact drive but felt compelled to create: “En‐ characteristics such as creativity, leadership, and trepreneurship is like building blocks. You just need risk‐taking. “Entrepreneurship is a phase in life to put them together correctly” (Interviewee 10). where you really need to look into yourself. After Their motivation often stemmed from a strong inner you have done that, you become more open to new force pushing them toward their goals solutions” (Interviewee 6). Self‐awareness and per‐ sonal development were recurring themes: “If you want to lead a company well, you need to know 5 FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS OF THE yourself and how to lead yourself” (Interviewee 2). RESEARCH SAMPLE 2 The notion of being a “builder” was frequently 5.1 Employees and their formation of meaning mentioned. “If you are an entrepreneur, you simply Employees found it challenging to define the have it. I don’t know if that is entrepreneurial, but meaning of work, often refining their responses it’s also something artists have—you want to build throughout the interviews. Some initially cited tra‐ and express yourself” (Interviewee 6). Some ques‐ ditional sayings or practical necessities, particularly tioned whether entrepreneurial traits were innate older interviewees who emphasized providing for or developed: “I am not sure if I was born to be an their families. “I still have kids that need my finan‐ entrepreneur or if entrepreneurship made me one. cial support. Providing for them is meaningful to It’s a chicken‐and‐egg question” (Interviewee 1). me,” said Interviewee D. Over time, some devel‐ oped a broader perspective, seeing meaning in 4.5 Meaning of work and private life their contributions to society, helping others, or personal growth. “My work is to help people in Participants noted that entrepreneurship need; this gives my life meaning,” explained Inter‐ blurred the lines between work and personal life, viewee E. often integrating lessons from one into the other. “Ownership logic is very helpful in personal life as A commonly accepted response was that work well. If you think you are a victim, you don’t feel the gains meaning when it creates value, whether by di‐ ability to change. As an entrepreneur, you get the rectly helping others or playing a role in a larger sys‐ feeling that change happens” (Interviewee 3). Many tem. Some participants described work as a societal saw entrepreneurship as a continuous process of duty, emphasizing the collective effort needed for self‐improvement and reflection. social and economic structures to function. “One’s work is meaningful because it all makes sense in the end,” said Interviewee H. Others focused on the per‐ 4.6 Entrepreneurship as a life trajectory sonal aspect, stating that feeling useful is essential Many participants described entrepreneurship to meaningful work. “A person needs to feel signifi‐ as a long‐term vision rather than a short‐term cant, that their work matters to others. You can have choice. “I always wanted to have an enterprise. It everything, but if you do not feel useful, you will not has become a part of my identity” (Interviewee 3). find meaning,” claimed Interviewee E. Some described it as a natural progression rather Receiving feedback was another crucial factor than a planned decision: “I never had a clear idea of in determining meaningfulness. Those who worked becoming an entrepreneur. But throughout life, I closely with clients or customers found significance was always building something” (Interviewee 8). in knowing their efforts were appreciated. Some Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 107 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 108 Blaž Abe: Finding Meaning at Work: Entrepreneurship as a Way of Achieving Higher Meaningfulness emphasized the importance of seeing the tangible plete the project, and then all the commendation results of their work. Others valued personal satis‐ goes to the person that did not do much,” com‐ faction above external validation, highlighting their plained Interviewee J. Without appreciation, moti‐ contribution and sense of accomplishment. “It is vation and fulfillment diminished. more important to me that I have contributed, and if I am content with it, I want to have inner peace,” Feelings of insecurity and doubt also played a said Interviewee G. role in meaninglessness, particularly when employ‐ ees faced challenges beyond their expertise. One notable outlier, Interviewee I, described “When things go wrong, and I do not know what to work as deeply intertwined with her life, similar to do, I start questioning the meaning of my work,” perspectives observed in entrepreneurs. She fully said Interviewee B. Uncertainty in job roles and re‐ immersed herself in her job and actively sought sponsibilities hindered employees’ ability to find work that created value for both herself and society. satisfaction. “I want to do work that is meaningful, that creates value for society and myself,” she explained. Unlike others, she also cited religion as a key source of 5.1.2 Changing meaning over time meaning. Employees’ perspectives on work meaning evolved throughout their careers. Younger employ‐ 5.1.1 Meaninglessness at work ees often placed great importance on work, seeing it as central to their identity. “You are ambitious; ev‐ Employees also described experiences where erything needs to make sense,” said Interviewee UP. they felt little or no meaning in their work. Identify‐ Many younger participants formed strong relation‐ ing the causes of meaninglessness is as important ships with colleagues, blurring the line between as understanding what drives meaningfulness, as work and personal life. “People from your job be‐ addressing these issues can improve employee sat‐ come the people you hang out with since you spend isfaction. so much time together. You start to equal job with Many struggled to pinpoint meaninglessness your life,” said Interviewee G. directly but gradually revealed it in their responses. Over time, priorities shifted, and many employ‐ The most common cause was feeling that their work ees emphasized work‐life balance. They realized lacked purpose or did not make a tangible impact. that while work was significant, personal interests Employees often cited bureaucratic tasks, unrecog‐ and relationships were equally important. “In the nized efforts, or redundant work as sources of frus‐ first years, I overestimated the role of work, posi‐ tration. “I need to make some Excel spreadsheets tioning it beyond my personal interests. Now I see that no one ever reads,” said Interviewee I. that a counterweight is needed to prevent burnout,” Corporate environments and rigid structures said Interviewee E. Many reported learning to set also contributed to feelings of meaninglessness. boundaries and adapt expectations to maintain a Some employees described feeling disconnected healthier relationship with work. due to top‐down decision‐making, where they had Work experience also influenced how employ‐ to execute projects they did not believe in. “Then it ees handled challenges. Early‐career employees re‐ is up to you to handle the situation, which can be ported higher stress levels and self‐doubt, whereas quite political. The problem is that these situations experienced workers described becoming more can demotivate people incredibly,” explained Inter‐ confident in managing work‐related issues. “In the viewee G. beginning, you have more doubt in yourself, but Another key factor was the lack of recognition slowly the stress of new projects and challenges is for effort. Some employees put significant work into gone,” said Interviewee F. Similarly, Interviewee D projects only to see their contributions ignored or noted, “Things that took much of my time and men‐ attributed to someone else. “You work hard to com‐ tal energy are just part of the routine now.” 108 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 109 Career progression often shifted employees’ fessional development. “You need to understand understanding of meaning, as some realized the lim‐ who you are at work. It is difficult to achieve that itations of their autonomy. Some developed coping without feedback. You can say you have found your strategies to sustain meaning, while others grew dis‐ meaning, but maybe you are a headache for oth‐ illusioned. “You need to set borders. You need to ers,” said Interviewee F. This suggests that continu‐ see what you receive for what you give,” said Inter‐ ous feedback is crucial for fostering a sense of viewee A, suggesting that realistic expectations help purpose and improvement. maintain fulfillment. Contrary to most participants, Interviewee I ac‐ 6 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION tively sought meaningful work throughout her ca‐ reer, frequently changing jobs to align with her This study explores how entrepreneurs per‐ values. “Often, I was jobless just so I could find and ceive the meaning of work and compares their ex‐ do the work I really wanted,” she said. Even when periences with those of employees. Findings meaning diminished, she tried to reshape her role indicate that entrepreneurs attribute higher signifi‐ before ultimately deciding to move on. cance to their work, making it more meaningful. This aligns with theoretical expectations, as en‐ trepreneurs integrate personal, organizational, and 5.1.3 Feedback societal meanings into their work more seamlessly Feedback played a significant role in shaping than employees. employees’ sense of purpose. Many initially down‐ A notable aspect of the interviews was the played its importance, but their enthusiasm when depth of reflection participants engaged in. En‐ discussing positive feedback suggested otherwise. trepreneurs often demonstrated a strong sense of Recognition from clients, managers, or coworkers purpose, even if they struggled to articulate it ex‐ reinforced employees’ sense of contribution. “The plicitly. Employees, on the other hand, frequently highest satisfaction for me is when the customer ap‐ expressed satisfaction with their work but later re‐ proves my work,” said Interviewee A. vealed constraints that limited their ability to align work with personal meaning. This suggests that em‐ Some employees expressed a desire for more ployees’ autonomy plays a crucial role in the mean‐ direct customer feedback, feeling disconnected ingfulness they derive from work. from the impact of their work. “I wish I could be closer to a customer to hear their feedback,” said The findings resonate with research on mean‐ Interviewee J. Others valued recognition from su‐ ing‐making, which suggests that individuals con‐ pervisors, noting that praise from management sig‐ struct meaning through narratives (Hermans, 1998; nificantly boosted their motivation. “If there was an Sommer & Baumeister, 1998; Harari, 2016). Partici‐ outage, and you managed to solve the situation pants often uncovered their own work meaning quickly, you got praise, and that was very powerful,” through storytelling, reinforcing the idea that mean‐ said Interviewee H. ingful work is closely tied to relational and contex‐ tual factors. Frankl’s (1959) argument that meaning Coworkers’ feedback was also highly valued. is found through others, rather than in isolation, is Many employees described how peer appreciation particularly relevant in this context. was more meaningful than financial compensation. “Because of feedback, we have better relations, Moreover, this study supports the notion that more flexibility, and that is far more important for meaningfulness is not merely about the presence of me,” said Interviewee A. meaning but about the significance attributed to it (Pratt & Ashforth, 2003; Steger et al., 2012). En‐ Additionally, employees emphasized feedback’s trepreneurs appear to experience higher levels of role in defining their work identity and career meaningfulness due to their ability to act in align‐ growth. Constructive feedback helped them recog‐ ment with their values and goals. Employees, in con‐ nize strengths and weaknesses, guiding their pro‐ trast, may struggle to redesign or reframe their work Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 109 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 110 Blaž Abe: Finding Meaning at Work: Entrepreneurship as a Way of Achieving Higher Meaningfulness experiences due to structural limitations. This is re‐ 6.3 Research question 3: What are the differences flected in their descriptions, which, unlike en‐ between the way entrepreneurs and trepreneurs, often carried a sense of resignation employees perceive the meaning of work? regarding their capacity to shape their work envi‐ Meaningfulness at work is shaped by various ronments. factors, differing between entrepreneurs and employees. Employees frequently cited feedback 6.1 Research question 1: Which factors as essential, while entrepreneurs emphasized au‐ contribute to the meaningfulness of work? tonomy and creativity. These findings align with Bailey and Madden (2016), who identified recog‐ Research on work meaning has largely over‐ nition, accomplishment, and engagement as key looked entrepreneurs, despite its link to well‐ being. This study finds that entrepreneurs derive drivers of meaningful work. Entrepreneurs’ meaning primarily through relationships, beliefs, strong preference for autonomy supports re‐ and contributions to others. As leaders, they shape search suggesting that it enhances well‐being organizational values, influencing employees’ per‐ (Shir, Nikolaev, & Wincent, 2019) and fulfills basic ceptions of meaningful work. Family also plays a psychological needs (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Addi‐ role in shaping their motivations. A key but under‐ tionally, meaningful work fosters creativity explored source of meaning is their perceived im‐ (Cohen‐Meitar, Carmeli, & Waldman, 2009). pact on customers and society. Entrepreneurs While individual factors vary, autonomy, compe‐ exhibit high job involvement and often view work tence, and relatedness appear central to mean‐ as a calling, seeing it as an intrinsic pursuit rather ingfulness across work contexts. than just a means to an end. These findings high‐ light the deeper significance entrepreneurs at‐ 6.4 Research question 4: Do entrepreneurs or tribute to their work. founders of organizations have a higher chance of achieving higher meaningfulness based on 6.2 Research question 2: How is the meaning of their unique freedom in the work context? work perceived by entrepreneurs? Entrepreneurs have a greater opportunity to Entrepreneurs and employees derive meaning experience meaningful work due to their auton‐ from similar sources, such as relationships, beliefs, omy and ability to align their work environment and work outcomes. However, key differences with personal values (Shir, Nikolaev, & Wincent, emerge in job involvement, work centrality, and per‐ 2019). Unlike employees, who often feel con‐ ceptions of meaninglessness. Entrepreneurs view strained by external structures and limited in their work as a lifestyle, struggle to separate it from per‐ ability to redesign their work, entrepreneurs can sonal life, and experience higher meaningfulness shape their organizations to reflect what matters due to greater autonomy. Employees, in contrast, most to them (deCharms, 1981). Employees fre‐ prioritize work‐life balance, often disengage from quently retreat into the most meaningful aspects work after hours, and express frustration over tasks of their work when faced with misalignment, but they find meaningless. Entrepreneurs rarely men‐ this often leads to shrinking engagement and un‐ tion meaninglessness, as they have more control realized potential. Responsibility also plays a cru‐ over their work. Employees, however, often feel cial role in meaningfulness, as entrepreneurs bear constrained by external factors, leading to resigna‐ significant accountability for their organizations, tion and lower motivation. Entrepreneurs tend to stakeholders, and society (Hebert & Link, 1989). see their work as a calling, while employees fre‐ This heightened responsibility shifts focus from quently describe their careers as unintentional, lack‐ self‐interest to a broader purpose, aligning with ing clear purpose or direction. These differences Frankl’s view that meaning is found through con‐ suggest that autonomy and purpose are crucial in tributing to something greater than oneself shaping meaningful work experiences. (Wong, 2014). 110 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 111 6.5 Limitations 6.6 Conclusion The research sample was relatively small and This study highlights the central role of work lacked heterogeneity, limiting the generalizability of meaningfulness in individual well‐being, particularly findings. A larger sample covering industry, experi‐ among entrepreneurs. Findings confirm that en‐ ence, company size, and organizational role would trepreneurs experience higher meaningfulness due provide deeper insights. Most employee partici‐ to their autonomy, ability to shape their work envi‐ pants held higher education or senior positions, ronment, and strong sense of responsibility. Their leaving room to explore how meaning varies by ed‐ high involvement and calling orientation further en‐ ucation level and job position. hance their work’s significance. In contrast, employ‐ ees derive meaning from external factors such as The broad nature of the study encompassed feedback and personal life domains, yet often strug‐ multiple aspects of meaningful work, given the gle with meaninglessness due to limited autonomy scarcity of research on entrepreneurs. Future stud‐ and misalignment with organizational structures. ies could focus on specific factors driving meaning‐ fulness. Combining in‐depth interviews with Employees frequently cited demotivation and questionnaires would allow for both qualitative disengagement when facing meaningless work, depth and quantitative correlation analysis. often retreating into select aspects of their job rather than reshaping it. This loss of human poten‐ Bias may have influenced responses, particu‐ tial underscores the importance of fostering work larly among entrepreneurs, who might have favored environments that encourage meaning discovery. entrepreneurship over employment. However, they While meaningfulness cannot be externally im‐ also engaged in more self‐reflection, adjusting initial posed, open discussions about strengths, values, responses. Employees exhibited generalizations and contributions can help employees cultivate a aligned with societal beliefs. Additionally, interview deeper connection to their work. format differences—some in person, others virtual— may have affected participants’ openness, which is crucial given the deeply personal nature of the topic. EXTENDED SUMMARY/IZVLEČEK Ta študija raziskuje povezavo med delom in smiselnostjo, pri čemer se osredotoča na podjet‐ ništvo kot možno pot do globljega doživljanja smisla pri delu. Na podlagi spoznanj iz organizacijskega vedenja, pozitivne in eksistencialne psihologije preučuje, kako podjetniki in zaposleni dojemajo pomen svojega dela ter kateri dejavniki prispevajo k občutku smiselnosti. Kvalitativna raziskava, ki temelji na poglobljenih intervjujih s podjetniki in zaposlenimi, razkriva, da so ključni dejavniki smisel‐ nega dela avtonomija, kreativnost in občutek namena. Podjetniki pogosto poročajo o večji smiselnosti svojega dela v primerjavi z zaposlenimi, saj imajo večjo svobodo pri oblikovanju svojega delovnega okolja. Študija poudarja vlogo samotranscendence pri doživljanju smiselnosti ter nakazuje, da pod‐ jetništvo lahko ponuja edinstveno priložnost za posameznike, ki iščejo izpolnitev onkraj finančnega uspeha. Ugotovitve prispevajo k širšemu razumevanju smiselnega dela in imajo pomembne posledice za oblikovanje delovnih mest ter organizacijsko vedenje. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 111 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 112 Blaž Abe: Finding Meaning at Work: Entrepreneurship as a Way of Achieving Higher Meaningfulness REFERENCES Harley, B. (1999). 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If one is looking for mean‐ ing in life, does it help to find meaning in work? Ap‐ plied Psychology: Health and Well‐Being, 1(3), 303–320. Ward, S. J., & King, L. A. (2017). Work and the good life: How work contributes to meaning in life. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 12(3), 249–262. Wong, P. T. P. (2014). The quest for meaning: A guide to the theory and practice of existential positive psychol‐ ogy. Routledge. Wrzesniewski, A., Dutton, J. E., & Debebe, G. (2003). Inter‐ personal sensemaking and the meaning of work. Re‐ search in Organizational Behavior, 25, 93–135. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 113 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 114 114 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 115 AUTHOR GUIDELINES 1. GENERAL INFORMATION All articles submitted to the Dynamic Relationships Management Journal are double‐blind reviewed. The manuscript should submitted via e‐mail to the editor (matej.cerne@ef.uni‐lj.si). Send two files: one that contains author contact information along with the text, references, tables, figures, and exhibits; and one where author contact information will be deleted. Authors should keep an exact, extra copy of the manuscript for future reference. Manuscripts are reviewed with the understanding that they are original, not under consideration by any other publisher, have not been previously published in whole or in part, have not been previously ac‐ cepted for publication, and will not be submitted elsewhere until a decision is reached regarding their pub‐ lication in the Dynamic Relationships Management Journal. Manuscripts must be written in English. Authors are responsible for the quality of written English and proof reading of the text is required. Manuscripts should be double‐spaced (including references) in 12 point font, with pages numbered consecutively throughout the entire paper. (The title page is page one.) Text alignment should be justified. Margins should be one inch (2.5 cm) at the top, bottom and sides of the page. Manuscripts inclusive of all text, references, tables, figures, appendices etc. should be no longer than 30 pages and should not exceed 60.000 characters including spaces. Authors should provide a summary, which will be published in Slovene (for foreign authors, translation will be provided by editors). Manuscripts that report quantitative analyses of data should typically include descriptive statistics, correlation matrices, the results of statistical tests and so forth. If these items are not included in the manuscript, they should be reported in a separate technical appendix. Authors of manuscripts that report data dependent results also must make available, upon request, exact information regarding their proce‐ dures and stimuli (excluding data). If we receive files that do not conform to the above requirements, we will inform the author(s) and we will not begin the review process until we receive the corrected files. The author(s) submitting the manuscript for review should clearly indicate to the editor the relation of the manuscript under review to any other manuscripts currently under review, in press or recently pub‐ lished by the authors. The editor may ask the authors to submit copies of such related papers to the Editorial Board. 2. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 1. First page: Name of author(s) and title; author(s) footnote, including present positions, complete ad‐ dress, telephone number, fax number, email address, and any acknowledgment of financial or technical assistance. 2. Second page: Title of paper (without author's name) and an abstract of no more than 250 words sub‐ stantively summarizing the article. Also include up to six keywords that describe your paper for indexing and for web searches in your manuscript. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 115 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 116 Author Guidelines 3. Next: Text alignment justified with major headings and subheadings flush with the left margin. The in‐ troduction should state clearly the objective of the paper as well as the motivation and the context of the research. The literature review should be limited to the articles, books and other items that have a direct bearing on the topic being addressed. In empirical papers, details of the empirical section tests should not be included in the paper itself. The conclusion should summarize key findings and state their importance to the field. Footnotes should be kept to an absolute minimum and must be placed at the foot of the page to which they refer. They should not be used for citing references. 4. Then: Tables, numbered consecutively, each on a separate page. If tables appear in an appendix, they should be numbered separately and consecutively, as in Table A‐1, A‐2, and so on. 5. Next: Figures, numbered consecutively, each placed on a separate page. If tables appear in an appendix, they should be numbered separately, as in Figure A‐1, A‐2, etc. 6. After conclusion: Longer summary (1‐2 pp, depending on length of article) in Slovenian language (for foreign authors, translation will be provided by editors). 7. Last: References, typed in alphabetical order by author's last name and in APA style. 3. TABLES 1. The table number and title should be centered and placed above the table. 2. Source(s) should also be provided and centered below the table: i.e. Mabey & Gooderham, The impact of management development on perceptions of organizational performance in European firms, 2005: 136. 3. Designate units (e.g., %, $) in column headings. 4. Align all decimals. 5. Refer to tables in the text by number only. Do not refer to tables by "above," "below," and "preceding." 6. If possible, combine closely related tables. 7. Clearly indicate positions of tables within the text on the page where they are introduced: e.g. Table 1 about here. 8. Measures of statistical significance should be reported within the table. 4. FIGURES, PHOTOGRAPHS AND CAMERA‐READY ARTWORK 1. For graphs, label both vertical and horizontal axes. The ordinate label should be centered above the ordinate axis; the abscissa label should be placed beneath the abscissa. 2. Place all calibration tics inside the axis lines, with the values outside the axis lines. 3. The figure number and title should be typed on separate lines, centered and placed above the figure. 4. When appropriate, source(s) should also be provided and centered below the figure (see example under the Tables section). 5. Clearly indicate positions of figures within the text on the page where they are introduced. 116 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 117 6. Once a manuscript has been accepted for publication, complex tables and all figures must be submitted both electronically and as camera‐ready (hard) copy. Do not embed figures in the Word file; instead, submit them separately in the program in which they were created (i.e., PDF, PowerPoint, Excel). 7. Lettering should be large enough to be read easily with 50% reduction. 8. Any art not done on a computer graphics program should be professionally drafted in India ink. 9. Do not submit photographs or camera‐ready art until your manuscript has been accepted. If the pho‐ tograph or artwork is completed, submit copies. 5. MATHEMATICAL NOTATION 1. Mathematical notation must be clear and understandable. Since not all journal readers are mathe‐ matically proficient, the authors should ensure that the text (i.e., words) also conveys the meaning ex‐ pressed by the mathematical notation. We recommend that extensive mathematical notation (e.g., proofs) should be provided in a separate technical appendix. 2. Equations should be centered on the page. Equations should be numbered; type the number in paren‐ theses flush with the left margin. If equations are too wide to fit in a single column, indicate appropriate breaks. Unusual symbols and Greek letters should be identified by a note. 6. REFERENCE CITATIONS WITHIN THE TEXT Cite all references at the appropriate point in the text by the surname of the author(s), year of publi‐ cation, and pagination where necessary. Pagination (without 'p.' or 'pp.') to give the source of a quotation or to indicate a passage of special relevance, follows the year of publication and is preceded by a colon, i.e. Parsons (1974: 238). Page numbers should be given full out, i.e. 212‐230 not 212‐30. When providing quotes, these should be in italics. In general, references to published works must be cited in text according to the guidelines for APA style (for more information see the DRMJ website). 7. REFERENCE LIST STYLE 1. Single Author: Last name first, followed by author initials. Berndt, T. J. (2002). Friendship quality and social development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 7‐10. 2. Two Authors: List by their last names and initials. Use the ampersand instead of “and.” Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E. (1994). Mood management across affective states: The hedonic contin‐ gency hypothesis. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 66, 1034‐1048. 3. Three to Six Authors: List by last names and initials; commas separate author names, while the last author name is preceded again by ampersand. Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., Sun, C. R., Berry, A., & Harlow, T. (1993). There’s more to self‐esteem than whether it is high or low: The importance of stability of self‐esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1190‐1204. Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025 117 DRMJ vol14 no01 2025 (print).qxp_Prelom 27. 5. 25 12:50 Page 118 Author Guidelines 4. Organization as Author American Psychological Association. (2003). 5. Unknown Author Merriam‐Webster’s collegiate dictionary (10th ed.).(1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam‐Webster. 6. Two or More Works by the Same Author: Use the author’s name for all entries and list the entries by the year (earliest comes first). Berndt, T. J. (1981). Berndt, T. J. (1999). References that have the same first author and different second and/or third authors are arranged alphabetically by the last name of the second author, or the last name of the third if the first and second authors are the same. For other examples, see the DRMJ website. 118 Dynamic Relationships Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, May 2025