SUSTAINABLE FOOD SUPPLY IN SLOVENIA COLOPHON Sustainable Food Supply in Slovenia LJUBLJANA 2025 PUBLISHER Republic of Slovenia, Ministry of the Environment, Climate and Energy Slovenian Environment Agency, Vojkova 1b, Ljubljana PROJECT LEADER Barbara BERNARD VUKADIN, MSc EDITED BY • Sara BELE • Ben MOLJK, MSc AUTHORS • Sara BELE (KIS) • Ben MOLJK, MSc (KIS) • Maja KOŽAR, PhD (KIS) • Matej BEDRAČ, MSc (KIS) • Ajda BLEIWEIS, PhD (KIS) • Jure BREČKO (KIS) • Špela PUCIHAR (KIS) • Tanja TRAVNIKAR, PhD (KIS) • Jože VERBIČ, PhD (KIS) • Barbara ZAGORC (KIS) • Barbara BERNARD VUKADIN, MSc (ARSO) TRANSLATION AND PROOFREADING Dean J. DEVOS DESIGN Aleš SALOKAR PHOTOGRAPHS ON THE COVER © Janko Verbič (cattle); © Ana Hiti Dvoršak (apple sorting); © Innviertlerin, accessed by pixabay.com (farmer’s market); © the web portal Naša super hrana, accessed by nasasuperhrana.si (a plate of food) © Freepik, accessed by freepik.com (food waste) Use of data: The content and data presented in this publication are intended to inform about and support sustainable development. The publication may be distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons license CC BY-NC-ND 4.0, in whole or in part, for non-commercial purposes, without modifications, and with attribution to the source: Slovenian Environment Agency, Kataložni zapis o publikaciji (CIP) pripravili v Sustainable Food Supply in Slovenia, 2025. Narodni in univerzitetni knjižnici v Ljubljani This publication was prepared by the Agricultural Institute of Slovenia (Kmetijski inštitut Slovenije – KIS) in collaboration with COBISS.SI-ID 255766019 external partners within the framework of the task: Preparation of agri-environmental indicators 2024/25, participation in the ISBN 978-961-7237-03-0 (PDF) Eionet network, and the preparation of a publication on sustainable food supply (contract No. 2571-24-100018 of 2 August 2024). The publication is issued in digital form and published on the website: https://eionet.arso.gov.si/ TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 | INTRODUCTION 6 2 | FOOD SUPPLY AND FOOD SYSTEMS 7 2.1 | FOOD SUPPLY – THE PATH OF FOOD FROM PRODUCTION TO CONSUMPTION 8 2.2 | A SUSTAINABLE FOOD SYSTEM: ECONOMICALLY VIABLE, RESILIENT, ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY, AND FAIR 11 3 | FOOD PRODUCTION 14 3.1 | AGRICULTURE IS A FUNDAMENTAL BUILDING BLOCK OF THE FOOD SYSTEM 15 3.1.1 | Agricultural land is the foundation of food production 15 3.1.2 | Slovenian agriculture relies on family farms 20 3.1.3 | Agricultural production in Slovenia is predominantly oriented towards livestock farming 25 3.1.4 | Slovenia achieves a higher degree of self-sufficiency in animal products than in crops 30 3.1.5 | The negative impacts of agriculture on the environment and climate are decreasing in Slovenia 33 3.2 | FISHERIES AND HUNTING ALSO PROVIDE US WITH FOOD 41 3.3 | CLIMATE CHANGE SIGNIFICANTLY IMPACTS FOOD PRODUCTION 42 3.4 | AGRICULTURAL POLICY PROMOTES THE MULTIFUNCTIONAL ROLE OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 44 4 | THE PROCESSING, DISTRIBUTION, AND SALE OF FOOD 47 4.1 | FOOD PROCESSING COMPANIES ARE A KEY LINK IN THE FOOD SUPPLY CHAIN 48 4.2 | CONNECTEDNESS IS NEEDED FOR A STABLE FOOD SUPPLY 49 4.3 | SLOVENIA IS A NET FOOD IMPORTER 52 5 | FOOD CONSUMPTION 55 6 | FOOD WASTE 59 7 | HOW CAN A MORE SUSTAINABLE FOOD SUPPLY IN SLOVENIA BE ACHIEVED? 62 8 | GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS 65 9 | SOURCES AND LITERATURE 66 9.1 | CITED SOURCES 66 9.2 | STATISTICAL AND OTHER DATA 70 TABLE OF FIGURES Figure 1: Simplified scheme of the food system with the key processes and actors 9 Figure 2: Area (2000–2023) and structure (2023) of UAA in Slovenia 16 Figure 3: The spatial distribution of ANC and the share of total UAA in ANC; 2023 16 Figure 4: Nature areas under protection in Slovenia; 2021 17 Figure 5: Water protection areas in Slovenia; 2023 18 Figure 6: Changes in land use (2014–2023) and area of uncultivated agricultural land and abandoned agricultural land (2019–2023) 19 Figure 7: Number and average size (UAA, LSU) of farms in Slovenia; 2000–2020 20 Figure 8: The structure of farms by size classes of UAA and LSU in Slovenia; 2020 21 Figure 9: The structure of farms (2020) and changes in the number of farms (2010–2020) in Slovenia by main type of farming 22 Figure 10: Average economic size of farms in Slovenia and the EU, and the structure of farms by class of economic size; 2020 23 Figure 11: The age and education of farm holders in Slovenia; 2020 24 Figure 12: Structure of the value of agricultural production (current prices); average 2019–2023 25 Figure 13: Utilized agricultural area by category of use; 2000–2023 26 Figure 14: Structure of crop production in Slovenia by area of UAA, 2023 26 Figure 15: Total number of LSUs (2000–2020), average number of LSUs per farm and key livestock sectors in Slovenia (2020) 28 Figure 16: The number of bee colonies and honey production in Slovenia; 2015–2024 30 Figure 17: The annual fluctuations in self-sufficiency rates (2014–2023) and the average self-sufficiency (2017–2023) regarding basic agricultural products in Slovenia 31 Figure 18: The number of farms and area of UAA (2000–2023), and main products under organic control (2023) in Slovenia 33 Figure 19: The consumption of mineral fertilizers in Slovenia; 1992–2022 35 Figure 20: The consumption of major plant nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) per hectare of UAA; 1992–2022 35 Figure 21: The nitrogen balance surplus in Slovenian agriculture (kg/ha); 1992–2023 36 Figure 22: The phosphorus balance surplus in Slovenian agriculture (kg/ha); 1992–2023 36 Figure 23: Wholesale sales of plant protection products in Slovenia (tons of active substance); 1992–2021 37 Figure 24: Sources of ammonia emissions in Slovenian agriculture; 2023 38 Figure 25: The trend of ammonia emissions (000 t) in Slovenian agriculture; 1990–2022 39 Figure 26: Structure of greenhouse gas emissions in agriculture; 2022 39 Figure 27: Trend of greenhouse gas emissions in agriculture (1986 = 100); 1986–2022 40 Figure 28: Freshwater and marine fisheries (2017–2023) and hunting (2024) in Slovenia 41 Figure 29: Area of agricultural land prepared for irrigation and irrigated areas in Slovenia; 2000–2024 43 Figure 30: Payments to agriculture (national and EU funds; EUR million); 2012–2024 45 Figure 31: Objectives of the CAP Strategic Plan 2023–2027 for Slovenia 46 Figure 32: Concentration in the food supply chain in Slovenia; rounded values for the average of 2022 and 2023 50 Figure 33: Food and beverage imports and exports in Slovenia; 2000–2024 52 Figure 34: The available quantity of agricultural products for consumption per capita (kg); 2017–2023 57 Figure 35: The quantity of food waste generated in Slovenia; 2020–2023 60 Figure 36: Food waste by source of origin; average 2020–2023 61 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AJPES Agencija Republike Slovenije za javnopravne evidence in storitve [Agency of the Republic of Slovenia for Public Legal Records and Related Services.] ANC Area facing natural or other specific constraints ARSKTRP Agencija Republike Slovenije za kmetijske trge in razvoj podeželja [Agency of the Republic of Slovenia for Agricultural Markets and Rural Development] ARSO Agencija Republike Slovenije za okolje [Slovenian Environment Agency] AWU Annual working unit CAP Common Agricultural Policy EU European Union GHG Greenhouse gases KIS Kmetijski inštitut Slovenije [Agricultural Institute of Slovenia] LSU Livestock Size Unit MF Ministrstvo za finance [Ministry of Finance] MKGP Ministrstvo za kmetijstvo, gozdarstvo in prehrano [Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food] NECP Celoviti nacionalni energetski in podnebni načrt Republike Slovenije [Integrated National Energy and Climate Plan of the Republic of Slovenia] OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development OSLIS Osrednji Slovenski Lovsko Informacijski Sistem [Central Slovenian Hunting Information System] PDO Protected Designation of Origin PGI Protected Geographical Indication SURS Statistični urad Republike Slovenije [Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia] TSG Traditional Speciality Guaranteed UAA Utilized agricultural area UVHVVR Uprava za varno hrano, veterinarstvo in varstvo rastlin [Administration for Food Safety, the Veterinary Sector, and Plant Protection] WPA Water protection area ZZRS Zavod za ribištvo Slovenije [Fisheries Research Institute of Slovenia] 1 | INTRODUCTION Food is a basic good and is essential for the survival of individuals and society. After decades of relative stability, food supply is once again becoming a strategically important issue in light of climate change and other geopolitical and global upheavals, with the concepts of food security and food sovereignty returning to the centre of European and national debates. The recently established concept of “food supply chains” has been expanded to include issues such as sustainability, the environment, climate, and society, and has been upgraded to the concept of “sustainable food systems” with the inclusion of non-agricultural sectors. This concept addresses the fact that existing food systems face numerous challenges and are unsustainable in the long term, requiring transformation in order to achieve sustainability. As food systems are extremely complex, understanding the roles of all actors involved and their interrelationships is key to understanding them. The fundamental task of the food system and its primary sector (agriculture) remains to satisfy the basic human need for food. At the same time, sustainable food systems protect the environment and nature, provide higher quality and healthier food, and contribute to more effectively dealing with climate change and ensuring social well-being. This publication aims to familiarize the wider Slovenian public with the concept of food systems as well as the factors, actors, and processes that influence food supply – including consumption, in which we all take part. Readers are presented with the current state of the food system in Slovenia as a starting point for transforming it into a more resilient and sustainable system that will continue to ensure food security in the future. The publication seeks to encourage readers to think and act in the direction of the necessary changes. It outlines some of the effects of food choices and practices, emphasizing the responsibility of all actors. The central part of this publication is devoted to primary food production – agriculture – as well as other sectors (hunting and fishing) that supplement the food supply. It describes the state of Slovenian agriculture and its economic, social, and environmental impacts, highlighting the multifunctional role of agriculture: in addition to ensuring food supply and food security, agriculture supports the local economy, preserves the cultural landscape and natural resources, and contributes to the vitality and population of rural areas. In this way, the publication seeks to reinforce the importance of food of local Slovenian origin and to contribute to strengthening the reputation of Slovenian agriculture. Due to the lack of relevant data, chapters on the processing, distribution, sales, and consumption of food and the state of food waste in Slovenia are included in this publication to a somewhat lesser extent. The publication concludes with some proposals for making the existing food system more sustainable in terms of key processes and actors. The content of this publication is based on materials from international institutions, the applicable legislation, and selected Environ- mental Indicators in Slovenia, which are available on the ARSO website (https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en). Official data, particularly statisti-cal data, available as of mid-March 2025, also represent an important source of information. 2 FOOD SUPPLY AND FOOD SYSTEMS Food (food and beverages) is not only a basic good that provides nutrients and energy for survival, but is also one of the focal points of our daily lives, culture, and social customs. Foto © nasasuperhrana.si 2 .1 FOOD SUPPLY – THE PATH OF FOOD FROM PRODUCTION TO CONSUMPTION Reliable food supply1 is fundamental to the well-being of soil, water, minerals, energy, and labour), capital, knowledge, and individuals and the stability of society as a whole, with its services, are needed for the smooth implementation of all activities. main goal being food security – a state in which all people have constant access to sufficient quantities of safe, affordable, and The activities of the food system are guided by various influenc- nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and preferences, ing factors or driving forces, which can originate from within enabling them to maintain an active and healthy life (FAO, 1996). or outside the system. Some of these driving forces include the climate, the environment, demographics, urbanization, political The supply of food to the population takes place through the food events and decisions, knowledge and technology, social values supply chain. Such chains can be very short – for example, from and trends, market and economic conditions, and many others garden to table – or long, complex, and globalized. They represent (Lollar et al., 2007; Parsons et al., 2019). the central part of food systems (often, the term agri-food systems is also used), which is a more comprehensive concept of food sup- Various outcomes arise from the activities of food systems. ply, as such does not focus solely on the physical flow of food, but These are the effects and consequences of the system’s operation also includes the environmental, social, health, economic, politi- for society, health, the economy, and the environment, and the cal, and other dimensions of food (Parsons et al., 2019). outcomes can also be driving forces. The central outcomes of food systems are food production and ensuring food security. As A food system can be defined as all the elements (the environ- a source of food, they contribute to the health and prevention of ment, people, production inputs, processes, infrastructure, diseases of the population and have an important cultural signifi-institutions, etc.) and activities involved in the production, cance (Food …, 2023). Simultaneously, they provide income and a processing, distribution, preparation, and consumption of livelihood to farmers and many other involved actors and service food, as well as the results arising from these activities. By their providers, from suppliers of inputs to processors, distributors, as nature, food systems are multipurpose (they perform multiple func- well as shops, food markets, and restaurants (OECD, 2021). From tions), involve numerous actors, and are also closely linked to other an environmental point of view, food systems shape landscapes, systems, such as healthcare, mobility, and energy (EEA, 2025b). manage natural resources, and provide ecosystem services. The elements of a food system are interconnected in complex and dynamic networks. However, a food system can be simplified as a sequence of activities from primary production to food consump- 1 Food or foodstuff is defined in this publication as any substance or product in unprocessed, tion (including the management of waste generated at all stages of partially processed, or processed form intended for human consumption, including water (Uredba..., 2002). the system), which represents the core of the system (Figure 1). Pro- duction inputs, such as natural and human resources (e.g. land, FOOD SUPPLY AND FOOD SYSTEMS Figure 1: Simplified scheme of the food system with the key processes and actors Source: Scheme adapted from Lollar et al. (2007), What … (2025); infographic – KIS FOOD SUPPLY AND FOOD SYSTEMS In the developed world today, after decades of relative food the deterioration of soil and water quality, deforestation, and supply stability, food systems are faced with numerous en- the loss of biodiversity, and are a major consumer of energy and vironmental, economic, social, and geopolitical challenges water. Large quantities of food waste and other waste are also (e.g. the global Covid-19 pandemic, the war in Ukraine), making generated through food systems (FAO, 2018b; FAO, 2024; Food the strategic issues of food supply and food security once again ..., 2023; OECD, 2021). It is also necessary to mention the com- very important (Poročilo ..., 2023). Among the major challenges petition for limited natural and human resources from other facing food systems are inequalities in the population regarding sectors, such as energy, industry, and tourism. The demand access to sufficient quantities of safe and healthy food, obesity for land and agricultural raw materials for non-agricultural and diet-related diseases, globalization pressures, urbanization, purposes continues to increase, creating additional pressures demographic changes, unfair practices, inequalities and imbal- on food systems. ances of power among individual links in the food supply chain. The operation of food systems (especially primary food produc- The vulnerability of food systems increases in situations tion) is strongly dependent on the environment and natural re- of geopolitical unrest, natural disasters, pandemics, eco- sources. At the same time, they also create significant pressures nomic crises, and other shocks (Food ..., 2023). These can on the environment – contributing to greenhouse gas emissions, weaken the functioning of food systems with reduced resil- ience and jeopardize the supply of food to people. Global crises DI D the great vulnerability of food systems and the numerous ? negative effects, including environmental ones, that free YOU KNOW and disruptions in recent times have particularly highlighted international trade environments can have on small markets such as Slovenia. At the same time, awareness has increased regarding the importance of food security and sovereignty, as well as the importance of producing and consuming domestic In addition to the concept of food security, the concept of food sov- (local) food. also often arises. This is a comprehensive concept based on ereignty human rights (the right to food, a healthy environment, and a digni- The challenges facing food systems require a transformation fied life). It opposes industrial-style (agricultural) food systems and towards sustainable development . This will reduce the supports food systems that simultaneously take into account human negative and increase the positive impacts of these systems well-being and the health of the planet, with an emphasis on sus-on society, the environment, the climate, and the economy, tainable agricultural practices (Wittman, 2023). and ensure a more reliable supply of safe and quality food for future generations. 2 . 2 A SUSTAINABLE FOOD SYSTEM: ECONOMICALLY VIABLE, RESILIENT, ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY, AND FAIR Sustainable development is defined as development that tection of natural resources) and the concept of maintaining the “meets the needs of the present without compromising the income levels of individual groups. ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” It is based on an approach that seeks balance between three inter- At the European level, the European Green Deal² represents a set connected elements crucial for the well-being of individuals and of policy initiatives aimed at achieving climate neutrality for the societies: economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental European Union (EU) by 2050 by reshaping the way we produce protection (UN, 2025a). Sustainability is therefore defined by three and consume. This goal also includes other strategies, such as the pillars or dimensions: economic, environmental, and social. Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 and the ³ “Farm to Fork” strategy, which the European Commission presented in 2020 as one of the The sustainable transformation of food systems requires a key pillars within the Green Deal. Its purpose is to make the EU comprehensive approach, considering all actors and pro- food system more sustainable, i.e. such that it is fair, healthy, en- cesses involved, and all three dimensions of sustainability. vironmentally friendly, and resilient and such that the goals and It represents a shift from traditional, narrowly focused sectoral measures included within it address the main challenges of food concepts, such as the production concept focused on increasing systems in the EU. In February 2025, a new European Vision for production to ensure food security (without considering the pro- Agriculture and Food⁴ was published, with four key priorities: increasing the attractiveness of the agricultural sector (especially DI D the agri-food sector (i.e. food security and sovereignty), balancing ? YOU KNOW for young people), ensuring the competitiveness and resilience of all this with climate change and environmental goals, and ensur- ing fair living and working conditions in rural areas. Ecological footprint is a well-established, highly synthetic indi- cator of sustainable development that illustrates “the pressures of 2 https://www.consilium.europa.eu/sl/policies/green-deal/ (26. 2. 2025) socio-economic development on the environment and human inter-3 https://food.ec.europa.eu/horizontal-topics/farm-fork-strategy_en (14. 2. 2025) vention in the biosphere” (Indicator SE08) and through which the effectiveness of food systems can also be indirectly monitored. 4 https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/api/files/document/print/en/ip_25_530/ IP_25_530_EN.pdf; https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_25_530 (19. 2. 2025) FOOD SUPPLY AND FOOD SYSTEMS Slovenian strategic documents are also increasingly recognizing thinking, which includes a comprehensive view of the challenges the importance of the sustainable development of food systems. of the food system, enables the coordination of the activities of key The overarching guideline of the Common Agricultural Policy actors, reduces the impact of external driving forces, and ensures Strategic Plan 2023–2027 for Slovenia⁵ is “to ensure sustaina- that the individual parts of the system follow common goals. This ble food production throughout the country and increase self-suf- approach allows for the development of better solutions rather ficiency,” thereby addressing the challenges of food security and than only focusing on individual parts or actors in the system. environmental-climate challenges. The Resolution “Our Food, Due to the natural characteristics, specificities, and challenges Rural Areas, and Natural Resources after 2021”⁶ also address- of Slovenian agriculture, this approach is more appropriate than es all three key dimensions of sustainable development. In 2025, directly implementing approaches from other EU Member States. work began on preparing the new “Our Agriculture and Food in 2040” Vision (“Vizija 2040”), the goal of which is to shape “a na- In the area of the environmental sustainability of agriculture, tional strategic framework for the development of the entire agri- Slovenia is already focusing on ensuring the sustainable use of food system in Slovenia, which will enable coordinated guidance natural resources, biodiversity, habitats, and the characteristics of of policies and a long-term perspective for farms and the entire the Slovenian landscape, as well as goals related to strengthening food supply chain”⁷. This vision will define goals and solutions for ecosystem services. In both agriculture and other sectors, climate strengthening sustainability, resilience, and food sovereignty. The actions that pursue the long-term goals of emissions reduction proposed solutions will attempt to balance economic, environ- are being implemented, as defined in the Long-Term Climate mental-climate, and social aspects of sustainable food production Strategy⁸, and the short-term goals in the Integrated National En- and consumption. The vision is expected to be completed by the ergy and Climate Plan of the Republic of Slovenia (NECP)⁹. end of 2025. The food processing industry is also responding to environ- A comprehensive and systemic approach to sustainable food mental and food challenges. In addition to seeking ideas and supply is therefore emerging in Slovenia at the time of the technological solutions to increase the proportion of recycled preparation of this publication, both in public debate, where packaging, it is rapidly investing in the technological renovation some possible multidisciplinary or cross-sectoral solutions have of production processes and in infrastructure and equipment already been indicated (Presidential Forum “Food Sovereignty,” with a lower negative impact on the environment. By optimizing November 2023), and in the shaping of policies. A systemic way of production processes, the food processing industry significantly 5 https://skp.si/skupna-kmetijska-politika-2023-2027 (10. 10. 2025) 6 https://pisrs.si/pregledPredpisa?id=RESO125 (10. 10. 2025) 7 https://www.gov.si/zbirke/projekti-in-programi/vizija-za-prihodnost-evropskega-kmetijstva/ (11. 3. 2025) 8 https://pisrs.si/pregledPredpisa?id=RESO131 (24. 9. 2025) 9 https://www.energetika-portal.si/fileadmin/dokumenti/publikacije/nepn/dokumenti/nepn2024_final_dec2024.pdf (24. 9. 2025) FOOD SUPPLY AND FOOD SYSTEMS reduces the waste generated during food processing. The Min- reducing food waste, food education, and community-building istry of Agriculture, together with agricultural, food, and other initiatives. Such initiatives can contribute to reducing impacts non-governmental organizations, carries out numerous training on the environment and climate, help small producers and food programmes on the sustainable consumption of food of local or- companies achieve fair value for their products, and contribute igin, on the establishment of appropriate storage capacities, and to building better relationships between producers, consumers, on actions to reduce food waste, as well as activities in the field of and policymakers (IPES-Food, 2019). More in-depth considera- promoting diverse local food. tion of adapting consumer habits (including the consumption of non-food goods and services) will also be necessary within the Slovenian science is also participating in the transformation framework of the aforementioned vision (Vizija 2040). of the food system in Slovenia. In addition to seeking sustain- able solutions in the field of agriculture and food, it also studies Ideally, the food system will be sustainable when it is an solutions in the direction of “local alternative food networks,” integrated and cohesive system of food production, process- such as sustainable logistics solutions and the handling of food ing, distribution, consumption, and waste management, and its reuse. Innovations, especially social innovations, also which simultaneously ensures the economic, environmen- play an important role in the sustainable transformation of food tal-climate, and social aspects of sustainability in order to systems, which is emphasized by an increasing number of stud- ensure food security and sovereignty for current and future ies (e.g. IPES-Food, 2019; European ..., 2020). This includes net- generations (Predlog ..., 2025). working, competitions, various forms of funding, “ecosystems,” the collection and dissemination of the impacts and benefits of innovation, incubators, and research¹⁰. In food systems, social innovations are becoming established, especially those linked 10 https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/industry/strategy/innovation/social_en to shorter food supply chains, community-supported agricul- (6. 3. 2025) ture, urban farming, public procurement schemes, solutions for 3 FOOD PRODUCTION The primary food producers are farms, which supply the largest share of the population with plant and animal products. Fisheries are also important for food supply in Slovenia, while hunting and gathering play a lesser role. Foto © KIS archive 3 . 1 AGRICULTURE IS A FUNDAMENTAL BUILDING BLOCK OF THE FOOD SYSTEM 3.1.1. Agricultural land is the foundation of food production Agriculture is a key strategic economic sector that provides Together with other natural resources such as solar energy, a food supply to the population. In addition to food production, water, air, and genetic resources, agricultural land is the agriculture is attributed many other functions, such as supporting foundation of food production. It enables the production of the local economy, contributing to the vitality and settlement of plants and the raising of animals, and ensuring that its extent is rural areas, and providing ecosystem services while respecting sufficient is important for the food supply and food security of the principles of good agricultural practice (e.g. conserving biodi- the population. versity, ensuring water quality, increasing carbon stocks in soils, and preventing erosion, floods, and fires). Recently, there has In Slovenia, the natural conditions for agriculture are less been an increasing emphasis on favourable, as the relief, mountainous terrain, and large propor-sustainable agriculture , which considers the environmental and social aspects of development in tion of karst areas limit the area of land suitable for agricultural addition to economic ones and is an important part of sustainable cultivation (Cunder, 2002). Forest cover accounts for the largest food systems (Podnebno..., 2025). share of the country, at 59%. In 2023, agricultural land covered slightly more than half that amount, totalling around 670,000 hectares, or 33% (Zeleno..., 2024). DI D YOU KNOW The total area of agricultural land represents the potential for ? food production, which is not fully utilized. Thus, total agricul- tural land also includes unutilized agricultural land. This includes abandoned agricultural land, land with trees and shrubs (hedges, groups of trees and shrubs, and riparian overgrowth), plantations of forest trees, and uncultivated land. Agricultural land that Slovenia ranks third amongst EU Member States in terms of forest farms actually cultivate and that contributes to food production cover as a percentage of the total land area. Only Sweden and is utilized agricultural area (UAA). This includes arable land, Finland have a higher percentage of forest cover (Indicator GZ04 ). permanent grassland, and permanent crops. The area of such type of land has decreased slightly in the last two decades, and in 2023 covered 481,000 hectares or 24% of the area of Slovenia (Figure 2). FOOD PRODUCTION Figure 2: Area (2000–2023) and structure (2023) of UAA in Slovenia Areas facing natural or other specific constraints In Slovenia, three-quarters of utilized agricultural area is located in areas facing natural or other specific constraints (ANC). These are divided into mountainous areas, areas with natural constraints outside mountainous areas, and areas with special constraints (Figure 3). Figure 3: The spatial distribution of ANC and the share of total UAA in ANC; 2023 Source: SURS data (Crop production statistics); infographic – KIS As a consequence of the natural conditions and traditional agri- Source: MKGP cultural practices, permanent grassland dominates the struc- ture of UAA at 57%, while arable land covers 37% and permanent crops 6%. Farms cultivate an average of 0.23 hectares of The conditions for agricultural activity are more difficult in UAA per capita, of which only slightly more than 0.08 hectares these areas due to various natural factors, such as altitude, steep are arable land, which places Slovenia among the countries with slopes, low temperature, the chemical properties of the soil, and the smallest area of arable land per capita within the EU (the EU excessive moisture. Consequently, production costs are higher average in 2022 was 0.22 hectares per capita) (Indicator KM27). and productivity is lower, increasing the risk of production being abandoned. More than half of utilized agricultural area (56%) is located in mountainous areas, where the more difficult growing conditions are a result of higher altitudes and associated shorter growing seasons. In mountainous areas with lower altitudes, farming is limited mainly by steep slopes. FOOD PRODUCTION MYT HS & TRUTH Figure 4: Nature areas under protection in Slovenia; 2021 S MYTH: Slovenia has enough arable land to ensure adequate food security. Unfortunately, this is not true. It is very worrying that Slovenia has little arable land for local food production. In order to ensure ade- quate food security, the country needs approximately 2,500 m2 of arable land per capita, which is three times more than the current area of arable land per capita, i.e. 840 m2 (Indicator KM10). Nature areas under protection and Source: Data – ARSO (Indicator NV01, Indicator KM06); maps – ARSO (Indicator NV02, water protection areas Indicator NV03); infographic – KIS Part of the agricultural land in Slovenia is located in areas subject to various legally prescribed restrictions designed Agriculture plays an important role in preserving biodiversity to protect nature and water. These include nature areas un- through its activities in nature areas under protection. Regular der protection, which are divided into protected areas (parks, mowing of extensive meadows, for example, prevents overgrowth nature reserves, natural monuments) and areas of the Natura and allows for the existence of diverse meadow communities that 2000 network, which together cover 40% of the area of Slove- have historically formed on these habitats through agricultural nia (Figure 4) (Indicator NV01). A significant proportion of all use (Indicator KM06). Therefore, maintaining agriculture in utilized agricultural area is located within nature areas under these areas is important for preserving many freely living species protection, with 26% under various forms of protection (Indica- and their habitats. tor KM06). FOOD PRODUCTION Water protection areas (WPAs) are areas where the protection Protection of agricultural land of water bodies intended for drinking water abstraction is imple- mented. Various protection regimes apply in such areas, resulting Slovenia has a very limited amount of agricultural land, in certain prohibitions or restrictions on construction, agricul- which is a non-renewable natural resource. From the point of ture, and other activities (Indicator VD16). view of food security, preserving the characteristic cultural land- scape, and other functions of agricultural land, its protection from The total area of WPAs in 2023 represented 17% of Slovenia’s total permanent change or deterioration in quality and ensuring its area (Figure 5). Similar to protected natural areas, forest covers cultivability is therefore extremely important. the predominant share (62%) of the land use structure in WPAs, 13%, arable land 11%, and permanent crops 2%; Indicator TP06). the process of expanding settlements, commercial and industrial centres, and infrastructure onto land with agricultural or forestry while utilized agricultural area covers 26% (of which, grassland Agricultural land is most threatened by urbanization, which is In these areas, the use of mineral fertilizers, manure, and plant versibly degraded and permanently loses the functions necessary for food production and ecosystem services (Indicator KM10). Ag- protection products is prohibited or restricted due to the risk of ricultural land is also lost through overgrowth/abandonment or drinking water contamination (Indicator VD16). protection regime (WPA I), which are located near abstractions. use. Especially due to construction, the soil becomes mostly irre- Within WPAs, 9,000 hectares are areas under the strictest water conversion to forest land. Overgrowth does not lead to irreversible soil degradation and can be seen as a positive process from an en- Figure 5: Water protection areas in Slovenia; 2023 vironmental point of view, but from a food security point of view, given the small amount of cultivated land per capita, it means greater food dependence. The cultivability of agricultural land in Slovenia is decreas- ing, while the built-up area is increasing, especially on land with better soil quality. The urbanization process is taking place primarily on the periphery of settlements and along the routes of major infrastructure facilities (Indicator KM10). The main reason for the overgrowth of agricultural land is the abandonment of agricultural activity, especially in areas with difficult growing conditions and due to the unfavourable age structure of farmers, which can also be a consequence of unattractive conditions for young people as regards taking up farming. In 2023, overgrown agricultural land covered just under 23,000 hectares. This land Source: Data – ARSO (Indicator TP06); map – MKGP; infographic - KIS represents potential for re-establishing agricultural production, and the state supports the removal of overgrowth through finan- FOOD PRODUCTION agricultural land. This includes land that is only temporarily out HS & TRUTH YT cial measures. An additional 17,000 hectares were uncultivated of use, land with fencing for animals, and land where cultivation S M is actually being abandoned (Zeleno ..., 2024). This land is often a transitional category before a change in land use to built-up area, which means a loss of agricultural function (Indicator TP03). Changes in land use are two-way, but changes from non-agricultural MYTH: Agricultural land is only important for food production. uses (building, forest, water, and other land) to agricultural use are This is not true. In addition to its basic function of food production, less extensive. In the last decade (2014–2023), approximately 12,300 agricultural land also provides a number of important ecosystem hectares of agricultural land were lost due to changes in use, while services, such as water filtration, pollutant degradation, carbon di- only half of this amount, or around 6,600 hectares, was returned to oxide sequestration, nutrient cycling, and others (Indicator KM10). agricultural use (Figure 6). These ecosystem services are beneficial to the environment as well as to society and the economy. In addition, agricultural land creates a distinctive landscape and increases its attractiveness for tourism Figure 6: Changes in land use (2014–2023) and area of uncultivated and recreation. agricultural land and abandoned agricultural land (2019–2023) MYTH: Agricultural land reduces biodiversity in the natural environment. This is not entirely true. Intensive and inappropriate use of agricul- tural land contributes to the loss of biodiversity. However, agricul- tural land that is cultivated in an environmentally friendly manner supports biodiversity by providing a habitat for many species. In Slovenia, agriculture has played a major role in the creation of semi-natural habitats (e.g. dry karst grasslands) that are impor- tant in terms of biodiversity. With the continuation of farming and the prevention of overgrowth in these areas, the existence of these habitats is also preserved (Indicator KM06). Today, Slovenia boasts a highly diverse landscape and a high level of biodiversity, with 15% of its agricultural land classified as having high natural value, placing it among the top EU Member States (Indicator KM05). Source: Data – MKGP, MOP; infographic – KIS FOOD PRODUCTION 3.1.2 Slovenian agriculture relies Figure 7: Number and average size (UAA, LSU) of farms in Slovenia; 2000–2020 on family farms Number and size of farms The total number of farms in Slovenia is gradually decreas- ing. Between 2000 and 2020, the number of farms decreased by 18,136, or 21% (Figure 7). Simultaneously, the average size of farms increased from 5.6 to 7.0 hectares of UAA, as the total area of land farmed did not significantly decrease. Livestock farming is also experiencing a strong negative trend of declining farm numbers. The number of all livestock farms almost halved between 2000 and 2020. During the same period, the average number of animals per farm increased from 6.1 livestock units (LSU) to 9.1 LSU. DI D YOU KNOW Source: Data – SURS; infographic – KIS ? Significant structural changes are taking place in Slovenian agriculture. A process entailing the concentration of agricul- tural production is noticeable, as smaller farms are disappearing The latest sample farm census was conducted in 2023. farms are cultivating over 50 hectares of utilized agricultural area According (UAA) or raising more than 50 LSU, while the number of farms in to the provisional census data, there were 50,531 farms in Slovenia 2023 farm census and larger ones are taking over their land. Increasingly, more in 2023, which cultivated an average of 8.9 hectares of land. The smaller size classes is decreasing (Indicator KM34). However, the data from this census are not directly comparable with the series of size structure of farms remains quite unfavourable in terms of data for the period 2000–2020 due to different coverage thresholds. their competitiveness. In 2020, farms cultivating less than 5 hec- However, the data for 2020 converted to a comparable level show tares of UAA accounted for 60% of the total, and livestock farms that between 2020 and 2023 the number of farms decreased by 7%, raising less than five LSU accounted for 59% (Figure 8). In addition while the average size of farms increased from 8.1 to 8.9 hectares. to the unfavourable size structure, farms are also characterized by high fragmentation of land, which reduces productivity. FOOD PRODUCTION Figure 8: The structure of farms by size classes of UAA and LSU YOU KNOW in Slovenia; 2020 D ? DI Between 2000 and 2020, Slovenia lost an average of 2.5 farms per day. Some of the main reasons for abandoning farming are the un- favourable age structure of farmers, the lack of young successors, partly due to the unattractive conditions for continuing the activity, the poor economic situation of farms and the lack of competitiveness of agriculture (also due to market fragmentation), the fragmentation of land, and the difficult production conditions. Source: Data – SURS; infographic – KIS The loss of farms, especially smaller ones, has broader consequences for the economy, society, and the environment due to the multifunc- A comparison of structural data shows that Slovenian farms tional role of agriculture, which goes beyond mere food production. are still significantly behind the EU average in terms of size, Agriculture also plays a role in preserving the environment and biodi- and their competitiveness is low compared to European farms versity, shaping the cultural landscape, ensuring the vitality and pop- ulation of rural areas, and providing employment for the population. (Indicator KM34). In the 27 EU Member States, over 9 million farms were involved in agriculture in 2020, cultivating a total of 155 mil- lion hectares of UAA, with an average size of 17 hectares of UAA. Slovenia therefore represents less than 1% of farms in European In Slovenia, the concentration of agricultural production due to the performs only Malta, Cyprus, Romania, and Greece. The largest negative process. The positive effects of farm growth include im- proved productivity and competitiveness, higher yields per hectare, farms are in the Czech Republic, where an average of 121 hectares terms, and with seven hectares of UAA per farm on average, it out- increase in the size of cultivated areas per farm is not generally a of UAA are cultivated. Slovenia also belongs to the bottom group and production, which is the result of better conditions, equipment, of EU countries in terms of average number of animals per farm, knowledge, and better investment opportunities. Concentration only acquires a negative connotation when the increase in the size of farms alongside Romania, Croatia, and Lithuania. The EU average in leads to such an increase in agricultural production that it puts in- 2020 was 27 LSU per farm, which is almost three times more than creased pressure on the environment. Therefore, the indicator of ag- in Slovenia (Zeleno ..., 2024). ricultural production concentration must be monitored in conjunction with other indicators, such as livestock density on agricultural land and the use of production inputs (e.g. fertilizers, plant protection products). FOOD PRODUCTION The typology and economic size of farms Alongside structural changes, specialization processes are Figure 9: The structure of farms (2020) and changes in the number of also taking place in Slovenia , meaning that farms are focusing farms (2010–2020) in Slovenia by main type of farming on a specific agricultural sector, such as crop production. With increasing concentration and specialization of production, the technological equipment and production efficiency of farms are improving (Indicator KM12). The degree of specialization in agriculture in Slovenia is relatively low compared to other EU countries. In 2020, three-quarters of farms were specialized in a certain type of crop or livestock production, with just under 29,000, or 42%, specializing in crop production, and around 22,000, or 33%, specializing in livestock production (Figure 9). Within special- ized crop production, farms that specialize in field crops and farms with permanent crops prevailed, while among special- ized livestock farms, those that specialize in grazing livestock were dominant, which also represented the largest share of all farms combined (32%). A quarter of all farms were mixed, en- compassing mixed crop production, mixed livestock farming, or a combination of both (Indicator KM12). Between 2010 and 2020, the number of farms in all specialized and mixed live- Source: Data – SURS; infographic – KIS stock types decreased, most notably in mixed livestock farming, where the number of farms more than halved. The number of farms specialized in crop production increased, with the excep- In European terms, Slovenian farms rank among the smal- tion of horticulture, while the largest increase was recorded in ler ones regarding economic size, achieving standard output field crop production (34%). that is less than half the EU average. The average standard ou- tput per farm was almost EUR 40,000 in EU countries in 2020, In 2020, Slovenian farms achieved a total standard output while in Slovenia it was EUR 16,000, with almost two-thirds of (gross production value without subsidies) of EUR 1.15 billion, farms having a standard output below EUR 8,000 (Figure 10). which is 25% more than in 2010. The largest share, 41%, was Farms in Greece, Croatia, Malta, and Romania have a lower contributed by farms raising grazing livestock, while all speci- standard output on average, while farms in the Netherlands alized farms combined accounted for 80% (Indicator KM12). achieve the highest income from agriculture (EUR 473,000) FOOD PRODUCTION lated per annual working unit (AWU), which is one of the key YT HS & TRUTH (Indicator KM12; Zeleno..., 2024). The factor income, calcu-indicators of the economic performance and productivity of M S agriculture, also shows a lag in incomes in Slovenian agricultu- re compared to the European average; in recent years it has ave- raged around EUR 7,300/AWU, or around 30% of the European average (SURS, Eurostat, calculations by KIS). MYTH: Specialization in agricultural production leads to increased pressure on the environment. Figure 10: Average economic size of farms in Slovenia and the EU, This is not true in all cases. The orientation of farms towards and the structure of farms by class of economic size; 2020 specialized extensive production, for example extensive cattle and sheep farming in mountainous and other areas with natural con- straints, can contribute to the preservation of agricultural land with high natural value (Indicator KM12). MYTH: Slovenian agriculture is characterized by high intensity. This is not true. In general, Slovenia has few areas suitable for in- tensive agriculture, and numerous indicators show that the intensity of agriculture is not increasing but decreasing. The use of plant pro- tection products (Indicator KM01) and mineral fertilizers (Indicator KM02) and the number of animals per hectare of agricultural land (Indicator KM04) are decreasing, while the nitrogen and phosphorus balances on agricultural land are improving (Indicators KM22 and KM25). If we compare Slovenia with other EU countries, a larger pro- portion of land in Slovenia is cultivated by farms with lower input use (Indicator KM11). Source: Data – Eurostat, SURS; infographic – KIS FOOD PRODUCTION The labour force in agriculture Figure 11: The age and education of farm holders in Slovenia; 2020 Family farms are the predominant form of agricultural holding, with agricultural enterprises accounting for less than 1% of the total number. In 2020, family labour accounted for over 95% of the total amount. The total labour input in agri- culture comprised 66,326 annual working units (1 AWU = 1,800 hours/year), averaging 0.97 AWU per farm (Zeleno ..., 2023). From the perspective of agricultural production, the share of specialized farms in Slovenia is slowly increasing, while mixed farms dominate in terms of income sources. These are farms that combine income from basic agricultural activities with in- come from outside agriculture, such as supplementary activities related to agriculture, income from employment, and other ac- Source: Data – ARSO (Indicator KM07), SURS; infographic – KIS tivities on the farm. The age and educational level of farm holders-managers The educational structure of farm holders is also unfavoura-(hereinafter: farm holders) are factors that significantly con- ble, but it is improving, unlike the age structure. In 2000, as tribute to the effective management of farms and their future many as 86% of holders did not have formal agricultural educa- development (Indicator KM07). Younger farm holders are more tion, but only practical experience in working in agriculture. By promising from a developmental perspective than older ones, 2020, this share had decreased to 52%. The share of farm holders have a higher average level of education, are more innovative, who had completed at least one form of formal agricultural edu- and are more adaptable to changes (Kneževič Hočevar and Černič cation (basic or complete) was higher than the EU average (28%), Istenič, 2010). In Slovenia, the age structure of farm holders but lower than countries such as the Netherlands (82%), Germa- is unfavourable, as those over 55 years of age predominate ny (67%), and France (65%) (Indicator KM07). (Figure 11). In 2020, as many as 61% of farm holders were over 55 years old, while only 5% were under 35 years old. The average age was 58 years. FOOD PRODUCTION 3.1.3 Agricultural production in Slovenia Figure 12: Structure of the value of agricultural production (current prices); average 2019–2023 is predominantly oriented towards livestock farming In the structure of agricultural production, crop production and livestock farming each contribute approximately half of the gross value. On average for the period 2019–2023, crop production contributed a slightly larger share, at 54%, while livestock farming contributed 44% (Figure 12). Agricultural services also contribute to the total value of agricultural produc- tion, accounting for an average of 2%. Given the natural conditions for agriculture and soil fertility, the most economically important livestock activities are milk and beef production, which together contribute 63% of the value of livestock farming and 27% of total agricultural production. Particularly in connection with these sectors, the production of fodder crops represents the largest share within crop production (30%), as well as within total agricultural pro- duction (16%). Source: Data – SURS; infographic – KIS FOOD PRODUCTION Crop production Figure 14: Structure of crop production in Slovenia by area of UAA; 2023 The structure of crop production in Slovenia is closely linked to the natural conditions, and most utilized agricultural area is intended for the production of fodder on permanent grass- land (Figure 14). In 2023, according to SURS data, fodder produc- tion took place on 275,000 hectares of meadows and pastures (Figure 13), which is 57% of all UAA, with around 58,000 farms engaged in fodder production. Despite the important role of arable farming in Slovenian agricul- ture, arable land covers only 37% of utilized agricultural area, as a consequence of the natural conditions. Larger contiguous flat ar- eas suitable for arable farming are mostly located in the northeast of the country and at the bottom of basins, while elsewhere arable land is limited to small areas (Cunder, 2002). Figure 13: Utilized agricultural area by category of use; 2000–2023 Source: Data – SURS; infographic – KIS Arable farming is primarily focused on the production of cereals and fodder crops. Cereals are grown on approximately 100,000 hectares, representing over half of the arable land and one fifth of all cultivated land. According to the 2020 census, 29,068 farms were involved in cereal production, with an average area of 3.4 hectares per farm. Grain maize (42% of all cereals in 2023; Indi- cator KM11) predominates in cereal production, largely used as animal feed, followed by wheat and barley (Zeleno ..., 2024). Nearly one-third of the arable land (55,000 hectares) is dedicated to the production of fodder crops, such as silage maize, grass, clover, alfalfa, and fodder roots. In 2020, 36,206 farms grew fodder crops on arable land, a similar number of farms were also Source: SURS involved in the production of vegetables and strawberries. The area dedicated to vegetables and strawberries has fluctuated FOOD PRODUCTION between four and six thousand hectares in recent years, repre- (3% UAA) in 2023, with approximately one-third being intensive senting 1% of the total UAA. Most of the area is dedicated to the orchards, while the rest were extensive (meadow) orchards. The production of lettuce, cabbage, and onions, with the majority of area of apple orchards, the most important fruit species in Slo- vegetables grown in the open, as only around 100 hectares of area venia, has been decreasing in the long term, as have the areas of are located in protected spaces (greenhouses). Important crops on other important fruit species (pear, peach, nectarine, and cherry). the arable land in Slovenia also include oilseeds and potatoes. Conversely, the areas of other fruit species are increasing, especial- Oilseeds are grown on almost 10,000 hectares, or 2% of the total ly walnut, which has become the second most important fruit spe- UAA in the country. Before 2015, rapeseed and pumpkins for oil cies in terms of area. The area of other permanent crops, namely were the most important oilseed crops, but the areas with soy- vineyards, olive groves, and tree and vine nurseries covered 16,000 beans have been increasing. In 2023, these three oilseed crops hectares, or 3% of the cultivated land in 2023 (Zeleno ..., 2024). were grown in approximately equal proportions, while sunflower was less represented. The area with potatoes has decreased by more than half in recent decades and has stabilized at around Livestock farming 3,000 hectares, or 1% of the total UAA (Zeleno ..., 2024). Livestock farming is the primary agricultural activity in The smallest share of UAA categories is represented by permanent Slovenia, primarily due to the large extent of areas with perma-crops at 6%, which includes orchards, vineyards, olive groves, and nent grassland. According to data on the share of livestock farms, tree and vine nurseries. Orchards covered around 12,000 hectares Slovenia was above the EU average in 2020 (Slovenia: 64%, EU average: 47%), however, livestock farms are on average much D YOU KNOW farm) (Zeleno ..., 2024). ? smaller (Slovenia: 9.7 LSU per farm, EU average: 26.9 LSU per DI As with the number of livestock farms, which decreased by almost half between 2000 and 2020, a decreasing trend regarding the total number of breeding animals (in terms of LSU) is observed, which decreased by 13% in the same period Before joining the EU, sugar beet was an important crop in Slovenian (Figure 15). Today, the most important activities in livestock fields. farming are cattle breeding, poultry farming, and pig farming, With the introduction of sugar quotas in 2006 and the closure of the only sugar factory in Slovenia, sugar beet production was while small ruminants and other animals such as horses, rabbits, abandoned. Since 2017, sugar beet has been grown again on a smaller and deer are less represented. In 2020, 63% of the total of 44,976 scale, and the harvest is exported abroad for processing. livestock farms were involved in cattle breeding, 60% in poultry breeding, 27% in pig breeding, and 19% in sheep and goat breed- ing (Zeleno ..., 2023). FOOD PRODUCTION Figure 15: Total number of LSUs (2000–2020), average number of LSUs YOU KNOW per farm and key livestock sectors in Slovenia (2020) D ? DI Livestock density (the number of animals per unit of utilized ag- ricultural area) is a measure of the pressure on agricultural land in terms of grazing, livestock manure production, and impacts on soil and natural vegetation. Appropriate livestock density is key to sustainable land management as it reduces pressure on the envi- ronment. In Slovenia, the livestock density of agricultural land is decreasing. In the period 2000–2020, it decreased from 0.97 LSU/ ha of UAA to 0.86 LSU/ha of UAA (Indicator KM04). However, the maximum livestock density is determined on the basis of the max- imum annual nitrogen input from livestock manure into the soil in accordance with the Decree on the protection of waters against pol- lution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources (Uredba..., 2009). For cattle, the maximum permitted livestock density is 2.4 LSU/ha. Source: Data – Eurostat, SURS; infographic – KIS Cattle farming remains by far the most important sector of Slove- resent the bulk of poultry production, are significantly fewer. The nian agriculture. Milk and beef production are stable agricultural poultry sector is organizationally different from other agricultural activities, together contributing a 27% share to the value of agri- activities, as it relies on a vertical system of agricultural companies cultural production. In 2020, 28,492 farms were involved in cattle in cooperation with farms. The vertical system is mostly based on farming, representing 42% of all farms in the country. Farms aver- the connection of numerous stakeholders involved in the prepa- aged 17 cattle, which is three times less than the EU average of 51 ration of feed, the production of eggs for hatching and human head. Smaller cattle farms in the EU can only be found in Romania, consumption, the rearing of laying hens and broiler chickens, pro- where farms average five cattle (Zeleno ..., 2023; 2024). cessing and distribution, and a system of related parallel services. Poultry farming also holds great importance in Slovenian agri- Pig farming was an important livestock activity decades ago, culture. In 2020, 27,006 farms and agricultural companies were and was organized in a very similar way to poultry farming. After involved in poultry farming, but market-oriented farms, which rep- Slovenia’s independence and later accession to the EU, the major- FOOD PRODUCTION ity of pig farmers were unable to successfully adapt to the stricter tion has more than halved and the majority of pig meat is raised by market conditions, so the number of pig farms decreased by more a few companies and a few dozen farms. The average number of than 70% in the period 2000–2020, and the total number of pigs pigs per farm is 19, which is six times less than the EU average (121) also decreased to a lesser extent. Currently, the volume of produc- (Zeleno ..., 2023; 2024). MYT HS & TRUTH In line with structural changes, such as the abandonment of S farming and maintaining the cultivated landscape in areas facing natural or other specific constraints, the stock of small rumi- nants in Slovenia has been increasing and has stabilized in recent years. This primarily concerns smaller herds of sheep and goats, so the breeding of small ruminants can be attributed primarily to MYTH: Livestock farming is an unsustainable form of agriculture. the ecosystem value, rather than income. However, in recent years there has been an increase in the number of farms producing Not true. Livestock farming is not inherently unsustainable. With an sheep and goat milk and larger farms breeding small ruminants emphasis on good management and animal welfare, it can be an im- for meat, which generate income by cultivating abandoned farm- portant part of sustainable food production. land and maintain the population in marginal areas of Slovenia. By raising grass-fed livestock, livestock farming can make use of A similar role to that of small ruminants in the Slovenian space is meadows and pastures where other crops cannot be grown, thereby also played by horse breeding. contributing to food security. By-products and waste from the food processing industry, as well as crops of inferior quality that are unsuit- able for human consumption, are also used as animal feed. Livestock Beekeeping farming can also make an important contribution to nutrient cycling returned to fields in the form of animal manure, which reduces the Beekeeping has a long tradition in Slovenia. in agriculture, especially on arable and livestock farms. Nutrients are Slovenian bee- need for mineral fertilizers. keepers are world-renowned for breeding the autochthonous Slo- venian Carniolan honey bee, traditional hives, and beehive panels. Beekeeping also represents an important agricultural branch, as it MYTH: provides, in addition to bee products, the pollination of cultivated Livestock farming in Slovenia is based on the use of antibiotics and hormonal preparations. plants (fruit trees, crops), which contributes to more successful ag- ricultural production. Pollination is also important from the point This is not true. In the EU and Slovenia, hormonal preparations and of view of preserving the ecological balance and biodiversity in antibiotics are not permitted to achieve better breeding results. They nature. In the last decade, Slovenian beekeepers have collectively are only used to treat diseases under the supervision of veterinarians. produced an average of around 1,200 tonnes of honey annually and maintained approximately 191,500 bee colonies (Figure 16). FOOD PRODUCTION Figure 16: The number of bee colonies and honey production in Slovenia; country covers all domestic needs (for food, feed, and industry) 2015–2024 with its own production of agricultural products. Self-sufficiency below 100% means a shortfall that must be covered by imports, while self-sufficiency above 100% means a surplus in domestic production. Achieving a satisfactory degree of food self-suffi- ciency reduces dependence on other countries and is particu- larly important in times of uncertain conditions in international markets (Indicator KM29). The level of self-sufficiency is influenced by the volume of pro- duction of individual agricultural products. This is based on the available area and quality of agricultural land, as well as the nat- ural conditions, the availability of labour, the income situation of farmers, knowledge and technology, infrastructure, the presence of the processing industry, and many other factors. Ultimately, the degree of self-sufficiency also depends on consumer demand for products that are not grown or produced in the country. DI D YOU KNOW ? Source: Data – KIS (estimate of honey production in 2024), SURS, UVHVVR; infographic – KIS 3.1.4 Slovenia achieves a higher degree of self-sufficiency in animal products Vegetable and fruit production in home gardens is very widespread in Slovenia , contributing to self-sufficiency by means of locally grown than in crops food. However, due to a lack of data, production in home gardens is not included in the calculations of the self-sufficiency rate at the Supplying the population with food can be ensured in two national level. ways: through self-sufficiency or by trading with other countries. The degree of self-sufficiency shows to what extent a FOOD PRODUCTION Slovenia does not fully cover its needs by means of domestic For crops, significant year-on-year fluctuations in self-suf- production of basic agricultural products, except for milk, ficiency rates are evident, which are also a consequence of the beef, and poultry meat (Figure 17). The lowest levels of self-suf- occurrence of frost, hail, drought, and other unfavourable weather ficiency are, on average, recorded for fruit, pork, vegetables, and phenomena that affect the harvest. In the long term, only the de- potatoes. In general, the self-sufficiency rates are higher for ani- gree of self-sufficiency regarding cereals is increasing, reaching mal products than for crops. around 80%. Among individual types of cereals, the degree of sel- f-sufficiency is the highest for grain maize (97%), whose domestic production has exceeded consumption in recent years. Slovenia Figure 17: The annual fluctuations in self-sufficiency rates (2014–2023) covers half of its needs with its own production of wheat and oats, and the average self-sufficiency (2017–2023) regarding basic while three-quarters of all barley needs are covered. agricultural products in Slovenia The degree of self-sufficiency regarding potatoes has been no- ticeably decreasing over the years due to the decreasing area of land used for growing potatoes. While self-sufficiency exceeded 80% before Slovenia’s accession to the EU, it has almost halved to less than 50% today. Domestic consumption also includes pro- cessed potatoes, which Slovenia only imports, as it does not have processing capacities. The degree of self-sufficiency at the level of exclusively fresh potatoes averages 68%. The lowest levels of self-sufficiency among crops are recorded for vegetables and fruit. Slovenia covers around 40% of its dome- stic needs with its own production of vegetables, and this share is 27% for fruit. As with potatoes, processed products are also in- cluded in the self-sufficiency calculation. The degree of self-suf- ficiency regarding fresh vegetables averages 55%, and regarding fresh fruit 38%. Vegetables and fruit are also characterized by strong seasonality (production is only possible at a certain time of the year under natural conditions), which means that imports are needed to meet domestic needs outside the season, which also affects self-sufficiency rates. Source: Data – SURS; infographic – KIS FOOD PRODUCTION DI D YOU KNOW ? Compared to crops, the degree of self-sufficiency is more stable regarding animal products . While self-sufficiency rates for beef (109%), milk (132%), and small ruminant meat (94%) are high due to the natural conditions and suitable conditions for pasture farm- The aggregate level of self-sufficiency regarding fruit in Slovenia is ing, the high self-sufficiency rates for poultry meat (110%) and eggs low due to the frequently unfavourable weather conditions, such as (95%) reflect the specific characteristics of both markets. Conversely, spring frosts and drought, as well as high domestic consumption of fruit self-sufficiency regarding pork is low, averaging 39%, which is also that is not produced in Slovenia. More than 40% of domestic fruit con - result of the structural changes in pig farming following Slovenia’s sumption consists of bananas, citrus fruit, and other tropical or ”south- accession to the EU. Greater fluctuations in self-sufficiency rates are ern” fruit, which are entirely imported. only characteristic of honey production, which is most affected by weather conditions during the flowering and nectar flow of plants. The level of self-sufficiency is also influenced by the presence and On average, Slovenia covers half of its needs regarding honey. development of the food processing industry and other key food sup- ply infrastructure. Slovenia has no potato processing plants, while the HS & TRUTH terials. In the past, more land was planted with fruit varieties intended YT S processing of vegetables and fruit relies mainly on imported raw ma-for processing. With the discontinuation of the processing of designated M varieties, these fruit varieties became unattractive to traders and con- sumers, which was followed by the abandonment or reduction of per- manent crop area. MYTH: A high level of self-sufficiency entails a high level of food security for the country. There are opportunities to increase the level of self-sufficiency re- garding individual agricultural products in Slovenia, but these are This is not entirely true. The concept of self-sufficiency is flawed in limited by the available arable land. Increasing self-sufficiency in one some respects, as it does not take into account the country‘s depen-sector could therefore lead to a decrease in self-sufficiency in other dence on imports of intermediate raw materials. Slovenia is heavily sectors. Possible solutions include technological advances in agricul-dependent on imported raw materials for agriculture and other pro-ture, the reintegration of uncultivated and overgrown land into agricul-cesses within the food system (seeds, fertilizers, veterinary medicines, tural production, the protection of agricultural land (Revizijsko ..., 2021), plant protection products, energy, etc.), which in the event of crisis better management of the risks associated with outdoor production, situations and restricted trade can lead to reduced food production and the creation of an appropriate and stable business environment and threaten food security (MKGP, 2024a). that will attract farmers. FOOD PRODUCTION 3.1.5 The negative impacts of agriculture Organic farming has been established in Slovenia for sever- al decades, and its scope is increasing. In 1999, when the first on the environment and climate support payments for this type of production were made, 2,400 are decreasing in Slovenia hectares, or 0.5% of all cultivated areas, were included in organ- ic control. According to SURS data, in 2023, 3,864 organic farms Agriculture is an economic sector closely linked to the en- (farms with organic certification and farms in conversion) cul- tivated nearly 55,000 hectares, or 11% of all utilized agricultural vironment . Its activities can affect the quality of soil, water, air, area (Figure 18). biodiversity, human and animal health, and the climate, both pos- itively and negatively. Figure 18: The number of farms and area of UAA (2000–2023), and Pressures on the environment are primarily related to the incor- main products under organic control (2023) in Slovenia rect or excessive use of fertilizers and plant protection products, inappropriate soil management, emissions of greenhouse gases and pollutants into the air, and unsustainable land use (Poročilo ..., 2022). However, by adopting more appropriate practices, agri- culture can significantly reduce its negative impacts on the envi- ronment and contribute to the preservation of natural resources. In Slovenia, agriculture is a sector that has taken numerous steps to reduce pressures on the environment, as evidenced by system- atic long-term monitoring and the results of environmental and agricultural indicators (https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en), which are presented in this chapter. Organic farming tainable food production, following the principles of producing Source: Data – ARSO (Indicator KM08), SURS; infographic – KIS high-quality and healthy food, good animal welfare, preserving bio-Organic farming is a form of agriculture that focuses on sus-diversity, protecting natural resources, and sustainable rural devel- opment. The field of organic farming is regulated by legislation, and The predominant form of land use in organic farms is perma- various restrictions apply, such as a ban on the use of easily soluble nent grassland and pasture, which, according to SURS data for mineral fertilizers, synthetic plant protection products, genetically 2023, accounted for 78% of the total area of land under organic cul- modified organisms, and growth regulators (Indicator KM08). tivation, while arable land accounted for 15%, and permanent crops FOOD PRODUCTION for 7%. Consequently, hay from permanent grassland predominates The potential for increasing organic crop and livestock production quantitatively among organic crop production, and green fodder is in Slovenia exists, but more intensive changes in the short term are mainly grown on arable land. The production of organic cereals also difficult to expect. The challenges lie in the amount of suitable land stands out, which more than tripled between 2012 and 2023. On for production, the marketing of products, the cost-effectiveness of average over the last five years (2019–2023), approximately 6,000 production, and price uncompetitiveness compared to imported tons of organic cereals were produced annually, with wheat, spelt, organic products. and maize for grain accounting for the largest share. On livestock farms included in organic control, cattle and poultry The use of mineral fertilizers and nutrient predominate in terms of animal numbers, thus cow milk, beef, balance surpluses of organic products (Zeleno ..., 2024). and eggs are the most widespread animal products in the supply Mineral fertilizers are substances containing plant nutrients that are added to soils or plants in agriculture in order to im- Despite the increasing scope of organic farming, the supply prove growth, increase and improve crop quality, or increase Unlike organic fertilizers, they are obtained by means soil fertility. of organic food does not meet demand, particularly regard- of industrial processes. The field of fertilization with mineral ferti- ing fruit and vegetables. Slovenia is expected to reach at least lizers covers various strategic and legislative documents whose aim a 10% share of organic farms and at least 18% of organic utilized is to balance fertilizer use in agriculture, prevent burdening, the agricultural area by 2027 (Akcijski ..., 2022). EU guidelines foresee optimal utilization of nutrients with minimal losses into groundwa- achieving a 25% share of organic land by 2030 (Zeleno ..., 2024). ter and the atmosphere, and to reduce and prevent the pollution of waters with nitrates from agriculture (Indicator KM02). DI D YOU KNOW The total consumption of mineral fertilizers in Slovenia has ? decreased significantly. In the period 1992–2022, it decreased by 38% (Figure 19), and the consumption of major plant nutrients (ni- trogen, phosphorus, potassium) per hectare of utilized agricultural area decreased by 30% (Figure 20). Of the individual plant nutri- ents, the consumption of potassium (by 65%) and phosphorus (by In terms of the share of agricultural land under organic control, 62%) decreased the most. The trend of decreasing and interannual Slovenia exceeded the EU average (9.9%) in 2021 and was in the top fluctuations in the consumption of plant nutrients from mineral third of EU Member States (Indicator KM08). fertilizers is the result of new agricultural practices, knowledge, and technologies that increase nutrient utilization, as well as the prices of mineral fertilizers and agricultural products (Zeleno ..., 2024). FOOD PRODUCTION Figure 19: The consumption of mineral fertilizers in Slovenia; 1992–2022 Figure 20: The consumption of major plant nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) per hectare of UAA; 1992–2022 Source: ARSO (Indicator KM02) Source: ARSO (Indicator KM02) Balances of the main plant nutrients, such as nitrogen and The gross balance surplus of nitrogen in agriculture decreased phosphorus, are important in determining the potential by 54% in the period 1992–2023 (Figure 21). Meanwhile, the net environmental pollution from agriculture. They show the dif- balance surplus (excluding nitrogen lost to the air through ference between the total input to agricultural land from various ammonia and nitrogen oxide emissions) decreased by 85% over sources and their removal by crops. The main sources of nutrient the entire period. This indicates better nitrogen management in input are fertilizers, seeds and planting material, and, for nitrogen, agriculture and, consequently, a contribution to reducing nitrogen atmospheric deposition and biological fixation by legumes. Large compound emissions into the environment. surpluses reflect poor nutrient management, as well as environ- mental factors. The largest balance surpluses are usually detected in drought years, when the removal of nutrients from agricultural land is lower due to reduced yields (Indicator KM22). FOOD PRODUCTION Figure 21: The nitrogen balance surplus in Slovenian agriculture (kg/ha); Figure 22: The phosphorus balance surplus in Slovenian agriculture (kg/ha); 1992–2023 1992–2023 Source: ARSO (Indicator KM22) Source: ARSO (Indicator KM25) The DI D YOU KNOW ? balance surplus of phosphorus also decreased significantly in the analysed period (1992–2023), by 107% (Figure 22). The bal-ance improved as a result of the reduced input of mineral (–68%) and livestock (–18%) fertilizers and increased removal by crops In order to Plant production removes plant nutrients from the soil. (+26%). The results on phosphorus balance surpluses must be maintain soil fertility, which is the basis for the sustainable use of interpreted in connection with data on soil stocks regarding this agricultural land, nutrients must be returned through fertilization. element. Excessive stocks of phosphorus in soils pose a potential Fertilization must be carried out in accordance with good practices risk of water pollution, as phosphorus can leach into the soil solu- that reduce the risk of environmental pollution (Indicator KM26). tion. However, soil analyses in Slovenia show that we have more problems with phosphorus deficiencies than with surpluses, so A sufficient content of organic matter in the soil has positive ef- a further reduction in the phosphorus balance surplus at the na- fects on crop size, water retention in the soil, and less leaching of tional level is not desirable (Indicator KM25) nutrients and pollutants into the groundwater. In Slovenia, the soil organic matter content is good and comparable to other countries with similar climatic conditions, and (very) good compared to Medi- terranean countries in Europe (Indicator KM26). FOOD PRODUCTION The use of plant protection products used (arable land, gardens, permanent crops) has also decreased. Between the periods 2000–2009 and 2010–2020, average consu- Plant protection products are preparations used in agricultu- mption decreased from 6.7 kg to 5.4 kg of active substance per re to protect plants or crops from pests, disease agents, and hectare, and in 2021 it amounted to 4.5 kg per hectare, which is the weeds. According to their action, they are divided into fungicides, lowest in the monitoring period (Indicator KM01). herbicides, insecticides, acaricides, and other plant protection products (Zeleno ..., 2024). In the period under consideration, the consumption of all groups of plant protection products decreased in Slovenia. The decrease In the last thirty years, the total use of plant protection pro- in herbicide consumption is primarily due to the use of newer gro- ducts in Slovenia, which also includes non-agricultural use, ups of preparations that require lower application rates per area, has decreased by more than half, from 2,031 tons in 1992 to 914 as well as changes in the cropping structure. In the last twenty tons in 2021 (Figure 23). At the same time, the consumption per years, agricultural areas with crops that require a higher use of hectare of cultivated land where plant protection products are plant protection products (winter cereals, maize, potatoes, oilseed YOU KNOW rape) have noticeably decreased, while green fodder from arable DI D land has increased. A smaller part of the decrease utilized is also ? due to the transition to non-chemical plant protection methods. Figure 23: Wholesale sales of plant protection products in Slovenia (tons of active substance); 1992–2021 The active substances in plant protection products for use at the EU level are approved by the European Commission after thorough evaluation. Individual Member States can then register products con- taining approved active substances for marketing and use on their own territory. An application for registration is usually submitted by the manufacturer or representative of the manufacturer of the product. In Slovenia, the range of registered products for use is quite limited. In January 2024, 441 active substances were approved in the EU, while only 165 active substances were registered for use in Slovenia (MKGP, 2025a). One of the reasons for this is the small size of the Slovenian market. The registration process is lengthy and financially demanding, so manufacturers of plant protection products often focus on coun- tries where demand is higher and investment in registration is there- fore more economically justified. Note: This includes sales for agricultural and non-agricultural purposes (green areas, sport fields, roads, railways etc.) Source: ARSO (Indicator KM01) FOOD PRODUCTION MYT HS & TRUTH Ammonia emissions S Ammonia is also part of the nutrient balance and, besides nitrogen losses to water, it is the most important source of ni-trogen loss from agriculture. Ammonia has numerous negative effects on human and animal health, the environment, biodiversity, MYTH: and the economy, and also contributes to indirect greenhouse gas Agricultural production is entirely possible without the use emissions (Indicator KM13). of mineral fertilizers and plant protection products. This is generally not true. In Slovenia, agriculture contributes the majority of all ammonia In modern agriculture, the use of mineral fertilizers and plant protection products is a reality and a necessi- emissions (97% in 2022), and in the structure of emissions from agri- ty in order to ensure food safety and nutritional security for the culture, most ammonia is released during fertilization with livestock growing global population. However, responsible and controlled use manure and grazing, followed by emissions from animal housing, is essential, while striking a balance between agricultural producti- emissions from livestock manure storage, and emissions due to fer- on and reducing risks to the environment and human health. tilization with mineral and other organic fertilizers (Figure 24). Agricultural production without the use of synthetic mineral fertili- zers and plant protection products is made possible by agricultural Figure 24: Sources of ammonia emissions in Slovenian agriculture; 2023 practices such as organic and biodynamic farming, which are being implemented to a lesser extent around the world and in Slovenia. MYTH: The use of plant protection products is decreasing, but they are becoming increasingly concentrated. This is not true. Due to the different forms and concentrations of the products, data on the sale of plant protection products refer to the quantity of pure active substances, so the data on the reduction in consumption are reliable. Source: ARSO (Indicator KM13) FOOD PRODUCTION Total ammonia quantities in agriculture decreased by more Most nitrous oxide, which accounts for 25% of GHG emissions in than a quarter in the period 1990–2022 (Figure 25). Over the agriculture, is formed due to fertilization with livestock and miner- entire period, emissions decreased the most in pig farming, dur- al fertilizers and the storage of livestock manure. Carbon dioxide, ing the fertilization of agricultural plants with livestock manure, released due to liming agricultural soils and fertilization, accounts and in poultry and cattle farming. Regulations in the field of water for less than 2% of total GHG emissions in agriculture. Carbon diox- protection and agricultural policy measures contributes to lower ide formed by the use of fossil fuels in agriculture is not included in emission levels. this calculation (Indicator KM14). Figure 25: The trend of ammonia emissions (000 t) in Slovenian Figure 26: Structure of greenhouse gas emissions in agriculture; 2022 agriculture; 1990–2022 Source: ARSO (Indicator KM14) Source: KIS (National Inventory Data for Slovenia) YOU KNOW D ? DI Greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere Agriculture contributes about one-tenth of all greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in Slovenia, with the largest share from live- Agricultural land is both a source and a sink of carbon dioxide, as va- stock farming (Indicator PB03). Among GHGs, methane, nitrous rious practices bind carbon dioxide from the air, helping to mitigate cli- oxide, and carbon dioxide are the most important in agriculture. mate change. Changes in carbon stocks in agricultural soils are most Methane is formed during the fermentation of feed in the diges- influenced by farming practices, in particular fertilizer application, tive systems of reared animals and during the storage of livestock ploughing depth, and measures to increase the organic matter in soil. manure, and accounts for 73% of all GHG emissions (Figure 26). FOOD PRODUCTION Annual GHG emissions from agriculture decreased noticea- environmentally friendly agricultural production methods that bly between 1986 and 2022, primarily due to improved manure contribute to improving soil and water quality, maintaining soil and fertilization practices and improved efficiency of rearing fertility, biodiversity, and traditional rural landscapes, and thus (Figure 27). Emissions of methane decreased by 17%, emissions to the sustainable use of natural resources. Support is intended of nitrous oxide by 13%, and the greenhouse effect of all gases, to cover additional costs or compensate for lost income resulting expressed in carbon dioxide equivalents, by 16%. In 2022, Slove- from more demanding farming conditions (Indicator KM03). nia achieved the goal set in the Integrated National Energy and Climate Plan of the Republic of Slovenia until 2030 (reducing GHG Agri-environmental measures have been implemented in emissions in agriculture by 1% by 2030 compared to 2005). In Slovenia since 1999, but to a greater extent since joining the terms of emissions reduction, Slovenia is comparable to Western An increasing area of agricultural land is included in these EU. European countries (Indicator KM14). measures. Between 2015 and 2022, the net area of agricultural land (without double-counting areas where more than one measure is implemented) with agri-environmental measures increased from Figure 27: Trend of greenhouse gas emissions in agriculture (1986 = 100); 65,354 to 97,652 hectares, a 49% increase. The proportion of such 1986–2022 land in relation to total utilized agricultural area thus increased from around 14% to around 20%. MYT HS & TRUTH S MYTH: Livestock farming is the main source of greenhouse gas emissions. Source: ARSO (Indicator KM14) This is not true. Agriculture, and livestock farming in particular, are not the main contributors to greenhouse gas emissions in Slove- Agri-environmental measures the burning of fossil fuels, with the largest share coming from the energy sector (electricity and heat production) and transport (road nia. In Slovenia, the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions is Environmental protection within agriculture is particularly transport). Together, these two sectors accounted for almost 60% of highlighted by agri-environmental measures, in which farms all emissions in 2022. Agriculture contributed 11% of greenhouse gas can voluntarily participate. emissions in the same year (Indicator PB03). These measures, with various forms of support, encourage the preservation of or transition to 3 . 2 FISHERIES AND HUNTING ALSO PROVIDE US WITH FOOD Fisheries and hunting are traditional activities in Slove- In 2024, approximately 1,500 tons of meat from large un- nia that contribute to a lesser extent to the food supply of gulate game were obtained through hunting (Figure 28). The the population. Within fisheries, an average of 2,000 tons of majority of this was red deer meat (39%) and meat from wild aquatic organisms – fish, crustaceans, and molluscs – were raised boar (36%), the population of which has increased significantly or caught annually in the period 2017–2023 (Figure 28). Of this, in recent years. The remaining game meat consisted of roe deer approximately 40% were marine and 60% freshwater organisms. meat (21%) and other large ungulate game (e.g. chamois, fallow In freshwater fisheries, the vast majority of fish was bred in fish deer, European mouflon; 4%). farms (88%), while a smaller proportion was caught through rec- reational fishing (12%). In marine fisheries, mariculture (breed- ing marine fish and shellfish) also predominated, accounting for 81% of the total raised or caught. Figure 28: Freshwater and marine fisheries (2017–2023) and hunting (2024) in Slovenia Source: Data – GOZDIS-OSLIS, MKGP, SURS, ZZRS; infographic – KIS 3 . 3 CLIMATE CHANGE SIGNIFICANTLY IMPACTS FOOD PRODUCTION Similar to the global situation, Slovenian agriculture is heav- pared to crop production, livestock farming is generally less vul- ily dependent on weather and climatic conditions, making it nerable, as it is primarily facing yield losses of feed and heat stress one of the more vulnerable systems, as it is exposed and sensitive in farm animals due to climate change. Within livestock farming, to the impacts of climate change, while also having limited ability beekeeping is facing the greatest degree of vulnerability. to adapt. Consequently, both the country’s food sovereignty and the economic stability of agriculture are threatened. Slovenia is increasingly facing heat stress and drought, which cause significant yield and income losses in agriculture. Dro- Extreme weather events, such as drought, heat waves, floods, ught periods are occurring in the growing season of plants almost hail storms, frost, the appearance of invasive species, as well as every year, and seven droughts with the dimensions of a natural the more intense presence and spread of pests, weeds, and dis- disaster were recorded between 2000 and 2024 (Indicator PP14). eases, have the greatest impact on agriculture. The degree of vul- Among other major impacts of climate change that Slovenian agri- nerability to climate change varies considerably between different culture is already facing, there is an increased thermal load, frosts, agricultural activities. Within crop production, individual sectors a changed rainfall regime, which increases the risk of both hydro- are facing significant fluctuations in the quantity and quality logical extremes (droughts and floods), and more intense storms. of yields, primarily due to drought and extreme weather events. Those producers who do not have the possibility of growing a Slovenia ranks first in the EU in terms of economic damage wider range of agricultural plants throughout the year or whose caused by weather and climate extremes. Between 1980 and growing areas are not protected by anti-hail nets and greenhouses 2023, the damage reached EUR 17.5 billion, which amounts to are the most vulnerable (e.g. outdoor vegetable producers). Com- approximately EUR 8,700 per capita (EEA, 2025a). The impacts of climate change will become increasingly significant over DI D to maintain production stability and sustainable development. ? Adaptations depend on the decisions and actions of individual YOU KNOW time, making the adaptation of agriculture necessary in order farmers, as well as on agricultural policy, market mechanisms, and development and technological research. Slovenia co-finances the implementation of measures for adapting to climate change The fishing industry is also feeling the effects of climate change within the framework of the Common Agricultural Policy. These through changes in the distribution of certain aquatic species, declines measures include adapting production and farming practices in the populations of some species, reduced productivity, and damage (e.g. the selection and use of resistant plant varieties and suitable to infrastructure due to extreme weather events (FAO, 2018a). animal breeds, and proper soil use), irrigation, protection against adverse weather events (suitable barns, greenhouses, anti-hail nets, frost protection), protection against diseases and pests, FOOD PRODUCTION income protection for farmers, and information and advisory The negative impacts of climate change are reflected not only in services. Measures for adaptation to drought receive the greatest agriculture but throughout the entire food system. In addition to amount of funding (Podnebno..., 2024). unstable food production, climate change also has a significant cost- price effect. Fluctuations in prices and difficulties in accessing the Irrigation is one of the measures by which agriculture can su- necessary quantities of produce hinder the smooth operation of oth- ccessfully adapt to the consequences of drought, as it enables er actors in the food supply chain (processing, distribution, trade). a quantitatively and qualitatively stable yield. However, While producers often receive assistance in the event of crop failure, irrigation is poorly utilized in Slovenia: in 2024, only 1.3% of all other links in the chain pass on the resulting costs to the consumer. utilized agricultural area was prepared for irrigation (Figure 29), which places Slovenia among the EU countries with the smallest Adaptation to climate change should not be haphazard, but proportion of agricultural land prepared for irrigation. Of the land should be based on information about climate projections and prepared for irrigation, around 4 thousand hectares were irrigated coordinated between sectors (Poročilo..., 2022). Multipurpose ad- in 2024 (Indicator KM21). aptation measures offer the greatest benefits, as adaptation involves the planned reduction of vulnerability and an increase in resilience Figure 29: Area of agricultural land prepared for irrigation and irrigated to the perceived and expected impacts of climate change, with the areas in Slovenia; 2000–2024 aim of reducing or preventing damage. Linkage with climate change mitigation measures is also desirable, as such contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere while simultaneous- ly encouraging increased uptake (sinks) of these gases from the at- mosphere. The key measures on agricultural land that are important for reducing emissions or increasing sinks include, in particular, the greening of arable land over the winter, maintaining crop rotation, conservation tillage, and subsequent and undersown crops. Understanding the complex interplay between climate change and food supply chains is crucial for developing effective strategies for risk reduction, strengthening adaptation, and promoting sustain- ability. With a comprehensive approach that combines scientific findings, technological innovations, and stakeholder engagement, society can strive to build more resilient and equitable food supply chains in a changing climate. With appropriate measures, the negative consequences of climate change can be significantly mitigated, and in some cases, changes can even be exploited Source: ARSO (Indicator KM21) for the benefit of sustainable food production. 3 . 4 AGRICULTURAL POLICY PROMOTES THE MULTIFUNCTIONAL ROLE OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE In Slovenia, most agricultural measures are implemented The benefits of agricultural policy are even broader. The condi- within the framework of the Common Agricultural Policy tions set for farmers enable them to perform their role in society of the EU (CAP). This is a key mechanism that helps farmers by producing diverse, quality, and safe food, and by preserving produce food while ensuring that consumers have access to culinary traditions and food culture. They also contribute to safe, affordable, and high-quality food. The CAP represents the preservation of the countryside, the development of rural a partnership between agriculture and society, and between EU infrastructure, and the creation of new jobs. All of this is based Member States and their farmers (EC, 2025b). on sustainable management practices, with smart and careful Its main objectives are the following: management of natural resources – which is crucial for our food, the quality of life today, and future generations. • to support farmers and increase their productivity so that they can regularly supply the population with accessible and The main groups of agricultural policy measures are as follows quality food; (Figure 30): • to ensure that farmers can live decently from their work; • Market measures and direct support for producers. • to contribute to mitigating climate change and to the sustain- Income support stabilizes income and encourages environ- able management of natural resources, such as water, soil, mentally friendly farming and the provision of public services and biodiversity; that the market does not pay for (e.g. countryside landscape • to preserve rural areas and cultural landscapes throughout maintenance). the EU; • Rural development measures, which respond to the specific • to promote a vibrant rural economy, job creation, and devel- needs of rural areas, such as farming in areas with more diffi- opment in agriculture, food processing, and other related cult conditions, organic farming, the modernization of farms, activities. the development of non-agricultural activities, etc. • General services for agriculture, which are mostly financed from national funds, support research, advisory services, ag- ricultural education, and measures in the field of veterinary, phytosanitary, and food quality. FOOD PRODUCTION Figure 30: Payments to agriculture (national and EU funds; EUR million); 2012–2024 YT S M HS & TRUTH MYTH: Farmers receive too many subsidies. This is not true. Agriculture differs from other economic activities due to its specific characteristics such as high dependence on weather conditions and lower average incomes compared to non-agricultural activities. The payments that farmers in the EU receive under the ag- ricultural policy are an important mechanism for income stabilization, as they mitigate the negative effects of price fluctuations, crop failures, and higher production costs due to less favourable natural conditions for farming, thus ensuring the long-term survival of farmers and the food security for the population. In order to receive payments, farmers must meet a number of prescribed requirements arising from CAP measures – they must farm in a sustain- able and environmentally friendly manner, preserve soil and biodiversity, and take into account the welfare of people and animals. The payments thus cover part of the additional labour and material costs incurred in meeting these requirements, while also rewarding farmers for providing public services such as ecosystem services and caring for the countryside. Source: ARSKTRP, MF, MKGP, KIS calculations, Zeleno … (2024) As of 2025, an extensive package of agricultural legislation is under consideration (the Agriculture Act, the Food Act, the Safe In Slovenia, approximately 70% of funds for agricultural po- Food and Feed Act). The revised legislation, among other things, licy measures come from the common EU budget. The current defines sustainable agriculture, addresses the transition to a more CAP is implemented through the CAP Strategic Plan 2023–2027, resilient and sustainable agri-food system among the objectives of which includes measures to achieve three general objectives, nine agricultural policy, and provides the legal basis for the production specific objectives, and one horizontal objective for the dissemina- of quality food, the organization of agri-food chains, and the pro- tion of knowledge, innovation, and digitalization (Figure 31). tection of consumers (MKGP, 2025b). FOOD PRODUCTION Figure 31: Objectives of the CAP Strategic Plan 2023–2027 for Slovenia In addition to CAP measures, national measures are also im- plemented in Slovenia, representing approximately 30% of all funds for agriculture. Some are regular (e.g. the co-financing of insurance premiums), while others are exceptional and are im- plemented in the event of extraordinary events (e.g. natural dis- asters). Local communities and regional public funds also support agriculture, mainly through favourable loans or the co-financing of interest rates for investments in agricultural holdings. DI D YOU KNOW ? Only about 3% of the budget for agriculture is allocated to pro- moting the consumption of Slovenian agricultural products in the form of promotions and school schemes. In order to significantly strengthen the sustainable transformation of food systems, consu- mers would need to be supported more generously by other sectors as well, not just agriculture. The state also provides funding for fisheries and hunting, which, unlike most agricultural measures, is intended to ensure the provisi- on of general services and operations, rather than directly benefiting fishermen and hunters. Source: MKGP (2024b) 4 THE PROCESSING, DISTRIBUTION, AND SALE OF FOOD In addition to primary producers (agriculture, fisheries, hunting), a broad network of actors – processors, distributors, traders, and food retailers – ensures the food supply to the population. By creating added value from agricultural products and linking them into “farm-to-table” chains, a favourable business environment is created for all stakeholders. Foto © Sara Bele THE PROCESSING, DISTRIBUTION, AND SALE OF FOOD The majority of food enters the food supply chain through position – of a particular type of food are strongly dependent on purchasers and the food processing industry. The latter en- the organization of the given chain. In Slovenia, the organi-ables longer shelf life, increased safety and greater diversity of zation and connectedness of the chain are greatest for milk food through various stages of processing, preservation, and and beef, which are also the most stable sectors in Slovenian packaging. Distributors connect producers and food processors agriculture. A branched and organized purchasing network, with end consumers. Food is stored in distribution centres under based on contractual relationships and the provision of services controlled and, if necessary, refrigerated conditions, and then such as logistics and administration, ensures a smooth supply transported onward to wholesalers and retailers, which sell food and operation of processing activities, and a daily supply of fresh to consumers. products. Good organization, combined with favourable condi- tions for rearing, contributes to a high level of food security and self-sufficiency regarding milk and beef. 4 . 1 FOOD PROCESSING Poultry farming is also well organized due to the specificities of its business model. The production, purchasing, processing, COMPANIES ARE and supply of the most important cereals as well as milling and A KEY LINK IN THE bakery products are also reasonably organized, although to a lesser extent. Conversely, connections are weak in vegetable FOOD SUPPLY CHAIN growing, fruit growing, pig farming, and honey and oilseed chains by processing agricultural products into finished food YOU KNOW D products; therefore, a strong and efficient agri-food sector is ex-Food processing companies play a key role in food supply tremely important for the entire agriculture sector. The co-oper- DI ? ative system, with its 53 agricultural co-operatives, and other or- ganized forms of cooperation between producers and purchasers of agricultural products, play an important role in strengthening and developing food supply chains in Slovenia. According to AJPES data, companies engaged in the production The individual food supply chains in Slovenia vary greatly as to of food and beverages accounted for 9% of all companies in the processing sector in 2023 and contributed 8% to total employment. their characteristics and potential. The stable production – and consequently also the competitiveness, resilience, and economic THE PROCESSING, DISTRIBUTION, AND SALE OF FOOD production, with a large part of the products being marketed sustainability of the Slovenian food system, which is particularly directly by producers on farms and at markets. vulnerable due to its small size. Therein, the Slovenian agri-food sector plays a key role as a connecting link. Good organization of the chain, in addition to linkage through purchasing and sales, also pursues coordinated production plan- Slovenia has a rich network of retail stores, which generate ning to ensure a smooth supply to the food processing industry or around a quarter of their revenue from food sales (27% in directly to consumers. This was well organized in the past in pig 2023, according to SURS), and the food market is dominated by farming and for fruit intended for processing. Today, these needs for connection, despite rare practices, are most evident with re- weakest connection between stakeholders is at the end of the gard to vegetables. For all food production sectors in Slovenia, the YOU KNOW D ? food supply chains, at retail stores, and at the consumer level. DI 4 . 2 CONNECTEDNESS IS The importance of short and local NEEDED FOR A STABLE food supply chains FOOD SUPPLY Locally grown and seasonal food supply means a shorter chain from producer to consumer. This reduces the possibility of con- tamination and the need for longer transport routes, which have Slovenia supports various forms of stakeholder connection a greater negative impact on the environment. It is linked to the preservation of dietary habits to which people and their digestive in the food supply chain within the framework of its agri- systems are best adapted. Shorter transport routes allow for the cultural policy. The connection can be horizontal, for example consumption of fresher and, in some cases, higher quality prod - among farmers, or vertical, such as the connection between ucts, such as vegetables and fruit that are harvested when ripe (Re - farmers and purchasers. vizijsko ..., 2021). recognizing the importance and benefits of connection. Togeth- their health and help strengthen Slovenian agriculture and food self-sufficiency Producers, especially of fruit and vegetables, are increasingly By buying food from local producers, consumers can support er with co-operatives or other companies, they plan production, , which reduces dependence on imports. At the invest in cooling and storage capacities, create local brands, same time, it preserves the cultivation of agricultural land, the rural participate in quality schemes, and thereby strengthen competi- the countryside. population, and jobs, and reduces poverty and social inequality in tiveness and economic efficiency. Any activity aimed at preserv- ing its own and sovereign food system is very important for the THE PROCESSING, DISTRIBUTION, AND SALE OF FOOD eight major retail chains. Strengthening the connection of food DI D YOU KNOW ? producers is a response to the increasing concentration in the food chain, which is reflected in the great power of the retail chains (Figure 32). These can dictate the prices of products and set other conditions for suppliers due to their power, putting In times of prosperity, consumers do not perceive food safety gally defined the function of a supply chain ombudsman since ficult market conditions, the latter then look for cheaper solutions 2015, whose main tasks are to monitor the conduct of stakehold- by importing raw materials, cutting back on production, or switching ers in the supply chain and publish examples of good and illegal to exporting. Consumers are thus forced to buy more and more food business practices, thereby supporting the establishment of fair- to the emergence of numerous unfair practices, Slovenia has le- increase when, by promoting special offers and prices, retail chains exert pressure on domestic food producers and suppliers. Under dif- small farms and companies in a disadvantageous position. Due risks in the supply of domestic and imported food products. Risks from distant regions, which can increase risks to the reliable supply er and more sustainable food systems (MKGP, 2025f). of food in times of geopolitical or other crises. Figure 32: Concentration in the food supply chain in Slovenia; rounded values for the average of 2022 and 2023 Source: Infographic design adapted from PBL (2014); data – AJPES, KIS, SURS, UVHVVR; calculations and infographic – KIS THE PROCESSING, DISTRIBUTION, AND SALE OF FOOD DI D YOU KNOW ? Slovenia, together with domestic food providers (producers and processors), also carries out activities to establish and recognize quality schemes and to strengthen the understanding of the im- What are quality schemes? venia is also trying to encourage greater consumption of locally portance of food sovereignty by offering food of local origin. Slo- produced food by requiring the inclusion of local food providers Quality schemes present agricultural products and foodstuffs that in the public procurement system (green public procurement; These are distinguished by specific characteristics or properties. Uredba ..., 2017). characteristics may be related to the geographical origin, production and processing methods, traditional recipes and procedures, or pre- scribed quality. Quality schemes are voluntary and open to all interest- ed producers of agricultural products and foodstuffs, and are marked with special labels, words, or symbols (MKGP, 2024c; MKGP, 2025d). We can distinguish between European and national quality schemes. European quality schemes include: protected designation of origin (PDO; examples: Tolminc cheese, Karst honey, and extra virgin olive oil from Slovenian Istria); protected geographical indication (PGI; ex- amples: Kranjska klobasa [Carniolan sausage], Ptujski lük [Ptuj onion], Štajersko-prekmursko bučno olje [Štajerska Prekmurje pumpkin seed oil]; traditional speciality guaranteed (TSG; examples: Prekmurska gibanica [Prekmurje layer cake], Idrijski žlikrofi [Idrija dumplings], Slovenska potica [Slovenian potica cake]); optional quality terms for agricultural products and foodstuffs (example: Mountain product); and organic production and processing. The national quality schemes are: selected quality–Slovenia, desig- nation of higher quality, and integrated production. Agricultural products and foodstuffs from quality schemes are produced in accord- ance with the procedures laid down in the regulations or product spec- ifications, and their production is additionally controlled by authorized control and certification organizations. 4.3 SLOVENIA IS A NET FOOD IMPORTER – Slovenia is no exception, as it is not entirely self-sufficient. Food No country in the world relies solely on domestic production YOU KNOW D ? imports are closely linked to factors such as the conditions for food DI production and processing (the natural conditions for agriculture, the seasonality of production, the presence of the food processing industry), economic conditions, trade agreements, political orien- tations, and consumer demand for certain types of food. After Slovenia joined the EU, both imports and exports of food With less than 100% self-sufficiency, a country must import the and beverages began to increase significantly, and this trend products it is lacking (and thus is a net importer). Conversely, a tently exceeds exports, its surplus (and thus is a net exporter). Food trade also takes place Slovenia is classified as a net food im- at 100% self-sufficiency if a country produces products that differ porter continues today (Figure 33). Since the total value of imports consis- country that produces more products than it needs usually exports export orientation of production, is around 60% (Indicator KM33). . The coverage of food imports by exports, which shows the from those of another country or are not available in sufficient quantities in other countries (Revizijsko ..., 2021). Figure 33: Food and beverage imports and exports in Slovenia; 2000–2024 Price and other aspects are also important in international food trade. Slovenia imports large quantities of products that it is other- wise self-sufficient in, such as beef, poultry, and milk. Distributors and retailers often import cheaper food products, which sometimes only meet minimum quality standards, in order to increase profits. Consumers are also often guided by price when buying food, which is why imported products are often more attractive than domestic ones. Products that are in demand by consumers but for which Slo- venia does not have the production or processing capacity are also imported. On the other hand, Slovenia exports products regarding which it is not fully self-sufficient (e.g. wheat), with the price that producers receive for their crops being the main guiding principle. Note: Provisional data for 2024 Source: SURS THE PROCESSING, DISTRIBUTION, AND SALE OF FOOD The coverage of import by export for food and beverages av- DI D YOU KNOW ? eraged 60% in the period before Slovenia joined the EU, and was higher for processed products (73%) than for unprocessed ucts with higher added value. After joining the EU, the coverage of The increasing globalization of food supply chains brings both advan- tages and challenges. products (29%). This indicates that Slovenia exported more prod- import by export at the aggregate level decreased to an average of Imports enable greater diversity and availability of 48%. This was due to the intensive growth of imports, especially food throughout the year, but at the same time they lengthen the chain processed food and beverages, as the Slovenian food processing related to sustainability: between food producers and consumers and raise numerous questions ders. On the other hand, the ratio between imports and exports • Premature harvesting, forced ripening, and long transport distances reduce the quality of fresh produce. industry faced increased competition with the opening of bor- the period 2017–2021, both food and beverage imports and exports • Imported food often requires more packaging to protect the produ- cts during transport. Transport routes are longer, which puts greater increased sharply in favour of exports of unprocessed products. In consistently increased (with the exception of imports in 2020 due pressure on the environment, and there is also a greater need for sto- to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic), with exports growing rage and refrigeration, which increases the need for space and energy. slightly more intensely (Indicator KM33). • Food imported from third countries may be produced according to less erage, the value of exports exceeded imports from when Slovenia and the protection of the environment and human rights, which puts do- mestic producers and processors at an unequal position in the market. joined the EU until 2021 only for trade in live animals, as well as Slovenia is a net importer regarding most food groups. stringent standards in the areas of plant and animal health, hygiene, On av- for dairy products and eggs. This is also expected, as conditions • By purchasing imported food, especially cheap surpluses, consumers self-sufficiency in meat and milk is high, and surpluses are ex- stic agricultural and food sector. According to estimates, the amount of food of foreign origin on the Slovenian market is increasing, while ported to foreign markets. For other product groups, Slovenia for livestock farming are favourable in Slovenia, the degree of contribute to the deterioration of the economic situation of the dome- was a net importer in the period 2017–2021, but imports were still the share of food of domestic origin is decreasing (Indicator KM31). largely covered even for miscellaneous edible preparations (90%), cing local food producers, as the latter find it difficult to compete on Food imported from countries where production is cheaper is displa- ratio is for foods that Slovenia does not grow or produce or does • Demand for food from poorer countries often leads to a deterioration not produce in sufficient quantities to meet all domestic needs, beverages (86%), and meat and meat products (73%). The worst price due to their small size. in the socio-economic conditions of local food producers and the rest namely fish and fish products (32%), vegetables and fruit (35%), of the population, who find it increasingly difficult to access food due and coffee, tea, cocoa, and spices (35%). to their reduced purchasing power. THE PROCESSING, DISTRIBUTION, AND SALE OF FOOD Before Slovenia joined the EU (2000–2003), a large part of foreign trade in food and beverages took place with the countries of former Yugoslavia, but then trade shifted consid- erably towards EU Member States. In the period 2017–2021, im- ports of food and beverages from the EU accounted for an average of 88% of total imports, while exports to EU countries accounted for 72% of the total export value. Slightly more than half of the value of trade takes place with neighbouring countries, with Italy and Croatia being the most important partners for both food and beverage imports and exports. MYT HS & TRUTH S MYTH: Slovenia imports large quantities of soybean for animal feed. This is not true. Slovenia does not import soybeans for feed, but rather soybean meal. This is a by-product of soybean oil production and, apart from use in animal husbandry, has few alternative uses. As Slovenia is a transit country with important port and other trans- port infrastructure, most soybean meal is exported to other countries in the region. The remainder, i.e. the difference between imports and exports, is used as feed in poultry, pig, and cattle farming. 5 FOOD CONSUMPTION Consumers are the last and largest link in the food supply chain. In addition to households, the HoReCa sector (hotels, restaurants, and catering), food preparation facilities in public institutions (preschools, schools, hospitals, etc.), and other facilities that prepare food are also included in final food consumers. Foto © nasasuperhrana.si FOOD CONSUMPTION Consumer food choices are primarily influenced by the Available quantity of basic agricultural products food environment, which includes factors such as the physical for consumption availability, quality, safety, taste, price, and marketing (labelling, promotion) of food. The final choice of food depends on the The available quantity for consumption per capita, as shown consumer’s purchasing power, preferences, and the time they de- in food balance sheets, indicates the quantities of basic agri- vote to eating and nutrition-related knowledge. With their food cultural products available to each resident for consumption choices, consumers also influence what kind of food the food at the wholesale level. This indicator does not show the quan- system will produce (Global ..., 2016). tities that an individual resident of Slovenia actually consumes, as this would require deducting all losses and changes in stocks D YOU KNOW consumers) and final consumers (households, food preparation that occur at the retail level (grocery stores that sell goods to DI ? facilities). The availability of agricultural products for consumption varies between years, due to fluctuations in production and international trade. In the period 2017–2023, each resident of Slovenia had available annually an average of 118 kg of cereal It is important that we, as consumers, are aware of our rights and (in grain form), 68 kg of potatoes (fresh and processed), 112 kg of responsibilities, including in the area of food. Consumers have the vegetables (fresh and processed), 129 kg of fruit (fresh and pro- right to safe food, the right to information about food (e.g. food la- cessed), 33 kg of sugar, and 5 kg of rice (Figure 34). With regard to belling), and the right to choose from a variety of foods. Our duty animal products, the average available quantity of meat was 90 kg is to treat food with respect and in accordance with preparation (in carcass weight equivalent), milk together with dairy products our habits, we can all contribute to more sustainable food produc-instructions, and to reduce the amount of food waste. By changing 208 kg (in raw milk equivalent), eggs 11 kg, and honey 1 kg. Of the tion and consumption (MKGP, 2025e). individual types of meat, pork predominates, with an average available quantity of 34 kg per capita, followed by poultry meat (32 kg/capita), and then beef (20 kg/capita). Other types of meat have less importance regarding food consumption in Slovenia. FOOD CONSUMPTION MYT HS & TRUTH S Figure 34: The available quantity of agricultural products for consumption per capita (kg); 2017–2023 MYTH: Slovenians consume more meat than other residents of EU countries. This is not true. The amount of meat available per capita is often mis- interpreted by the public as the amount that Slovenian residents actu- ally consume. However, there is a significant difference between these two figures. The amount of meat available per capita shows how much meat in carcass weight (including bones) is available to each person at the wholesale level. In order to gain a closer look into the amount of meat consumed per capita, we would first have to subtract the weight of the bones, then subtract changes in stocks and meat losses in stores and among consumers (e.g. expired products, cooking losses, trimmings), and the amount of meat intended for pets. By subtracting the weight of bones, the available quantities of meat per capita in Slovenia were calculated to be at a level comparable to OECD data for EU Member States and other developed countries (OECD, 2025). The calculations show that meat consumption in Slove- Notes: * In raw milk equivalent, ** In carcass weight equivalent nia is close to the EU average. Source: KIS (milk), SURS The economic accessibility of food Consumers’ purchasing power fluctuates from year to year, which is also reflected in the fluctuations in food expenditure (between Statistical data shows that Slovenian households are allo- 2000 and 2022: 14–20%). Households with higher incomes spend cating an increasing share of their expenditure to food and more money, but the share of food and non-alcoholic beverages in beverages (Indicator PG07). In 2022, households spent an average their total expenditure is approximately 10%. Households with of around 17% of all expenditure on purchasing food and non-al- the lowest purchasing power spend the least on food, with the coholic beverages (Indicator PG06), which is slightly more than share of food and beverage expenditure accounting for more than the EU average in the same year (according to Eurostat: 13%). 20% of their total expenditure (Indicator PG06). FOOD CONSUMPTION DI D YOU KNOW ? Trends in food purchasing and consumption habits have also changed. Data on the quantity of food and bev- In addition to choosing foods that are produced in a more sustainable erages consumed at home shows that the consumption of almost With the modern lifestyle, consumers’ shopping and eating all major food groups in households decreased between 2000 way, consumers can also contribute to reducing the environmental and 2018, which can be attributed to more frequent dining out impact of the food system by optimizing their purchases, choosing the means of transport they use to do their shopping, and using energy more (Indicator PG07). Food shopping has become concentrated with efficiently for food preparation and refrigeration. providers of a wide range of goods, and shopping online is also increasing. The number of food stores has increased significantly, In Slovenia, there are numerous initiatives, projects, and measures that often built on the best agricultural land, either as independent encourage consumers to eat Slovenian, locally produced food and to eat units or as part of shopping centres. With this growth trend, Slove- healthily, such as the „Slovenian Food Week,“ the „Traditional Slove-nia ranks among the top EU Member States in terms of retail space nian Breakfast,“ the „School Fruit, Vegetable, and Milk Scheme,“ the per capita (380 m “Our Super Food” web portal, and the Delicacies of Slovenian Farms 2 /1,000 inhabitants) (Florjančič, 2023). festival (MKGP, 2023b; MKGP, 2025d; kgZS, 2025). Some consumers A healthy diet is crucial to health, growth, development, already recognize certain local agri-food products as high-quality, pro- duced using environmentally friendly production systems, and making a and well-being, and supports an active lifestyle. It helps pre- positive contribution to the local economy and community as a whole. vent nutrient deficiencies and excesses and various food-related food choices (What ..., 2024). However, our eating habits are In public institutions (schools, preschools, hospitals, nursing homes), illnesses. It is based on adequate, balanced, varied and moderate significantly influenced by the strong advertising of less healthy the share of organic food must be at least 15% and the share of food foods in various media, which encourages an unhealthy lifestyle. from other quality schemes at least 20% (Uredba..., 2017). Compliance with legislative requirements is verified through inspections, which show Overweight and obesity are also a major health problem in Slove- that public institutions often have problems achieving the prescribed nia, increasing year by year. According to data from 2019, a good proportion of such food. Due to the lack of supply of organic food of third of adults (39%) were overweight, and a fifth (20%) were Slovenian origin and higher purchase prices (the main factor in ordering also among children. According to health recommendations, the mote branch schools and preschools in particular have problems finding interested local suppliers of food from quality and organic food schemes. population of Slovenia consumes far too little vegetables (one- obese. Obesity is increasing most rapidly among the elderly, but is the price), imported organic food predominates (Akcijski ..., 2022). Re- third of the recommended amounts), while fruit consumption is Other problems include the questionable quality of organic products and satisfactory (Indicator PG16). Between 2000 and 2018, the quan- a lack of staff to coordinate meal schedules and keep records of annual accounts in small schools and preschools (MKGP, 2025c). tity of fish consumed per household also decreased by almost half (Indicator PG13). 6 FOOD WASTE Food waste and other waste (e.g. packaging waste) are generated in all processes of the food system. These can have negative impacts on the environment, economy, and society, so proper management of such waste is also an important part of a (sustainable) food system. Foto © freepik.com FOOD WASTE In Slovenia, food waste is defined as all food (raw or pro- households. Per capita, the average amount of food waste from cessed) and the remains of such food that are lost before food households was 36 kg. preparation, during the preparation process, or after it, and Figure 35: The quantity of food waste generated in Slovenia; 2020–2023 during food consumption. This includes food that is discarded during production, distribution, sale, and the provision of food-re-lated services, and in households (SURS, 2024)¹¹. The reasons why food waste is generated in individual phases of the food system are numerous. At the level of the production, processing, distribution, and sale of food, the most common causes include unfavourable weather conditions, poor production planning, market conditions, losses during storage and transpor- of inappropriate practices and technologies, the mishandling of YOU KNOW tation, improper inventory management, weak linkages, the use Source: SURS food, damage to packaging, market standards, product recalls, D ? DI lack of knowledge of use-by dates, and other factors (MKGP, 2021). Preventing and reducing food waste in these phases often requires technological and logistical improvements in processes. For con- sumers, the generation of food waste also reflects a lack of aware- ness and an appropriate attitude towards food. In Slovenia, the amount of food waste generated is small com- pared to other EU countries. On average in the 2020–2022 period, In Slovenia, SURS monitors the quantities of food waste that according to Eurostat data, Spain generated the least food waste end up in the waste management system. The purpose of such per capita per year (67 kg), followed by Croatia (72 kg), and Slovenia monitoring is to show the quantities of food waste generated by erated in Denmark (235 kg) and Cyprus (284 kg). (73 kg). The highest levels of food waste during this period were gen-the origin and method of handling, based on which measures are developed and implemented for more sustainable food consump- tion. In the period 2000–2023, an average of around 156,000 Food waste cannot be completely avoided, as it also includes tons of food waste was generated annually in Slovenia (Fig- bones, pits, peels, eggshells, husks, and similar items that are not ure 35), of which approximately 75,000 tons was generated in suitable for consumption. According to estimates by the Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia (SURS), inedible waste accounted for 60% of the total amount of food waste in 2020 (MKGP, 2021). As 11 consumers, we can make an important contribution to reducing the Food waste does not include remains of food intended for processing into animal feed, food amount of edible food waste. intended for humanitarian purposes, paper towels, napkins, and towels collected with organic waste, or packaging discarded together with food waste. FOOD WASTE Most food waste (about half of the total quantity) originates stipulate measures to solve this problem. The most important in households, while a third originates from the restaurants and strategic measure is to prevent the generation of food loss, sur- other establishments that serve food (e.g. schools, preschools, pluses, and food waste in production and consumption. The next hospitals, nursing homes; Figure 36). About a fifth of food waste measure is to reduce the amount of food waste by the redistribu- is generated at the stage of the production, processing, distribu- tion and use of surplus food, which also includes donating food tion, and trade in food. and processing it into feed. As a last measure, proper manage- ment of food waste is stipulated (composting, biogas production, Figure 36: Food waste by source of origin; average 2020–2023 other processing methods). DI D YOU KNOW ? In the food processing industry, all types of waste are recognized as an additional cost, so finding solutions for their alternative use is an on- going process. For example, cake or meal left over from oil pressing or brewing can be used as animal feed, while animal by-products can be used in the pharmaceutical industry or leather production. According to SURS data, on average between 2000 and 2023, most food waste in Slovenia was composted (41%), followed by processing in bio- gas plants (36%). Note: Total does not add up to 100% due to rounding. The establishment of standards to ensure food safety, and above all changes in shopping habits, have led to the introduction of different Source: Data – SURS; infographic – KIS methods of food packaging, which has increased the demand for pac- kaging and thus the amount of packaging waste. According to Eurostat Food waste represents financial losses for actors, an unnec- data, the recycling rate for plastic packaging in the EU is less than half from a social point of view ding to ARSO data, Slovenia is among the countries with the highest rate , so many strategic documents, of plastic packaging recycling in Europe, at around 50% (in 2022: 51%). essary burden on the environment, and is also problematic (around 40%), with the remainder being destroyed in incinerators. Accor- including at the level of Slovenia (e.g. the Strategy for reducing food loss and food waste in the food supply chain; MKGP, 2021), 7 HOW CAN A MORE SUSTAINABLE FOOD SUPPLY IN SLOVENIA BE ACHIEVED? The transition to a sustainable food system is crucial for ensuring nutritious and affordable food, the health of people, the preservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services, and more stable economic conditions for all actors in the system. Systems thinking, good knowledge of the advantages and limitations of the Slovenian space, a clear vision, and the coordinated action of the governance structures are some of the key factors necessary for the successful transformation of the current system. Foto © Janko Verbič HOW CAN A MORE SUSTAINABLE FOOD SUPPLY IN SLOVENIA BE ACHIEVED? On the path to a more sustainable food supply, Slovenia fac- The transition to a sustainable food system can bring numer- es numerous specificities and challenges, which can also be ous benefits, such as improved farming conditions, including seen as advantages in the transformation of the food system. for small farms and young transferees of farms, new jobs, more The most important advantages of Slovenia include good use of affordable and nutrient-rich food, more coordinated measures in permanent grassland, a favourable state of biodiversity, a diversity various areas (e.g. agriculture, environment, health, and climate of food producers, and the potential to create new jobs. The key change), all of which will enable more effective achievement of limitations or challenges include difficult production conditions common goals, reduced environmental pressures, and have posi- (steep slopes, the karst terrain), the impact of climate change, tive effects on human health and the quality of life. weak linkages in the food supply chain, and heavy dependence on food imports. On the contrary, maintaining the existing system could lead to an increase in economic and social disparities, the abandonment A clear shared vision, a systemic approach, coordinated of farming and the overgrowth of agricultural land, increased action by all involved actors, fairly distributed benefits, the dependence on food imports, greater vulnerability to geopolitical burdens and costs of transformation, and regular monitoring uncertainties, reduced biodiversity, increased risk of soil degra- of progress are the basis for effective transition to a sustainable dation, and the endangering of water supplies due to growing food system. The existing governance structure could, with its irrigation needs. A major challenge for the future of Slovenian strengthening, more effective connections, regular coordination, agriculture and society in general will also be how to address the and the optimization of activities, achieve the goals of the shared demographic crisis, which will initially manifest itself in a sig- vision and implement the transition to a sustainable food system, nificant shortage of labour, but also in the loss of the necessary even without the establishment of new institutions/actors. farming knowledge. This will require the implementation of certain general The transformation of the food system requires the coordina-systemic (intersectoral) steps, such as systemic support for sus- tion of all policies, as without systemic, carefully considered, and tainable practices, more effective adaptation to climate change, long-term planned changes in many policies and areas, such as the creation of favourable conditions for investments, systemic spatial planning, environmental protection, public procurement innovations, the establishment of platforms for connecting of food, the education system, public health, and consumer aware-stakeholders, strengthening the exchange of knowledge and ness, the desired transition cannot be realized (Poročilo …, 2023). good practices, ensuring food traceability, preventing unfair prac- tices in the supply chain, raising consumer awareness, reducing Some proposals for these changes, by process and actor in the food food waste, and providing reliable data in order to monitor the system, are presented below. We believe that these proposals are achievement of goals. among the most relevant and most urgently require implemen- tation for the earliest possible sustainable transformation of the Slovenian food system. HOW CAN A MORE SUSTAINABLE FOOD SUPPLY IN SLOVENIA BE ACHIEVED? THE STATE AND LOCAL COMMUNITIES PRODUCTION ⋅Permanent protection of agricultural land from construction, degradation, and overgrowth; ⋅Fostering good or improved ⋅Proactive resolution of the general demographic crisis and labour shortages in all sectors, not just agriculture agricultural and environmental ⋅(e.g. in education, healthcare, trade, and industry); conditions on agricultural land, ⋅Formulation of a common vision for land use and the food system; and striving to preserve its ⋅Coordinated intersectoral action and funding; production potential; Ensuring stable conditions for producers and other stakeholders in the food supply chain; ⋅ ⋅ Generational renewal in additional criteria for prioritizing choices (alongside price); ⋅ Strengthening the public procurement system, with an emphasis on procuring food of Slovenian origin, incorporating agriculture; ⋅ Investment in and implementation ⋅More transparent and efficient distribution of grants, and measurement of the impact thereof; of climate change adaptation More targeted support for strengthening agri-food chains and cooperation, organic farming, and other sustainable measures (e.g. irrigation, the use ⋅agricultural practices; of more resistant crop varieties, and school gardens, sustainable tourism), for both consumers and caterers, as well as institutions that prepare food; ⋅ Greater support for the development of short supply chains and direct sales (e.g. markets, boxed food deliveries, community anti-hail nets); ⋅ The use of new and sustainable ⋅Encouraging the development of innovative approaches and solutions in all segments of the food system; production and rearing ⋅General simplification of administrative procedures and tax relief, especially for small (family) farms, lower taxes on basic foodstuffs; technologies, regular education Raising consumer awareness of: and training in the field of new - the benefits of eating seasonal food and the importance of supporting local producers, also through school technologies; programmes and campaigns, ⋅- responsible food handling and ways to reduce food waste, ⋅ Improving animal welfare; Networking with other agricultural ⋅- healthy diets and limiting the marketing of unhealthy foods; producers and actors in the supply ⋅Ensuring the transparency and understanding of quality schemes, and credible, correct, and expertly supported information; chain, in terms of purchasing Intersectoral cooperation in creating and transferring knowledge, good practices, and innovations, and in managing production inputs, as well as relevant, high-quality, and possibly interlinked databases. selling products. PROCESSING AND PACKAGING ⋅Strengthening awareness of the ⋅Preventing unfair trading practices; especially regarding fruit and holistic impacts of food choices on ⋅ A more efficient and warehouse-supported vegetables; health, the environment, society, and distribution network among producers and ⋅ Finding solutions to reduce food the economy; buyers; and packaging waste; More frequent purchases of seasonal ⋅ Finding more efficient logistical solutions to ⋅ More efficient use of energy in and locally produced food; ⋅ CONSUMPTION DISTRIBUTION AND SALES producers; ⋅ Strengthening food processing, ⋅More effective linkage with local ⋅ reduce the carbon footprint of distribution; processing and packaging processes; Ensuring a balanced and healthy diet; ⋅ Changes in the supply and price policies of ⋅ ⋅ The introduction of innovative excessive shopping and more efficient priority in terms of the presence and range ⋅ Reducing food waste by avoiding wholesale and retail conglomerates (e.g. products; Packaging food in environmentally ⋅meal planning; of food products of Slovenian origin); friendly, biodegradable packaging; Buying food with less packaging waste. ⋅ Developing innovative marketing strategies ⋅ The digitization of product traceability (e.g. tastings, stories about producers, throughout the entire food chain promotional campaigns). (e.g. by means of barcodes). 8 | GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS Agricultural land – land intended for agricultural activities on which agricultural Food waste – “raw or processed food and remains of this food lost before, during, or crops are grown for human consumption, animal feed, or as raw materials for indus- after food preparation or during food consumption, including food discarded during trial processing. Agricultural land is divided into arable land, meadows, pastures, or production, distribution, sale, and implementation of food-related services and in permanent crops (Bernik et al., 2025). households” (SURS, 2024). Agri-food industry (or agri-food chain) – the entire set of activities within the food Local production – food production characterized by a short chain from producer supply chain. It includes agriculture, food processing and beverage production, food to consumer. Due to the shorter distances, the agricultural products retain higher retail and catering services, as well as suppliers of inputs and services (e.g. seeds, biological and nutritional value, and the carbon footprint of transport is also lower fertilizers, packaging, and transport) (EC, 2025a). (Bernik et al., 2025). Area facing natural or other specific constraints (ANC) – an area where various nat- Organic farming – a certified method of farming that takes into account the biological ural factors (e.g. terrain configuration, higher altitude, bora) make agricultural pro- principles of crop production and animal welfare requirements, reduces the con- duction more difficult, which increases production costs compared to areas without sumption of energy and materials from non-renewable sources, has a lower negative these factors (Bernik et al., 2025). impact on the environment, and can offer food of above-standard quality (Bernik et al., 2025). Biodiversity (or biological diversity) – the comprehensive variety of life on Earth, from microorganisms, fungi, and plants to animals. This includes diversity within species, Overgrowing/Abandonment – the natural process of agricultural land being over-between species, and the diversity of ecosystems inhabited by living organisms (FAO, grown with woody plants due to the absence of human cultivation. Overgrowth is 2025). caused by natural, socio-economic, and institutional factors (Bernik et al., 2025). Ecosystem services – all the benefits that ecosystems provide to people. They are di- Self-sufficiency rate – the share of domestic production of agricultural products in vided into provisioning services (e.g. food, water, and fibre supply), cultural services relation to total domestic consumption (consumption for feed, food, and industrial (e.g. recreational space), and regulating services (e.g. climate and flood regulation) use). A self-sufficiency rate below 100 indicates a deficit, while a rate above 100 indi- (Bennett et al., 2009). cates a surplus in domestic production (SURS, 2023). Food (or foodstuff) – any substance or product, whether processed, partially pro- Soil degradation – the deterioration of soil properties, leading to a reduction in the cessed, or unprocessed, intended for human consumption. Food also includes bever- provision of soil functions and ecosystem services. Degradation manifests itself, for ages, including water (Uredba ..., 2002). example, in reduced soil depth, lower humus content, increased compaction, deterio- rated soil structure, and a decline in biodiversity (Bernik et al., 2025). Food chain (also food supply chain) – a linear or circular sequence of activities from the production to the consumption of food (including food waste management) (Par- Sustainability – according to the Brundtland Commission of the United Nations, this sons et al., 2019). is defined as meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (UN, 2025b). Food security – a state in which all people have constant physical and economic ac- cess to sufficient quantities of safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs Sustainable (agri-)food system – a comprehensive and integrated system from food and preferences for maintaining an active and healthy life (FAO, 1996). production to food waste management, which simultaneously ensures the economic, Food system (also agri-food system) – all elements and activities related to the in order to guarantee food security and sovereignty for current and future genera- environmental-climate, and social aspects of sustainability in all parts of the system production, processing, distribution, preparation, and consumption of food (EEA, tions (Predlog …, 2025). 2025b). The food system comprises food supply chains, numerous actors (individuals, organizations, and institutions), driving forces, and resulting outcomes, all of which Sustainable development – development that is consistent with the principles of are interconnected in complex networks (Parsons et al., 2019). sustainability and coordinates three key elements essential for human well-being: economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental protection (UN, 2025a). 9 | SOURCES AND LITERATURE 9.1 CITED SOURCES Akcijski načrt za razvoj ekološkega kmetijstva do leta 2027 [Action plan for the development European Commission, Group of Chief Scientific Advisors, Directorate-General for Research of organic farming until 2027]. 2022. Ljubljana, Ministrstvo za kmetijstvo, gozdarstvo in and Innovation. 2020. Towards a sustainable food system: moving from food as a commodi- prehrano. ty to food as more of a common good: independent expert report. Publications Office. https://www.gov.si/assets/ministrstva/MKGP/PODROCJA/KMETIJSTVO/Ekolos- https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2777/282386 (Accessed 6. 8. 2025) ko_kmetovanje/Akcijski-nacrt-za-ekolosko-kmetovanje/ANEK_slovenski.pdf FAO. 1996. Rome Declaration on World Food Security and World Food Summit Plan of Action. (Accessed 2. 2. 2025) World Food Summit, Rome, 13. – 17. November 1996. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organiza- Bennett E., Peterson G. D., Gordon L. J. 2009. Understanding relationships among multiple tion of the United Nations. ecosystem services. Ecology Letters, 12: 1394-1404. https://www.fao.org/4/w3613e/w3613e00.htm (Accessed 8. 8. 2025) Bernik R., Porenta, Celar A. F., Cvejić R., Čop J., Črepinšek Z., Fajfar T., Flajšman M., Glavan M., FAO. 2018a. Impacts of climate change on fisheries and aquaculture - Synthesis of current Grčman H., Hudina M., Jemec Tomazin M., Kacjan Maršić N., Kajfež Bogataj L., Kocjan knowledge, adaptation and mitigation options. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization Ačko D., Lakota M., Mihelič R., Osterc G., Perpar A., Pintar M., Pogačar T., Prus T., Rusjan D., of the United Nations. Simončič A., Stajnko D., Sušnik A., Trdan S., Usenik V, Verbič J., Vidrih M., Zupanc V., Žust https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/9aeb8ade-a623-4954-8adf- A. 2025. Agronomski terminološki slovar [Agronomic terminological dictionary]. 204daae3b5de/content (Accessed 3. 7. 2025) 1st edition. Fajfar T., Jemec Tomazin M., Usenik V. (Eds.). Ljubljana, Založba ZRC. FAO. 2018b. Sustainable food systems – Concept and framework. Rome, Food, and Agriculture https://doi.org/10.3986/9789610509486 (Accessed 3. 7. 2025) Organization of the United Nations. Cunder, T. 2002. Strukturne spremembe v slovenskem kmetijstvu in razvoj podeželja https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/b620989c-407b-4caf-a152- [Structural changes in Slovenian agriculture and rural development]. Dela, f790f55fec71/content (Accessed 3. 7. 2025) 17: 123-137. FAO. 2024. The State of Food and Agriculture 2024 - Value-driven transformation of agri-food https://doi.org/10.4312/dela.17.123-137 (Accessed 3. 7. 2025) systems. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. EC. 2025a. Agri-food. Brussels, European Commission. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/f0ae2b1e-f24c-4847-b1d5-0ce- https://monitor-industrial-ecosystems.ec.europa.eu/industrial-ecosystems/agri-food 182b298f1/content/cd2616en.html#gsc.tab=0 (Accessed 3. 7. 2025) (Accessed 3. 7. 2025) FAO. 2025. Biodiversity is the foundation of agrifood systems. Rome, Food and Agriculture EC. 2025b. Common Agricultural Policy at a Glance. Brussels, European Commission. Organization of the United Nations. https://agriculture.ec.europa.eu/common-agricultural-policy/cap-overview/cap-glance_en https://www.fao.org/biodiversity/overview/en (Accessed 11. 8. 2025) (Accessed 3. 7. 2025) Florjančič B. 2023. Slovenska kmetijsko-živilska veriga. V: Trajnostne preobrazbe prehranskih EEA. 2025a. Economic losses and fatalities from weather- and climate-related extremes. sistemov in doseganje prehranske suverenosti [The Slovenian agricultural and food chain. Copenhagen, European Environment Agency. In: The sustainable transformation of food systems and achieving food sovereignty]. https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/publications/economic-losses-from-climate-ex- Presidential Forum, Brdo pri Kranju, 10. 11. 2023. tremes?activeTab=a1db66df-c1f6-4818-a3e0-cdadee192eb1&activeAccordion=cff15d74-3e0b https://www.predsednica-slo.si/assets/documents/MASTER-PREZENTACIJA.pdf -48ca-b07f-b08bcc866529 (Accessed 3. 7. 2025) (Accessed 10. 4. 2025) EEA. 2025b. Imagining a sustainable Europe in 2050: Exploring implications for core produc- Food Systems Countdown Initiative. 2023. The food systems countdown report 2023: The state tion and consumption systems. Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union. of food systems worldwide. New York: Columbia University; Ithaca: Cornell University; https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/publications/imagining-a-sustainable-eu- Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO); Geneva: Global rope-in-2050 (Accessed 6. 8. 2025) Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN). https://openknowledge.fao.org/items/5188f848-4f02-4aea-bb61-c6f2f68a0359 (Accessed 10. 2. 2025) SOURCES AND LITERATURE Global Panel on Agriculture and Food Systems for Nutrition. 2016. Food systems and diets: MKGP. 2024b. Skupna kmetijska politika 2023–2027 [Common Agricultural Policy 2023–2027]. Facing the challenges of the 21st century. London, United Kingdom. Ljubljana, Ministrstvo za kmetijstvo, gozdarstvo in prehrano. https://www.glopan.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/ForesightReport.pdf https://www.gov.si/zbirke/projekti-in-programi/skupna-kmetijska-politika-po-letu-2020/ (Accessed 3. 7. 2025) (Accessed 3. 7. 2025) IPES-Food. 2019. Towards a common food policy for the European Union: The policy reform MKGP. 2024c. Vključitev v sheme kakovosti - predstavitev priložnosti in prednosti za proizva- and realignment that is required to build sustainable food systems in Europe. Lead author: jalce [Participation in quality schemes – A presentation of opportunities and advantages for Olivier De Schutter. Publications Office of the European Union. producers]. Ljubljana, Ministrstvo za kmetijstvo, gozdarstvo in prehrano, Mreža za https://ipes-food.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/CFP_FullReport.pdf podeželje: p. 27. (Accessed 6. 8. 2025) MKGP. 2025a. Fitofarmacevtska sredstva [Plant protection products]. Ljubljana, Ministrstvo za Kazalci okolja v Sloveniji. 2025. Agencija RS za okolje. [Environmental indicators in Slovenia. kmetijstvo, gozdarstvo in prehrano. ARSO. The list of indicators used in this publication is available at the end of this chapter.]. https://www.gov.si/podrocja/kmetijstvo-gozdarstvo-in-prehrana/varstvo-rastlin/fitofar- https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en (Accessed 17. 3. 2025) macevtska-sredstva/ (Accessed 30. 3. 2025) KGZS. 2025. Dobrote slovenskih kmetij [Delicacies from Slovenian Farms]. Ljubljana, Kmetijsko MKGP. 2025b. Ministrica Čalušić: Zakonski paket prvič naslavlja celoten prehranski system gozdarska zbornica Slovenije. [Minister Čalušić: The legislative package addresses the entire food system for the first time]. https://www.dobroteslovenskihkmetij.si/ (Accessed 3. 7. 2025) Ljubljana, Ministrstvo za kmetijstvo, gozdarstvo in prehrano. Kneževič Hočevar D., Černič Istenič M. 2010. Dom in delo na kmetijah: raziskava odnosov https://www.gov.si/novice/2025-06-19-ministrica-calusic-zakonski-paket-prvic-naslavl- med generacijami in spoloma [Home and work on farms: A study of intergenerational and ja-celoten-prehranski-sistem/ (Accessed 11. 7. 2025) gender relations]. Ljubljana, Založba ZRC: p. 158. MKGP. 2025c. Nadzor zelenega javnega naročanja v javnih zavodih [Monitoring green public https://www.dlib.si/stream/URN:NBN:SI:DOC-K71TFTKK/15e55351-17c4-402e- procurement in public institutions]. Ljubljana, Ministrstvo za kmetijstvo, gozdarstvo in 8d41-746948466383/PDF (Accessed 17. 3. 2025) prehrano. Lollar D., Hartman B., O’Neil C., Raimondi M. P., Roberts S., Tagtow A., Wilkins J., Devlin C., Hol- https://www.gov.si/novice/2025-04-04-nadzor-zelenega-javnega-narocanja-v-javnih-zavo- ler H., Harmon A. H. 2007. Healthy Land, Healthy People: Building a Better Understanding dih/ (Accessed 11. 7. 2025) of Sustainable Food Systems for Food and Nutrition Professionals: A Primer on Sustainable MKGP. 2025d. Naša super hrana [Our superfood]. Ljubljana, Ministrstvo za kmetijstvo, Food Systems and Emerging Roles for Food and Nutrition Professionals. Chicago, American gozdarstvo in prehrano. Dietetic Association. https://www.nasasuperhrana.si/ (Accessed 10. 4. 2025) https://scholarworks.montana.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/d391ce59-33a5-4dc6-9bd6- MKGP. 2025e. Svetovni dan pravic potrošnikov [World Consumer Rights Day]. Ljubljana, aad8c43c63e0/content (Accessed 4. 7. 2025) Ministrstvo za kmetijstvo, gozdarstvo in prehrano. MKGP. 2021. Strategija za manj izgub hrane in odpadne hrane v verigi preskrbe s hrano [Strate- https://www.gov.si/novice/2025-03-14-svetovni-dan-pravic-potrosnikov/ gy for reducing food losses and food waste in the food supply chain]. Ljubljana, Ministrstvo (Accessed 11. 7. 2025) https://www.gov.si/assets/ministrstva/MKGP/PODROCJA/HRANA/Zavrzki_odpadna_hra- Ombudsman]. Ljubljana, Ministrstvo za kmetijstvo, gozdarstvo in prehrano. na/Strategija_Spostujmo-hrano_spostujmo-planet.pdf(Accessed 3. 7. 2025) https://www.varuhverigehrane.si/ (Accessed 11. 7. 2025) za kmetijstvo, gozdarstvo in prehrano. MKGP. 2025f. Varuh odnosov v verigi preskrbe s hrano [Food Supply Chain Relationships MKGP. 2023. Šolska shema sadja, zelenjave in mleka [School scheme for fruit, vegetables, and OECD. 2021. Making Better Policies for Food Systems. Paris, OECD Publishing. milk]. Ljubljana, Ministrstvo za kmetijstvo, gozdarstvo in prehrano. https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2021/01/making-bet- https://www.gov.si/teme/solska-shema-sadja-zelenjave-in-mleka/ (Accessed 3. 7. 2025) ter-policies-for-food-systems_0fd8c682/ddfba4de-en.pdf (Accessed 8. 8. 2025) MKGP. 2024a. Prehranska varnost v izrednih razmerah [Food security in emergency situations]. OECD. 2025. Meat consumption. Paris, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Ljubljana, Ministrstvo za kmetijstvo, gozdarstvo in prehrano. Development. https://www.gov.si/assets/ministrstva/MKGP/Dokumenti-/Prehranska-var-https://www.oecd.org/en/data/indicators/meat-consumption.html nost-v-casu-izrednih-razmer.pdf (Accessed 2. 4. 2024) (Accessed 25. 3. 2025) SOURCES AND LITERATURE Parsons K., Hawkes C., Wells R. 2019. What is the food system? A food policy perspective. In: SURS. 2023. Bilance proizvodnje in potrošnje kmetijskih proizvodov [Balance sheets of the Rethinking Food Policy: A Fresh Approach to Policy and Practice. London, Centre for Food production and consumption of agricultural products]. Ljubljana, Statistični urad Republike Policy. Slovenije. https://www.citystgeorges.ac.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/570442/7643_Brief-2_What- https://www.stat.si/statweb/File/DocSysFile/9744 (Accessed 3. 7. 2025) is-the-food-system-A-food-policy-perspective_WEB_SP.pdf (Accessed 7. 8. 2025) SURS. 2024. Odpadna hrana [Food waste]. Ljubljana, Statistični urad Republike Slovenije. PBL. 2014. The Netherlands in 21 infographics. Hague, PBL Netherlands Environmental https://www.stat.si/StatWeb/File/DocSysFile/10183 (Accessed 3. 7. 2025) https://www.pbl.nl/en/publications/the-netherlands-in-21-infographics#authors https://unis.unvienna.org/u.nis/sl/topics/sustainable_development_goals.html (Accessed (Accessed 6. 3. 2025) 13. 2. 2025) Assessment Agency. UN. 2025a. Sustainable development goals. New York, United Nations Organization. Podnebno poročilo o stanju v kmetijstvu v letu 2023 [Climate report on the state of agriculture UN. 2025b. Sustainability. New York, United Nations Organization. in 2023]. 2024. Ljubljana, Kmetijski inštitut Slovenije, Ministrstvo za kmetijstvo, gozdarstvo https://www.un.org/en/academic-impact/sustainability (Accessed 11. 8. 2025) in prehrano. (Eds. Ajda Bleiweis and Maja Kožar). Uredba (ES) No. 178/2002 Evropskega parlamenta in Sveta z dne 28. januarja 2002 o določitvi lo_2023_koncna_objava.pdf (Accessed 6. 3. 2025) splošnih načel in zahtevah živilske zakonodaje, ustanovitvi Evropske agencije za varnost https://www.kis.si/f/docs/Kmetijstvo_in_podnebne_spremembe/Podnebno_poroci- Podnebno poročilo o stanju v kmetijstvu v letu 2024 [Climate report on the state of agriculture an Parliament and of the Council of 28 January 2002 laying down the general principles and hrane in postopkih, ki zadevajo varnost hrane. [Regulation (EC) No 178/2002 of the Europe- in prehrano. (Eds. Ajda Bleiweis and Maja Kožar). procedures in matters of food safety]. 2002. Uradni list Evropske unije, L 31/1: 463-486. https://www.gov.si/assets/ministrstva/MKGP/PROJEKTI/SKUPNA-KMETIJSKA-POLITIKA/ Uredba o varstvu voda pred onesnaževanjem z nitrati iz kmetijskih virov [Decree on the protec-in 2024]. 2025. Ljubljana, Kmetijski inštitut Slovenije, Ministrstvo za kmetijstvo, gozdarstvo requirements of food law, establishing the European Food Safety Authority and laying down (Accessed 30. 10. 2025) tion of waters against pollution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources]. 2009. Uradni Stanje-kmetijstva/Podnebno-porocilo-o-stanju-v-kmetijstvu-za-leto-2024.pdf list RS, Nos. 113/09, 5/13, 22/15, 12/17, and 44/22. Poročilo o okolju v Republiki Sloveniji 2022 [Report on the Environment in the Republic of Slovenia 2022]. 2022. Ljubljana, Ministrstvo za okolje in prostor, Agencija Republike Uredba o zelenem javnem naročanju [Decree on green public procurement]. 2017. Uradni list RS, Nos. 51/17, 64/19, 121/21, and 132/23. Slovenije za okolje. https://www.gov.si/assets/ministrstva/MNVP/Dokumenti/porocilo_o_okolju_2022.pdf What are healthy diets? Joint statement by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United (Accessed 5. 3. 2025) Nations and the World Health Organization. 2024. Geneva, World Health Organization and Poročilo o uresničevanju samooskrbe in rabi kmetijskih zemljišč. [Report on the realisation of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. self-sufficiency and the use of agricultural land]. 2023. Ljubljana, Ministrstvo za kmetijstvo, https://chooser.crossref.org/?doi=10.4060%2Fcd2223en (Accessed 3. 7. 2025) gozdarstvo in prehrano. What is the food system? 2025. Oxford, University of Oxford. https://www.gov.si/assets/ministrstva/MKGP/Dokumenti-/Porocilo-o-uresnicevan- https://www.futureoffood.ox.ac.uk/what-food-system (Accessed 11. 8. 2025) ju-samooskrbe-in-rabi-kmetijskih-zemljisc.pdf (Accessed 3. 7. 2025) Wittman H. 2023. Food sovereignty: An inclusive model for feeding the world and cooling the Predlog Zakona o kmetijstvu (ZKme-2 predlog) [Draft Agriculture Act]. 2025. Predlog zakona o planet. One Earth, 6, 5: 474–478. kmetijstvu, poslan v ponovno obravnavo Državnemu zboru [Draft law on agriculture, sent https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2023.04.011 (Accessed 11. 8. 2025) Revizijsko poročilo: Zagotavljanje prehranske varnosti s pomočjo prehranske samooskrbe back to the National Assembly for reconsideration] (sklep Vlade RS EVA: 2025-2330-0013, Zeleno poročilo za leto 2022 [Green Report for 2022]. 2023. Travnikar T. (Eds.), Bedrač M., Bele No.: 00704-170/2025/6, dated 20. 6. 2025). S., Brečko J., Hiti Dvoršak A., Kožar M., Ložar L., Moljk B., Telič V., Zagorc B. Poročilo o stanju https://e-uprava.gov.si/si/drzava-in-druzba/e-demokracija/predlogi-predpisov/pred- kmetijstva, živilstva, gozdarstva in ribištva v letu 2022. Ljubljana, Kmetijski Inštitut Slovenije. log-predpisa.html?id=17530&lang=si (Accessed 3. 7. 2025) Zeleno poročilo za leto 2023 [Green Report for 2023]. 2024. Travnikar T. (Ed.), Bedrač M., Bele S., Bleiweis A., Brečko J., Kožar M., Moljk B., Telič V., Zagorc B. Poročilo o stanju kmetijstva, [Audit report: Ensuring food security through food self-sufficiency]. 2021. Ljubljana, Račun- živilstva, gozdarstva in ribištva v letu 2023. Ljubljana, Kmetijski Inštitut Slovenije. sko sodišče Republike Slovenije. https://www.rs-rs.si/fileadmin/user_upload/Datoteke/Revizije/2021/Samooskrba/ Samooskrba_RSP_RevizijskoP.pdf (Accessed 9. 4. 2025) SOURCES AND LITERATURE List of environmental indicators issued by ARSO used in this • [KM21] Irrigation of agricultural land: publication: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/irrigation-agricultural-land-4 • [KM22] The nitrogen budget in agriculture: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/nitrogen-budget-agriculture-2 • [GZ04] Forest area: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/forest-area-9 • [KM25] The phosphorous budget in agriculture: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/phosphorous-budget-agriculture • [KM01] Use of plant protection products: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/use-plant-protection-products-0 • [KM26] Plant nutrient content in agricultural topsoils: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/plant-nutrient-content-agricultural-topsoils • [KM02] Consumption of mineral fertilisers: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/consumption-mineral-fertilisers-2 • [KM27] Agricultural area - arable land per capita: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/agricultural-area-arable-land-capita-1 • [KM03] Areas of land with agri–environmental measures: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/areas-land-agri-environmental-measures-2 • [KM29] Food self-sufficiency: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/food-self-sufficiency-1 • [KM04] Intensity of agriculture: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/intensity-agriculture-1 • [KM31] Structure of food imports: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/structure-food-imports?tid=1 • [KM06] Nature areas under protection and agriculture: exports-0?tid=1 https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/nature-areas-under-protection-and- • [KM34] The concentration of agricultural production: agriculture-2 https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/concentration-agricultural-production-0 • [KM07] Farmers’ training levels: • [NV01] Nature areas under protection: • [KM05] Share of agricultural land with high natural value: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/share-agricultural-land-high-natural-value • [KM33] Coverage of food imports by food exports: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/coverage-food-imports-food- https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/farmers-training-levels-2 https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/nature-areas-under-protection-1 • [KM08] Areas of land with organic farming: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/areas-land-organic-farming-3 • [NV02] Protected areas: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/protected-areas-10 • [KM10] Land use change and agriculture: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/land-use-change-and-agriculture-3 • [NV03] Natura 2000: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/natura-2000-2 • [KM11] Production methods on agricultural holdings: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/production-methods-agricultural- • [PB03] GHG emissions: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/ghg-emissions-3 holdings-1 • [KM12] Specialisation and diversification of agriculture: • [PG06] Household expenditure: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/specialisation-and-diversification- https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/index.php/en/content/household-expenditure-2 agriculture-1 • [PG07] Food: • [KM13] Emissions of ammonia in agricuture: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/food-1 https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/emissions-ammonia-agricuture-0 • [PG13] Food consumption – animal based protein: • [KM14] Emissions of methane and nitrous oxide: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/index.php/en/content/food-consumption- animal-based-protein-0 https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/emissions-methane-and-nitrous-oxide SOURCES AND LITERATURE • [PG16] General health status according to the type of food consumed and according • [TP03] Land take: to household income: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/land-take-1 https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/index.php/en/content/general-health-status-accord- • [TP06] Land cover and land use in water protection areas: ing-type-food-consumed-and-according-household-income https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/land-cover-and-land-use-water-protection- • [PP14] Agricultural droughts: areas-0 https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/agricultural-droughts-1 • [VD16] Water protection areas: • [SE08] Ecological footprint: https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/water-protection-areas-1 https://kazalci.arso.gov.si/en/content/ecological-footprint-5 9.2 STATISTICAL AND OTHER DATA Statistical data (available as of 20. 3. 2025) Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia (SURS) Data releases under the theme Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing, sub-theme: Data releases under the theme Environment, sub-theme: • Economic accounts for agriculture. • Waste, Food waste. https://pxweb.stat.si/SiStat/en/Podrocja/Index/85/kmetijstvo-gozdarst- https://pxweb.stat.si/SiStat/en/Podrocja/Index/99/okolje/?food-waste#372 vo-in-ribistvo/?economic-accounts-for-agriculture%23104%23104#104 Data releases under the theme Population, sub-theme: • Supply balance sheets. vo-in-ribistvo/?farms-and-agricultural-census#102 https://pxweb.stat.si/SiStat/en/Podrocja/Index/100/prebivalstvo/?popula-tion-number-and-structure#129 Data releases under the theme Trade and services, sub-theme: • Farms and Agricultural census. https://pxweb.stat.si/SiStat/en/Podrocja/Index/85/kmetijstvo-gozdarst- • Population number and structure. https://pxweb.stat.si/SiStat/en/Podrocja/Index/85/kmetijstvo-gozdarst- vo-in-ribistvo/?supply-balance-sheets#105 • Exports and imports of goods, Classification by broad Economic Categories (BEC). • Production methods in agriculture, Organic farming. https://pxweb.stat.si/SiStat/en/Podrocja/Index/141/trgovina-in-storitve/?classi- https://pxweb.stat.si/SiStat/en/Podrocja/Index/85/kmetijstvo-gozdarst- fi-cation-by-broad-economic-categories-#469 vo-in-ribistvo/?production-methods-in-agriculture#106 • Retail trade and wholesale and commission trade. • Crop production. https://pxweb.stat.si/SiStat/en/Podrocja/Index/141/trgovina-in-storitve/?re- https://pxweb.stat.si/SiStat/en/Podrocja/Index/85/kmetijstvo-gozdarst- tail-trade-and-wholesale-and-commission-trade#273 vo-in-ribistvo/?production-methods-in-agriculture#103 • Fishery and aquaculture. https://pxweb.stat.si/SiStat/en/Podrocja/Index/85/kmetijstvo-gozdarst- Eurostat vo-in-ribistvo/?fishery-and-aquaculture#108 Eurostat Database. Data releases under the theme Agriculture, forestry and fisheries, • Livestock, milk and milk products. Environment and Energy, Economy and finance. https://pxweb.stat.si/SiStat/en/Podrocja/Index/85/kmetijstvo-gozdarst- https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database vo-in-ribistvo/?livestock-milk-and-milk-products#86 SOURCES AND LITERATURE Other data AJPES MKGP/ARSKTRP/MF Information on the operations of companies in the field of manufacturing in the Budget breakdown by budget item and purpose (internal data). Ljubljana, Republic of Slovenia. Ljubljana, Agencija Republike Slovenije za javnopravne Ministrstvo za kmetijstvo gozdarstvo in prehrano, Agencija Republike Slovenije evidence in storitve. za kmetijske trge in razvoj podeželja, Ministrstvo za finance. https://www.ajpes.si/Letna_porocila/Splosno (Accessed 3. 7. 2025) MOPE ARSO Spatial Information System, Collection of Spatial Acts. Ljubljana, Data on packaging and packaging waste for 2022. Ljubljana, Ministrstvo za okolje Ministrstvo za okolje, prostor in energijo. in prostor, Agencija Republike Slovenije za okolje. http://www.arso.si/varstvo%20okolja/odpadki/poro%c4%8dila%20in%20publik- acije/EMB%20in%20OE%202022%2c%20okoljski%20cilji.pdf UVHVVR (Accessed 3. 7. 2025) Ljubljana, Uprava Republike Slovenije za varno hrano, veterinarstvo in varstvo rastlin. GOZDIS • Data on the number of bee colonies OSLIS information system. Data on game harvesting in Slovenia. Ljubljana, Gozdar- • Data on the number of markets ski inštitut Slovenije. • Data on the number of food stores by individual retail chain https://oslis.gozdis.si/ (Accessed 3. 7. 2025) ZZRS KIS Fisheries Cadastre. Ljubljana, Zavod za ribištvo Slovenije. Ljubljana, Kmetijski inštitut Slovenije. https://www.zzrs.si/ (Accessed 3. 7. 2025) • Balance of the production and consumption of milk and dairy products • Reports on the State of Slovenian Agriculture, Food, Forestry and Fisheries MKGP Ljubljana, Ministrstvo za kmetijstvo gozdarstvo in prehrano Republike Slovenije. • Record of the current use of agricultural and forest land by type of actual use • Data on the area of agricultural land in use in areas with limited possibilities for agricultural activity • Data on changes in the intended use of agricultural land and changes in intended non-agricultural uses of agricultural land by municipality, according to the Municipal Spatial Plans