Acta agriculturae Slovenica, 120/4, 1–12, Ljubljana 2024
doi:10.14720/aas.2024.120.4.19341 Original research article / izvirni znanstveni članek
Combined effects of deficit irrigation and biochar application on seed 
yield and its components in three different sesame varieties grown in 
sandy soil conditions
Mohamed Ali ABDELSATAR 1, 2, Mohamed A. EMAM 3, Ibrahim. M. ELARENY 1, Mohamed M. HAS-
SONA 4, Ibthal S. EL-DEMARDASH 5
Received July 17, 2024; accepted October 17, 2024.
Delo je prispelo 17. julij 2024, sprejeto 17. oktober 2024
1 Oil Crops Research Department, Field Crops Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Giza, Egypt.
2 Corresponding author: Email: mohamedtemraz1@yahoo.com
3 Agronomy Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Suez Canal University, 41522 Ismailia, Egypt
4 Department of Sustainable Development of Environment and Its Projects Management, Environmental Studies & Research Institute (ESRI), University of Sadat City 
(USC), Six Zone, Sadat City, Menofiya, 22897, Egypt
5 Department of Genetics and Cytology, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
Combined effects of deficit irrigation and biochar application 
on seed yield and its components in three different sesame 
varieties grown in sandy soil conditions
Abstract: To answer the question if biochar application 
was regarded as an effective tool for mitigating the adverse ef-
fects of drought stress on sesame production. Thus, two experi-
ments were conducted in the summer season of 2023 and 2024 
at Ismailia Agricultural Research Station, Egypt. A randomized 
complete block design in a split-plot arrangement with three 
replications was used for each irrigation regime. Biochar ap-
plication rates were applied to the main plots, while sesame va-
rieties were planted in the sub-plots. In the present study, deficit 
irrigation with biochar application improved the seed yield and 
its components significantly in all three sesame varieties. Com-
bination of deficit irrigation with application of biochar proved 
to be a viable strategy to enhance productivity of sesame under 
sandy soils. In addition, application of biochar has been able to 
compensate for the negative deficit irrigation effects, resulting 
in higher seed yields.
Key words: biochar, seed yield and its components, sesa-
me, varieties, drought stress
Kombinirani učinki uporabe biooglja in deficitnega namaka-
nja na pridelek semena treh sort sezama in njegove kompo-
nente, rastočega v peščenih tleh
Izvleček: Raziskava je bila izvedena z namenom, da 
se ugotovi, če je uporaba biooglja učinkovito sredstvo za 
preprečevanje negativnih učinkov sušnega stresa na pridelek 
semena sezama. V ta namen sta bila izvedena dva poskusa v 
poletnih sezonah 2023 in 2024 na Ismailia Agricultural Re-
search Station, Egypt. Popolni naključni bločni poskus z 
deljenkami s tremi ponovitvami je bil izveden za vsak način 
namakanja. Biooglje je bilo dodano na glavnih ploskvah, sorte 
sezama so bile posejane na podploskvah. Deficitno namak-
anje in uporaba biooglja sta značilno izboljšala pridelek se-
mena in njegove komponenete pri vseh treh sortah sezama. 
Kombinacija deficitnega namakanja z uporabo biooglja se je 
izkazala kot dobra strategija za povečanje pridelka sezama 
na peščenih tleh. Dodatno je uporaba biooglja kompenzirala 
negativne učinke deficitnega namakanja, kar je omogočilo 
večje pridelke semena
Ključne besede: biooglje, pridelek semena in njegove 
komponenete, sezam, sorte, sušni stres
Acta agriculturae Slovenica, 120/4 – 20242
M. A. ABDELSATAR et al.
1 INTRODUCTION
Sesame seeds are a rich source of essential nutrients, 
important vitamins, key minerals, and potent antioxi-
dants that all play a very significant role in achieving a 
balanced diet. In the year 2022, Egyptian sesame seeds 
reached 48,000 tons harvested from 76,190 feddans, ac-
cording to a 2022 report by FAO. The consumption of 
the sesame seeds, therefore, serves to reduce cholesterol 
levels and further limits inflammation of body organs 
by improving heart health. Besides, the rich content of 
calcium in sesame seeds greatly contributes to a strong 
skeleton and, therefore, is one of the possible healthy ad-
ditions to a diverse diet. Zubair et al. (2020), Morya et al. 
(2022), and Sumara et al. (2023) all proved that regular 
sesame consumption favours cardiovascular and general 
health.
Drought stress manifested its effect in the form 
of reduction in biological yield, number of capsule per 
plant, and harvest index, which resulted in a net fall of 
10.26 % in the biological yield of sesame plants. Surpris-
ingly, the seed yield of sesame manifested no significant 
alteration due to drought stress. Although sesame is con-
sidered a drought-resistant crop, cases of drought stress 
may hamper its growth and reduce seed yield, affecting 
the components of yield, as found in works by Heidari 
et al. (2011) and Ebrahimian et al. (2019). Drought 
stress becomes a crucial factor, which reduces growth, 
seed yield and yield components in sesame plants. Even 
though sesame is considered to be relativelly drought-
tolerant, under such conditions of the water-scarce re-
gions, it still shows inhibitions in growth and yields, ac-
cording to Ebrahimian et al. (2019). Also, according to 
studies by Hailu et al. (2018), large variations in the yield 
of sesame have been exposed concerning various deficit 
irrigation levels applied differently. Precisely, the treat-
ments of 50 % ETc with alternate and conventional fur-
row application methods in both years of 2013 and 2015 
had the highest averages. However, the highest yield was 
obtained from the 100 % ETc treatment under the con-
ventional furrow application method. In another investi-
gation, Qureshi et al. (2023) appraised the performance 
of 21 accessions collected from 12 different countries 
and exposed them to two different water-regime treat-
ments, namely non-stressed (NS) and drought stress 
(DS). The results from the investigation showed a high 
variation in agronomic characteristics by the accessions. 
Surprisingly, the yield was the highest under the drought 
stressed treatment. Also, oil content and oleic acid were 
recorded at higher levels under the non-stressed treat-
ment, hence giving very interesting findings from this 
study. Thus, promising genotypes are considered an im-
portant component of sustainable agricultural produc-
tivity and soil fertility management, especially in arid 
and semi-arid regions, which are facing the twin chal-
lenges of water scarcity and soil degradation. Such as Jab-
borova et al. (2023) and Ibrahim et al. (2013), biochar 
is a carbonaceous product produced by pyrolysis from 
organic materials that can be applied to improve physical 
and hydraulic conditions in soils for better plant growth 
with higher yields. Its application could result in savings 
on water by reducing evaporation losses and improving 
retention in coarse-textured sandy soils, improving soil 
quality and productivity with the reduction of irrigation 
water use without inhibiting crop yield, as suggested by 
Castellini et al. (2015). However, there was great varia-
tion in the impact that biochar had on the hydraulic 
properties of soils due to the wide variation in source 
materials, production conditions, soil composition, and 
experimental conditions in use within individual studies, 
as elaborated by Mukherjee and Lal (2013). This there-
fore found for the thorough assessment of the impacts of 
biochar on clayey soils for full realization of its benefits. 
Besides, biochar application has been found to increase 
crop yields, especially in sesame, through retention of 
water and nutrients in the soil. For this reason, the ap-
plication of biochar in the case of sandy soil will reduce 
the problems of limited water by reducing evapotrans-
piration rates with increased retention of water. Thus, it 
becomes relevant to examine the potentiality of applica-
tion of biochar to mitigate the effect of drought stress on 
seed yield and its attributes in three sesame cultivars that 
grow under sandy soil conditions. Therefore, the key ob-
jective of the present work was to examine if there is any 
probable impact of applying biochar on the mitigation of 
drought stress effects on seed yield and its various com-
ponents using three different varieties of sesame grown 
under sandy soil conditions.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 SITE DESCRIPTION
Two experiments were carried out at the Ismailia 
Agricultural Research Station in Egypt during the sum-
mer seasons of 2023 and 2024. The geographical coor-
dinates of the station are 30°35’ 41.9” N, 32°16’ 45.8” E, 
with an elevation of 3 meters above sea level. Prior to the 
planting phase, soil samples were carefully prepared by 
air-drying, finely grinding, sieving through a 2 mm sieve, 
and then stored for further analysis. The soil experiment 
included a detailed analysis of both physical and chemi-
cal parameters, which were documented and presented 
Acta agriculturae Slovenica, 120/4 – 2024 3
Combined effects of deficit irrigation and biochar application on seed yield ... in three different sesame varieties grown in sandy soil conditions
in Table 1 according to Jackson (1973). In both seasons, 
the crop that was planted earlier was wheat.
2.1.1 Experimental design
For each irrigation regimes i.e., mild (irrigation when 
25  % of available soil moisture was depleted (ASMD), 
T1), moderately (irrigation when 50 % of ASMD, T2) and 
severe (irrigation when 75 % of ASMD, T3), the experi-
ments were performed in a randomized complete block 
design (RCBD) using split-plot arrangement with three 
replications. The main plots received biochar application 
rates of B0, which represents zero addition and serves as 
the control; B10, which corresponds to an application 
rate of 10 (t ha-1); and B20, which represents an applica-
tion rate of 20 (t ha-1), while sub-plots planted with three 
different sesame varieties: Shandaweel 3, Giza 32, and So-
hag 1, as presented in Figure (1). The experimental unit 
area was 9 square meters, divided into five ridges with 60 
centimeter widths and 3 meters lengths. Sesame varieties 
that underwent assessment were obtained from the Oil 
Crops Research Department, Field Crop Research Insti-
tute, Agricultural Research Center in Egypt.
2.2 CULTIVATING AND FIELD MANAGEMENT
The sesame varieties evaluated were sown manu-
ally on ridge at a spacing of 60 cm between ridges. The 
distance between hills was according to the variety rec-
ommendation. In both seasons, sowing date was on 15th 
April. Following the recommended guidelines, the ses-
ame seedlings were thinned to maintain a plant density 
of one or two plants per hill. Besides that, all other agri-
cultural practices and recommendations concerning the 
crop were carefully followed (Table 2).
2.3 DATA RECORDED
2.3.1 Yield and its component traits
The flowering date was taken for each experimental 
plot as a number of days taken to have 50 % of the plants 
within it start flowering. During the harvesting process, 
a selection of five competitive plants were chosen at ran-
dom from both the 2nd and 4th ridges for the purpose 
of assessing seed yield and various attributes including 
plant height (in cm), fruiting zone length (in cm), num-
ber of branches per plant, 1000-seed mass (in grams), 
and seed mass per plant (in grams). The seed yield per 
square meter was determined by harvesting plants from 
central ridge units and converting them to kilograms per 
feddan. 
2.4 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 
The study analyzed the mean values of three sesame 
varieties affected by different rates of biochar application 
for all studied traits in the three replications across three 
irrigation regimes and two seasons using a randomized 
Seasons Available pH EC mmh/v Clay % Silt % Fine sand % Texture
N P K
2023 10.2 2.11 62 7.33 0.89 3.45 2.58 93.97 Sandy 
2024 9.52 2.36 54 7.65 0.95 4.23 2.35 93.42 Sandy 
Table 1: Physicals and chemicals analyses of experimental sites at 0-30 cm depth of soil.
.
Figure 1: Scheme of Experimental design. W refers to water regimes; B refers to biochar application; V refers to varieties and R refers 
to replications
Acta agriculturae Slovenica, 120/4 – 20244
M. A. ABDELSATAR et al.
complete block design using split-plot arrangement. At 
each water regime and season, bilateral and trilateral 
interactive effects were achieved through the combina-
tion of field experiments. These effects were further con-
firmed by the homogeneity of error variance, as stated by 
Gomez and Gomez (1984). The treatments were assessed 
by comparing their mean differences using the least sig-
nificant difference (L.S.D. 5  %), as outlined by Gomez 
and Gomez (1984).
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCES FOR ALL STUDIED 
TRAITS
The findings for the various studied traits of the 
three sesame varieties, which were evaluated in relation 
to the impact of biochar across different water regimes 
and seasons, can be found in Table 3. The combined anal-
ysis revealed that the main effect of year, as well as its dual 
and triple interactions with other factors, were found to 
be statistically insignificant for most studied traits. Con-
sequently, these interactions were excluded from further 
analysis. In their place, the effects of the main effects of 
water regimes, biocahar rates, sesame genotypes, and 
their respective dual and triple interactions were exam-
ined. The combined analysis of variance showed that the 
main effects of water regimes, biochar, and sesame varie-
ties on all the studied traits were highly significant, indi-
cating that the main effect means much in the variation of 
studied traits. Additionally, for most of the studied traits, 
the dual interaction of water regimes and biochar rates 
was highly significant, indicating that the magnitude of 
the water regime effects varied significantly with varying 
biochar rate. Similarly, the combined analysis showed a 
highly significant interaction between water regimes and 
sesame varieties for all the traits, suggesting that the ef-
fect of water regimes on the traits varied significantly 
across different sesame varieties. In addition, as stated 
in the combined analysis, the dual influence of biochar 
and sesame varieties had a significant impact on all the 
traits that were studied. Similarly, the three-way interac-
tion involving water regimes, biochar rates, and sesame 
varieties was highly significant for most of the traits, just 
like in the combined analysis. This meant that the stud-
ied water regimes influenced the studied characteristics 
being greatly dependent on the different biochar appli-
cation rates, on one hand, and the investigated sesame 
varieties, on the other.
3.2 MAIN EFFECTS
3.2.1 Water regimes effects
Drought stress has been reported to inversely affect 
flowering stage of plants concerning 50 % flowering tim-
ing (Table 3). However, this treatment regime resulted 
in a reduction of 3.63 % and 12.89 % in the number of 
days required for 50 % flowering compared to treatments 
T2 and T1, respectively. Severe drought stress was found 
to delay flowering in sesame plants, which bears testi-
mony to proper irrigation management in encouraging 
all growth parameters of sesame plants. This is further 
emphasized by the fact that the availability of water dic-
tates the growth and development of these crops. Under 
water-scarce conditions, sesame plants manipulate the 
timing of flowering due to a regulation mechanism in-
volved in the gene expression of the flowering pathway. 
Under drought stress conditions, some of the genes ac-
tivated during the event of flowering are either overex-
pressed or suppressed, thereby advancing the onset of 
flowering. Other plant hormones such as abscisic acid 
and gibberellins have also been involved in the signal-
ing and induction of early flowering under water-stress 
conditions. Plant height was considerably influenced by 
the water regimes. The tallest plants were observed in the 
well-watered treatment, while the shortest were those 
under the drought stress treatments (Table 4). How-
ever, surprisingly, it has been determined in this study 
that moderate levels of drought stress may be beneficial 
to obtain taller plants than by using the control treat-
ment. The drought stress treatment was also responsible 
for the reduction of plant height by 1.68 % and 8.49 % 
compared to treatments T2 and T1, respectively. Silva et 
al. (2016), in their investigation, observed that the plants 
under the influence of drought stress developed highly 
reduced height compared to the plants, which had suf-
ficient water supply. The retarded growth of sesame 
plants results from growth inhibition caused by limited 
Operation Date Date
Planting 15-April 15-April
Tillage application 05-Apr 04-Apr
Fertilizer Application 15 and 30 April 15 and 30 April
Pesticides application 05-May 06-May
Harvesting 01-Sep 01-Sep
Table 2: Dates of planting, tillage, fertilizer, pesticides, and har-
vesting in the experiments conducted during two sesame sea-
sons
Acta agriculturae Slovenica, 120/4 – 2024 5
Combined effects of deficit irrigation and biochar application on seed yield ... in three different sesame varieties grown in sandy soil conditions
S.O.V df 1st season 2nd season Combined 1st season 2nd season Combined
Individual Combined Days to 50 % flowering Plant height
Year (Y) 1 83.06** 207.29*
Water regimes (W) 2 4 361.53** 300.48** 331.01** 1358.12** 1170.68** 1264.40**
Reps within W 6 12 0.50 0.42 1.45 1.42 1.95 3.88
Biochar (B) 2 2 159.27** 108.59** 265.19** 3453.58** 2747.33** 6179.11**
Y × B 2 2.67 21.80
W × B 4 8 11.35** 13.85** 12.60** 197.34** 219.39** 208.37**
Pooled error A 12 24 1.47 1.97 1.72 27.09 29.70 28.40
Varieties (V) 2 2 132.09** 71.26** 198.64** 1191.15** 1342.21** 2529.72**
Y × V 2 4.71 3.63
W × V 4 8 11.49** 9.63** 10.56** 113.25** 113.99** 113.62**
B × V 4 4 22.90** 16.91** 38.43** 308.80** 231.74** 533.36**
W × B × V 8 4 23.89** 13.97** 18.93** 101.02** 92.43** 96.72**
Y× B × V 16 1.3765 7.1804
Poled Error B 36 72 0.77 0.88 0.82 14.45 10.30 12.38
S.O.V Individual Combined Fruiting zone length Number of branches per plant
Year (Y) 1 64.64** 19.36**
Water regimes (W) 2 4 149.83** 591.73** 370.78** 41.59** 44.90** 43.25**
Reps within W 6 12 0.69 1.27 1.66 0.17 0.70 0.55
Biochar (B) 2 2 2121.76** 1922.92** 4042.13** 12.70** 11.49** 24.02**
Y × B 2 2.54 0.17
W × B 4 8 32.31** 60.55** 46.43** 2.02** 3.31** 2.66**
Pooled error A 12 24 5.33 6.02 5.67 0.27 0.50 0.38
Varieties (V) 2 2 1223.03** 762.67** 1958.59** 107.70** 173.23** 277.06**
Y × V 2 27.12 3.88
W × V 4 8 45.14** 96.33** 70.74** 10.96** 14.66** 12.81**
B × V 4 4 158.49** 252.53** 370.92** 6.63** 6.53** 12.55**
W × B × V 8 4 57.34** 74.93** 66.14** 2.64** 2.96** 2.80**
Y× B × V 16 40.0890 0.6080
Poled Error B 36 72 5.18 5.31 5.25 0.38 0.64 0.51
*, ** Significant at 0.05 and 0.01 probability level, respectively
Table 3: Combined analysis of variance for three sesame varieties as affected by three rates of biochar across three water regimes and 
two years regarding all studied traits.
water availability, which impeded nutrient absorption 
and metabolic activity. This in turn will result in the ul-
timate reduction in photosynthesis and nutrient absorp-
tion, causing a plant to be short. The increased inhibi-
tion of root growth, prioritization towards root growth 
rather than shoot growth, and reduced cell elongation in 
shoots also favored the short height of the plants. Also, 
the plant can make hormones that save water by reduc-
ing its loss through transpiration. Water shortage clearly 
and negatively impacted the length of the fruiting zone of 
the sesame plants with a reduction of 4.82 % and 8.91 % 
as compared to T2 and T1, respectively (Table 4). This 
is in agreement with Abd El-Lattief (2015) findings that 
showed various irrigation regimes significantly affected 
plant height, fruiting zone length, branches, capsules, 
seed mass, and seed and oil yield. This indicates that 
drought stress adversely affected the fruiting zone length 
because of reduction in cell division and the rate of elon-
gation contributing to short fruiting zones. This might 
be explained through resource allocation by the plant, 
Acta agriculturae Slovenica, 120/4 – 20246
M. A. ABDELSATAR et al.
whereby root development and seed production are fa-
vored over vegetative growth. Besides this, drought stress 
could cause hormonal changes which would ultimately 
result in a retardation of development of a well-thriving 
fruiting zone. Drought stress had an adverse impact on 
the number of branches per sesame plant, and it reduced 
these characteristics substantially compared to T2 and 
T1 by 43.65 and 108.00 %, respectively (Table 4). This is 
due to the serious water shortage that reduced water flow 
and caused an interruption of essential activities such as 
cell division, elongation, and differentiation. According 
S.O.V df 1st season 2nd season Combined 1st season 2nd season Combined
Individual Combined 1000-seed mass Seed mass per plant
Year (Y) 1   0.99**   29.11**
Water regimes (W) 2 4 0.44** 1.17** 0.81** 2417.69** 2402.02** 2409.86**
Reps within W 6 12 0.02 0.003 0.01 0.98 1.38 1.64
Biochar (B) 2 2 3.67** 2.66** 6.30** 42.84** 53.26** 95.81**
Y × B 0 2   0.04   0.29
W × B 4 8 0.05* 0.08* 0.07** 4.49* 9.21** 6.85**
Pooled error A 12 24 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.84 0.87 0.85
Varieties (V) 2 2 1.73** 0.84** 2.48** 91.86** 79.02** 170.38**
Y × V 0 2   0.08   0.50
W × V 4 8 0.05** 0.14** 0.10** 6.96** 7.82** 7.39**
B × V 4 4 0.11** 0.06* 0.14** 8.40** 6.94** 13.05**
W × B × V 8 4 0.05** 0.15** 0.10** 1.83NS 8.62** 5.22**
Y× B × V 0 16   0.0258   2.2913
Poled Error B 36 72 0.01 0.02 0.01 1.41 0.95 1.18
S.O.V Individual Combined Seed yield per feddan Seed oil content
Year (Y) 1   8320.64**   1.71NS
Water regimes (W) 2 4 867786.02** 943556.53** 905671.28** 31.76** 45.29** 38.53**
Reps within W 6 12 56.35 88.91 81.27 0.42 0.59 0.70
Biochar (B) 2 2 12214.47** 17757.93** 29711.77** 107.36** 72.19** 177.46**
Y × B 0 2   260.62   2.08
W × B 4 8 1580.74** 3939.52** 2760.13** 1.82NS 7.30** 4.56**
Pooled error a 12 24 130.64 304.35 217.49 0.67 0.94 0.81
Varieties (V) 2 2 35326.95** 26510.58** 61519.90** 75.69** 49.55** 122.38**
Y × V 0 2   317.63   2.86
W × V 4 8 2668.60** 3344.10** 3006.35** 2.62** 3.26* 2.94**
B × V 4 4 3276.85** 2032.26** 4067.51** 3.51** 7.07** 9.94**
W × B × V 8 4 383.49* 3231.74** 1807.62** 1.29NS 3.72** 2.51**
Y× B × V 0 16   1241.6043   0.6377
Poled Error B 36 72 152.83 121.52 137.17 0.61 0.93 0.77
*, ** Significant at 0.05 and 0.01 probability level, respectively
to Pandey et al. (2021), drought stress interfered with the 
general growth and development of the plants; this inter-
fered with dry mass and reduced plant yield, as reported 
by Askari et al. (2018). According to Table 4, drought 
stress significantly and adversely affected the 1000-seed 
mass. In comparison to T2 and T1, under drought stress, 
there was a reduction of 0.79 % and 8.93 %, respectively, 
in 1000-seed mass. The decrease in 1000-seed mass was 
caused by the reduced rate of photosynthesis and carbon 
assimilation due to water stress. Because water was limit-
ed, photosynthesis, being an efficient one, was restricted, 
Table 3: Continued
Acta agriculturae Slovenica, 120/4 – 2024 7
Combined effects of deficit irrigation and biochar application on seed yield ... in three different sesame varieties grown in sandy soil conditions
and hence the seeds were smaller in size and mass. The 
closing of the stomata restricts the intake of carbon diox-
ide, hence again affecting the size and mass of the seeds. 
In addition to that, drought stress disrupted nutrient up-
take and transport, adding to the detrimental effects on 
mass. All these combined to reduce 1000-seed mass in 
the sesame plants that were exposed to drought stress.
Drought stress significantly and adversely affected 
seed yield per plant, which was reduced by 45.65 and 
164.23  % in comparison with T2 and T1, respectively 
(Table 4). Such a reduction in seed yield may be due to the 
harmful influence of drought stress on the metabolism of 
sesame plants, which affected photosynthesis negatively 
because of the lack of appropriate water supply. As a re-
sult, the seed production and filling reduced, which re-
sulted in reduced flowering and seed setting. Moreover, 
the drought stress thwarted the photosynthetic rate to 
lower the capacity of carbon dioxide absorption by the 
plant for carrying out photosynthesis. Besides, the scanty 
water further reduced nutrient uptake and its availability, 
which altogether made the plant inefficient in producing 
seeds. Drought stress showed the significant negative ef-
fect on reducing seed yield per feddan by 48.62 % and 
173.12  % compared to T2 and T1, respectively, given 
in Table 4. This is due to the decline of photosynthesis 
and nutrient absorption reflected in smaller-sized and 
weighted seeds. Moreover, drought stress decreases the 
plant’s capability for setting and retaining capsules; this 
contributed to the reduction of seed yield. Furthermore, 
the sizes and mass of individual seeds are reduced by 
drought stress, adding to the overall depression of seed 
yield per feddan. Water deficiency significantly increased 
the content of seed oil by 2.16 % and 5.25 % over T2 and 
T1, respectively (Table 4). This could be due to the ac-
tion of drought stress on the sesame plants via positive 
regulation of key genes associated with biosynthesis of 
oil, lipid biosynthesis, and stress-responsive pathways. 
Consequently, these genes trigger, and oil production in-
creases in the seed by enhanced accumulation of storage 
lipid. Further, the stress-responsive pathway increased 
antioxidant production, improved the expression of the 
oil biosynthesis genes that enable plants to retain more 
oil in their seeds to improve yield and quality. Similar 
results was reported by Abdo and Anton (2009) their 
study was conducted at Ismailia Agricultural Research 
Station to study the physiological response of sesame 
’Shandaweel-3’ to three levels of soil moisture depletion 
(ASMD): wet (20-25 %), medium (45-50 %), and dry (65-
70 %). Results showed that increasing soil moisture stress 
significantly decreased plant height, and fruiting zone 
length. Dry treatment reduced 1000-seed mass, number 
of capsules, seed mass/plant, seed yields/fed and oil con-
tents in seeds. Moreover, Askari, et al (2019) showed that 
drought stress reduced seed yield and its components.
3.2.2 Biochar application effect
Application of biochar at different levels ranging 
from zero to 10 up to 20 t ha-1 resulted in a gradual in-
crease in all the studied traits, as shown in Table 4. Spe-
cifically, when comparing the non-application of biochar, 
the application of 10 and 20 t ha-1 led to significant in-
creases in the following studied traits: days to 50 % flow-
ering by 1.31 % and 7.53 %, plant height by 10.99 % and 
13.58  %, fruiting zone length by 13.01  % and 24.26  %, 
number of branches per plant by 4.88  % and 40.24  %, 
1000-seed mass by 8.04  % and 20.73  %, seed mass per 
plant by 8.02  % and 13.57  %, seed yield per feddan by 
7.26 % and 12.70 %, and seed oil content by 3.23 % and 
8.54 %, respectively. The above improvement may be at-
tributed to the fact that biochar had a positive effect on 
soil fertility and nutrient availability in the plants, hence 
improving growth and development. It improved water 
and nutrient retention, reduced acidity in the soil by im-
proving microbial activities. This sustainable method, 
therefore, improved sesame crop yield and quality but also 
sustained healthier plants with minimal environmental 
stress. Besides, biochar increased nutrient availability, 
advanced the plants toward early flower, enhanced plant 
height, and thus resulted in a higher yield of seeds per 
Traits/
Water regimes
Days to 50 % 
flowering (N0) 
Plant height 
(cm) 
Fruiting zone 
length (cm) 
Number of 
branches per 
plant (N0) 
1000-seed 
mass(g) 
Seed mass per 
plant (g) 
Seed yield per 
feddan (kg) 
Seed oil con-
tent (%)
25 % of ASMD 59.69 165.71 83.69 4.81 3.69 30.40 577.65 42.60
50 % of ASMD 57.59 162.98 79.85 3.35 3.66 20.87 388.68 43.54
75 % of ASMD 52.87 152.74 76.85 2.31 3.39 11.50 211.50 44.96
LSD 0.05 0.52 2.99 1.34 0.35 0.07 0.52 8.28 0.50
ASMD refers to available soil moisture depleted
Table 4: The main effect of water regimes on seed yield and its components as combined analysis across the studied sesame varie-
ties, biochar application rates and the two seasons
Acta agriculturae Slovenica, 120/4 – 20248
M. A. ABDELSATAR et al.
feddan. The favorable impact of biochar on productivity 
also appeared in the case of sesame plants concerning the 
1000-seed mass and the oil content of seeds. Wacal et al. 
(2019) also announced similar findings while investigat-
ing the effect of adding biochar on sesame performance 
regarding growth and yield, leaf nutrient concentration, 
seed mineral nutrients, and some soil physicochemical 
properties. Their results showed that biochar addition in-
creased plant height, yield, and seed number. 
3.2.3 Sesame varieties effects 
The performance of different sesame varieties var-
ied significantly in terms of all studied traits, as shown 
Traits/
Biochar applica-
tion rates
Days to 50 % 
flowering 
(N0) 
Plant height 
(cm) 
Fruiting zone 
length (cm) 
Number of 
branches per 
plant (N0) 
1000-seed 
mass (g) 
Seed mass per 
plant (g) 
Seed yield 
per feddan 
(kg) 
Seed oil 
content 
(%) 
B 0 (t ha-1) 55.09 148.33 71.27 3.04 3.27 19.52 368.12 42.05
B20 (t ha-1) 55.81 164.63 80.55 3.19 3.53 21.08 394.84 43.41
B20 (t ha-1) 59.24 168.48 88.56 4.26 3.94 22.17 414.88 45.64
LSD 0.05 0.52 2.99 1.34 0.35 0.07 0.52 8.28 0.50
Table 5: The main effect of biochar application rates on seed yield and its components, as combined analysis across the studied 
sesame varieties, water regimes and the two seasons
Table 6: Agronomic performance of tested sesame varieties, as combined analysis across biochar application rates, water regimes 
and the two seasons
Traits/
Sesame varieties
Days to 50% 
flowering 
(N0) 
Plant height 
(cm) 
Fruiting zone 
length (cm) 
Number of 
branches per 
plant (N0) 
1000-seed 
mass (g) 
Seed mass per 
plant (g) 
Seed yield 
per feddan 
(kg) 
Seed oil 
content (%)
Shandaweel 3 58.15 165.98 86.11 0.89 3.82 22.74 425.93 45.30
Giza 32 57.46 162.64 80.21 5.00 3.52 20.85 393.47 43.48
Sohag 1 54.54 152.81 74.06 4.59 3.40 19.19 358.44 42.32
LSD 0.05 0.35 1.91 1.24 0.39 0.06 0.59 6.35 0.48
Table 7: The dual interactive of water regimes with biochar application rates on seed yield and its components, as combined analy-
sis across the studied sesame varieties, and the two seasons
Traits
Interaction
Days 
to 50% 
flowering 
(N0) 
Plant 
height 
(cm) 
Fruit-
ing zone 
length 
(cm) 
Number of 
branches 
per plant 
(N0) 
1000-seed 
mass (g) 
Seed mass 
per plant (g) 
Seed yield 
per feddan 
(kg) 
Seed oil 
content (%)
25 % of ASMD
B 0 (ton ha-1) 57.39 153.84 74.14 4.06 3.30 28.09 534.31 40.64
B20 (ton ha-1) 58.89 166.99 82.48 4.22 3.71 30.71 583.69 42.04
B20 (ton ha-1) 62.78 176.31 94.45 6.17 4.06 32.39 614.97 45.12
50 % of ASMD
B 0 (ton ha-1) 55.67 148.45 72.14 2.89 3.34 19.76 370.84 42.02
B20 (ton ha-1) 57.83 166.09 81.66 3.00 3.62 20.64 384.09 43.03
B20 (ton ha-1) 59.28 174.39 85.74 4.17 4.02 22.20 411.11 45.58
75 % of ASMD
B 0 (ton ha-1) 52.22 142.69 67.54 2.17 3.16 10.71 199.22 43.50
B20 (ton ha-1) 50.72 160.80 77.50 2.33 3.26 11.90 216.73 45.16
B20 (ton ha-1) 55.67 154.73 85.50 2.44 3.75 11.91 218.56 46.23
LSD0.05 0.90 5.18 2.32 0.60 0.11 0.90 14.35 0.87
ASMD refers to available soil moisture depleted, and B refers to biochar rates
Acta agriculturae Slovenica, 120/4 – 2024 9
Combined effects of deficit irrigation and biochar application on seed yield ... in three different sesame varieties grown in sandy soil conditions
in Table 6. Among these varieties, ‘Sohag1’ had the 
shortest period to 50 % flowering, with a duration of 
54.54 days, compared to the other varieties. ‘Giza 32’ 
and ‘Shandaweel 3’ demonstrated superiority over ‘So-
hag 1’ in plant height by 8.62  % and 6.43  %, respec-
tively. In addition, ‘Shandaweel 3’ and ‘Giza 32’ sur-
passed ‘Sohag 1’ in all the other studied traits, viz., 
length of fruiting zone, mass of 1000 seeds, mass of 
seed per plant, yield per feddan, and seed oil content. 
The percentage difference between the best and ‘Sohag 
1’ varied between 3.58 % and 18.83 %. However, ‘Shan-
daweel 3’ had the lowest number of branches per plant 
in the comparison to others. Probably, differences in 
means for seed yield and its components that exist in 
sesame varieties Shandaweel 3, Giza 32, and Sohag1 
may be described by diversity in the genetic structure 
of these cultivars. In other words, the genetic features 
associated with the variety would be major factors 
Table 8: The dual interactive of water regimes with studied sesame varieties on seed yield and its components, as combined analy-
sis across biochar application rates, and two seasons
Traits
Interaction
Days to 
50% flow-
ering (N0) 
Plant 
height 
(cm) 
Fruit-
ing zone 
length 
(cm) 
Number of 
branches 
per plant 
(N0) 
1000-seed 
mass (g) 
Seed mass 
per plant 
(g) 
Seed yield 
per feddan 
(kg) 
Seed oil 
content 
(%) 
25 % of ASMD
Shandaweel 3 61.94 169.25 87.60 0.94 3.95 32.27 611.52 44.44
Giza 32 59.22 170.14 86.34 6.78 3.62 30.93 592.43 42.39
Sohag 1 57.89 157.75 77.13 6.72 3.50 27.99 529.01 40.97
50 % of ASMD
Shandaweel 3 58.06 166.72 88.56 0.89 3.89 22.99 429.01 45.20
Giza 32 59.44 167.23 77.82 4.33 3.69 20.81 387.54 43.61
Sohag 1 55.28 154.98 73.17 4.83 3.40 18.81 349.50 41.82
75 % of ASMD
Shandaweel 3 54.44 161.96 82.17 0.83 3.61 12.95 237.26 46.27
Giza 32 53.72 150.55 76.48 3.89 3.26 10.80 200.44 44.46
Sohag 1 50.44 145.71 71.89 2.22 3.30 10.77 196.81 44.16
LSD0.05 0.60 3.31 2.15 0.67 0.11 1.02 11.01 0.83
ASMD refers to available soil moisture depleted
Traits
Interaction
Days to 
50 % flow-
ering (N0) 
Plant 
height 
(cm) 
Fruit-
ing zone 
length 
(cm) 
Number of 
branches 
per plant 
(N0) 
1000-seed 
mass (g) 
Seed mass 
per plant 
(g) 
Seed yield per 
feddan (kg) 
Seed oil 
content (%) 
B 0 (t ha-1)
Shandaweel 3 55.06 153.05 80.09 0.89 3.47 20.82 395.65 43.59
Giza 32 56.06 148.72 68.77 4.61 3.25 18.89 355.88 41.66
Sohag 1 54.17 143.21 64.96 3.61 3.08 18.85 352.83 40.90
B20 (t ha-1)
Shandaweel 3 57.11 169.89 85.59 0.83 3.69 22.89 427.26 45.78
Giza 32 56.50 162.94 85.55 5.00 3.51 21.22 401.99 43.24
Sohag 1 53.83 161.06 70.51 3.72 3.39 19.14 355.26 41.21
B20 (t ha-1)
Shandaweel 3 62.28 175.00 92.65 0.94 4.29 24.50 454.87 46.54
Giza 32 59.83 176.26 86.31 5.39 3.81 22.43 422.54 45.55
Sohag 1 55.61 154.17 86.72 6.44 3.73 19.58 367.23 44.84
LSD0.05 0.60 3.31 2.15 0.67 0.11 1.02 11.01 0.83
B refers to biochar rates
Table 9: The dual interactive of biochar application rates  with studied sesame varieties on seed yield and its components, as com-
bined analysis across water regimes, and two seasons
Acta agriculturae Slovenica, 120/4 – 202410
M. A. ABDELSATAR et al.
that will determine the varieties’ overall productivity 
regarding flowering time, the number of capsules per 
plant, and size of seeds. Nevertheless, it is important 
to emphasize that environmental conditions and farm-
ing practices have a contribution to making the final 
seed yield. Among them, ‘Shandaweel 3’ showed high-
er productivity due to an efficient system of nutrient 
absorption and transfer inside the plant. It might be 
because of the breeding selection and genetic modifi-
cation done through the years to focus on these traits. 
This could encourage farmers to buy seeds like ‘Shan-
daweel 3’, as they end up with a far more rewarding 
harvest than with other varieties, such as Giza 32 and 
Sohag 1. Its success with ‘Shandaweel 3’ in terms of 
yield and quality of the seeds proved that research and 
development was truly significant in enhancing crop 
varieties toward sustainable agriculture. The same 
trends were reported by Abdelsatar et al. (2021), who 
recorded significant differences in the performance 
of three sesame varieties, Giza 32, Sohag 1, and Shan-
daweel 3, based on seed yield and its components.
Traits
Interaction
Days 
to 50% 
flowering 
(day)
Plant 
height 
(cm)
Fruit-
ing zone 
length 
(cm)
Number of 
branches 
per plant
1000-seed 
mass (g)
Seed mass 
per plant (g)
Seed yield 
per feddan 
(kg)
Seed oil 
content 
(%)
25 % of ASMD B 0 (ton ha-1) Shandaweel 3 57.33 158.10 80.04 0.83 3.45 28.74 548.44 42.04
Giza 32 58.00 152.44 74.37 5.50 3.24 29.58 561.69 40.39
Sohag 1 56.83 150.97 68.02 5.83 3.22 25.94 492.79 39.50
B20 (ton ha-1) Shandaweel 3 61.00 171.46 82.35 0.83 4.06 32.65 622.05 44.28
Giza 32 58.50 168.58 91.16 7.33 3.62 30.90 594.79 41.76
Sohag 1 57.17 160.94 73.94 4.50 3.47 28.59 534.23 40.10
B20 (ton ha-1) Shandaweel 3 67.50 178.19 100.40 1.17 4.36 35.43 664.07 47.02
Giza 32 61.17 189.40 93.50 7.50 4.00 32.32 620.81 45.02
Sohag 1 59.67 161.34 89.45 9.83 3.82 29.44 560.02 43.32
50 % of ASMD B 0 (ton ha-1) Shandaweel 3 55.83 152.82 82.17 0.67 3.52 21.79 413.76 43.50
Giza 32 56.33 148.71 70.09 4.83 3.45 18.32 338.82 42.16
Sohag 1 54.83 143.82 64.16 3.17 3.06 19.19 359.95 40.39
B20 (ton ha-1) Shandaweel 3 57.67 170.19 91.17 0.83 3.79 22.98 423.70 45.27
Giza 32 62.33 164.11 82.32 3.50 3.58 20.68 389.16 43.06
Sohag 1 53.50 163.98 71.50 4.67 3.49 18.26 339.41 40.76
B20 (t ha-1) Shandaweel 3 60.67 177.17 92.33 1.17 4.37 24.21 449.55 46.84
Giza 32 59.67 188.87 81.04 4.67 4.05 23.43 434.64 45.61
Sohag 1 57.50 157.14 83.84 6.67 3.65 18.97 349.13 44.30
75 % of ASMD B 0 (t ha-1) Shandaweel 3 52.00 148.24 78.05 1.17 3.44 11.94 224.76 45.24
Giza 32 53.83 145.00 61.86 3.50 3.05 8.77 167.13 42.43
Sohag 1 50.83 134.83 62.71 1.83 2.97 11.42 205.77 42.82
B20 (t ha-1) Shandaweel 3 52.67 168.00 83.25 0.83 3.23 13.05 236.03 47.80
Giza 32 48.67 156.14 83.16 4.17 3.35 12.09 222.02 44.91
Sohag 1 50.83 158.26 66.09 2.00 3.20 10.56 192.13 42.76
B20 (t ha-1) Shandaweel 3 58.67 169.65 85.22 0.50 4.15 13.86 250.99 45.76
Giza 32 58.67 150.51 84.41 4.00 3.37 11.53 212.17 46.03
Sohag 1 49.67 144.04 86.88 2.83 3.73 10.33 192.53 46.89
LSD 0.05 1.04 5.73 3.73 1.17 0.19 1.77 19.06 1.43
ASMD refers to available soil moisture depleted, and B refers to biochar rates
Table 10: Effect of triple interaction among water regimes, biochar application rates and sesame varieties on all studied traits as 
combined analysis across two seasons
Acta agriculturae Slovenica, 120/4 – 2024 11
Combined effects of deficit irrigation and biochar application on seed yield ... in three different sesame varieties grown in sandy soil conditions
3.3 DUAL AND TRIPLE INTERACTIONS EFFECTS 
ON STUDIED TRAITS 
The combined effect of water regimes and bio-
char application significantly impacted the perfor-
mance of the traits under study (Table 3 and 6). The 
highest values for these traits were recorded when 
biochar was applied at a rate of 20 t ha-1 under nor-
mal irrigation conditions. Also, increased applica-
tion rates of biochar under the different water re-
gimes continued to improve the performance of 
the studied traits in the betterment in plants’ abil-
ity to tolerate the water stress conditions studied. 
As evident from Table 3 and 8, the interactions of 
dual water regimes significantly influenced various 
investigated trait performances in the tested varieties. 
Maximum values for most of the investigated traits 
were recorded when ‘Shandaweel 3’ was planted un-
der a normal irrigation conditions. Unexpectedly, the 
best performance was shown by ‘Shandaweel 3’ variety 
when sown under both moderate and severe levels of 
water stress over other varieties. This may partly be 
due to the great capability of its adaptation to unfa-
vorable conditions such as drought stress. Numerous 
studies had demonstrated that the growth of the shoot 
system could be influenced either positively or nega-
tively by changes in water scarcity, soil type, and plant 
species. Decrease in plant growth under high drought 
stress levels may be due to inhibition in hydrolysis 
of reserved food and its translocation to the growing 
shoots. 
It showed from the research that there was a sig-
nificant and positive interaction between biochar ap-
plication and sesame varieties in all the studied traits 
reflected from Table 3 and 9. Maximum values of most 
of these traits were exhibited while using Shandaweel 
3 variety followed by Giza 32 and Sohag 1 varieties. 
Additionally, these positive effects were observed with 
increasing levels of biochar application, up to 20 tons 
per hectare. 
In addition, the combination of water regimes 
and biochar application with different sesame geno-
types had a significant impact on all studied traits (Ta-
ble 3 and 10). This presents an opportunity to identify 
the most favorable triple interactions for these traits. 
Based on this perspective, the most favorable triple in-
teraction was observed when ‘Shandaweel 3’ was sown 
under normal irrigation and biochar was applied at a 
rate of 20 tons per hectare. Furthermore, ‘Shandaweel 
3’ outperformed other varieties, even when it was 
sown under different water regimes with the highest 
application rate of biochar at 20 tons per hectare.
4 CONCLUSION
It can be concluded that investigated deficit ir-
rigation and application of biochar on seed yield and 
its components in three diverse varieties of sesame 
grown under a sandy soil environment, thus provid-
ing realistic overviews of the methods to be used for 
sustainable agricultural practices that would enable 
farmers to have maximum yields in water-scarce re-
gions. ‘Shandaweel 3’ was more tolerant and adaptable 
to a wide range of environmental conditions compared 
to the other varieties. The results of this study clearly 
indicate the potentiality for a positive role of biochar 
treatment in agricultural practice, both to improve the 
performance in crops and to enhance tolerance against 
drought stress. ‘Shandaweel 3’ demonstrated the most 
favorable triple interaction when sown with a biochar 
rate of 20 tons per hectare in water-limiting environ-
ments. More studies are recommended in order to 
explain, in full, the mechanisms responsible for such 
improvements and, secondly, to optimize biochar ap-
plication rates in view of crop varieties. In a nutshell, 
the results obtained from this study provided mean-
ingful insight into how farmers and practitioners may 
work to improve sesame productivity in a water-limit-
ing environment.
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