Contemporary Issues in Tourism Editors Maja Borlinič Gačnik Milica Rančić Demir October 2022 Title Contemporary Issues in Tourism Editor Maja Borlinič Gačnik (University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism) Milica Rančić Demir (University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism) Review Karmen Pažek (University of Maribor, Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences) Srđan Milošević (University Educons, Business Economics) Language editing Paul Steed (Amidas d.o.o.) Technical editor Jan Perša (University of Maribor, University Press) Cover designer Jan Perša (University of Maribor, University Press) Cover graphics Branik, 2019, Panorama from Uršlja gora, 2014, Panorama from Gaj nad Mariborom on Zgornja Kungota, 2022, Lake Gradiško in Sveta Trojica, 2022, foto: Jan Perša Graphics material Authors & Borlinič Gačnik, Rančić Demir, 2022 Črno jezero, Pohorje, foto: Jan Perša, 2022, Jama Pekel foto: Jan Perša, 2021, Žička kartuzija, foto: Jan Perša, 2021, Pubi - martinovo, foto: Jan Perša, 2020, Cerkev sv. Avguština, Velika Varnica, foto: Jan Perša, 2020, Vinarium, Lendava, foto: Jan Perša, 2019 Published by University of Maribor University Press Slomškov trg 15, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia https://press.um.si, zalozba@um.si Issued by University of Maribor Faculty of Tourism Cesta prvih borcev 36, 8250 Brežice, Slovenia https://www.ft.um.si, ft@um.si Edition 1st Publication type E-book Available at https://press.um.si/index.php/ump/catalog/book/722 Published Maribor, Slovenija, October 2022 © University of Maribor, University Press / Univerza v Mariboru, Univerzitetna založba Text © authors, Borlinič Gačnik, Rančić Demir, 2022 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. This license alows reusers to distribute, remix, adapt, and build upon the material in any medium or format, so long as attribution is given to the creator. The license al ows for commercial use. Any third-party material in this book is published under the book’s Creative Commons licence unless indicated otherwise in the credit line to the material. If you would like to reuse any third-party material not covered by the book’s Creative Commons licence, you wil need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 CIP - Kataložni zapis o publikaciji Univerzitetna knjižnica Maribor 338.48(082)(0.034.2) CONTEMPORARY issues in tourism [Elektronski vir] / editors Maja Borlinič Gačnik, Milica Rančić Demir. - 1st ed. - E-zbornik. - Maribor : University of Maribor, University Press, 2022 Način dostopa (URL): https://press.um.si/index.php/ump/catalog/book/722 ISBN 978-961-286-642-6 (PDF) doi: 10.18690/um.ft.6.2022 COBISS.SI-ID 125540099 ISBN 978-961-286-642-6 (pdf) DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.ft.6.2022 Price Free copy For publisher prof. dr. Zdravko Kačič, Rector of University of Maribor Attribution Borlinič Gačnik, M., Rančić Demir, M. (eds.) (2022). Contemporary Issues in Tourism. University of Maribor, University Press. doi: 10.18690/um.ft.6.2022 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM M. Borlinič Gačnik, M. Rančić Demir (eds.) Table of Contents Preface Maja Borlinič Gačnik, Milica Rančić Demir 1 Local Tourism Development: Earmarked Taxes for Enhancing Tourism in Slovenian Municipalities 5 Irena Bačlija Brajnik, Marjetka Rangus Rural Olympiads as Promoters of Old Folk Sports and Games Nevena Ćurčić, Željko Bjeljac, Jovana Brankov 23 The Impacts of Adventure Tourism in Mountain Regions – a Review Tomi Špindler, Ksenija Vodeb 51 Tourism Experience in Accessible Tourism: Designing a Mobile Application for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing 73 Tjaša Alegro, Marica Ilić, Milica Rančić Demir European Projects as a Good Practice of Providing More Opportunities for People with Disabilities in Sports Tourism 97 Katja Čanžar Most Prominent Topics in Wellness Tourism Research: Topic Modelling Analysis 119 Mila Zečević, Milica Rančić Demir Wine Tourism as aType of Wel -being Tourism – Literature Review Jasna Potočnik Topler, Vita Petek 133 When Wine Meets Generation Z Vita Petek, Marjetka Rangus 145 Literary Walking Tours as a Form of Well-being: Slovene Writers' Trail and the Prežihov Voranc Route 159 Jasna Potočnik Topler Inclusion of Dark Heritage in the Contemporary Tourist Offer of the City of Maribor 177 Katja Raušl, Boris Prevolšek, Marjetka Rangus ii TABLE OF CONTENTS. Motivations for Hosting on Airbnb: the Case of Slovenia Katja Kokot, Maja Turnšek 203 New Tourism Trend: Travelling with Pets or Pet Sitting at a Pet Hotel? Nadja Mlakar, Saša Zupan Korže 221 Influence of Explainer Videos in Marketing Communication for Tourism and Health Services 243 Tanja Sedej, Sonja Mlaker Kač Natural Disasters and Tourism. Are the Risks Taken Into Account? Aleš Semeja 257 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM M. Borlinič Gačnik, M. Rančić Demir (eds.) Preface MAJA BORLINIČ GAČNIK, MILICA RANČIĆ DEMIR This scientific monograph is the result of joint work and one of the products of the one-year project Bet on Health, which was launched in 2019 by the Municipality of Brežice, the Faculty of Tourism at the University of Maribor and many local partners. The Faculty of Tourism at the University of Maribor concluded the project by organizing an international scientific conference. The scientific monograph on current topics of tourism development, which is intertwined with the field of health, wel -being, and the role of local authorities in planning, implementing, and evaluating policies and practices related to public health issues, offers the reader a systematic theoretical review of scientific literature, as wel as case studies of the topics discussed. The content is presented by numerous researchers and experts who are active in Slovenia or other countries of the former Yugoslavia. The topics address current issues in the development of tourism science. The content is multidisciplinary and interconnects various views and concepts that provide an insight into the profession for the needs of further development of the sector. The monograph begins with a contribution by Irena Bačlija Brajnik and Marjetka Rangus, who address the roles of local authorities in planning activities as well as in implementing and evaluating policies and practices related to public health issues. 2 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. The following articles, collected in the monograph, focus on the field of sports and active tourism. Nevena Ćurčić, Željko Bjeljac and Jovana Brankov present traditional sports and games as a folk tradition and culture of specific regions. The study addresses the topic as a part of the intangible cultural heritage and discusses primarily the impact of rural Olympics on local communities and on the interaction between hosts and guests. Tomi Špindler and Ksenija Vodeb study the effects of adventure tourism, one of the most dynamic components of mountain tourism which combines travel, sports and outdoor recreation. Their study includes an overview of the impacts of adventure tourism on mountain areas and an examination of measures that could optimize environmental, socio-cultural and economic effects. The contributions continue to focus primarily on health and wel -being. Tjaša Alegro, Marica Ilić and Milica Rančić Demir used the Design Thinking method, which is suitable for planning projects or designing services or products intended for end-users, to create an idea for a mobile application adapted to deaf and hard-of-hearing tourists in Ljubljana. The paper emphasizes the importance of experiencing a destination and the active participation of people with disabilities in these interactions. Furthermore, Katja Čanžar presents the importance of including disabled people in sports and tourism programs and emphasizes that disabled athletes in Slovenia have few opportunities, mainly because most public funds for sports rely on local communities. With her contribution, the author presents the practices of ensuring the accessibility of sports and recreation for the disabled in local communities through European projects. Milica Rančić Demir, in co-authorship with Mila Zečević, introduces topics of well-being in tourism through the development of wel ness, emphasizing the importance of differentiation in researching the phenomenon of wel ness tourism through the prism of health and medicine. The next article by Jasna Potočnik Topler and Vita Petek also addresses a broader area of wel -being; however, the content is related to the study of the effects of wine tourism. The authors claim that wine tourism includes not only wine tasting, but also many other activities such as hiking and cycling through vineyards, reading material about wine (fiction and literature), attending seminars and conferences on wine, learning about new landscapes and socializing. M. Borlinič Gačnik, M. Rančić Demir: Preface 3 The topics of the following three articles are classified as thematic tourism, having in common the strategic development of tourism that places the tourist in the centre of attention. Vita Petek and Jasna Potočnik Topler research wine tourism among generation Z. With a survey, which was conducted between November and December 2020 in several Central European countries among 123 students aged 18-25, they are studying a correlation between generation Z and wine consumption. The authors note that the majority of respondents drink wine several times a month, and further investigate other consumption and purchasing habits regarding wine consumption. The contribution Literary Walking Tours as a Form of Wel -being: Slovene Writers' Trail and the Prežihov Voranc Route by Jasna Potočnik Topler presents new concepts of literary tourism, which is becoming increasingly popular among tourists. The author additional y confirms her thesis with the fact that many literary tourist routes are included in one of the most popular tourist guides - Lonely Planet. The thematic tourism section concludes with a contribution by Katja Raušl, Boris Prevolšek and Marjetka Rangus, who present ways of including dark heritage in the modern tourist offer of the city of Maribor. The case study analyses stories based on dark events, evaluates the spectrum of dark heritage according to theoretical models and suggests the development of new tourism products in the city. One of the important topics that the monograph touches on is the issue of tourism providers’ motivation. The article entitled Motivations for hosting on Airbnb: the case of Slovenia by Katja Kokot and Maja Turnšek finds that higher revenue from roaming compared to other types of income is associated with the expressed importance of monetary motives, while the prevalence of social motives is influenced by fear of loneliness, cultural openness and global prosociality of the hosts. The next article discusses the implementation of travel trends - travel with pets. Nadja Mlakar and Saša Zupan Korže find that Slovenian tourists - pet owners, prefer to travel with their animals than to accommodate them in pet hotels. The content of the article by Tanja Sedej and Sonja Mlakar Kač explores the digital market, which has gained importance in recent years. Their research focuses on explaining the importance of marketing to the tourism sector. This is another important topic that analyses the key gaps in the modern development of the tourism industry. The set of articles in this section is rounded off with an article by Aleš Semeja, who explores natural disasters and their significance for the development of 4 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. tourism. A comprehensive overview of natural disasters in recent years is a valuable tool for tourism companies because it provides an assessment of the risk of industry development and the basis for the strategy in action plans of the industry. The monograph, which is primarily intended for students, tourism workers, professors, scientists and experts in the field of development and management of policies and practices related to tourism development issues, addresses relevant topics and the role of tourism and many related interdisciplinary sciences as an integral part of society development. The editors Maja Borlinič Gačnik and Milica Rančić Demir would like to thank all the stakeholders who participated in the preparation and publication of this scientific monograph and thus contributed to the development of science. LOCAL TOURISM DEVELOPMENT: EARMARKED TAXES FOR ENHANCING TOURISM IN SLOVENIAN MUNICIPALITIES IRENA BAČLIJA BRAJNIK,1 MARJETKA RANGUS2 1 University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Social Sciences, Ljubljana, Slovenia irena.baclija-brajnik@fdv.uni-lj.si 2 University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Brežice, Slovenia marjetka.rangus@um.si Abstract Slovenia has built a system of local self-government within the main provisions of the European Charter on local self-government. According to the local Self-Government Act, municipalities have some competences in individual areas of development, including tourism. However, the existing system could further benefit from enhancing local autonomy – whether in policy scope or fiscal capacity. Municipalities are not stimulated to engage in proactive management of local policies and services, and although the competences of municipalities are regulated (and protected) by the Constitution, the Local Self- Keywords: Government Acts and special laws, some policy areas are too tourism loosely defined and rely heavily on the agendas of individual local development, governments. In this contribution, we address the question of municipalities, tourism tax, how municipalities collect resources to develop tourism, and investment, what are the issues in planning tourism-related investments. local budget DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.ft.6.2022.1 ISBN 978-961-286-642-6 6 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 1 Introduction Until 2019, tourism in Slovenia was a story of success. After slow and rough recovery from the split of Yugoslavia in 1991, which caused a 74% drop in international arrivals and overnight stays, in 2019 more than 6 million tourist (both domestic and international) were counted and more than 15.7 mil ion over-night stays were recorded (STO 2019, p. 5), with statistics showing this was the sixth consequent year of growth in numbers of both arrivals and overnight stays, as wel as tourism receipts. Tourism has grown to become an important part of the Slovenian economy, representing 5.3 % of joint contribution to GDP and employing 6.5 % of the working population (ibid). Since 2014, Slovenia has been changing its tourism policy by introducing sustainable criteria for further development through a national certification scheme, cal ed the Green Scheme of Slovenian Tourism (Rangus, Božinovski & Brumen 2008, p. 229). With the introduction of this, Slovenia has become a role model at the international level in sustainable tourism development (Weston et al. 2019) and has been recognized several times as a sustainable and green destination, including being the first state to be awarded with the Green Destination certificate in 2016. Since then, Slovenia has often been put on different lists of recommended and top destinations by established travel guides, travel agencies, journalists, travellers, tourism organizations, and so on. 1 However, the restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic, imposed by governments in 2020, have brought tourism to a standstil for periods ranging from weeks to months, thus causing a serious fall in tourism arrivals in Slovenia. This new situation in tourism has opened a window of opportunity for critical reassessment of Slovenian tourism policy. In this contribution, we analyse the provisions of laws on tourism development at the local level, with special emphasis on tourism tax collection and distribution. 1 For example Lonely Planet, Conde Nast Travel, and Terry Stevens. I. Bačlija Brajnik, M. Rangus: Local Tourism Development: Earmarked Taxes for Enhancing Tourism in Slovenian Municipalities 7 2 Local Self Government in Slovenia The right to local self-government in Slovenia is granted by the Constitution, and the new, post-socialist local self-government system has been functioning since 1995. According to the Constitution, the basic unit of local self-government is the municipality. Municipalities are established and their territory is determined by a separate law. The Constitution has defined two tiers of local self-government, municipalities, and regions ( pokrajine), and the regional level is so far not established. As such, Slovenia has only one level of sub-national government: the municipalities. Out of 212 municipalities, 12 are urban municipalities (a municipality may be granted this status if it is a town with at least 20,000 inhabitants, 15,000 active jobs are situated in its territory, and it is an economic, cultural, and administrative center of a wider area). 2 A municipality comprises one or more settlements connected by common needs and interests, and that has at least 5,000 inhabitants. After the local self-government system was first implemented in 1994 a total of 147 municipalities were established, another 45 municipalities then followed in 1998, an additional one in 2002, 17 in 2006, and two in 2010. Altogether there are now 212 municipalities, although around half have less than 5,000 inhabitants and not all meet the legislative criteria for establishment. The basic mission of a Slovenian municipality is to take care of local affairs, within the framework of the law. That includes primary education (school buildings and facilities), social welfare (childcare, elderly care and social assistance), health (primary health care and pharmacies), social housing, culture and leisure (museums, libraries, theatres, sport facilities, leisure centres) and local public utilities and networks (waste and water management, urban city transport, local road network, urban heating, etc.). The central government can transfer certain responsibilities to the municipalities if it provides the necessary financial means (Art. 140, Constitution). Municipalities autonomously regulate and perform the duties and functions assigned to them by law. 2 Urban municipalities have the same competences as municipalities. However, in accordance with the Constitution and within their competence, urban municipalities may also exercise transferred state administrative tasks, which refer to the development of the town. 8 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. According to the Local Self-Government Act (Article 21): Local matters of public interest (of the original tasks) [are] determined by law or by the general act of a municipality shal be independently performed by the municipality. To satisfy the needs of its inhabitants, a municipality shall perform primarily the following duties and functions: − manage the assets of the municipality. − provide the conditions for the economic development of the municipality and in accordance with the law carry out tasks in the areas of catering, tourism, and agriculture. − plan spatial development, carry out tasks in the areas of encroachments in physical space and the construction of facilities in accordance with the law, and shal ensure the public service of the management of building land. − create the conditions for the construction of housing and provide for an increase in the rent/social welfare housing fund. − regulate, manage, and provide for local public services within its jurisdiction. − promote the services of social welfare for pre-school institutions, for the basic welfare of children and the family, and for social y threatened, disabled and elderly people. − provide for protection of the air, soil, and water sources, for protection against noise and for collection and disposal of waste, and perform other activities related to protection of the environment. − regulate and maintain water supply and power supply facilities. − create conditions for adult education, important for the development of the municipality and for the quality of life of its population. − promote activities related to upbringing and education, information and documentation, associations, and other activities on its territory. − promote cultural/artistic creativity, ensure accessibility to cultural programs, ensure library activity for general education purposes, and shall be responsible for preserving cultural heritage in its territory in accordance with the law. − promote the development of sports and recreation. − construct, maintain and regulate local public roads, public ways, recreational and other public areas. I. Bačlija Brajnik, M. Rangus: Local Tourism Development: Earmarked Taxes for Enhancing Tourism in Slovenian Municipalities 9 − regulate traffic in the municipality and perform tasks of municipal public order. − exercise supervision of local events. − organize municipal services and local police and ensure order in the municipality. − provide for fire safety and organize rescue services. − guarantee extrajudicial settlement of disputes. − organize the performance of funeral and burial services. − determine offences and fines for offences violating municipal regulations and inspect and supervise the implementation of municipal regulations and other acts, which it shall adopt to regulate matters falling under its jurisdiction, unless otherwise determined by law. − adopt the statute of the municipality and other general acts. − organize municipal administration. − regulate other local matters of public interest. The competences of municipalities are regulated by the Constitution, the Local Self-Government Act and special laws, and by autonomous local regulations. The financial resources of the municipalities are defined in the Constitution that grants them sufficient financial sources of their own as part of the state’s economic policy, which municipalities then use at their discretion within their competences. 2.1 Development of tourism at the local level As stated in the previous chapter, within the competences of municipalities, there are several provisions related directly and indirectly to tourism development. Municipalities are responsible for providing conditions for economic development, including that related to tourism. 3 In spite of existing national tourism policy and administrative structures, established to run activities at the national level, actual development relies heavily on the lowest level of state government and administration (Koprivnikar Šušteršič 2002, p. 20). Research shows that the local administration, especially the mayor, play a vital role in tourism development (Žibert et al. 2020). In the absence of second tier of local government, municipalities are left 3 Local Self-Government Act, Art. 21. 10 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. alone to deal with tourism management or find cooperation with neighbouring municipalities. Tourism is in theory considered as an opportunity for local economic development and community empowerment, especial y in those areas that lack industrial resources or strong business traditions4. These tasks are very chal enging for smaller communities with little or no tourism development, which usually also lack the human resources, knowledge and skil s needed. In addition to the provisions of the Local Self-Government Act, municipalities are also identified as the basic units of tourism management by the green policy for Slovenian tourism and the Green Scheme of Slovenian Tourism. Receiving the SLOVENIA GREEN label is a good form of promotion for a destination, and stakeholders and managers acquire new knowledge and competencies in the field of green management when designing the related activities. To win this label the destination, i.e. the municipality, must manage and monitor tourism flows, collect, and analyse specialized data, carry out successful communication with relevant tourism stakeholders and produce strategies for the sustainable environmental, social, and economic development of tourism at the local level. Acquiring the certificate of the green scheme primarily raises the need for organization at the destination, especial y where there is no previous structure or an organization that would deal with tourism. On the other hand, the functioning of destinations and providers according to the principles of the green label improves the communication of the destination and its offer to foreign and domestic guests, and at the same time raises the awareness of the local population in the direction of sustainable operations in their hometown and its immediate environment (Rangus et al, 2018). Considering the presented tourism policy directions and provisions of the Local Self-Government Act, it seems reasonable that these tasks in the field of tourism are performed by the municipality, as they are obliged by law to col ect data, develop, and protect the environment and culture, promote the economy, secure democratic procedures, and regulate local affairs in the public interest. However, these processes pose serious challenges for smaller municipalities, since there is a lack of knowledge and skills within smaller local self-governments, that have on average lower administrative capacity (Prebilič & Bačlija, 2013). Establishment of specialized 4 For example Hal (1994, 2005, 2008), Goeldner and Brent Ritche (2012), Wal and Mathieson (2006), Edgel and Swanson (2019) and other. I. Bačlija Brajnik, M. Rangus: Local Tourism Development: Earmarked Taxes for Enhancing Tourism in Slovenian Municipalities 11 public organizations, dedicated to tourism development, is thus often too costly for smaller municipalities. 3 Financial resources of municipalities The financial resources of municipalities are stipulated in the 142nd Article of the Constitution, which states that: “A municipality is financed from its own sources. Municipalities that are unable to completely provide for the performance of their duties due to insufficient economic development are assured additional funding by the state in accordance with principles and criteria provided by law.” Additional y, the Constitution states in the first paragraph of the 146th Article that “local communities raise funds for the performance of their duties by means of taxes and other compulsory charges as wel as from revenues from their own assets,” and further, in the second paragraph of the 147th Article, that “local communities impose taxes and charges under conditions provided by the Constitution and law.” However, the central government has never waived its fiscal sovereignty over the past two decades. When prescribing tax and other duties, municipalities are limited by legal frameworks, so that their rights referring to the material basis for the implementation of local self-government are always executed based on the acts adopted or deriving directly from the Constitution. As laid down in Article 53 of the Local Self-Government Act, municipalities are entitled to the following revenues for the purposes of financing local affairs of public significance: 1. property tax, 2. inheritance tax and gifts, 3. tax on prizes from games of chance, 4. tax on real property transactions, 5. other taxes as specified by the law. Article 6 of the Financing of Municipalities Act stipulates that the sources of financing municipalities are municipal budget revenues deriving from: 12 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Municipal own tax sources: − property tax, − vessel tax, − tax on real estate transactions, − inheritance and gift tax, − tax on winnings from conventional games of chance, and − any other tax where so provided by the act governing taxes. Municipal own non-tax (other) sources: − imposed contributions, − fees (dues), − fines, − concession fees, − payments for local public services, etc., − (environmental taxes). 3.1 Tourist tax: earmarked? The Promotion of Tourism Development Act5 is the legal framework for defining the tourist tax in Slovenia, which is one of few tax burdens that is the under authority of local governments. Local councils decide if a tourist tax is to be implemented and who is to be taxed (discretion to decide if additional groups of users wil be charged – e.g., real estate owners that use facilities for their own leisure, overnight stays in vessels – or if some groups are excluded from paying the tax – thus promoting specific types of activities). The cap on taxation is 2.5 EUR (stipulated in the Promotion of Tourism Development Act) and the tax is earmarked, thus the municipality can finance tourism promotion and other activities as follows: 1. information-related tourism activities, which include: − informing tourists, including tourists with special needs, − collecting data for the purpose of informing visitors, 5 Official Gazette of RS, No. 13/18. I. Bačlija Brajnik, M. Rangus: Local Tourism Development: Earmarked Taxes for Enhancing Tourism in Slovenian Municipalities 13 − determining the opinions of visitors on the quality of the tourist offer, − receiving and forwarding proposals and complaints from visitors regarding the tourist offer to the competent authorities, − arranging and maintaining tourist signage, 2. promoting the development of comprehensive tourist products of the tourist area, 3. marketing of a comprehensive tourist offer at the level of the tourist area, 4. promotion of tourism in the digital environment, 5. protection of immovable monuments of local and national importance, 6. development and maintenance of tourist infrastructure, 7. development and maintenance of public areas intended for tourists (maintenance and arrangement of parks, green areas, flower plantations, mountain, and thematic trails, etc.), 8. regulation and inclusion of protected natural areas in the tourist offer, taking into account the acts on insurance and in accordance with the development guidelines and protection regimes in the protected areas, 9. organization and implementation of events, 10. raising awareness and encouraging the local population to have a positive attitude towards tourists and tourism, 11. other services provided free of charge to tourists in the tourist area (Official Gazette of RS 13/2018, Art. 15). The activities listed under numbers 4, 5 and 8 are new additions to the Act from 2018, and were not included in the original Act from 2004. In addition to a tourist tax, accommodation providers are obliged to charge a promotional tax, which is defined as 25% of the tourist tax. The promotional tax is another new addition to Promotion of Tourism Development Act from 2018, and is also earmarked. The promotional tax is considered as a direct source of funds for the national agency in charge of planning and marketing of tourism supply for whole of Slovenia. The tasks assigned to the national tourist agency are defined in the Act and encompass planning, preparation and execution of marketing activities on international markets, including the establishment of a network of tourist offices in foreign countries, establishment and monitoring of an integrated tourist information 14 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. system, encouragement of partner collaborations in promotion and product development, and data collection and market analyses. The promotional tax is collected simultaneously with the tourist tax, and is transferred by the municipalities to the national agency’s account eight days after the tourist tax for the past month has been collected. When planning its annual budget, a municipality must fol ow several acts and other rules, including the Constitution, Local Self-Government Act, Municipal Finance Act, the Public Finance Act, statute of the municipality, and budget manual for the preparation of municipal budgets for each year. 6 On the revenue side of the budget, the touristic tax is categorized as a domestic tax on goods and services under code 704, account 7047 Other domestic tax on the use of goods and service, subaccount 704704 (tourist tax). 7 Although revenue from the tourist tax is not substantial on average, it can represent up to 12% of total tax revenue in municipalities with highly developed tourism – as seen in the municipality of Kranjska Gora, which in 2016 collected over 600,000 EUR from this tax, with a total tax revenue of 7,500,000 EUR. Overall, there is a trend of growing revenue from the tourist tax from 2014 onwards (see Figure 1) as a direct consequence of record growth in number of tourist arrivals and overnight stays. On average revenue from the touristic tax was about 0.5 per cent of municipal budgets in 2007, and it doubled to about 1% in 2018. 6 More information on the rules and procedures available at https://www.gov.si/teme/financiranje-obcin/ 7 https://www.gov.si/assets/ministrstva/MF/Proracun-direktorat/DP-SSFLS/Prirocniki/2_priloga_2-ekonomska_klasifikacija_2021.pdf I. Bačlija Brajnik, M. Rangus: Local Tourism Development: Earmarked Taxes for Enhancing Tourism in Slovenian Municipalities 15 Figure 1: Revenue from the tourist tax in Slovenia (2007-2018) Source: Reports on municipal budgets and author’s own calculations. As not all municipalities have tourist capacities (the tourist tax is linked to overnight stay), some get no revenue from this source (see Table 1). In the observed timeframe from 2007 to 2018, 32 municipalities received no income at all from the touristic tax. Others gain revenue through the touristic tax according to their touristic capacity and the number of overnight stays. The revenue gained is earmarked for the promotion of and investment in tourism in the municipality. While earmarked resources are to be avoided from the perspective of the European Charter on Local Self-Government, especial y if they are in the form of grants, earmarked own taxes are seen as more suitable for financing local government. This increases the basic freedom of local authorities to exercise policy discretion within their own jurisdiction if they are able to col ect some revenue in the form of their own earmarked taxes. According to the OECD (1999) tax autonomy taxonomy, the tourist tax in Slovenia fits in the category b.2, where local government sets the tax rate, and a higher government does set upper or lower levels on the rate chosen. This revenue, however, is stil in the category of own taxes. 16 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Table 1: Average revenue from tourist tax per capita (2007-2018) Municipalities with the highest Municipalities with per capita tourist tax revenue (in no tourist tax Municipalities with highest tourist EUR) revenue tax revenue in total (in EUR) KRANJSKA GORA 118.18 PIRAN 1,637,384 PIRAN 94.82 32 LJUBLJANA 1,197,308 8 municipalities BLED 94.30 have no tourist tax BLED 745,623.80 BOHINJ 86.20 revenue KRANJSKA GORA 615,224.90 PODČETRTEK 76.38 IZOLA 458,672.40 Source: Reports on municipal budgets and authors’ own calculations. 4 Local budgets and tourism development: a case study At the local level, tourism is organized in different forms, which has proved to have a significant impact on how local budgets for tourism development are prepared and used. The organization of tourism, as wel as planning and promotion, are under the autonomous control of municipalities. To carry out such tasks, municipalities practices different strategies when it comes to forms of organization. In many smaller municipalities, there is no individual organization or institution dedication to tourism, except for – but not necessarily – a local tourism information centre (i. e. TIC), which often doesn’t have any employees. In such cases, tourism tasks are performed by other staff at the local administration offices, leaving tourism development often unplanned and without strategic decisions and actions. The most common form of organization is a public institute, often covering more than just one area. Tourism is usually combined with entrepreneurship, youth, culture and sport policies, and activities at the local level (for example ZPTM Brežice, CPT Krško, KŠTM, and ŠKTM Radlje). In some other municipalities public institutes dedicated only to tourism development were established (for example Turizem Ljubljana, Zavod za Turizem Maribor, Zavod za turizem Grosuplje, and Turizem Bohinj). In both cases, those public institutes are considered as indirect budget users and as such participate in the budgeting process with proposals and 8 Braslovče, Črenšovci, Dobje, Dobrepolje, Dobrovnik, Dornava, Duplek, Hodoš, Horjul, Kobilje, Kuzma, Log - Dragomer, Markovci, Moravče, Odranci, Oplotnica, Poljčane, Polzela, Rogašovci, Rogatec, Sodražica, Središče ob Dravi, Sveti Jurij, Sveti Jurij v Slovenskih Goricah, Sveti Tomaž, Šmartno Pri Litiji, Tišina, Trnovska Vas, Turnišče, Velika Polana, Zavrč, and Žetale. I. Bačlija Brajnik, M. Rangus: Local Tourism Development: Earmarked Taxes for Enhancing Tourism in Slovenian Municipalities 17 prepared projects. A third option is represented by economic interest associations according to Article 563 of the Companies Act. The aim of such an association is to facilitate and promote the gainful activity of its members, to improve and increase the results of this activity, and not to generate its own profit. 9 Members of the association may come from different sectors, public and private, as in the case of Turizem Podčetrtek, Bistrica ob Sotli and Kozje or Turistično združenje Portorož. Some tourism organizations were developed based on volunteer tourism associations at the local level, and play a vital role in local destination management. For our case study we have selected three municipalities which ranked among the top five of those who have col ected highest tourist tax total and highest tourist tax per capita – namely Bled, Piran and Kranjska Gora. We analysed the municipality budget plans for 2018, the last year prior to the change of Act on Promotion of Tourism, which redefined the tourist tax. We limited our research to only program classification of the budget (but not institutional, economic or functional classification) and parallel budget settings with earmarked activities and services as defined by the Article 15 of the Act on Promotion of Tourism. Moreover, only expenditures of municipality administrations were included in the analysis, but not those of the mayor, municipality council or local communities with their own budgets, where they exist. Here we wil take into the account the fact that for 2018 the provisions of the old Act were in force, and thus only eight categories of activities and services were defined, as opposed to 11 in the newer version of the Act. To better understand the process of budget formation, two interviews were conducted: one with a local destination manager and the other with a public official, responsible for tourism development in the municipality administration. Both professionals work in highly developed touristic municipalities, ranking among the top 12 most visited in Slovenia. When preparing the budget, public tourism management organizations as indirect public spenders are invited to send their suggestions. At the same time, the mayor plans investments, events, promotional activities and tourism expenses in different categories of program classification. According to interviewee 1 (Personal communication, 23.9.2021), the majority of tourist tax is spent directly on the 9 Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, No. 65/09 - official consolidated text, 33/11, 91/11, 32/12, 57/12, 44/13 - US decisions, 82/13, 55/15 , 15/17, 22/19 - ZPosS, 158/20 - ZIntPK-C in 18/21. 18 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. program classification 1403 Promotion of Slovenia, tourism development and food and beverage sector (subclassifications 14039001 promotion of municipalities and 14039002 Promotion of tourism and food and beverage sector development) and 18 Culture, sport and non-governmental organizations (subclassification 1802 Preservation of cultural heritage, 1803 Programs in culture, 1804 Support for special groups and 1805 Sport and leisure activities). The involvement of local tourism management organizations depends on their legal status, since public organizations are considered indirect spenders of the budget and thus are invited to participate. When private stakeholders are involved in local tourism management organizations, their participation in the budget formation process tends to be more informal and they do not feel powerful enough to force their agendas. Another way to put a tourism project on the agenda is through public discussion, which must always be open for a minimum of 14 days, and through the amendments of members of local councils or through participatory actions, wherever and whenever municipal government al ow for this kind of procedure (Interviewee 2, personal communication 23.9.2021). With the process of budget preparation, the room for negotiating tourism policies is open. Both interviewees emphasized that more money is usually spent for tourism development than the amount of tourist tax collected. Municipalities practice different approaches to this, where some specify detailed expenditures for the tourist tax as an addition to their budgets’ preparatory documents (as is the case in Piran and Kranjska Gora), and others do not specify the program classifications where the tourist tax has been used (as in Bled). In Table 2, budget data is presented based on the analysis of budget plans for 2018, publicly available on the webpages of the selected municipalities. Based on the information from the interviews, special attention was given to program classification in the field of economy, specialized for tourism promotion (1403 classification). Here expenditures were calculated as the sum of al expenditures planed under the 1403 program classification. Moreover, program classification 18 was analysed in more detail due to the interviewees’ suggestions. Here, only the subclassifications that could be directly attached to tourism promotion were calculated. To this end, detailed explanations of budgets were consulted that enabled us to discern dedicated expenditures from those that have other specified I. Bačlija Brajnik, M. Rangus: Local Tourism Development: Earmarked Taxes for Enhancing Tourism in Slovenian Municipalities 19 justifications in the budget (i.e. support for public libraries was excluded, but investments in sport infrastructure were included). It is important to note that the data in the Table 2 do not imply direct consumption of the tourist tax in the selected municipalities. As the case of municipality of Piran proves, the tourist tax represents only a share of expenditures planned in selected program classifications and the rest of the tax is distributed among other program classifications, i.e. Distribution of energy resources (No. 12), Transport, transport infrastructure and communication (No.13), and Protection of the environment and natural heritage (No. 15), among others. An analysis of the use of the tourist tax, as prepared by the municipality of Piran as part of budget documents, shows an example of good practice that al ows for better understanding of the how col ected tax is distributed among different areas of local development. On the other hand, the aforementioned analysis shows that a much bigger amount of funds is invested in tourism than the amount of tourist tax collected. The same could be expected for the other two selected municipalities, even though they did not prepare the same in-depth analysis of tourist tax distribution as Piran. This supports the claim of both interviewees that more money is usual y spent for tourism development then money col ected through the tourist tax. Table 2: Tourist tax in the budgets of selected municipalities for the year 2018 Tourist tax Expenditures Expenditure col ected planned on planned on Expenditures as the 1403 the 18 Expenditures for the planned program program planed for programs of in the classification classification LTO in EUR tourist budgets in EUR for in EUR for associations for 2018 the budget the budget in EUR in EUR year 2018 year 2018 KRANJSKA GORA 780,000 943,449 937,006 635,849 79,000 PIRAN 2,170.000 2,170,529 2,898,458 858,000 7,300 BLED 1,350,000 802,000 340,000 750,000 25,000 Source: Reports on municipal budgets and authors’ own calculations. Based on the detailed explanations of the budgets, we can observe that municipalities practice different approaches towards distribution of earmarked resources. In the case of Kranjska Gora, investments in the infrastructure and maintenance of public services are listed under program classification 1403 (Promotion of Slovenia, 20 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. tourism development and food and beverage sector), while in other two municipalities those are to be found under classification 13 (Transport, transport infrastructure and communication, classification 15 (Protection of the environment and natural heritage), classification 16 (Spatial planning and housing and communal services) and others. In the case of Piran municipality, 12 different program classifications were identified next to those already listed where the tourist tax was distributed, including on the political system, foreign policy, joint administration and public services with other municipalities, local self-government, defence and emergency, labour market and working conditions and health care. These uses of the tourist tax are in accordance with the Act on Promotion of Tourism, but from this example we can see the complexity of the resources used for tourism development and difficulties in tracking the use of the tourist tax. Another interesting finding is related to the funds planned for local tourist organizations (LTO). In spite of different amounts of touristic tax being collected (or in this case planned), the expenditures planned for LTO vary only slightly. On the other hand, there are big differences in expenditures planned for the tourism programs of civil tourism associations, indicating their different levels of involvement in tourism, but also different traditions of civil tourism associations at the local level. Based on detailed explanations of the budgets we can also see that there are several other important resources for tourism development, and they vary among municipalities. These include concessions for special gambling, taxes on parking surfaces, user fees for public toilets, rental of public surfaces for tourism activities and sales of good and service in tourism (including parking lots in public ownership). 5 Conclusion The short analysis of municipal budgets presented in this study gives more insight into how budgets are planned and the tourist tax collected is spent. We have found out that municipalities use different approaches to local tourism management, which has a direct impact on the process of budget planning. When planning budgets and the use of the tourist tax, municipalities use different approaches in placing their tourism projects and funds in the program classification of the budget. Municipalities use differences sources to fund tourism development and the fund I. Bačlija Brajnik, M. Rangus: Local Tourism Development: Earmarked Taxes for Enhancing Tourism in Slovenian Municipalities 21 colected usualy exceed the amount of tourist tax colected. Whereas there is not much difference observed in funds for local tourism management organizations, municipalities have different practices in supporting local civil tourism associations. Civil tourism associations have played an important role in the history of tourism development in Slovenia, but due to historical circumstances their role today varies from place to place (Repe 2018). We can thus propose that more attention should be given to the process of budget preparation. A detailed and in-depth analysis of the budget formation process, negotiations for program activities and funds, distribution of power among different stakeholders and more detailed knowledge on the use of the tourist tax in local tourism development would bring new evidence for policy- and decision-makers in the field of tourism and local self-government. An in depth study would be also required on the wider role of local self-government and its contribution to tourism development. References Edgel, D. L., Swanson, J. R. (2019). Tourism policy and planning: yesterday, today and tomorrow. London, New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. Goeldner, C. R., Brent Ritchie J.R. (2012). Tourism. Principles, practices and philosophies. New Jersey: Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hall, M.C. (1994). Tourism and politics: policy, power and place. Chichester: Wiley. Hall, M.C. (2005). Tourism: Rethinking the social science of mobility. Harlow: Pearson Prentice Hall, Pearson Education. Hall, M.C. (2008). Tourism Planning: policies, processes and relationships. Harlow: Pearson Prentice Hall. Koprivnikar Šušteršič, M. (2002). Turistična politika in analiza slovenskega turizma v obdobju 1995-2001. UMAR, Delovni zvezek, Vol 10/1. OECD (1999). Taxing powers of state and local government, OECD Tax Policy Studies, nr.1, 1999, pp.11. Prebilič, Vladimir, Bačlija Brajnik, Irena (2013). Dynamics of administrative capacity in Slovenian municipal administrations. Lex localis, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 545-564. Rangus, M., Božinovski, B., Brumen, B. (2018). Overtourism and Green Policy of Slovenian Tourism. V Responsible Hospitality: Inclusive, Active, Green, ur M. Gorenak in A. Trdina, str. 225-234. University of Maribor Press, el. Vir Repe, B. (2018). “Z dosedanjim razvojem turizma v Sloveniji ne moremo biti zadovoljni.” Vpliv turistične zakonodaje, predpisov in drugih besedil na razvoj slovenskega turizma v sodobni zgodovini. Retropspektive vol I, no. 1, pp. 57-95. STO (2019). Turizem v številkah. Dostopno na https://www.slovenia.info/uploads/dokumenti/tvs/2019/turizem_v_stevilkah_2019.pdf, 30. 9. 2021 Wal , G., Mathieson, A. (2006). Tourism: change, impacts and opportunities. Harlow: Pearson Prentice Hall. Weston, R., Guia, J., Mihalič, T., Prats, L., Blasco, D., Ferrer-Roca, N., Lawler, M. and Jarratt, D. (2019). Research for TRAN Committee - European tourism: recent developments and future 22 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. chal enges, European Parliament, Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies, Brussels. Žibert M., Rozman Č., Rangus M., Brumen, B. (2020). The Role of Slovenian local government in the wine tourism promotion. Lex localis, 18, 739-766. https://doi.org/10.4335/18.3.739-766(2020) Sources Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia (Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, No. 33/91-I , 42/97 - UZS68, 66/00 - UZ80, 24/03 - UZ3a, 47, 68, 69/04 - UZ14, 69/04 - UZ43, 69/04 - UZ50, 68/06 - UZ121,140,143, 47/13 - UZ148, 47/13 - UZ90,97,99, 75/16 - UZ70a and 92/21 - UZ62a) Local Self-Government Act, Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, No. 94/07 - official consolidated text, 76/08 , 79/09 , 51/10 , 40/12 - ZUJF, 14/15 - ZUUJFO, 11/18 - ZSPDSLS-1 , 30/18 , 61/20 - ZIUZEOP-A and 80/20 – ZIUOOPE Promotion of Tourism Development Act, Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, No. 13/18 Interview 1, Local destination manager, conducted on September 23, 2021 Interview 2, Local public official, conducted on September 23, 2021 RURAL OLYMPIADS AS PROMOTERS OF OLD FOLK SPORTS AND GAMES NEVENA ĆURČIĆ,1 ŽELJKO BJELJAC,2 JOVANA BRANKOV2 1 University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Department of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Management, Novi Sad, Serbia nevena.curcic@dgt.uns.ac.rs 2 Geographical Institute “Jovan Cvijić” SASA, Beograd, Serbia z.bjeljac@gi.sanu.ac.rs, j.brankov@gi.sanu.ac.rs Abstract Traditional sports and games represent the folk tradition and culture of certain regions, part of the people’s intangible cultural heritage. Numerous traditional sports and games have been preserved in ex-Yugoslav republics, which are most often affirmed through vil age Olympiads and competitions in order to keep them from being forgotten. The aim of the study is to determine the content and program of rural Olympiads in ex-Yugoslav republics, the extent to which traditional sports and games are present, and the extent to which some modern sports are included. Also, the study focused on the impact of rural Olympiads on local communities and on the interaction between hosts and guests. The methodology used in the paper refers to field research (interview, observation), and Keywords: document analysis, as wel as the use of different data sources to rural Olympiads, validate and crosscheck findings. The results of the research traditional sports and games, indicate the presence of a large number of games of different preservation of character in the countries formed in Yugoslavia, as well as a large tradition, number of the same or similar games that arose more as a result intangible cultural heritage, of certain geographical and social conditions, and less as a feature ex-Yugoslav of individual peoples. republics DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.ft.6.2022.2 ISBN 978-961-286-642-6 24 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 1 Introduction Traditional sports and games (TSG) are part of the folk tradition and culture, part of the cultural identity of the people in which they originated. Some traditional sports originated thousands of years ago and are the backbone of various social communities. They are an expression of creativity for the inhabitants of various regions (countries). Traditional sports and games served as forms of recreation, but also entertainment in which all residents of the local community could get involved without special physical preparation and training (children and adults, men and women). Also, some traditional sports and games, due to their complexity, often served as a demonstration of physical ability, strength and maturity. Competitors demonstrated their wil ingness to take a higher hierarchical position in their community (e.g. young men were old enough to marry) (Bjeljac et al., 2019). Through people's competitions, people “test who is stronger and more capable of life”. When perceiving “who wil do better, more, faster or further”, in a way, they naturally determine who is more physically worthwhile (Živanović, 1970, 12), which was especial y important for people in the countryside. The specifics of folk competition are best reflected in the statement: “Unlike the general concept of sport, “folk” sports can be cal ed al those sports activities that are nurtured and carried out in the people without written rules and without competent organizations in the modern sense of the word” (Kurelić, 1953, 1; Živanović, 1970)1. Traditional sports are “al sports and games that are not regulated by international rules” (Cvetković, 1982, 15). Old folk sports include physical activities that can be competitive or entertaining, and that arose spontaneously through play and work, mostly by the rural population. “They were also simple to play as they were based on social manners and general customs. Some games were supplemented by dance and songs to energize the players” (Zeb Khan et al., 2018, 132). For a long time, no importance was attached to old folk sports as the content of sports recreation. Also, no importance was attached to old folk sports in preserving the ethnographic characteristics of certain national communities. Old folk sports were replaced by modern sports, i.e. media popularization of sports with global 1 “In black Africa Wrestling’s forms and functions varied from tribe to tribe… Among the various peoples of sub-Saharan Africa, wrestling matches were a way to celebrate or symbolically encourage human fertility and the earth’s fecundity” (Guttmann et al., 2021). N. Ćurčić, Ž. Bjeljac, J. Brankov: Rural Olympiads as Promoters of Old Folk Sports and Games 25 influence and competitions that accompanied them. With the spread of the influence of the mass media in information (newspapers, radio, television) and the change of the image of sports, new patterns of monitoring and evaluation of sports have been imposed. In the last 30 years or so, there has been a positive change in modern society’s attitude towards traditional sports. The re-inclusion of TSG in the sports recreation of children and young people can contribute to strengthening their connection to the community, better mutual interaction and communication, physical dexterity and motor development. Likewise, the effect of play and entertainment in traditional sports can stimulate less physical y agile actors to engage unhindered and to enjoy physical activity itself unencumbered by the result. Establishing or relaunching rural Olympic Games, sports meeting, and TSG-based competitions can affect the preservation of these sports from oblivion, as wel as the development of a certain identity of the place or local community where the Olympic Games and competitions are organized. The aim of this paper is to determine the content and program of rural Olympiads in ex-Yugoslav Republics, the extent to which TSGs are present, and the extent to which some modern sports are involved. The research was conducted on selected examples of rural Olympiads and competitions, which the authors assessed as significant in this domain in terms of the tradition of holding, programs (basic and accompanying) and the number of participants. Also, the researchers focused on the impact of rural Olympiads on local communities and on the interaction between hosts and guests. 2 Caring for traditional sports and games in an international framework Many TSG are either moribund or have already disappeared from the cultural tradition, which irretrievably loses part of its intangible cultural heritage. Traditional games have largely been forgotten and many young people do not know anything about them (Andersen, 2009). The role and importance of TSG have been especial y emphasized in the last 30 years through various announcements, declarations, executive plans adopted by experts on sports, education, and cultural heritage at high-level conferences. There is a need to preserve TSG in the growing world globalization and general commercialization of modern sports. For this reason, TSG have come into the focus of interest of UNESCO (United Nation Educational, 26 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Scientific and Cultural Organization), which works to preserve, promote and revive these sports and games. The aim of UNESCO's activities is to ensure that TSG become part of national and international cultural strategies, thus working towards the preservation of an important part of the intangible cultural heritage. In 2003, UNESCO adopted the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity (ICH) and thus created a key instrument for action to identify, list and evaluate certain elements of culture as representative or endangered intangible cultural heritage. UNESCO then wrote that “traditional sports and games are part of our intangible heritage and a symbol of the cultural diversity of our societies” (Jaouen, Petrov, 2018). The inclusion of TSG on the UNESCO List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity began in 2010. So far, 29 traditional sports and games have been registered (UNESCO, n.d.). In addition to UNESCO, there are other associations that recognize the importance of old folk sports and games for recreation and culture and deal with their preservation and promotion at various levels. The following associations are especial y important: 1. The Association For International Sports for Al (TAFISA) is a world association that promotes primarily recreational, mass sports; 2. The International Sport and Culture Association (ISCA) is a global platform open to organisations working in sports for al , recreational sports and physical activity (ISCA, n.d.); 3. The European Traditional Sports and Games Association (ETSGA) brings together sports or cultural federations, associations, educational institutions or companies whose goal is to manage, promote and preserve traditional sports and games (ETSGA, n.d.); 4. The International Traditional Sports and Games Association (ITSGA) represent the global network of traditional sports and games in order to preserve, study, share, promote and develop their practice for greater intercultural dialogue, better health and better social coexistence of mankind in the world (ITSGA, n.d.); 5. The World Ethnosport Confederation (WEC) is an international institute that organizes activities and events aimed at increasing the awareness of traditional sports and games and popularizing them (WEC, n.d.); N. Ćurčić, Ž. Bjeljac, J. Brankov: Rural Olympiads as Promoters of Old Folk Sports and Games 27 6. The World Ethnosport Society unites scientists, organizers of traditional games and ethnosport events from 48 countries on al continents (World Ethnosport, n.d.). Traditional sports and games are found al over the world, although in the professional literature, those that originated from Europe and Asia were mostly treated. This has been contributed by many national or regional organizations dedicated to the protection and preservation of certain traditional sports (Scottish Highland Games Association, Romanian Oina Federation, Iran's Federation for Local Games and Rural Sports, Pakistan Traditional Sports and Games Association, Bhutan Indigenous Games and Sports Association, the Korea Taekwondo Association, and others). Similar organizations have been established on other continents to preserve ancient folk sports and local sports cultures (African Traditional Sports and Games Confederation (ATSGC), African Association of Games and Traditional Sports (AAJST), Pan American Traditional Sports and Games Association (PATSGA), Mexican Traditional and Autochthonous Games and Sports Federation (FMJDAT/Mexico), Australian Sports Commission, and others). Many events dedicated to TSG have strong potential to attract tourists and affirm lesser-known tourist destinations in the context of event, rural, cultural, excursion, or sports tourism. Manifestations are most often in the form of competitions and promotions of TSG, and can be supplemented with accompanying programs. Some events have become famous outside national frameworks such as: Gaelic games (Hurling, Gaelic Football, Rounders and Handball) (Ireland), Highland games (Scotland), Pelota (Basque Country, Spain), Gures (Turkey), Oil wrestling (North Macedonia, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania, Kosovo and Metohija), Gatika (India), Japanese archery yabusame (Japan), Qatari falconry competitions (Qatar), Indian sports games in North and South America, Aboriginal people in Australia, national minorities in China, Russia and others. In this way, the manifestations contribute to the preservation of the cultural diversity and cultural identity of local communities or peoples. 28 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 3 Traditional sports and games in ex-Yugoslav republics In the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia2, folk sports and games were an important segment of rural life where they served as entertainment and recreation. It is common for traditional sports and games to deal most often with competitions and sports skil s in rural areas, which can be passed down from generation to generation, with ritualistic character, and which can stil be registered today (Marjanović, 2005; Bjeljac et al., 2020). These games were mostly preserved in rural areas because they remained compact for longer in cultural terms (Bjeljac, Ćurčić, 2017; Ćurčić et al., 2021). The old sports that originated in the countryside are similar or largely the same, regardless of the fact that they were developed by different peoples (Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Bosniaks) and were thus tied to their cultural tradition. In most settlements, the population was multinational, which influenced the acceptance and practice of sports and games throughout the local community, as wel as the exchange of cultural traditions and intercultural learning. Today, there are attempts to revive those old sports and games in order to keep them from being forgotten and to make them familiar to the young people who need to accept them. Village Olympiads are held for this very purpose (or vil age games, all-around), as they contribute to strengthening the collective spirit and to connecting people within the community. The initiators of the games are citizens' or youth associations (non-governmental organizations), local self-governments, or sports associations. Rural Olympiads, in addition to bringing together participants and audiences at the local level, often outgrow their local frameworks and become regional y, national y or international y significant (competitors usual y come from neighbouring countries). Over 50 different Yugoslavian TSGs can be singled out, which are organized within 70 different events. Of these, 39 manifestations of this type are held in Serbia. 3 Some events are completely dedicated to old sports, and some have included modern sports to increase the number of participants and spectators. Sports content is 2 The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is a state that emerged at the end of the Second World War on the foundations of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, and began to disintegrate in 1991, when civil war began in Slovenia (1991), Croatia (1991-1995), Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992-1995). The result of the war, as wel as the later peaceful disintegration of Macedonia and Montenegro, led to the emergence of new states within the spatial framework of the Yugoslav Republics (6): Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro, and Serbia. 3 The exact number of manifestations is difficult to determine, there is no precise record of them. The collected data were created by processing various electronic or written sources. N. Ćurčić, Ž. Bjeljac, J. Brankov: Rural Olympiads as Promoters of Old Folk Sports and Games 29 usualy supplemented by a cultural program of ethnographic content (music program, art program, dance program, recitation program, culinary program), which makes the event more attractive and strengthens cultural creativity in the local community (Bjeljac et al., 2017). In this way, sport becomes a link that connects local cultural creativity in a complex way and influences a greater homogenization of relations in the local community. 4 Methodology The paper monitors and analyses individual rural Olympiads (traditional sports) in former Yugoslavia in order to determine the place and time of organization, the organizers, the represented sports and games, the character of the games, modifications that are present and that occur due to adaptation to modern expectations of participants and audience, and accompanying cultural and entertainment content, etc. The methodology used in the paper refers to field research (interview, observation), and document analysis, as wel as the use of different data sources to validate and crosscheck findings. The development of the research problem started from the authors’ previous knowledge about the importance of traditional sports and games for the culture and identity of the local community, as wel as the need to preserve traditional sports from oblivion. The sports, cultural and tourist framework for the study was provided by the village Olympiads and games where competitions in old sports predominantly take place. Competitions in old sports have two basic tasks: 1) building the identity of the local community (or destination), 2) strengthening cohesion among competitors (Figure 1). The following hypotheses arose from these tasks: H1 Old sports are a reflection of the local population’s tradition. H2 Old sports contribute to the location’s tourist image. H3 Competitions in old sports bring participants closer. H4 Competitions in old sports enable intercultural learning. 30 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. H1 Identity building H2 Traditional sports and games and Rural Olympiads H3 Greater cohesion among competitors H4 Figure 1: Conceptual model of study. Source: own. 5 Research results For the needs of the research, rural Olympiads and competitions were selected that have a long tradition of holding, appropriate programs (basic and accompanying) and a large number of participants. One event was selected from each ex-Yugoslav Republic, a total of 6. The fol owing events were analysed and processed: Vojvodina Olympics of Old Sports, Bačko Gradište (Serbia); Vil age games of old sports, Salinovec (Croatia); Nevesinje Olympics, Nevesinje (Bosnia and Herzegovina); Župa Village Games, Nikšić (Montenegro); the Pelivan wrestling competition “Tradition continues”, Studeničani (North Macedonia); Škuljanje, Primorska region (Slovenia). Vojvodina Olympics of Old Sports, Bačko Gradište (Serbia) – In 2019, the 10th Vojvodina Olympics of Old Sports was held, in mid-August, at the football club stadium. The organizer is the Bečej Youth Association (BUM), and support was provided by the municipality of Bečej, the Association “Sports for All Vojvodina”, the Football Club “Vojvodina” from Bačko Gradište, and entrepreneurs from Bečej. The Bečej Youth Association (BUM), through the volunteer work of its members, covers al organizational activities related to the Olympics. The goal of the Olympics is to revive the forgotten skills with which young men tried to impress their girlfriends, or to beat the young people from the neighbouring vil ages a few centuries ago. Today, sports disciplines such as pilcike (hitting a piece of wood with a wooden stick to fly as far away as possible), ringlanje (throwing horseshoes on a peg driven into the ground), štulanje (walking on stilts), kandžijanja (swinging a whip), natezanje mosora N. Ćurčić, Ž. Bjeljac, J. Brankov: Rural Olympiads as Promoters of Old Folk Sports and Games 31 (pulling the rod), archery, honor game (fencing with a shield and a fake sword), džakanja (sack racing), dragača (one contestant leans on his palms and the other holds his legs and races with the other pairs) or vranića (the pitcher throws his wooden stick at least 6 meters into the air only vertical y, and the players shoot with their sticks) do not have a serious competitive character, but they guarantee great fun for both participants and fans (Figure 2). Participation is team-based (5 competitors per team) and free for al , without an upper age limit. The teams come from surrounding places, but also from Hungary and Croatia, which gives international significance to this Olympics. About 80-100 competitors gathered. Competitors can try out in as many as 17 forgotten disciplines, in which peasants used to compete in leisure (Vojvođanska olimpijada starih sportova, 2019). During the event, participants and spectactors can refresh themselves with crêpes that are sold for humanitarian purposes. The money collected is intended for the renovation of the cinema hal in the vil age. The Vojvodina Olympics of Old Sports was promoted through the website of the Olympics organizers (https://bum-becej.org/), social networks, on Bečej’s local TV station, articles in the press, and through flyers and posters. Figure 2: A game of walking on stilts. Source: https://hr-hr.facebook.com/pages/category/Non-Governmental-Organization--NGO- /Vojvo%C4%91anska-Olimpijada-Starih-Sportova-119508628099534/ 32 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Rural games of old sports, Salinovec (Croatia) – Rural games of old sports have a tradition of since 1984. The organizer of the games is the Salinovec Sports Recreation Association. Financial support is provided by the sponsors of the City of Ivanec and Varaždin County, as wel as numerous sponsors. The tourist organization of the town of Ivanec is a co-sponsor. Competitions in 11 games are planned: standing jump, bikovanje (4 players from two different teams push the trunk from opposite ends), shotput, pul ing the rod (two players in a sitting position hold the same stick and try to pul another player to their side), tug of war (for women and for men), walking on stilts, climbing a pole, carrying a basket on your head, sack racing, vožnja živih tačaka (the contestant pushes the construction cart in which the contestant sits and races with the other couples), and assembling a plow. Associated teams of “musicians” also perform in a special category. The games are held on the grass field next to the old school at the beginning of August (Figure 3). The vil age games in Salinovac gather hundreds of competitors every year who compete in speed, strength and dexterity. In addition to the games, the organizers also stage an accompanying programme, including presentations of old trades, performances from the cultural and artistic society, and an exhibition of handicrafts. The musicians that the teams bring with them take care of the good mood and fun (Turistička zajednica grada Ivanca, n.d.). Since 2015, the Children's Vil age Games have been held in Salinovac (in June), initiated by the children themselves. This is especial y significant because adults have managed to instil in them a love for the old sports played by their great-grandparents. The competitions are held on the grass field next to the school. The disciplines are as follows: standing jump, bikovanje (4 players from two different teams push the trunk from opposite ends), throwing a stone from the shoulder, tug of war (category for women and for men), pulling the rod, walking on stilts, carrying a basket on your head, sack racing, vožnja živih tačaka, rolling a bicycle wheel. Boys, and especially girls, are ranked according to age groups: from 1st to 4th grade, and from 5th to 8th grade (Grad Ivanec, 2017). N. Ćurčić, Ž. Bjeljac, J. Brankov: Rural Olympiads as Promoters of Old Folk Sports and Games 33 Figure 3: Game of bikovanje. Source: https://www. ivanec.hr/galerija/3736-35-seoske-igre-starih-sportova-u-salinovcu Nevesinje Olympics, Nevesinje (Bosnia and Herzegovina) – The Nevesinje Olympics have been held continuously since 1891 in the form of equestrian races in Bratački lug near Nevesinje. Since then, it has been interrupted only twice – during World War II and during the war in BiH (1992-1995). It is interesting that this event has always been supported by the current government: first the Turkish Empire, then the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, and today Bosnia and Herzegovina (more precisely, Republika Srpska). The Nevesinje Olympics is older than the modern Olympic Games (1896 in Athens). The organizer of this great cultural and sports event is the Municipality of Nevesinje with the support of numerous sponsors. The Nevesinje Olympics are held in mid-August in the open, on a meadow. Athletes, guests and locals from al over the world gather at the Olympics. The very meaning of the Nevesinje Olympics is reflected in the openness to amateur and professional sports, old and young, regardless of religion and nation (Nevesinje, 2020). In addition to equestrian races (Arabian horse races, Bosnian-mountain horse races), which are stil the central event today, the Olympics have expanded to other disciplines. The following disciplines are represented: climbing a pole smeared with tallow, jumping on a bellows (a running competitor jumps on a sheep's bel ow in 34 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. order to break it), shotput (throwing a stone from the shoulder), sack racing, tug of war, pulling a piston, high jump, long jump, race on a log (the competitor should run over the log in the shortest possible time), battle on a log (two contestants try to push each other off the log), race carrying eggs on a spoon, and more (Figure 4). Later, chess was added, and then basketbal , indoor soccer, and volleybal . In the seventies of the 20th century, a record attendance of 30,000 spectators was recorded. The event is accompanied by performances by cultural and artistic societies, and by a fair of domestic agricultural products and handicrafts (Bjeljac et al., 2021). The mascot of the Nevesinje Olympics is Ero, a rugged Herzegovinian in folk costume and peasant shoe, but with a sports jersey. The event is promoted through various websites (https://etrebinje.com/, http://www.opstinanevesinje.rs.ba/, https://www.glassrpske.com/, https://mojahercegovina.com/), social networks, radio, promo film, press articles, posters, etc. The Nevesinje Olympics is on the List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of the Republika Srpska, and on the Preliminary List as part of the intangible heritage of BiH. In 2020, the Nevesinje Olympics was nominated on the UNESCO list of intangible cultural heritage (Božić, 2020). Figure 4: Jumping on bel ows. Source: https://etrebinje.com/2020/08/17/nevesinje-tradicija-nevesinjske-olimpijade-jaca-od-ratova-i- nepogoda/ N. Ćurčić, Ž. Bjeljac, J. Brankov: Rural Olympiads as Promoters of Old Folk Sports and Games 35 The Župa Vilage Games, Župa, Nikšić (Montenegro) – Vilage games were launched in 2017, after a break of 30 years. The Župa vil age games are held on the last weekend in August. The organizers of the games are the NGO “Župa in the Heart” through the project “Small actions, big contribution”, which is funded by the Fund for Active Citizenship. The organization of the competition is helped by the local community of Župa and the elementary school “Dušan Bojović”, on whose training ground the games are held. The Župa vil age games were launched in order to promote the homeland and foster civic activism (Mandić, 2017). Participation in the games is team-based (minimum 5 and maximum 10 competitors) and free. Apart from the teams from Župa, teams from other cities and vil ages of Montenegro, as wel as from the region, can also participate. Teams compete in six disciplines: tug of war, long jump, plovkanje (each competitor throws a smal stone slab in order to reach the stabbed stick), pole pull, shotput (throwing a stone from the shoulder), and “carrying a bale of hay” 4. Already in the second year of the games, a new competition game of “pouring water” 5 was introduced, as well as a revival competition in the game of “jumping in out of a barrel”. The organizer of the NGO “Župa in the Heart” provided trophies and medals for the winners (Župa u srcu, 2018). The Župa vil age games were promoted on the website https://zupa.today/, then on the organizers’ YouTube channel, where a promotional video was published, as wel as through posters and newspaper articles (Figure 5). Pelivan wrestling competition “Tradition Continues”, Studeničani (Northern Macedonia) – Pelivanstvo has a very long tradition in North Macedonia and is especial y fostered in the village of Studeničani (broader area of Skopje), where it has been held for almost five centuries. “It became popular after the Ottoman conquests of the Balkans. This type of folk wrestling with its specific elements primarily started to spread among the Islamized population. The pelivan fights were usually held in spring and summer, in honor of some religious holiday or at weddings and sunets (circumcision) among the Muslims” (Angelov, 2016, 99-100). “It was rare to find a village with Islamized Macedonians, Turks or Albanians without at least two pelivan fighters” (Konstantinov, 1991, 51). Pelivan wrestling is characterized by a ceremony; before the start of the fight, a special dance ritual is performed accompanied by 4 Competitors of one team turn their bowed heads around a pole 1 m high, 10 times, take a bale of hay and transfer it 10 m to their team member who does the same and so on until all 5 team members finish the discipline. Time is measured and the team with the best time is ranked first. 5 Competitors lie on the meadow on their backs one behind the other. The first contestant from the bucket fil s the tray with water and passes it over to the contestant behind and so on until the last contestant who fil s the empty bucket. The game lasts 2 minutes, and the team that fil s the most water is the winner (Župa u srcu, 2018). 36 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. music ( zurla and tapan drum instruments). “Music that adds the ancient spirit to the fights which evokes from the piercing sound of the zurla and the rhythmic pulses of the tapan” (Angelov, 2016, 100). Pelivans appear shirtless in special leather pants and smeared with oil, which strengthens and protects the skin, and makes it difficult to grasp. The fights take place on open grassy terrain. Figure 5: A game of pul ing the rod. Source: https://zupa.today/plugin/gallery/gallery/52.html The Association for Education, Culture, Sports and Ecology (AKSI) holds an international singing competition called “Tradition Continues”. The event is supported by the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Macedonia and the Pelivan Federation of Macedonia. The event has taken place for nine years (2019), in September, and gathers up to 5,000 spectators. In addition to competitors from Macedonia, there are competitors from Greece, Albania, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Kosovo. The competition takes place in five weight categories. The representative of the AKSI association, Afet Jashari, pointed out that: “This competition is also of a cultural character, [and] singing is now one step closer to being declared the cultural heritage of Macedonia” (Vijekovna tradicija, 2016). N. Ćurčić, Ž. Bjeljac, J. Brankov: Rural Olympiads as Promoters of Old Folk Sports and Games 37 Škuljanje, Primorska region (Slovenia) – “Škuljanje is a traditional game in the Primorska region, where an individual or a team throws a škulja (a flat, carved stone or half-brick), trying to get it as close as possible to a jack ( balin). The person or team who first gets 13 points is the winner” (Slovenski etnografski muzej, n.d.). 6 The rules of the game were created during the game itself and over time it was passed from generation to generation. Due to the development of other sports games (modern sports), škuljanje has almost sunk into oblivion. At the end of the 20th century, the game experienced a revival, and in 2006, the Sports Association Škulja Vogrsko was founded, which catalysed the establishment of other similar federations in Slovenia. Škuljada has become part of the identity of the municipality of Renče-Vogrsko, and contributes to the difference, recognisability and uniqueness of its tourist products. At the same time, it has a strong social and connecting role in the community. Škuljanje is a very old game, as in the past it was played as a shepherd’s game. Škuljanje is the forerunner of bowling. Today, the škuljada is played everywhere, from gatherings of pensioners, the disabled, veterans, and students, to various social gatherings and family celebrations. Virtual y anyone can škulja, including the disabled and people with special needs. Competitions in škuljanje contribute to the preservation of cultural heritage, recognisability of places (municipalities) and their identity. It is an important factor in the development of tourism and an integral part of social events (Figure 6). As part of school activities, škuljanje is a sport that students like to do and that is in line with educational goals and standards; it is considered a welcome addition to classes (Športno Društvo Škulja, 2016). On 20 September 2016, the game was entered in the Register of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Slovenia (Slovenski etnografski muzej, n.d.). Village Olympiads (traditional sports) are organized in the summer part of the year, when warm and dry weather al ows for outdoor activities (Table 1). Most sports take place on a meadow or grass surface. For some sports, there are rules and procedures for organizing and competing, with ritual dances and music (as is the case with pelivan wrestling). And in other sports, the rules of competition are not too rigid and can be adapted to a certain extent to certain categories of competitors. The real effects of such competitions are achieved through the participation of competitors of different athletic prowess, where the result is not the only measure of success. This is confirmed by the following attitudes: “The women's team "Veni Vidi Vici" eagerly awaits the old sports competition in Bačko Gradište every year. However, in 6 The same game in Croatia is called pljočkanje (Istarski pljočkarski savez). 38 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. the foreground is not the result, but quality time spent in the best company” (Sport, 2016). Figure 6: Skuljanje International competition in Vogrsko. Source: https://www.primorske.si/2018/09/26/sosedski-obracun-dobili-hrvati Selected events from Yugoslavia that nurture traditional sports and games differ in the number of sports represented at the competitions, as wel as in the accompanying content and food served (Table 1). Only one event recorded an activity that belongs to the group of modifications, and refers to the introduction of some modern sports (basketball, indoor soccer, volleyball). At half of the events, there are no accompanying cultural contents and local gastronomic specialties, which can be introduced. This content would further increase the social and cultural interaction of participants and visitors, i.e. they would influence to increase the sports, tourist, ethnographic, and cultural effect of the events themselves. N. Ćurčić, Ž. Bjeljac, J. Brankov: Rural Olympiads as Promoters of Old Folk Sports and Games 39 Table 1: Basic data on competitions in traditional sports and games in Yugoslavia f s e o f t ance e zer r o yp t nam en be e ts e t ification he ce ainten rgani um or am nten od T the ev Pla M tim O N sp G Cultural co Food M e Vojvodina j n Olympics of radišt t old sports o G ia) kes us - Bece nal all- M th nd buritza ic ug ou sociatio atio us Bačk (Serb A BU Y As 17 N arou Tam m Panca ts s Rural games n m and of old sports t tion tea us ovec Spor nal all- rea nd al food e ug sociatio atio usic in Salinovec (Croatia) A Salin Rec As 11 N arou M Loc w + d ic est Nevesinje y of l alties alit races eci Olympics inje a and ovina) t inje s, es rian afts, bal, five- al es ni al-aroun re zeg us es ultura lo l sp et e football, ev er ug nicip ev quest N (Bos H A Mu N 2 horse 6 gam E races, Fair of dom agric product handicr folk Loca Chess, bask a-sid voleyb a u Zupa village gro) up games ene t „Ž us nal all- O nd ikšić ont ug G atio N (M A N srcu“ 8 N arou Pelivan wrestling for y competition og onia) ber e, Sports „Tradition iation col tem tur E SI) estling continues“ orth aced ssoc ducation, K Studeničani (N M Sep A E Cul and (A 1 Wr y Škuljanje ogrsko e of orska ing venia) oberct k gam ow Prim region (Slo O Sport Societ Škulja V 1 Fol thr Sources: https://nsuzivo.rs/vojvodina/vojvodjanska-olimpijada-starih-sportova; https://www.ivanec-turizam.hr/hr/obicaji-i-manifestacije/seoske-igre-u-salinovacu; https://etrebinje.com/2020/08/17/nevesinje-tradicija-nevesinjske-olimpijade-jaca-od-ratova-i-nepogoda/; https://zupa.today/vijesti/; Športno Društvo Škulja, 2016; https://www.balkanplus.net/vijekovna-tradicija-borba-pelivana-u-selu-studenicani-kraj-skoplja-foto/ 40 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 6 Discussion “Identity building uses building materials from history, geography, biology, productive and unproductive institutions, collective memory and personal fantasies, the apparatus of power, and religious revelations” (Castells, 2002, 17). Traditional sports and games are part of the collective memory, way of life and entertainment of ancestors. The peculiarity of the games or the varieties that are found in different regions provide a sense of uniqueness or difference from other places and regions. This diversity is the basis for building a local identity. Sport enables a common way of thinking and access to competitions. Sport creates col ectivism resulting from mutual contacts, which are continuous and repeated over a long period of time. The athletic spirit that is nurtured is more important than the result of the competition. And that is exactly what strengthens the cohesion among the competitors. 6.1 Old sports are a reflection of the traditions of the local population (H1) Creativity in folk sports is abundant, no matter in which part of the world they originated. World Sport Encyclopedia (Liponski, 2003) is well known in the world literature, with over 3000 traditional sports and games. The exact number of traditional sports and games for Yugoslavia cannot be determined, because there is no consolidated literature. In the book “Old Sports of Yugoslavia”, Cvetković (1982) covered about 60 old sports, some of which have 4-5 varieties. About 30 of these sports have survived to this day. The long history of holding competitions of traditional sports has preserved, in addition to sports, the usual norms and behaviour. The virtues and courage of the competitors have always been emphasized in public, which has also influenced the popularity of the competition. In the rare archival material covering the Nevesinje Olympics, there is a “record of a French travel writer from 1894 who vividly describes the competition at the time and speaks with admiration about mountaineers who prove their courage in treacherous disciplines” (Bukvić, 2016). N. Ćurčić, Ž. Bjeljac, J. Brankov: Rural Olympiads as Promoters of Old Folk Sports and Games 41 Preservation of traditional sports is the preservation of a certain culture of remembrance, as wel as the culture of belonging to a certain tradition of ancestors. “The Nevesinje Olympics are still held at Bratački lug; every year there are more and more participants who participate in traditional sports games and equestrian races. There are also those whose grandfathers and some of their close ancestors were participants and that is an example of good practice, because transmitted from generation to generation,” states the senior curator ethnologist-anthropologist at the Museum of Herzegovina Božana Đuzelović (Glas Srpske, 2020). “Folk dances and competitions, as an integral part of folk culture and intellectual creations, are inseparable companions of folk customs and folklore” (Živanović, 1970, 11). In the area of Gora, Dragaš municipality (Kosovo and Metohija), singing has become particularly widespread. “The first pelivans at the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century were wage earners who learned the art of pelivaning from Turkish pelivans. Competitions were organized during wedding ceremonies, and later on the occasion of al celebrations.” (Goranski sajt, 2014). Recal ing the long tradition of traditional sports can play an important role in attracting young competitors today. Young competitors are the guardians of tradition and an important link for the survival of the games. “Pelivanism is a centuries-old tradition of the Albanian people, which means respect for power, respect for opponents, respect for rules, and a dignified celebration. When rituals are added to al this before the performance of pelivan wrestlers, then the tradition acquires great values that are for the admiration of every nation”, said the Minister of Culture Ismaili (Министарство за културу Северне Македоније, 2019). Young men are actively involved in pelivan competitions, aware of the importance of preserving this traditional game. Pelivan Isamit Sabir confirms that with the words: “I have been playing for ten years. I inherited my love for this sport from my ancestors, my father and grandfather were pelivan and I continue the family tradition” (Тасев, 2018). The love for old sports and their revival with the active participation of younger people is the best way to preserve these sports from oblivion. “Excel ent organization of the match, above all. I am glad that ŠD Škulja-Barje has so many young members in its association, who wil be able to continue this tradition of mutual friendship for many years to come” (K. Š., 2015). 42 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 6.2 Old sports contribute to a location’s tourist image (H2) The promotion of the Vilage Olympiads has changed over time and has adapted to the media and their impact on the public. In addition to traditional media (newspapers, radio, television), in practice, advertising is increasingly turning to online tools and social networks (Facebook, Instagram, Twitter). The promotion of rural Olympiads and competitions affirms the villages in which such competitions are held. Good promotion leads to an increase in the number of visitors, which further leads to a greater demand for food, drinks, souvenirs, accommodation. The organizers of the Vojvodina Olympics of Old Sports have combined tradition and tourism in order to create a brand. From the beginning of the Olympics, the goal would be clear. “BUM recognized the need to organize an event in Bačko Gradište that will become a tradition and future brand of Bačko Gradište. Out of the desire to make an event that would be different from kotlićijada and pasuljijada from neighbouring places, the idea of organizing an event to promote tradition from the area of Vojvodina was born. The event carries a sports spirit and the possibility of interactive cooperation between organizers and citizens. That is how the Vojvodina Olympics of Old Sports was created, which gathers more and more competitors, spectators, and media from year to year. He is expanding his program with common ideas, ambitions and forces” (Drapšin, 2018). Some organizers of vil age games have had a strong influence on the launch of traditional sports games in other places and on the interaction of sports and tourism. “We are glad that DŠR Salinovec encouraged the holding of village games in more than half of Croatia! The fact that our games and efforts have been recognized at higher levels is also shown by the fact that our games have been declared an event of special interest to the City of Ivanec”, said Hudoletnjak (M. N., 2019). In support of the hypothesis, we can add the example of Škuljada from Slovenia. “Škuljada has become a part of the identity of the municipality of Renče-Vogrsko, and it contributes to the difference, recognisability and uniqueness of the tourist offer. …It is an important factor in the development of tourism and an integral part of social events” (Športno Društvo Škulja, 2016). N. Ćurčić, Ž. Bjeljac, J. Brankov: Rural Olympiads as Promoters of Old Folk Sports and Games 43 6.3 Competitions in old sports bring participants closer (H3) The role of traditional games for physical, social and psychological wellbeing has been universally recognized (Pfister, 1997). Competitions in old sports bring together teams from surrounding places and regions or neighbouring countries, which creates new friendly ties and good neighbourly relations. Competitions are an occasion for team meetings, and socializing, communication and cultural interaction are the biggest result of al competitions. “I am participating in this Olympics for the first time, it is beautiful and interesting. Until now, I was not familiar with the disciplines in which we are competing” (Lj. M., 2012). Ognjen Miric, who lives in Melbourne, emphasizes the importance of socializing at the Olympics: “For him, the Vojvodina Olympics of Old Sports is an ideal opportunity to meet old friends, but also to remember the discipline in which he participated five or more years ago” (Sport, 2016). “There are also those in my 'Libero' team, who participated in previous years, and this is my first time. I knew about these disciplines, but I didn’t practice them. Everything is great. Socializing is in the first place and I think that it should continue to be maintained and developed, because a lot of young people gathered,” said the contestant from Bačko Gradište (Lj. M., 2012). “The point of every such event is socializing. I think that only in that way will we be able to secure the future of Macedonian wrestling Pelivan. I have to admit that there is not much interest among the younger ones. I hope they understand that this is a noble sport. It is not as rough as it seems, because it comes down to technique, reflex and speed,” says Mitrov (Тасев, 2018). 6.4 Competitions in old sports enable intercultural learning (H4) Folk sports are based on festivity and community, rather than on disciplinary rules and achieving results (Eichberg, 2012). The Village Olympiads, in addition to sports content, also provide entertainment and local food. After the sports, the socializing continues with music and local specialties (e.g. baked goods, fish, pancakes, wine, etc.). Village Olympiads can also have a humanitarian character, so that the funds 44 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. collected from the sale of food pay for the purchase of school supplies or goes to equipping the space that serves for cultural events in the village (cinema, library). In this way, the event achieves cultural, sociological, psychological and sports significance among participants and visitors, as well as the transmission of traditions and customs to younger generations. “And this year's vil age games were an opportunity for us al to move away from technology and modern hobbies and briefly return to better times when man, society and community came first” (Radio “Bljesak” Okučani, 2018). We understand that TSG can break socio-cultural barriers (Saura, Zimmermann, 2021). Participation in competitions in other countries means a lot to young people from the countryside: “Young people have the opportunity to meet another culture and break down prejudices. The charm of everything is that we were housed in houses, which made everything even better,” said the contestant from Bačko Gradište at the Festival of Rural Games in Gornji Bogićevci (Croatia) (Jovićević, 2016). “We learned what plovkanje is here, because we never played it. We are best at shotput and tug of war. Next year, guests from Župa will come to us, so they will also learn something from us”, said the captain of the club “Velika”, after participating in the Župa Village Games (Mandić, 2017). For many young participants, the great importance of the Olympics is reflected in the fact that it is held in the vil age and thus provides entertainment and introduces dynamism into the often monotonous life of young people in the countryside (“We are glad that the Olympics are being held in our village. Unfortunately, more and more young people are leaving the vil age today, and this manifestation, in a way, brings them back and at the same time revives Bačko Gradište”) (Bečejsko udruženje mladih, 2019). Music has an important cultural, artistic, but also social moment for connecting all participants and visitors of the games, because “carrying meanings which transcend across time, space and even cultural boundaries” (Chen, 2017, 43). Music, folklore and song are accompanying contents that make the atmosphere at the vil age games cheerful and prolong the socializing after the competition itself. Their role in intercultural learning is great and should be a mandatory part of such programs. They are especial y important for people who like celebrations and socializing, as is N. Ćurčić, Ž. Bjeljac, J. Brankov: Rural Olympiads as Promoters of Old Folk Sports and Games 45 the case with the people in Yugoslavia (In Salinovec, the “musicians” that the teams bring with them ensure the good mood and entertainment). 7 Conclusion Traditional sports and games are important for participants because they develop many skil s (teamwork, cooperation, chal enge management, setting priority goals, etc.), build character, and help develop feelings of belonging to the community, as wel as feelings for fair play. In this way, traditional sports and games are not only ordinary games and entertainment, but also contribute to the development of a healthy lifestyle and a positive attitude towards life. On the other hand, traditional sports and games can encourage the development of tourism in rural areas, include local producers in the tourist offer with natural and healthy products (fruits, vegetables, honey, cheese, meat), then motivate smal craft shops to get involved through production souvenirs and handicrafts, and encourage the creation of micro-enterprises and jobs for rural women and young people. Also, through events dedicated to traditional sports and games, valuable sports heritage will be preserved, ethnographic and rural tourism wil be developed, and the heritage and col ective memory of ancestors wil be passed on to current generations. Tourists wil be able to experience an active vacation and get involved in traditional sports on their own. “It can be seen that the organizers have enthusiasm and do everything with their heart” is a concisely expressed attitude, which reflects the already known fact that the organizers of rural Olympiads are great visionaries and activists in preserving folk tradition and sports culture of local communities. The organizers are most often sports recreation associations, non-governmental youth organizations, sports associations, and they receive support from the municipality, county, tourist organization, as wel as sponsors. Some Olympiads are also funded by EU cross-border cooperation projects. EU projects are contributing to the popularization of these events in other countries, al with the aim of promoting peace and cooperation among neighbouring nations. These projects are of great importance among the peoples of the states that emerged after the break-up of Yugoslavia, with the aim of renewing broken cultural ties and overcoming the barriers and prejudices that have arisen. 46 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. “The possibility of sharing with children, and especially with teachers and educators in training, the richness of TSG supports the transmission to new generations, encouraging intergenerational exchange and the diffusion and practice of TSG as a living heritage in schools” (Berti, Zingari, 2019, 74). Incorporating TSG into school curricula is one of the steps in promoting TSG. Through narrative and storytel ing that involve parents and grandparents, the community is strengthened and children learn about the local tradition “in vivo”. The results of the research indicate the presence of a large number of games of various characters in the countries of former Yugoslavia, as well as a large number of the same or similar games that arose more as a result of certain geographical and social conditions, and less as a feature of individual peoples. Coexistence in the same area and cultural intertwining have led to a large number of the same or similar games in ex-Yugoslav republics. The same (or similar) language, multinational settlements and common economic tradition have influenced the development and characteristics of traditional sports. The cultural overlap was great, and the same traditional sports are an integral part of our history and culture. They also contribute to our current recognition of similarities and the building of new sports and cultural cooperation and togetherness. References Andersen, N. A. (2009). Power at Play. The Relationship between Play, Work and Governance. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. 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UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage. https://ich.unesco.org/en/lists 2020 Vijekovna tradicija: Borba pelivana u selu Studeničani kraj Skoplja [Century tradition: Pelivan fight in the village of Studenicani near Skopje]. (2016, October 10). Balkan Plus. https://www.balkanplus.net/vijekovna-tradicija-borba-pelivana-u-selu-studenicani-kraj- skoplja-foto/ Vojvođanska olimpijada starih sportova [Vojvodina Old Sports Olympics] (2019, August 14). [Link with thumbnail attached] Facebook. https://hr-hr.facebook.com/pages/category/Non- Governmental-Organization--NGO-/Vojvo%C4%91anska-Olimpijada-Starih-Sportova-119508628099534/ Vojvođanska olimpijada starih sportova [Vojvodina Old Sports Olympics] (2019, August 14). NSUŽIVO. https://nsuzivo.rs/vojvodina/vojvodjanska-olimpijada-starih-sportova WEC (n.d.). About Us. World Ethnosport Confederation. https://worldethnosport.org/about-us World Ethnosport (n.d.). World Ethnosport Society. http://ethnosport.org/about/ Zeb Khan, M., Gohar Abbas, S., & Zeb, R. (2018). The reasons for traditional games losing popularity: a case study of skhy (calf) innihagdara, kp (Pakistan). THE SPARK Vol. 3 (1), 129-142. Živanović, Ž. (1970). Narodni višeboj [People's all-around]. Beograd: Partizan – Savez za fizičko vaspitanje i rekreaciju Srbije. Župa u srcu (2018). Župske igre ove godine dva dana [Zupa Games this year for two days]. Župa-today. https://zupa.today/plugin/gallery/gallery/52.html Министарство за културу Северне Македоније (2019). Продолжува петвековната традиција на пеливанството во Македонија [The five-century tradition of pelivanism in Macedonia continues]. Retrieved May 24, 2021, from: http://kultura.gov.mk/prodolzuva-petvekovnata- tradicija-na-pelivanstvoto-vo-makedonija/ Тасев, P. (2018). Преку “ѓурешот” во Куклиш пеливаните-борачи ја продолжуваат традицијата [Through the “gjuresh” in Kuklish, the pelivan wrestlers continue the tradition]. Retrieved June 14, 2021, from: https://www.brif.mk/preku-gureshot-vo-kuklish-pelivanite-borachi-ja-prodolzhuvaat-traditsijata/ About the authors Dr. Sc. Nevena Ćurčić is a ful professor at the Department of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Management, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Novi Sad (Serbia). She is also a professor at the Faculty of Geography in University of Belgrade, majoring in Tourism.The field of professional expertise includes marketing and management in tourism, branding in tourism, event tourism, cultural tourism, regional development. She has participated in 2019 in the project “Research, Evaluation and Documentation of Traditional Sport and Games in Serbia as Elements of Intangible Cultural Heritage”. Other activities: reviewer in international and domestic scientific journals; certified textbook reviewer; reviewer of study programs and higher education institutions in the Republic of Serbia; member of the board of directors of the Association of Tourismologists of Serbia, etc. 50 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Dr. Sc. Željko Bjeljac, principal research felow, head of the Social Geography Department, Geographical Institute “Jovan Cvijić” , SASA, Belgrade (Serbia). Areas of interest: tourism geography, event tourism, historical geography, demography and anthropogeography. He has published five monographs and over 200 scientific papers, 20 chapters in the international and national monographs. He has worked on 16 research projects (“Research, Evaluation and Documentation of Traditional Sport and Games in Serbia as Elements of Intangible Cultural Heritage”; “Global Sports Events Index project”). He is member of board of national association “Tourism and events in Serbia”, and academic council of “Sultans trail – European cultural route”. Dr. Sc. Jovana Brankov, research associate in the Social Geography Department of the Geographical Institute “Jovan Cvijić”, SASA, Belgrade (Serbia). She is also a Senior Researcher at the South Ural State University, Institute of Sports, Tourism and Service in Chelyabinsk (Russia). Her broader scientific interest covers tourism geography, sustainable development and environmental protection. Her research is focused on sustainable tourism, protected natural areas, ecotourism, community-based tourism planning, geo tourism, tourism/environmental impact assessment. She participates in numerous national and international research projects dealing with social geography and sustainable development issues (one of them is “Research, Evaluation and Documentation of Traditional Sport and games in Serbia as Elements of Intangible Cultural Heritage”). THE IMPACTS OF ADVENTURE TOURISM IN MOUNTAIN REGIONS – A REVIEW TOMI ŠPINDLER, KSENIJA VODEB University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Brežice, Slovenia tomi.spindler@um.si, ksenija.vodeb@fts.upr.si Abstract Recently, mountain regions have become highly attractive and important areas for tourism (Beedie & Hudson, 2003; WTO & UNEP, 2008; Rama et al., 2019). One of the most dynamic components of tourism in mountains is adventure tourism, which combines travel, sport and outdoor recreation (Beedie & Hudson, 2003). Since mountains represent sensitive areas in terms of sustainability, it is important to approach them appropriately, in order to apply measures to optimize the impacts of tourism. This study covers a review of the impacts of adventure tourism on mountain areas and an examination of measures that might optimize the impacts of such tourism. The purpose of this paper is to present the latest findings in the field of the impacts of adventure tourism in mountain areas, and certain measures that can be taken to balance the positive and negative impacts. The findings show that the impacts of adventure tourism in mountain destinations vary, and therefore Keywords: each destination must be treated individually. Furthermore, a tourism impacts, thorough approach to achieve balance is needed on a case by case measures, basis, since there is no universal formula for sustainable sustainable tourism, development of destinations due to their different characteristics. mountain tourism, The implications and further research opportunities are given. adventure tourism DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.ft.6.2022.3 ISBN 978-961-286-642-6 52 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 1 Introduction Mountains have always had great significance in human culture, although in earlier times many people avoided mountain regions, since they represented an unknown world ful of danger. They believed that mountains were the dwel ing place of gods, and this belief is still present in many places today. People initially ventured into mountain areas for economic reasons, seeking ore and salt, and armies, by force of circumstance, crossed them in search of new territories, goods, markets and trade caravans (Mrak, 2011). By the term “mountain” we consider landforms that rise prominently above their surroundings, generally exhibiting steep slopes, a relatively confined summit area, and considerable local relief. Mountains are generally understood to be larger than hil s, but the term has no standardized geological meaning (Molnar, 2020). About 12% of the world’s population live in mountain regions, with another 14% living next to or very near such areas and dependent on their resources. Of these people, about half are concentrated in the Andes, the Hengduan-Himalaya Hindu Kush system, and a variety of different African mountains. While mountains in the northern hemisphere are often sparsely populated, some tropical mountain areas have population densities of more than 400 people per square kilometre (UNEP, 2007). Nowadays, mountain regions are attractive and important destinations for tourism (Beedie & Hudson, 2003; WTO & UNEP, 2008; Rama Maldonado-Erazo, Duran-Sanchez & Garcia, 2019), as outdoor recreation is gaining in popularity among tourists. One of the most dynamic components of outdoor recreation is adventure tourism, which Hall (1992) defines as a fast-growing segment of the tourism market. Adventure tourism combines travel, sport and outdoor recreation (Beedie and Hudson, 2003) and represents a wide range of outdoor tourism activities that are often commercialized and involve interaction with the natural environment outside the participants' home environment, and contain some element of risk (Hal & Weiler, 1992), with some adventure tourism carried out in the mountains (Beedie, 2008). Hiking, trekking and mountain climbing, broadly defined as mountaineering, represents a subset of adventure tourism and is becoming more popular each year (Apollo, 2017). Mountaineering is a long-established adventure sport based on physical activity, chal enges and risk. It was long reserved for experienced individuals, but today the social boundaries separating mountaineers from tourists are increasingly blurred (Beedie & Hudson, 2003). Therefore, in this paper more attention is paid to adventure tourism and adventure sports (especial y T. Špindler, K. Vodeb: The Impacts of Adventure Tourism in Mountain Regions – a Review 53 mountaineering) than other sports performed in the mountains. Moreover, the impacts of tourism in mountains considered in this study refer to those related to adventure tourism. Although many tourists visit mountain destinations, these tend to suffer from poor accessibility and infrastructure, as well as social, political and economic marginality — either due to neglect by the state or the mistrust of peripheral populations — and thus tourism may appear to many local actors as a rare lever for development. However, even if the curiosity of tourists and the wishes of local stakeholders converge, this does not guarantee that genuine development wil take place, or that it will be equitable and sustainable. Nyaupane, Morais and Dowler (2006) note that the economic, environmental and cultural impacts of tourism development in mountain regions vary greatly, and that a number of critical factors may explain this. Travel to mountain destinations has increased considerably over time, resulting in amplified discussions on both the benefits and risks to mountain environments, cultures and communities (Mutana & Bukwada, 2018). There are literature reviews that cover the impacts of tourism on a particular destination, but these focus little on destinations in mountain areas. Since mountain areas represent sensitive areas in terms of sustainability, it is important that we study them, and, with this, we will find measures for optimization of tourism impacts. Since few surveys cover such measures, this study also provides an examination of those that can maximize the positive and minimize the negative environmental, socio-cultural and economic impacts of tourism on mountain destinations. The issue addressed in this paper is therefore the importance of researching the impacts of tourism on mountain areas and their lack of optimization in practice. The aim is thus to present a review of these impacts, as wel as measures to reduce the negative and the increase positive impacts on the basis of previous research. As stated by Vodeb (2014), it is crucial to increase the positive and reduce the negative effects of tourism, as this can then help integrate tourism successfully into other economic activities. Although the impacts of tourism are extremely interconnected (ibid.), those in this study are subdivided into environmental, socio-cultural and economic impacts, and in the second chapter details of these are presented, along with support from case studies. This paper obtained its data using a literature, but it should be noted that this review covers all kinds of tourism in the 54 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. mountains, and the most fundamental measures for monitoring sustainable tourism in such areas. Therefore, the goal of this paper, which does not distinguish between niches, is to point to those impacts that are common to al of these tourism niches. After col ecting the data, the results are presented and discussed in relation to previous research. 2 Sustainable mountain tourism If looking global y, most mountain communities are rural, and most live in poverty. These communities often have little or no political power, and are dependent on economies based largely on barter trade and agriculture, besides forestry, mining, transport and industry. Mountain ecosystems hold important social, cultural, environmental and economic significance for the health and livelihood of these communities, and their close relationship with the land has helped them develop unique cultural identities, knowledge and skills. Mountain communities include several thousand different ethnic groups, and the uniqueness and diversity of these cultures is particularly attractive to many tourists (UNEP, 2007). UNWTO (2019) defines mountain tourism as a type of "tourism activity which takes place in a defined and limited geographical space such as hills or mountains, with distinctive characteristics and attributes that are inherent to a specific landscape, topography, climate, biodiversity (flora and fauna) and local community. It encompasses a broad range of outdoor leisure and sports activities." Mountain areas are second only to coasts and islands as popular tourism destinations, generating 15 to 20% of annual global tourism, or US$70 to 90 billion per year (UNEP, 2007). Tourism development in mountain regions depends on many factors: the attractiveness / uniqueness of the destination, safety, professionalism of local businesses and hospitality structures, availability of capital, etc. Tourists are attracted to mountain destinations for many reasons, including the climate, clean air, unique landscapes and wildlife, scenic beauty, local culture, history and heritage, and the opportunity to experience snow and participate in snow-based or nature-related activities and sports (UNEP, 2007). However, often there is insufficient capital to create the infrastructure needed for reaching sites or accommodating visitors (Debarbieux et al., 2014). T. Špindler, K. Vodeb: The Impacts of Adventure Tourism in Mountain Regions – a Review 55 Tourism is nowadays widely recognized as a strong factor in the development of rural areas (Rangus, Brumen & Potočnik Topler, 2017). Well-managed tourism can be an ally in preserving local culture and values, while, at the same time improving the social conditions of the socially vulnerable and local communities. Poorly managed tourism, however, can contribute to the loss of cultural integrity and identity through cultural assimilation (UNEP, 2007). Providing sustainable tourism activities based on natural and environmental values is fundamental for mountain areas seeking to attract tourists with optimized impacts on the natural and cultural heritage that exist there (Euromontana, 2017). While negative impacts of tourism always appear, these can be reduced with sustainable development measurements. Nevertheless, the means used to develop tourism do not always favour its sustainability. Sometimes major projects are carried out without first assessing or anticipating their effects on the environment, employment, or the communities concerned. At other times, the proliferation of small individual initiatives is not sufficiently regulated, a situation which can also have detrimental impacts on the landscape, environment, and social relations. Often, the impacts on local economies fail to meet expectations, particularly when benefits remain in the hands of a few large stakeholders, frequently from outside the regions concerned (Debarbieux et al., 2014). Brumen et al. (2016) state that national and local governments are harmonizing regional policies to enable the more balanced development of regions. Rural and mountain tourism have a high potential to stimulate local economic growth and social change because of their complementarity with other economic activities, contribution to GDP and job creation, and capacity to promote the dispersal of demand in time (and thus reduce seasonality) and along a wider territory (UNWTO, 2019). In many mountain destinations, the tourism sector drives the socioeconomic growth and development of local communities, yet mountain areas often face chal enges to their development, including harsh climate conditions, vulnerability to natural disasters, and problems of remoteness and accessibility. These chal enges may hinder economic activities, infrastructure development and industrial production in mountain regions. In this context, tourism represents an opportunity to improve local communities and stimulate growth in mountain destinations (UNWTO, 2018). In any case, it is necessary to work in terms of sustainability and prepare a plan that will follow the guidelines of sustainability before each intervention. In this context, Coalter et al. (2010) report that there is a limited amount of specialized literature and research on the economic and social impacts of mountaineering activities. Musa, 56 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Thompson-Carr and Higham (2015) say that, from a theoretical perspective, the philosophies, changing values, attitudes and other psychological aspects of the mountain tourism experience deserve ongoing attention. Histories of mountain tourism destinations, including development, but also cultural, spiritual and religious aspects, need to be researched and written about. Research exploring social issues, including community development, workers' rights and age-related or gendered influences, would further il ustrate the human dimensions of mountain tourism. 3 Structure and methods of the review The method used in this paper is literature review, which represents a data col ection process wherein information is gathered in a comprehensive way. This review presents an overview of recent research that captures the impacts of tourism on mountain regions. The data was obtained through the Science Direct website, which also covers the Scopus database. This database was used due to its coverage of peer-reviewed articles and free access. Because of the scope of the research, conference papers, book chapters, review articles and others were not used. The aim of the research was to gain the original scientific articles trough the English keywords in titles, abstracts or author-specified keywords. The research was conducted in June 2019, and the years of publication were not limited. The search was divided into three parts. First, the focus was on environmental impacts, where scientific articles were searched based on the keywords “mountain”, “tourism”, “environmental”, “impact”. There were 30 such articles. For the subject of socio-cultural impacts the search was conducted based on keywords: “mountain”, “tourism”, “socio-cultural”, “impact”. There were two such articles. Because of the smal number of articles, a further search was made using the keywords “mountain”, “tourism” and “socio-cultural impact” in the category of terms in articles, and another 44 articles were found. Based on the key words “mountain”, “tourism”, “economic”, “impact”, 14 scientific articles on the topic of economic impacts were found. Among the articles found, the survey covered those related to the impacts of adventure tourism in mountain regions and measures to optimize positive and negative impacts, with all the related research being conducted on a scientific basis. The articles that met these criteria are presented in the fol owing chapter. Of the 14 original research articles identified on this topic that have been published in English language peer-reviewed academic journals, most were for research conducted in Europe and Asia, two were conducted in Australia, one in Canada and one in the USA. All articles except one were published in the years after 2000. Most articles used primary data obtained from T. Špindler, K. Vodeb: The Impacts of Adventure Tourism in Mountain Regions – a Review 57 interviews, case studies, field observations, and similar. Some of them also used secondary data. 4 Impacts of tourism in mountain regions Debarbieux et al. (2014) state that tourism is one of the fastest growing industries in the world, and in mountain regions it can give rise to high expectations for development. It has the capacity to create jobs and extend services and products that support both tourists and local people alike in otherwise marginal areas. Tourism thus has the potential to reduce poverty and provide alternatives to existing economic activities and traditional livelihoods that may be precarious, or otherwise threatened by global competition. Kostić, Lakićević and Milićević (2018) say that, in the last couple of decades, people did not pay much attention to the protection of natural resources and the living environment when creating a tourist offer, since the main aim was simply to make a profit. Mountain tourism must, therefore, for example, work on increasing the energy efficiency of resorts during the winter season. On the other hand, the potential negative impact of tourism development on mountain landscapes in terms of visual pollution must be addressed on a case-by-case basis by tourism developers, in order to strike an aesthetic balance between tourism structures and the natural environment (UNWTO, 2018). However, the rise of ecological issues, due to uncontrol ed and accelerated tourism development, made mountain areas less desirable among tourists, this leading to the idea of sustainable development being applied to this context, which should provide for the preservation of both the natural resources and living environment, minimizing the negative impacts of tourism and maximizing positive ones (Kostić, Lakićević & Milićević, 2018). It should be noted here that there are limited possibilities for creating wealth in mountain economies, and besides certain forms of agriculture and animal husbandry, tourism is the only other territory-bound activity which can provide economic growth. Nevertheless, its sustainability depends on keeping the fragile mountain environment and landscapes intact (UNWTO, 2018). Sustainable tourism balances al the related indicators without ignoring any of them (Karim et al., 2014). There are certain economic benefits that satisfy one pillar of sustainability (e.g. economic growth), but, at the same time there are major environmental consequences that affect another pillar of sustainability (e.g. environmental protection). The third pillar (social equity) is affected in a complex way. On the one hand, people involved in tourism-based businesses may benefit a 58 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. lot from, say, the opening of a ski centre, while those involved in the primary sector of production are affected negatively (Tsiaras, 2015). As the definition in Tsiaras (2015) refers to positive and negative effects, this definition was also the guideline to address sustainable tourism in this paper. Nepal (2002) states that if tourism is based on principles of sustainability and equity, it can be instrumental in improving the living conditions of mountain communities, and increasing their stakes and interests in local, regional and national policy issues. Sustainability encompasses ecological, economic and social components. In the context of tourism development, this means that both the types and intensity of tourism activities in the mountains must have limits, and that the benefits must reach the wider community. In order to optimize the impacts of tourism on the mountain regions, it is necessary to introduce some measures that differ according to the situation in the specific area. Meyer-Cech and Pröbstl (2006) conclude that recreation and tourism have a high economic importance, and at the same time the mountains encompass a great array of ecological y sensitive habitats, which means that a balance between regulation and development policy needs to be found. Yet often the great variety of mountain tourism is not taken into consideration enough, as different tourism structures cal for very different, and especial y regional y specific, strategies of response. Nepal (2002) states that it is essential to monitor, regulate and control activities that may jeopardize the resource base on which mountain tourism depends. Economic and social monitoring are also important to ensure that differences in income and employment from tourism do not create social friction or disharmony. Sustainable tourism plans should not only focus on resource conservation, but should also address issues of equity, community development and social harmony. Sustainable mountain tourism encompasses three basic components: conservation of the natural resources on which tourism depends; improvement in the quality of life of the local population; and enhancement of visitor satisfaction. For these to be realized, effective policies and control mechanisms, strong local and regional institutions and sound management capabilities – based on both modern and traditional knowledge systems – are necessary. Stursa (2002) notes that it is very important to be aware of visitors` behaviour and attitudes, their wishes and motivation for a visit, their knowledge of what is unique, significant or typical with regard to the visited area, and what types of visitors` rules are valid within the area. All these aspects can significantly influence the negative impacts of visitors. Nepal (2002) adds that without these essential elements mountain tourism could easily be a short-term, boom-and-bust enterprise. Without adequate local control, self-reliance and strong T. Špindler, K. Vodeb: The Impacts of Adventure Tourism in Mountain Regions – a Review 59 participation in decision-making, tourism is likely to benefit only a few rich individuals, often outsiders, at the expense of a large, poor section of the community. Mountain communities are often limited in financial, technical and managerial resources, which hinders their ability to develop and market tourism attractions effectively. In contrast, outside stakeholders, such as tourism developers, entrepreneurs and tour operators, usual y have the knowledge and needed resources to make tourism a competitive business. Thus, mountain tourism policies must balance the interests of local communities with those of outside stakeholders carefully. Government institutions with the necessary capacity to plan and implement projects are crucial for the sustainable development of such regions. The opportunities from mountain tourism are significant, as long as plans and policies are in place to ensure that it does not pose an environmental and social threat. This calls for the judicious use of natural (tourism) resources, community planning, local awareness and reliance, strong local institutions and policies, and a vision for the long-term sustainability of tourism projects (ibid.). The income that people earn from tourism should be used in different sustainable income generating activities, giving due care to maintaining the region’s unique ecological diversity and ecosystem (Rai, 2017). In the mountains, tourism has become a boon for the survival of local people in terms of providing income for them. However, it has also contributed to the disruption of the environment. In this light, the trade-off between the environmental problems and economic gains created by tourism cannot be measured so easily. Tourism needs to be encouraged, but not without policies to improve and maintain the environment (Pandey, Chettri, Kunwar & Ghimire, 1995). In addition to that, it is crucial to realize well-prepared education and information programmes, and also to increase the knowledge about feedback in visitors’ behaviour (Stursa, 2002). Pop et al. (2011) conclude that it is important to develop and promote sustainable tourism, to enhance environmental conservation, and to ensure that tourism development goes wel with nature, leading to increased awareness of the importance of conserving natural attractions. In order to ensure a sustainable form of tourism development and thus preserve a destination for future generations, it is necessary to promote sustainable development, create products for specific market segments of visitors, create and maintain competitiveness, improve visitor experience, preserve local resources, improve the quality of life, consider the needs of stakeholders, and so on. It is necessary to work with a long-term vision and within the mentioned pil ars of 60 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. sustainable development. Nyaupane, Morais and Dowler (2006) find that the current literature focused on tourism development in mountain regions consists predominantly of case studies about unique destinations in such areas. The following subsections address the different (specific) groups of the impacts of tourism in mountain areas, and are supported by examples from different destinations. The cases were selected according to the adequacy of addressing the environmental, economic or socio-cultural effects of tourism in mountain regions. Although the effects are very intertwined in specific destinations, in this case they are divided in order to make them more transparent. 4.1 Environmental impacts Mountain landscapes are particularly fragile and susceptible to environmental change and degradation. Landslides, avalanches, lava flows, earthquakes, floods and rock fal s can alter the landscape unexpectedly. Mountain ecosystems include a wide range of smal and unique habitats, with flora and fauna that may have very short growing and reproductive seasons, and may be particularly sensitive to disturbance by human activity. Tourism activities often involve the development and intense use of tracks, paths and sports slopes by vehicles, non-motorized transport and pedestrian traffic (UNEP, 2007). Kozorog and Poljak Istenič (2013) state that although outdoor sports are sometimes connected to environmentalism discourses, which promote nature-friendly recreation, they also encourage people to perform daring activities that few have done before. Visitor presence is also usual y concentrated in smal areas, contributing to increased noise and waste, which have negative impacts on particular places. The negative environmental impacts of poorly managed tourism activities can include vegetation clearing and soil erosion, removal of scarce habitat, altering of critical landscapes and water flows, water and air pollution, and wildlife relocation or behavioural changes. The introduction of exotic and invasive species and diseases can also have a significant, negative impact on local plant and animal species (UNEP, 2007). However, from a global perspective, mountain tourism is not a major contributor to environmental pollution and degradation. In fact, it suffers more from waste and pollution than it contributes to it. While the tourism sector cannot solve the global environmental crisis, it must be aware of its specific responsibility in terms of preventing local ecological damage and the destruction of unspoilt landscapes, which can be caused by tourism growth (UNWTO, 2018). Targeting lesser-known routes is good in terms of relieving more congested routes, but care must be taken to manage the route or activities sustainably. T. Špindler, K. Vodeb: The Impacts of Adventure Tourism in Mountain Regions – a Review 61 Table 1: Environmental impacts and measures Environmental impacts Environmental measures − Soil pollution − Investments in tourism infrastructure − Visual pollution − Creating a database of ecology oriented services − Air pollution − Organizing meetings between various − More waste generated stakeholders − More frequent transportation of waste − Exchange knowledge about the standards in − Higher burden force regarding the consumption of natural − resources Impact on ecological quality of vegetation landscapes − Selecting particular services and preparing − products for an ecological value network Increases in sediment loadings and/or elevated phosphorus release from the sediments. − Promoting regional products on websites − Soil erosion − Organizing competitions for pro-ecological − projects involving residents Affecting lake chemistry − − Influencing forest management Co-financing the individual investments made − by residents Trampling of vegetation − − Imposing fines for actions threatening the Firewood extraction environment and people − Forest degradation and deforestation − − Serving food prepared mainly from local Pollution of river waters products − • Expansion of built-up areas on forestland − Aesthetic interior design minimizing the consumption of resources − Waste segregation − Obtaining energy from alternative sources − Local wastewater treatment plant − Running campaigns for saving water − The offer of educational classes covering issues related to nature or culture − Creating tourist routes respecting nature − Creating purchase groups − Extending a given place’s attractions by means of cross-selling − Controlling tourist density − A reduced focus on extraction to maintain the visual value of an area − An inclusion of more stakeholders in the management system − Spreading tourists throughout vulnerable locations − Careful management of routes by the use of fences and track edge marking − Multipathing − Regulating tourist flows − Developing all-season tourism − Identifying new tourist destinations − Zoning scheme or other forms of management − • Extending research Sources: Bakowska-Morawska, 2014; Zhang, Xiang & Li, 2012; Sanchez-Espana et al., 2017; Gilani, Innes & Grawe, 2018; Arrowsmith & Inbakaran, 2002; Malik and Bhat, 2015; Geneletti and Dawa, 2009 62 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. The results from different authors (Table 1) show that the ecological quality of vegetation landscapes is influenced by tourism. The findings also confirm the statement of UNEP (2007), that mountain landscapes are particularly fragile and susceptible to change and degradation. If more tourists visit a mountain destination, the more air pollution will result from the arriving vehicles (Bakowska-Morawska, 2014), which is also likely to affect lakes’ chemistry to some extent through emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOX), sulphur dioxide (SO2) or metals (Sanchez-Espana et al., 2017). Rivers and lakes can also be polluted by hotels, which are constructed on a riverfront and discharge solid and liquid waste into the water (Malik & Bhat, 2015). There is also more waste generated, and therefore more frequent transportation of such waste, and a higher burden due to the need for clean bed linen an food deliveries (Bakowska-Morawska, 2014). The improper disposal of solid waste results in soil, air and visual pollution (Malik & Bhat, 2015). There are also increases in sediment loadings and/or elevated phosphorus release from the sediments, and increases in soil erosion rates (Sanchez-Espana, 2017). Tourism impacts are also manifested in gully erosion, trampling of vegetation, and general wear along hiking trails (Arrowsmith & Inbakaran, 2002). The impacts can be seen in forests as firewood extraction for heating and cooking purposes in hotels and guesthouses. Hotels being built in forests can lead to forest degradation and deforestation (Malik & Bhat, 2015). Braided patterns of unmarked tracks cause soil erosion and forest degradation (Malik & Bhat, 2015), while a shift in the seasonal management of a mountain resort influences forest management in the surrounding land base, moving it more towards recreation and visual values, and with a lesser focus on extraction (Gilani, Innes & Grawe, 2018). Activities such as trekking, camping, dumping, pack animal grazing and off-road driving all have impacts on soil, water, wildlife and vegetation (Geneletti & Dawa, 2009). The authors suggest some measures which can help to prevent or minimize the negative environmental impacts of tourism in mountain regions. Bakowska-Morawska (2014) says that there should be specified levels of investments in tourism infrastructure and co-financing of the individual investments made by residents from municipal funds. The author further states that there should be a database of ecology-oriented services, and that more of the food served should be prepared mainly from local products, and thus regional products should be promoted and cross-sold. Education and cooperation among stakeholders is also seen as important. Organized meetings between various stakeholders to exchange knowledge about the standards in force regarding natural resource consumption, educational classes T. Špindler, K. Vodeb: The Impacts of Adventure Tourism in Mountain Regions – a Review 63 covering issues related to nature or culture, and inclusion of more stakeholders in the management system are al some of the measures that can lead to sustainable development. Some activities can be introduced to prevent environmental impacts, such as waste segregation, obtaining energy from alternative sources, or using a local wastewater treatment plant. Competitions can also be organised for pro-ecological projects involving residents, along with campaigns for saving water (Bakowska-Morawska, 2014). In mountain regions there should also be a shift in seasonal management that encourages outdoor recreation al year round, not only in the main seasons (Gilani, Innes & Grawe, 2018). Tourism products and the interior design of tourism infrastructure should minimize the consumption of resources, and tourist routes should respect nature (Bakowska-Morawska, 2014). Tourist density should be controlled in some districts, and in some regions the daily total tourist numbers should also be limited, and by spreading tourists throughout vulnerable locations the negative impacts would be dissipated over a wider area. By using multiple paths, more tourists could be accommodated into one area without changing the tourism experience significantly (Arrowsmith & Inbakaran, 2002). For example, trekker inflow could be diverted towards less sensitive areas, or be distributed more homogeneously among the different trails (Geneletti & Dawa, 2009). Identifying new tourist destinations, zoning schemes or other forms of management, can help prevent further environmental degradation (Malik & Bhat, 2015; Geneletti & Dawa, 2009). For such procedures, research in mountain regions should be extended to gather important information and data, with the goal to optimize the environmental impacts of tourism (Geneletti & Dawa, 2009). This is also in line with the findings of Sgroi (2020), who states that the sustainable management of mountain areas through tourism requires an analysis of the various services or goods offered by the mountain economy and, based on their specific characteristics, a management-payment mechanism must be activated that involves the actors who are interested in the transaction. 4.2 Socio-cultural impacts Mountain communities can also be very susceptible to impacts and change from tourism activities. The negative social impacts of poorly managed tourism can include disturbances from high levels and concentrations of visitor noise and activity, and the reduced availability of scarce shared resources such as firewood, fish and fresh water. In addition, exposure to and adoption of foreign traditions, lifestyles and products can pose a threat to the unique culture, traditions, knowledge and 64 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. livelihoods of mountain populations, particularly in remote and indigenous communities (UNEP, 2007). It causes the interaction of peoples from diverse parts of the world, fostering the diffusion of ideas, values, technology, consumer tastes, and lifestyles. Such interactions may weaken local culture, and lead to a variety of types of socio-cultural change (Rai, 2017). Such contact may also precipitate changes in the everyday lives, traditions, values, norms and identities of destination residents (Ghaderi & Henderson, 2012). Therefore, it is useful to set measurable objectives for the proposed tourism activities and to communicate them to local residents in a manner they can respond to, thus engaging them in the process of tourism planning (Vodeb & Medarić, 2013). However, if the local population is involved in the design of tourism at the destination, the above-mentioned influences and changes can have a favourable effect on the development of the community. For example, Rai (2017) focuses on the Everest region and finds that cultural imitation has increased due to tourism, as reflected in dress, language, food and events, especial y among the more influential and younger people in this area. For this reason, tourism has increased the artificialness, socio-cultural conflict and general conflict in the local society. The socio-cultural impacts of tourism on mountain areas and related measures can be seen in Table 2. In the light of socio-cultural impacts of tourism in mountain regions, tourism can help to improve the living conditions of the local residents, as well as schools, sanitation and alternative energy infrastructure. Tourism revenues can allow residents to afford better food, and even to travel for pleasure. In addition to a general improvement in the quality of life in the entire host communities and the revitalization of ethnic culture, the data also revealed an improvement of women's social status (Nyaupane, Morais & Dowler, 2006). However, the perception of local people can be more positive when they feel that they are profiting financial y from tourism (Ghaderi & Henderson, 2012). There are also some negative impacts, like children's absenteeism from school, prostitution, loss of local control over the tourism industry, and disruption of traditional kinship and community bonds. This confirms the statement of UNEP (2007), which says that poorly managed tourism can contribute to the loss of cultural integrity and identity through cultural assimilation. Nyaupane, Morais and Dowler (2006) concluded that the degree of positive and negative impacts of tourism in destinations varies, based on community involvement, and the number and type of tourists. T. Špindler, K. Vodeb: The Impacts of Adventure Tourism in Mountain Regions – a Review 65 Table 2: Socio-cultural impacts and measures Socio-cultural impacts Socio-cultural measures − Tourism pressure on municipalities − To include spatial effects in tourism − Improving the living conditions of the regional analysis local residents. − Take into account the diffusion or − Improving schools, sanitation and concentration process within the area alternative energy infrastructure. − Identification of spatial patterns to − Locals can afford better food, and even to propose tourism policies that impact travel for pleasure tourism development positively − Improvement of women's social status − To al ocate new resources − Revitalization of ethnic culture − To promote other municipalities in the − Children's absenteeism from school region − Prostitution − To open new markets in emerging − economies Loss of local control over the tourism industry − To take measures against seasonality − Disruption of traditional kinship and − Promoting new types of tourism community bonds. − To control non-regulated rental − Rapid growth of an art and crafts market accommodations − Vil agers enjoy meeting new people and − When making investment decisions, practising their language skills considering quality and environmental − factors Resentment, antagonism, dishonesty and alienation in the relationship between the − To highlight the importance of quality and community and tourists and tour sustainability as a priority strategy operators − A long-term examination of tourism − Changed lifestyles of mountain vil agers impacts, local involvement in tourism − management, number / type of tourists Adapting ceremonies, events, activities, art and handicrafts − Opposition and concern about tourism must be addressed − Reconcile divergent viewpoints and devise effective sustainable rural tourism projects − Research into the impacts of tourism Sources: Sarrión-Gavilán, Benítez-Márquez and Mora-Rangel, 2015; Nyaupane, Morais and Dowler, 2006; Ghaderi and Henderson, 2012 Important measures for optimizing socio-cultural impacts include more research in these impacts. This is inline with Musa, Thompson-Carr and Higham (2015), who say that research exploring social issues, including community development, workers' rights and age-related or gendered influences, would further illustrate the human dimensions of mountaineering tourism. Sarrión-Gavilán, Benítez-Márquez and Mora-Rangel (2015) state that it is necessary for researchers to include spatial impacts in tourism regional analysis, and to take into account the diffusion or concentration process within a territory, both as a whole and in a local context. A long-term examination of tourism impacts, local involvement in tourism management, and number/type of tourists in these regions, might provide an 66 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. invaluable insight into the importance of the government and prevailing political ideology with regard to tourism development (Nyaupane, Morais & Dowler, 2006). For policymakers the identification of spatial patterns can play a useful role in coming up with tourism policies that have a positive effect on tourism development. Entrepreneurs or investors should take into account quality and environmental factors when making investment decisions, such as accommodation type, the category of establishments and the municipalities in which to invest. Moreover, al private companies involved should adopt quality and sustainability as a priority strategy in order to be more competitive (Sarrión-Gavilán, Benítez-Márquez & Mora-Rangel, 2015). 4.3 Economic impacts Tourism development in mountain regions can bring economic growth to host communities (Nyaupane, Morais & Dowler, 2006). While tourism can provide significant local employment, if not properly managed such work can be short-term and seasonal, providing little skill-building or training to local people. Working conditions can be poor, and revenue can easily leak out of local economies to external y owned companies. However, wel -managed tourism can play an important role in attracting revenue and reducing poverty. It can also improve infrastructure, provide community services and help diversify local economies. Employment and income can improve the self-sufficiency and sustainability of mountain communities (UNEP, 2007). Moreover, Cocca et al. (2012) found that the choices that need to be made with regard to the economic development of local communities are important. Tourism may offer complementary economic opportunities to farmers in mountain areas. It also requires the conservation of traditional agricultural landscapes, while the development of industrial activities wil probably encourage the abandoning of farms. In this way tourism represents an alternative for creating jobs and income growth in mountain areas. However, tourism as an economic force for the development of such areas has limitations, and is more likely to be beneficial if it does not become a dominant sector of the economy (Tooman, 1997). T. Špindler, K. Vodeb: The Impacts of Adventure Tourism in Mountain Regions – a Review 67 Table 3: Economic impacts and measures Economic impacts Economic measures − Outsiders’ dominance in business not only − A long-term examination of tourism limits economic benefits to local people, but impacts also misinterprets the true culture for − Local involvement in tourism commercialization management, and number/type of − Improvement of socioeconomic status of the tourists in these regions residents − Opportunities for tourism − Economic contribution of different types of destinations to develop their tourism tourism product − The creation of jobs for local people − Roads in good condition − Generation of prosperity and business to the − Safe places to stop benefit of the community − Additional tourism activities − Slower growth rates correspond with lower − Organizing events levels of total income − Good relationship with the police − More income is retained local y − No parking provision − Greater ease of entry into the local market − Proper tourism management − Al owing local linkages to be established to − Tourism as an economic force for support the tourism economy development − Significant barriers to entry exclude − Correct choices in the economic newcomers development of local communities − Where tourism became the dominant − • Encouraging multi-purpose choices, economic sector, social welfare indicators such as agro-tourism and on-farm failed to show significant improvements processing − Net debt per capita can grow − Complementary economic opportunities for farmers − Conservation of traditional agricultural landscapes − • Development of industrial activities can encourage the abandoning of farms Sources: Nyaupane, Morais and Dowler, 2006; Cater, 2017; Weaver, Lawton, 2001; Tooman, 1997; Cocca, Sturaro, Gallo, Ramanzin, 2012 There are some studies which were carried out in mountain areas in different parts of the world which consider the economic impact of tourism and related measures (Table 3). For example, Rai (2017) examines tourism development and economic consequences in the Everest region. The results indicate that most households have converted their household economies in order to participate in the emerging tourist economy. This major economic change has been accompanied by social and cultural changes, and the income of local Sherpa has been increased significantly. Similarly, Nepal (2002) also concludes that tourism in the Nepalese Himalayas has been a boon to the local economy. Črnigoj, Bartolj and Srakar (2018) show that mountaineering in Slovenia has significant economic effects, up to 14.8 mil ion EUR of direct 68 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. economic impacts annualy if we estimate the revenue generated by the Slovene Mountaineering Association as part of its key activities. There are other positive impacts of tourism, like improvement of the socioeconomic status of the local residents (Nyaupane, Morais & Dowler, 2006), creation of jobs for local people, or the overal generation of prosperity and business to the benefit of the community (Weaver & Lawton, 2001). Tourism may also offer complementary economic opportunities to farmers and, in turn, requires the conservation of the traditional agricultural landscapes (Cocca, Sturaro, Gallo & Ramanzin, 2012). However, as stated by UNEP (2007), while tourism can provide significant local employment, if not properly managed this employment can be short-term and seasonal, providing little skill-building or training for local people. Tooman (1997) points out that there are different impacts in different stages of the lifecycle of a tourist destination. In the involvement stage, slower growth rates correspond with lower levels of total income, whereas the opposite holds for the accelerated growth rate of the development stage. The benefit derived from the involvement stage is that more of the income is retained local y, in contrast to the development stage, where profits would be expropriated by outside investors. Once a development stage is entered and large-scale, corporate enterprises become the dominant economic participants, significant barriers to entry exclude newcomers. Some impacts can also be seen where tourism becomes the dominant economic sector in a location, with social welfare indicators failing to show significant improvement. The measures that are noted by authors include a long-term examination of tourism impacts, local involvement in tourism management, and controlling the number/type of tourists (Nyaupane, Morais & Dowler, 2006). There are also opportunities for tourism destinations to develop new tourism products, like motorcycle tourism, which needs wel -maintained roads, safe places to stop, and additional tourism activities, among other things (Cater, 2017). Tooman (1997) says that tourism as an economic force for development has limitations, but is more likely to be beneficial if it does not become the dominant sector of the local economy. Therefore, as stated by Rai (2017), it is better that the money people earn from the tourism sector is derived from different sustainable income-generating activities, giving due care to maintaining the region’s unique ecological diversity and ecosystem. T. Špindler, K. Vodeb: The Impacts of Adventure Tourism in Mountain Regions – a Review 69 4 Conclusion Stursa (2002) states that mountains, together with coastal areas, represent the most attractive types of landscape for outdoor recreation, and both are highly sensitive and vulnerable to large-scale human impacts. Therefore, the harmonization of the relationship between the natural environment and its conservation, on the one hand, and its exploitation on the other, is a basic problem that the bodies responsible for the sustainable development of such areas must consider. Sustainability is one of the most important aspects of tourism management. It is important that al aspects of sustainability are taken into account, and that al stakeholders strive to increase the positive impacts of tourism and reduce the negative ones. However, tourist destinations vary, so each destination must be treated individual y. Therefore, there is a complex search for balance on a case-by-case basis, with no universal formula for sustainable development. Due to their specificity, mountain areas represent a special form of tourist areas, which are influenced by environmental, socio-cultural and economic factors. However, in order to deal more effectively with the negative consequences of tourism in such areas, it is necessary to carry out prior scientific research. This study summarizes examples of the impacts of tourism on mountain areas, including measures to optimize positive impacts and minimize negative ones. The results of the research can be useful for tourism managers and local communities when planning tourism activities in mountain regions. Managers can obtain information on the positive and negative impacts of tourism in the mountains, and measures for optimization of these. Based on this information and depending on the situation, managers can take precautionary measures in the direction of reducing the negative impacts and increasing the positive impacts, following guidelines for sustainable development. In addition to its practical applicability, the literature review presented in this study also helps to understand the impacts of tourism and how to optimize them in mountain regions. We need to be aware, however, that the optimal condition cannot be achieved, although we can strive to get as close as possible to it. Based on the importance of mountain regions for tourism, their sustainable development and the reviewed literature, we can conclude that there is a lack in scientific research covering the environmental, socio-cultural and economic impacts of tourism in such areas. 70 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. As this research is currently limited to the selection of papers from the Science Direct database, which covers the Scopus database, it can be extended to other databases, thereby upgrading results because of more cases being taken into consideration. Following an expanded survey, a graphic representation of the most important impacts or groups of impacts and measures in the field of tourism in mountain areas could be made, to deepen our understanding of their complexity. Sustainable tourism development is necessary, and, with similar research we can help to raise the awareness and practice of such development in mountain regions around the world. References Arrowsmith, C., & Inbakaran, R. (2002). Estimating environmental resiliency for the GrampiansNational Park, Victoria, Australia: a quantitative approach. Tourism Management, 23(2002), 295–309. Apollo, M. (2017). The true accessibility of mountaineering: The case of the High Himalaya. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 17, 29–43. Bakowska-Morawska, U. (2014). Ecological Approach Presented by Managers of Hospitality Services in the Karkonosze Mountains. The Identification of Activities Reducing Negative Environmental Impacts. 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TOURISM EXPERIENCE IN ACCESSIBLE TOURISM: DESIGNING A MOBILE APPLICATION FOR THE DEAF AND HARD OF HEARING TJAŠA ALEGRO, MARICA ILIĆ, MILICA RANČIĆ DEMIR University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Brežice, Slovenia tjasa.alegro1@um.si, marica.ilic@student.um.si, milica.rancic1@um.si Abstract How someone experiences a tourist experience depends on several factors. This article wil focus on ways to ensure active participation and thus a pleasant and memorable experience for people with disabilities, specifically people with hearing problems – the deaf and hard of hearing. With the development of ICT technology, the possibilities for developing tourist products intended for the deaf and hard of hearing are even greater and can be friendlier to them. Various mobile applications complement a city’s tourist products and services and are more than a welcome help for people with special needs. With an innovative Design Thinking method suitable for planning projects or designing services or products intended for end users, we designed an idea for a mobile application for Ljubljana that is tailored to deaf and hard of hearing tourists, as Slovenia does not yet have a similar application. We designed the product idea based on an overview of good practices. Through Keywords: five phases of the Design Thinking method, we analysed the experience, indispensable elements of the mobile application for deaf and accessible tourism, deaf, hard of hearing tourists and evaluated it through the HEART hard of hearing, framework matrix developed for user experience assessment. Design Thinking DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.ft.6.2022.4 ISBN 978-961-286-642-6 74 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 1 Introduction Tourists pay more and more attention to experiences and to quality of experiences when traveling. Man has encountered different types of experience throughout history, as people are shaped in one way or another from the beginning of birth to death. The experience gained by learning how to light a fire to make different equipment was crucial to the survival of humanity and the development of the human brain. Without experiences, people as a race would not be in the place they are today. However, experience as a phenomenon also consists of more mundane tasks requiring little or no preparation, ranging from meeting other people or obstacles, encountering sudden unexpected events, or even just mowing the lawn. These different tasks, given as examples, may seem a bit mundane, but they are also essentially experiences (Backlund, 2014). It may seem boring to us, but for some, it means participating in everyday life. Experiences can be divided into two types in a certain view. One consists of experiences gained in everyday life, and the other involves what people create on their own, including experience planning (Abrahams, 1986). A study published by Aho in 2001 seeks to create a general theory of the tourist experience and explain the key elements thereof. He also points out that tourism can be seen as a mixture of controlled and uncontrol ed activities to create an experience of moving people from one location to another. It means that from his point of view, everything a tourist encounters during their trip is part of the tourist experience. He suggests that experiences have multiple core contents, but emphasises four fundamental ones: emotional experiences, informative experience, practice experiences, and transformation experiences. In addition to these experience cores, he also points out that individuals have different conditions for experiencing and enjoying it (Aho, 2001). In tourism, little attention is paid to people with special needs or people with disabilities (PwD) and little work is done to involve them in tourism events. Theoretical y, there is a name for the type of tourism aimed at people with special needs, namely “accessible tourism”. The word "accessible" itself means "able to be reached or easily got" or "easy to understand" (Cambridge Dictionary, 2021). In practice, unfortunately, many tourist destinations are stil not easily accessible, or T. Alegro, M. Ilić, M. Rančić Demir: Tourism Experience in Accessible Tourism: Designing a Mobile Application for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing 75 people are unable to understand them due to their limitations without the help of personal or material assistance. The European Network for Accessible Tourism states that disability is a widespread phenomenon that includes only people with motor, hearing, vision, and mental disorders. People with respiratory problems and different types of al ergies also need customised content (Krželj, 2019), and all restrictions, not just the possibility of unimpeded movement, should be considered when planning tourist experiences. Our research wil focus on a specific group of people with special needs, namely the deaf and hard of hearing. We wil develop the idea of how to adapt the tourist experience so that the experience wil be just as memorable and positive for them, and stimulate their desire to visit the destination again. Hearing impairment is a disability marked by an impaired ability to perceive sounds (Hörsellinjen n. d.). Hearing impairment is spectral, with varying degrees of hearing loss, so the deaf and hard of hearing may have different accessibility needs. The general concept for hearing loss is that communication can be more demanding. It is more chal enging to detect sounds in noisy environments that strongly affect communication (Hörsel injen n. d.). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), there are 466 million people on the world with hearing loss.(WHO, n. d.). In Slovenia there are around 1,500 deaf and hard of hearing people who use Slovene Sign Language and about 75,000 people who use hearing aid (GOV.SI, 2019)(GOV.SI, 2019).). There is no mobile application in Slovenia intended for deaf and hard of hearing tourists who visit large, touristy Slovenian cities. Since the number of registered deaf or hard of hearing people in Slovenia is not negligible, such an application would be a significant achievement. People with the same language communicate more easily. If people do not understand the language, they may feel disappointed and excluded (Kožuh et al., 2016). The communication process often requires them to listen to sounds and try to find meaning. 76 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. People with hearing impairment rely heavily on facial expressions, attention-grabbing techniques, and voice quality to receive and understand information (Kožuh et al., 2016). Notifications via, for example, sound devicescan be very difficult for them to understand. For information to be adequately understood, data must be presented visually. The technological development of the online world provides essential tools to facilitate communication between the deaf and hard of hearing (Kožuh et al., 2016). Smart apps are good support for regular updates. Mobile applications can be defined as support programs, making it easier for people with special needs to be informed about a tourist destination (Hörsellinjen n. d.). Particular emphasis will be placed on mobile applications that enable people with special needs or disabilities to visit certain places. Technologies are essential because, for example, mobile technologies in tourism can help remove obstacles to travel ing for people with special needs. In the following, we present an idea for a mobile application that would facilitate on-site travel or tourist experiences for deaf and hard of hearing tourists. 2 Literature review Accessible tourism is a type of tourism that entails a process of collaboration between stakeholders. It al ows people who have access requirements, such as mobility, vision, hearing, and cognitive dimensions of access, to operate in an independent fashion and with fairness, honour, and respect while universal y created tourism products, services, and environments are delivered. This definition embraces an approach where people have benefits from accessible tourism for as long as they live and entail people with permanent or temporary difficulties in the form of disabilities: seniors, overweight, family units, young children, and people who work in safer and more social y arranged environments (Darcy & Dickson, 2009). Even though the growth of initiatives connected to a rise in the availability of tourism for disabled people, tourism for the deaf was seldom studied separately from the whole, almost as if those with hearing disabilities are seen as a group that has been excluded from the tourism literature (Barnes & Mercer, 2010; Zajadacz & Szmal, 2017). A common social experience is typical for deaf people, which is caused T. Alegro, M. Ilić, M. Rančić Demir: Tourism Experience in Accessible Tourism: Designing a Mobile Application for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing 77 by, among other things, the feeling that they are different. This sense of being different could be perceived as a social stigma. (Daruwalla & Darcy, 2005). Although this group of people is incredibly miscel aneous, what keeps them connected is, without a doubt, sign language, which enables them to communicate (Fraser & Supalla, 2009). The language wal standing in their way means that these people's impairment has a social nature, which appears during the phase where they communicate with a portion of the society that does not have these disabilities. Those that are accustomed to using sign language claim that they do not have the sensation that they are different when within groups where this is normal (Zajadacz, 2014). Making the optimal range of tourist product and services requires dealing addressing the segment with hearing disabilities, which in turn requires insight into their needs and expectations (Zajadacz, 2014). When it comes to surpassing the language barrier, it is vital to consider the kind of views people without these disabilities have and how wil ing they are to initiate conversations about this subject (Atherton, 2007). The use of sign language by those who can hear is regarded as showing respect and is a good foundation for social integration (Young et al., 2000). Previous tourism experience and accumulated knowledge about people with disabilities (PwD) allow them to deal with obstacles in a more positive and well-informed way, which increases their sense of security and encourages their motivation and desire to travel. Facilitators can be very diverse. These are various factors most often related to the availability of accessible tourist services, contributing to the greater participation of PwD in tourist activities (Devile & Kastenholz, 2018). People with different types of disabilities need different kinds of adjustments or access to the information they need. For example, people with a low level of disability, needing such things as special glasses or a hearing aid that would al ow them to live a reasonably everyday life, require fewer adjustments than those with a high level of disability, such as people with tetraplegia or blind or deaf people (Michopoulou et al., 2007; Michopoulou & Buhalis, 2013). There is little research on the experience of tour guides with people with special needs. As those with special needs have far fewer tourist options tailored to their specific needs, guides accordingly have less experience therewith (Chikuta et al., 2017). Chikuta et al. (2017) explored the experiences of tour guides with people with 78 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. special needs in museums and national parks. They found that the tourism industry is not adapted to people with special needs and that there is not enough information in the tourism sector about the needs of these people. When guiding people with special needs, guides face mainly time management, language choice, and other barriers due to equipment and obstacles, especially in natural environments. As a solution, the authors suggest training tour guides that lead people with special needs to be aware of such tourists’ needs and how to deal with them when travelling. They also recommend appropriate communication skil s and learning about possible health problems during trips or on tours. Of course, it is first necessary to ensure of the physical accessibility of the space where the guiding takes place. State-of-the-art mobile technologies, destinations, and providers can access broader groups of people and al ow tourists to have access to broader quantities of information and personalised content (Zajadacz & Szmal, 2017). The developments in mobile technology, particularly when it comes to smartphones and tablets, is considered crucial for tourism in the future. Touch-screen technologies have been gradually embraced in a wide spectrum of applications requiring assistance. Tablets and smartphones could be widespread and used across the board as a way of connecting people and enabling smoother autonomy for those with impairments; mobile applications could also be seen as an instrument used to facilitate mutual understanding between the impaired people and those who are able to hear during communication (Milicchio & Prosperi, 2016). Mobile applications are developed to help people with disabilities must provide relevant information according to their needs. For example, information about places and attractions to visit, local transport and their accessibility, opinions and experiences of other similarly affected persons on the proposed points of visit, information on local conditions to support visits from people with disabilities. It is also desirable that mobile applications created to support people with disabilities allow interaction between themselves and service providers (Ribeiro et al., 2018). Applications in tourism can contribute to a personalised experience or provide specific information and facilitate the communication and transmission of personalised information to people with disabilities as well; such applications are designed for learning. The use of technology would help a large group of tourists who are now neglected and contribute to the development of accessible tourism and to general satisfaction with the tourist experience. T. Alegro, M. Ilić, M. Rančić Demir: Tourism Experience in Accessible Tourism: Designing a Mobile Application for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing 79 Gračan et al. (2021), in their research of mobile applications in the city of Zagreb, found that the usefulness of using all analysed applications is statistically related to the level of satisfaction with visiting the destination Zagreb. They also found that users are more satisfied with an app that provides more personalised information than general information apps. A study by Palos-Sanchez et al. (2021) has realised that tourism apps need to be innovative, designed for self-education and entertainment to achieve user satisfaction with the app. The primary measure of an information system’s success is user satisfaction. To achieve a level of satisfaction, it is necessary to adapt the application or information system to the user's wishes and needs. Failure most often occurs when a user's requirements are not recognised (Michopoulou & Buhalis, 2013), and the product or service does not meet their needs. 3 Methodology 3.1 Structure literature review: a review of good practices In the first step of the research, we made a structured literature review or review of good practices. We searched the Internet using the Google Chrome web browser for relevant examples of good practice by browsing the web pages of results. The key search criteria were applications or pages in Slovenian, Croatian, and English. The search countries were Slovenia, Croatia, and others. The keywords we used for the search were: app for the deaf, app for the deaf and hard of hearing, app for people with special needs, tourism for the deaf, deaf in Slovenia or in Croatia, and app for the deaf in Slovenia or in Croatia. We could say that the most important criteria were the keyword app and the keyword deaf. For each term entered, we looked at the first 30 hits. See Figure 1, which shows that we used six keyword combinations. 3.2 Design Thinking and HEART Metrics Framework The next step in our research was developing a business idea for the mobile app through the Design Thinking method. Design Thinking is a process and a method (Rowe, 1987). It is a creative method that helps the researcher solve wicked problems (Buchanan, 1992). Design Thinking can be defined as a methodology embedded in 80 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. a wide variety of innovation activities with a human-centred design ethos. (Brown, 2008). It is a method that can be included in project planning or designing services or products for end users (Chou, 2018). It is also a prevalent method in teaching (Lynch et al., 2019). The Design Thinking method has proven to be an innovative and practical approach to problem-solving in the past. The Stanford University students developed an innovative product using this method – a baby warmer sleeping bag – which helped keep newborns alive in undeveloped areas where access to hospital care is difficult (Soule, 2013). The Design Thinking process differs from the traditional way of dealing with processes in social entrepreneurship (Chou, 2018). Social entrepreneurship is a form of entrepreneurship that responds to problems in society and seeks to create social benefits through services and products. It contributes to innovative solutions to social, economic, and environmental issues and deals with the social inclusion of vulnerable groups (GOV.SI, 2021); therefore, the Design Thinking method is suitable for designing a product or service intended mainly for the deaf and hard of hearing when travelling or visiting a destination, so that their experience can also be positive. A Design Thinking process is repetitive and usual y contains five phases: Empathy/Empathise (the market situation is researched, people's needs and requirements are identified, and the human element is preserved)  Define (refers to considering proposals and conditions regarding the needs and desires that arose in the first phase, followed by defining the idea or making proposals for solving the problem)  Ideate (through brainstorming, the team sets different views, including those out of the box, which can contribute to innovative solutions)  Prototype (a prototype of the solution or a product is developed, and it is ready for testing)  Test (the last phase, where the prototype is presented to the target group, which provides feedback for possible improvements and changes). If the need for change arises, it is possible to return to any stage of Design Thinking and repeat the whole process several times. It is not a linear process. We also know the Design Thinking model with seven phases: Define  Explore  Ideate  Prototype  Select  Implement  Review. Because it is a universal y accepted model with five phases, we wil use five steps model. It also contains a phase of empathy that is especial y important when designing a product or service intended for PwD. T. Alegro, M. Ilić, M. Rančić Demir: Tourism Experience in Accessible Tourism: Designing a Mobile Application for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing 81 As the second part of the Design Thinking method, we used the HEART Metrics approach to test our idea. This is a framework developed by researchers at Google (Rodden et al., 2010) and serves to check the quality of the user experience. The HEART Metrics framework is most often used to evaluate online products, such as applications. It is a framework that contains recommendations on the perspectives that are desirable to consider for the success of an application or web tool (Flaounas & Kokkinaki, 2015). There are five categories: Happiness (a measure of satisfaction or attitude with a product/service, usual y recorded with user survey)  Engagement (a measure of how much a user interacts with a product of their interest)  Adoption (it defined the number of new users over a specific time frame. It measures how successful you are at attracting new customers; it measures customer experience rather than user experience)  Retention (a measure of keeping your existing users for some amount of time)  Task Success (it defines time spent on any given task or the percentage of successful completion of a specific task). 4 Empirical part 4.1 A review of good practices – Apps for the deaf and hard hearing The first combination, "app for the deaf", gave us 7 usable hits of 30. The second combination, "app for the deaf and hard of hearing", yielded only 5 usable results out of 30. The third combination, "app for people with special needs", gave us as many as 20, because it was a much broader term that could encompass multiple types of disability. The fourth combination, "tourism for the deaf", gave us the most results, 25 of them, because it included the word tourism and deaf without the word “app”. The fifth and sixth combinations gave us the least results because they refer to Slovenia and Croatia, and we managed to find only one application from that area. The fifth combination, "deaf in Slovenia or Croatia", gave 9 results mostly related to various associations for the deaf. The results of the website review are shown in Figure 1. 82 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Figure 1: Structured review of good practices Source: own. Through a review of good practices online, we found that in Slovenia there are no similar applications that would help people with disabilities, so we present three good practices, one mobile application for the deaf and hard of hearing from Croatia, one from Span and Portugal, and one that works global y. These applications met most of the criteria, namely that they are applications for the deaf, available on search engines, and contain English and other languages. Below are more detailed descriptions of selected applications that we recognised as examples of good practices. T. Alegro, M. Ilić, M. Rančić Demir: Tourism Experience in Accessible Tourism: Designing a Mobile Application for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing 83 Mobile application Deaf Friendly Tourism A few years ago, the Epoca360 agency from Novigrad, Croatia, recognised the problem of limited amount of tourist products for the disabled, especial y the deaf and hard of hearing. According to them, the cause of this problem is the insufficient sensitisation of the national tourism sector to the chal enges and difficulties faced by the deaf and hard of hearing due to the inadequacy of adapting tourist services to their needs. The main task of Deaf Friendly Tourism is summed up in the fact that it is a tourist guide adapted for the deaf. The basis of the tourist guide consists of an interactive map with points of interest. Clicking on the topic of interest opens a screen with relevant visual information in sign language, along with text in Croatian and English. Deaf people can watch the video in Croatian sign or international sign language (Krželj, 2019). As part of the project, 20 informative videos in sign language have been recorded so far, which enable deaf and hard of hearing people to view the wide range of services offered by the site of the Novigrad pilot project. The app is available on al Android and iOS mobile devices. Another essential part of the application is the "GO SOCIAL" platform, enabling communication between al application users. The user can search for al users within the database, those who, of course, want it and will be able to view all application users within a certain radius (Krželj, 2019). Unfortunately, this option is not available for the wider area, so, in the Republic of Croatia, the only geographical area covered by this mobile application is the town of Novigrad. Mobile application TUR4al TUR4al is a mobile application designed to promote affordable tourism. The innovators of this mobile application believe that anyone with a problem should be able to move and travel freely and enjoy free activities like any tourist. This mobile application covers a wider geographical area, particularly Spain and Portugal, and is 84 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. available in several foreign languages: Catalan, English, French, German, Portuguese, Italian, and Chinese. This app is interactive so users can comment, add, share content, and even promote facilities accessible to people with disabilities. Users can search for content according to specific categories, such as accommodation, bars and restaurants, buildings, etc. (Krželj, 2019). For example, a user can search for the city of Barcelona and find places that are accessible to the blind. Still, if they want to narrow down the search results and get more precise answers, they can categorise the results the interested in to search the museum in Barcelona for the blind and deaf (Krželj, 2019). Mobile application Let Me Hear Again Let Me Hear Again is a mobile app designed for people who have hearing problems. There are two versions of this app, Let Me Hear Again and Let Me Hear Again Pro. Some features make the versions very different. One of the differences is in the price, because the Pro app is not free, and the other is in the content itself and the app’s options. The free application has a drop-down menu to translate the content into English, French, Italian, Spanish, and 36 other languages. Still, when the user chooses one of the 36 languages, the application leads him to purchase the Pro version (Krželj, 2019). The app helps deaf people automatical y translate the conversation into text, which would mean that if a person is on a guided tour and the guide does not know sign language, the user of this app could use the guide services like other tourists. The real problems with this application are that in case of loud noise the application cannot translate properly, and in most cases on frequent and wel -known tourist attractions the noise level is sufficient to disrupt or disable the proper operation of the application. In conditions of silence, the application operates entirely normal y, with the translation being affected by the speed of speech. So, if a person speaks too fast, the app wil not translate the person's speech. In addition to providing a translation of speech, the user can also type what they want to say and leave it for their interlocutor as a voice message, which enables the communication between the deaf and those who do not know sign language (Krželj, 2019). T. Alegro, M. Ilić, M. Rančić Demir: Tourism Experience in Accessible Tourism: Designing a Mobile Application for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing 85 Our business idea, modeled on applications proven to be good practice, would upgrade the examples we found. The deaf and hard of hearing application has excel ent potential, but efforts should expand its use and accessibility in several languages. For Slovenian destinations, it would cost a lot to upgrade an existing application in collaboration with Epoco360. The upgrade of an existing application is described in Table 1. Table 1: Upgrade of an application Upgrade of existing applications Language Croatian (HZJ), British (BSL), American (ASL), Slovenian (SZJ), Italian (LIS), and German (DGS) Sign Language Destinations/cities Ljubljana, Maribor, Portorož, Piran, Postojna Cave, and major towns in Croatia Online to download the desired video with sign language Online vs Offline interpretation. Offline after downloading the desired video Mobile phone operating Location (GPS) turned on systems and more Android and IOS Source: own. 4.2 Business idea app for the deaf and hard of hearing through Design Thinking Through five phases of Design Thinking, we defined in Table 2 the chal enges of deaf and hard of hearing people that can be solved by a mobile application tailored to them. The task of the application is to provide a good and memorable tourist experience for PwD, specifical y for deaf and hard of hearing people. The last two phases of the Design Thinking process, Prototype and Testing, are described only hypothetically, in the event the business idea were to be realised and we were to begin working with a company that develops mobile applications. The description is in Table 2. 86 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Table 2: Description of the five phases of Design Thinking IDENTIFYING CHALLENGES OF THE DEAF AND PHASE HARD OF HEARING BY PHASE THAT CAN BE SOLVED BY A MOBILE APPLICATION The problems faced by deaf and hard of hearing people in tourism are that their services are not similar to others. People working in tourism do not know how to communicate with them and provide EMPATHY them with dignified service. One of the best examples would be that tour guides do not learn sign language, and deaf and hard of hearing people cannot get to know the destination like people without hearing problems. Also, services in hotels, cafes, info centres are not adapted to the deaf. One of the solutions to the problems faced by deaf and hard of hearing people is to design an application that wil help them DEFINE navigate tourist destinations. This information must be in sign language. The second and more elusive solution is for tourism professionals to learn sign language. The idea is to design a mobile application to help deaf and hard of hearing people in tourist destinations. This is the most effective solution because everyone uses mobile phones daily and don't go IDEATE anywhere without them. As technology advances, it should serve man as much as possible. The application wil contain information in sign language, such as information about the destination, attractions, services for the deaf, and where the sign language is spoken. In line with Epoca360 from Croatia, which developed a similar application, the existing one would be upgraded to be used in a larger area, more precisely in Croatia and Slovenia. For the PROTOTYPE beginning, the sign languages of Croatia and Slovenia, along with * we hypothetical y describe English as a lingua franca, would be on the application. The app the process that would be wil feature a map, for example, of Slovenia, where people can see carried out if a mobile where the destination explanation is in sign language by clicking on application for the deaf and the app logo next to each attraction that has that video. After the hard of hearing were click, a video opens in which someone explains in sign language launched where the user is and tel s some exciting things about the place. The map also shows where the facilities where services for the deaf can be found, and one can read the comments and impressions of the users who were there. TEST * we hypothetical y describe If the application proves successful, it would be extended to the the process that would be whole country and later to the Balkan region. The languages of the carried out if a mobile Balkan countries and some of the world languages such as application for the deaf and German, Italian, Spanish, etc., would be added. If the application hard of hearing were does not work wel in specific segments, these things must be fixed launched and a new prototype re-released. Source: own. T. Alegro, M. Ilić, M. Rančić Demir: Tourism Experience in Accessible Tourism: Designing a Mobile Application for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing 87 4.3 Testing a business idea through the HEART Metrics Framework According to the HEART Metrics Framework, a set of keyframe elements is organised as a set of Goals, Signals, and Metrics. Goals must be clearly defined, and each one must be measured using one or more signals. Signals are what most people call "metrics". The difference between signals and measurements is technical. The signal describes the high-level quantity that the evaluator or user experience developer wants to capture. For example, the signal could be the number of deaf people active in the app per day. The measurements are more formal and technical descriptions of the low-level signals and reflect the emphasised application infrastructure. An example could be the measurement of the above signal: the number of registered users in the app who are deaf or hard of hearing people and who perform one or more actions, for example, rate the app with stars or comment. In Table 3, we present the HEART Metrics Framework for our mobile app. Table 3: HEART METRICS for LISTEN UP! GOALS SIGNALS METRICS Users respond to surveys (for example: How satisfied are you with the app? What are you missing and Users are happy what would you add User satisfaction with the app and to the app? What through rating -number HAPPINESS have no problems needs to be improved of 5-star ratings and using it. We want in the application – number of positive at least 80% suggestions for reviews of results after positive feedback. improvements?), each month. Leave five stars as an app rating, leave positive feedback in the form of comments. Users enjoy the Users spend more app and engage time in the app – The number of with it through a whole tours through registered users who are whole tour of the the cities. The number deaf or hard of hearing city, not just in of registrations per is based on registration ENGAGEMENT some parts. We week is higher; more per month. The average would monitor tourist organisations number of app visits by how many tourist are engaging in using al users. Average time guides use this this app, there is more spent in the application app monthly, and interest in the per user. we would like at application. 88 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. GOALS SIGNALS METRICS least 10% of tours guided in Ljubljana or any other city to use this app; use the LISTEN UP! app. New users see the Downloading the app, Download speed, value of the app. registering in it registration speed, the We want as many (number of measured adoption rate of new ADOPTION people as possible registrations in the features. The number to learn about app in a week), using of registered users who this app in the features – if all are are deaf or hard of first month. used? hearing based on login in one month. Users have used the app at least once for their own needs when viewing a particular site and reuse it at least once when viewing another The proportion of site offered by Application users are registered users who the app. After a active in using the use the app at least RETENTION specific time, application, and the once a when revisiting, number of return week/month/year and they reuse our users is increasing. the ratio of registered application, users who never return. which already has other functions, as it is constantly updated with information and various possibilities of use. We want the app, Quick search and of al registered content view without Exit speed from the users of the app, technical problems, application, application to be used by at practical help with city crash rate, the number least 60% of deaf orientation. The of active users and number of users completed tasks in TASK SUCCESS or hard of hearing. Of these, satisfied with the application, the number less than 10% will application and its of users delete the give a negative implementation, and application from week comment or mark the ratio of the to week. We wil try to the application as number of users who figure out why users useless to them. leave the application delete the application. per month. T. Alegro, M. Ilić, M. Rančić Demir: Tourism Experience in Accessible Tourism: Designing a Mobile Application for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing 89 GOALS SIGNALS METRICS Positive comments for the app wil also be submitted by people who do not have special needs. Source: own. 5 Results Following the Design Thinking method and prior acquaintance with the market situation, we formed a business idea to develop a mobile application for accessible tourism, specifical y an application for the deaf and hard of hearing, which we named: LISTEN UP! Our idea is an upgrade of the applications we have found through a structured literature review of good practices on mobile applications for the deaf and hard of hearing, which are currently offered mainly on the Croatian market. The target group we focus on are deaf and hard of hearing people. These people are our primary target audience, but the app would be available to anyone, even people with no special needs, on Google Play or the App Store. Our goal is to make tourism and tourist attractions more accessible to people who cannot actively hear about the places they visit on their travels. It is undoubtedly true that everything can be read online today. Still, it is also true that not everything is written there and that it is a better experience to stand in front of a historic building and hear about it. It would be an ideal opportunity for people on group trips to have a sign language guide. We have also presented another solution: an application that translates what the guide says into text format. We described this example in the Let Me Hear Again app section and pointed out the shortcomings. So if a person speaks too fast, the app wil not translate the person's speech, and in the event of loud noise, the translation app is disabled. We think a mobile app would be most effective: a mobile app that wil serve as a travel guide adapted for deaf and hard of hearing people with visual information in sign language. With the help of location recognition, a video is displayed in which a person describes the environment in sign language. Our 90 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. application LISTEN UP! would be launched for Ljubljana first then for other cities. Since we are not experts in mobile application development, we would seek a partner in the first phase, name the prototype development phase, who would collaborate on the prototype and later also the final version of LISTEN UP! The next step is to determine the following locations that will be displayed in the application. Then we would look for a sign language interpreter for American (ASL) and British (BSL) also for some who knows version of Slovene (SZJ) Sign Language. . Initially, we would look for a tourist guide who knows and uses sign language in their tours. The interpretation would adapt cultural and natural heritage and other attractions in the cities for tourists. Otherwise, we would hire interpreter for the interpretation, who would be involved in preparing the performance of the sign language interpreter. A team would also be necessary to produce videos of sights and attractions, which would then be uploaded to the LISTEN UP! mobile application platform. As the second part of developing our business idea, we would place QR codes in cities or near the main tourist attractions, which via LISTEN UP! would launch a video with audio or sign interpretation about the given landmark. LISTEN UP! would be presented to the locals and tourist information centres, encouraging its use. We would also contact tour operators and introduce them to the possibility of using the application as additional help in the work of tourist guides with deaf and hard of hearing people. LISTEN UP! would first be in SZJ and ASL also in BSL. If the project proves successful, other versions of sign languages, Croatian (HZJ), Italian (LIS) and German (DGS), wil be added later. We would design a brand with a logo to launch LISTEN UP!. The colour versions are shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3. T. Alegro, M. Ilić, M. Rančić Demir: Tourism Experience in Accessible Tourism: Designing a Mobile Application for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing 91 Figure 2: Listen Up! with a white theme Source: own. Figure 3: Listen Up! with a black theme Source: own. The app would work as follows: you need to have the location turned on when you download it from Google Play or the Apple Store. Open it and select a language. The map shows your current location. Icons with the app logo wil appear on the map, as you can see in Figure 4. It means that these are places that have video in sign language. When you click one of the icons, a video is displayed. The maps also show if there are any accommodation facilities, restaurants, bars, etc., nearby. Users could mark places where staff can communicate in sign language, such as a hotel. 92 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Figure 4: Map with your current location Source: own. After clicking on the logo icon or any icon on the map, it wil be possible to leave comments below and give your opinion on whether this video was helpful or, for example, where are tourist accommodations where you can speak sign language. Comments can also be left on Google Play or the Apple Store, and the app can be rated from 1 to 5 stars. When users log in to the app, they must enter their personal information and whether they are deaf or hard of hearing. They wil also need to leave their e-mail address, and if they wish, they can indicate that they want to receive notifications about new features and changes in the app. They would be financed from EU funds and advertised through television advertisements (Web TV), social networks, leaflets in associations for the deaf and hard of hearing (Institute for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing in Ljubljana, Association of the Deaf and Hard of Hearing of Slovenia), International Play with Me Festival Ljubljana, Semič, Krško and Radlje ob Dravi). It would be the same in Croatia if we tried to work with Epoco360, who designed Deaf Friendly tourism. We believe this would reduce costs. If the idea of this kind of mobile app were accepted, we would propose an upgrade described above and extend it to more extensive parts of Croatia, starting with Zagreb. They would also be financed from EU funds and advertised through television ads (Deaf TV, HRT), social networks, leaflets in associations for the deaf and hard of hearing (Croatian T. Alegro, M. Ilić, M. Rančić Demir: Tourism Experience in Accessible Tourism: Designing a Mobile Application for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing 93 Association of the Deaf and Hard of Hearing), Festival of Equal Opportunities (Zagreb). 6 Conclusion Accessible tourism is a unique form of tourism whose products and services are adapted to people with special needs or people with disabilities (PwD). Such a tailored offer needs to be designed precisely according to PwDs' needs, considering how we can make it easier for them to take advantage of their tourist offer. It is vital to note that people whose disability is not visible at first glance are often overlooked. With the development of technology and smartphones that have access to the internet and our location, it is possible to develop products that facilitate mobility or help us find ourselves in space and access important information in our home or the foreign environment when we travel. With the spread of technology, it is possible to help people with disabilities, such as the deaf and hard of hearing, to engage in tourism. Destinations also improve their competitiveness and destination image by developing different offers for different PwD groups, resulting in a higher number of visitors, an additional segment, and a higher destination income. However, the bid for PwD must be adjusted accordingly. Therefore, we tackled our business idea development through three parts. First, after a structured review of good practice examples, we identified where the hole is in mobile applications and identified the problems that deaf and hard of hearing people face in city visits. Then, with the innovative Design Thinking method, which addresses the explicitly human-centred design and enables the design of a solution that addresses a specific problem of a particular target segment, we developed the business idea of a mobile application. The LISTEN UP! mobile application concept is primarily intended for deaf and hard of hearing people and tourist guides who guide deaf and hard of hearing individuals or groups. We also tested the business idea through user experience, corrected any errors, and improved it to the point that it addresses the critical problems faced by the deaf and hard of hearing when visiting cities. 94 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Such a mobile application enables the smooth transmission of tourist information. The application replaces the sign language interpreter when visiting a city and promotes the independence of deaf and hard of hearing people in this type of tourist activity. References Abrahams, R. D. (1986). 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EUROPEAN PROJECTS AS A GOOD PRACTICE OF PROVIDING MORE OPPORTUNITIES FOR PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES IN SPORTS TOURISM KATJA ČANŽAR University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Brežice, Slovenia katja.canzar@um.si Abstract Due to its important effects on individuals and society as a whole, sport is a fundamental right. Sports activities are not evenly distributed across all social categories. As disabled sports participants comprise a smal share of the total, and as most public funding for sports in Slovenia falls on the shoulders of local communities, municipalities are forced to develop programs for these groups. Sports tourism is characterized by rapid and dynamic development. As an opportunity for municipalities we describe below an example of good practice in Keywords: ensuring the accessibility of sports and recreation for people with sports tourism, disabilities in local communities through European projects. We people with disabilities, also found that possibilities for people with disabilities in sports European projects, tourism are an increasingly important issue and that the field is the municipality of developing. European and national policies dictate universal Brežice, opportunities for accessibility, which, however, is linked to the cost of architectural the disabled in remodelling. sports tourism DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.ft.6.2022.5 ISBN 978-961-286-642-6 98 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 1 Introduction According to the UNWTO, before the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, tourism achieved stable growth international y and became one of the fastest-growing economic sectors in the world. Modern tourism is closely linked to development and includes an increasing number of new destinations, which has turned tourism into a key driver of socio-economic progress ("Tourism – an economic and social phenomenon", 2018). 2019 was another year of strong growth, though international arrivals grew below the exceptional rates seen in 2017 (+7%) and 2018 (+6%). Demand was somewhat weaker for travel to advanced economy destinations. Uncertainty surrounding Brexit, geopolitical and trade tensions, and the global economic slowdown weighed down growth (UNWTO International Tourism Highlights, 2000). The world has experienced a number of major epidemics/pandemics in the last 40 years, yet none had similar implications for the global economy as the COVID-19 pandemic, which brought global tourism to a near-complete standstill. For 2020, the UNWTO reported a reduction in international tourist arrivals of 70%–75%, which meant huge financial damage to the industry and thus endangered 100–120 million jobs directly related to tourism. Smith identifies six different types of tourism: ethnic tourism (traveling to non-western countries to visit original or exotic cultural groups), cultural tourism (visiting traditional, picturesque or rural cultural communities in western or modern countries), historical tourism (focused on visiting museums, cathedrals, castles, archaeological sites and other monuments that enable the revival of the memory of the glorious past of a modern society), environmental or ecological tourism (visiting natural sights or destinations that emphasize the connection between man and nature), business tourism (business trips due to conventions, meetings), seminars) and recreational or sports tourism (coastal and ski tourism as wel as those types of tourism that include sports or recreational activities), which we will deal with below (Goeldner and Brent Ritchie, 2003). K. Čanžar: European Projects as a Good Practice of Providing More Opportunities for People with Disabilities in Sports Tourism 99 2 Sports tourism The article focuses on sports tourism, which Standeven and de Knop (1999) defined as al ways of active and passive participation in organized and unorganized sports, for business or commercial and non-commercial reasons, which include traveling away from home. Sports and tourism were considered in the past as two separate areas (Weed and Bull, 2004), but it soon became clear that sports and tourism were very close and complementary at the same time (Hinch and Higham, 2001). Glyptis (1982) was one of the pioneers of research into this connection. She divided sports tourism into 5 categories: sports training (trips of top athletes for training), sports holidays (trips for active sports), holiday activities (trips for sports, which is only part of the activity), the opportunity for sports on general holidays (sport is a random accompanying activity), and sports tours (travel related to watching sporting events). Ross (2001), on the other hand, divided sports tourism into three sections: tourism of sporting events, active sports tourism, and nostalgic sports tourism. Robinson and Gammon (2004) note that sports tourism was first divided into two areas: travel primarily for sport and travel where sport is perceived as a secondary factor. According to the primary or secondary motives for sports or travel, they set four categories of sports tourism. In the first two categories, sport is the most important motive for travel, although the tourism element can be seen as part of a comprehensive experience, and categories 3 and 4 include people who travel and/or stay in places outside their usual environment and actively or passively participate in competitive or recreational activities, with sport as a secondary activity. 1) Active or passive participation in a competitive sporting event (sport is the main reason for traveling). 2) Active recreational participation in selected sports in places outside their usual environment (skiing or cycling holidays). 3) Sport as a secondary enrichment of holidays (passive or active). Sport as an additional reinforcement of the holidays. 4) Sport on a completely random basis to a lesser extent on the trip. Smith and Weed (in Rauter, 2012) present sports tourism as the connection of tourism with “mega” events, external activities, and the connection of tourism in relation to health. Of these three domains, "mega" sports events have the most direct connection with tourism, as they arouse special interest in both tourists and athletes. There is an inseparable connection between sports tourism and outdoor activities, 100 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. such as skiing, cycling, kayaking, water surfing, etc. The development and offer of these activities, of course, depend on a particular tourist destination's natural conditions. The connection between health and tourism is the third discussed area of sports tourism and most often occurs in connection with the importance of movement or engaging in sports activities on trips. Sports tourism is a popular focus of media interest, and thus people are becoming more and more aware of the importance of the movement for maintaining their health. The concept of sports tourism can perhaps be best understood as time spent doing sports while on a trip, and people are increasingly interested in traveling to tourist destinations where sports events are held and where they can attend or participate in many sports activities. In this regard, sports tourism is also appealing to those who want to enjoy the beauty of nature, new places, and customs. From this point of view, it is slightly closer to cultural tourism. Ross (2001) lists the main factors that contributed to the increasing popularity of sports tourism: − Economic growth: In order for people to be able to participate in any form of sports tourism, they need to have enough money. Families' incomes have risen, jobs and the way they work have changed, and the amount of free time available for sports tourism activities has increased. Overall, the number of hours in the workplace has declined significantly over the past century. For most Western societies, economic changes in recent history have increased the amount of time and money that people have available and motivated them to engage in sports tourism activities. − Technological innovation: The best example of this new technology is il ustrated by new transport methods. With the invention of cars and air travel over the past century, people were able to travel to a variety of locations to participate in sports tourism activities. The development of mobility was a catalyst for the development of accommodation. In addition to the key role that transport and accommodation played in the increasing popularity of sports tourism, new innovations in media technology also contributed to the development, as radio and television programs popularized theatrical sports. − Changes in attitudes and values: It is widely acknowledged that there has been a shift in Western societies from work ethical values to values that K. Čanžar: European Projects as a Good Practice of Providing More Opportunities for People with Disabilities in Sports Tourism 101 emphasize leisure, hedonism and self-realization. As a result of these changes, sport and sports values have a greater social impact than before. Sports tourism has great business potential and can make a significant contribution to tourism promotion worldwide. As such, the tourism industry has long thought of sports tourism as an important market, and as certain sports venues, events and teams become more famous they attract more international tourists. Of course, more tourists bring large profits to this type of tourism, especial y due to high revenues for local, regional, or even national budgets (Pop, Kanovici, Ghic, and Andrei, 2016). A report from the International Conference on Tourism and Sports (UNWTO) states that sports tourism is the fastest-growing sector in world tourism, posing represents an opportunity for both existing and developing destinations (tourism in connection with: city tours, coast, countryside, mountains, deserts, etc.). Sports tourism accounts for about 10% of world tourism spending, with Europe being the largest market for sports tourism, followed by North America. The global sports tourism market generated 1.5 billion euros in revenue in 2018. The expected growth by 2023 was 7 billion euros, which means that the annual average growth would be 36% and thus rank the sports tourism market among the fastest growing in tourism (Lobotec and Videmšek, 2021). The COVID-19 pandemic has also had a major impact on the sports tourism market; among other things, 2020 was also marked by numerous cancel ations in the sports world. Two very important sporting events scheduled for 2020 were the European Footbal Championship and the Tokyo Olympics. Loborec and Videmšek (2021) state that both sports and tourism wil play an important role in the recovery after the COVID-19 pandemic, with an impact on al of society, both local y and global y. Research Nuffield Health (2020) found that more than three-quarters (76%) of people in the UK embarked on new forms of exercise during COVID-19 lockdown. Walking, specifical y for exercise, has been the most popular new activity, with three in ten (30%) introducing this into their lockdown regimes. Following walking, the next most popular exercises people have taken up are jogging, yoga, HIIT (High Intensity Interval Training), running, home treadmil , weights and cycling outdoors. 102 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 2.1 Opportunities for people with disabilities in sports tourism In recent years, the international environment in al areas has become increasingly focused on accessibility or ensuring equal conditions for all. The theme of the international conference on the occasion of World Tourism Day 2016 was Tourism for All: Promoting Universal Accessibility. According to the UNWTO, delegates from 60 countries have pledged to promote universal accessibility in all components of tourism so that al citizens can enjoy the benefits of travel, regardless of their disability. A billion people around the world have some kind of disability, so accessibility is becoming and wil continue to be a major concern for tourism workers (Sham’aa, 2016). Different terms are used in the literature for "accessible tourism": "tourism for all", "inclusive tourism", universal tourism", "barrier-free tourism" (Takayama Declaration on the Development of Communities-for-All in Asia and the Pacific, 2009). Darcy (2010) defines accessible tourism as a process that enables people with special needs and seniors to function independently, fairly and with dignity in the enjoyment of universal tourism products, services, and environments. In addition to unhindered access to hotels, restaurants, museums, castles, etc., Linderová and Janeček (2017) point out the accessibility of tourism in tourism for low-income families, pensioners and the socially disadvantaged, as they have the right to tourism al . Citizenship, gender, age and religion are not important. The Global Code of Ethics for Tourism states that tourism activities must respect equality between men and women, promote human rights, and, in particular, the rights of the most vulnerable groups – children, the elderly, people with disabilities, ethnic minorities and indigenous peoples. The possibility of direct and personal access to the discovery and enjoyment of the planet's resources is a right that is equal y open to al the inhabitants of the world (UNWTO Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, 2001). In this article, we will discuss accessible sports tourism for the disabled, so in the following we wil focus only on this dimension of accessibility. Sport must not be the exclusive right of certain social groups, but an opportunity for al . Article 30 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities requires States parties to take appropriate measures to enable people with disabilities to participate in recreational, leisure and sporting activities on an equal basis with others (Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 2008). K. Čanžar: European Projects as a Good Practice of Providing More Opportunities for People with Disabilities in Sports Tourism 103 Sport in a specific way reflects social differentiation and stratification, which themselves can increase or decrease through sport, depending on the existing social climate. People tend in sports, which is characteristic of the class to which he belongs and in this way maintains or accepts the norms, patterns and values of behaviour of this social group. As a result, sports activities are not evenly distributed across all social categories (Petrovič and Doupona Topič, 1996). In Slovenia, the importance of playing sports and the impact that active leisure time has on the quality of life has long been widely accepted (Doupona Topič and Petrović, 2000). The National Sports Program 2014-2023 (2014) states that due to its important, beneficial effects on people and society as a whole, sport should be a fundamental right of every individual, and wide access to sports should be a fundamental guide in realizing public interest. The built network of sports areas provides access to sports for the majority of Slovenes, who are the first in terms of the use of natural sports areas and one of the most sports-active inhabitants of the European Union. 64% of the population is active in sports, while 39% of the population is regularly involved in sports. A comparative study of the consequences of COVID-19 measures during the first lockdown in Slovenia and Italy (Pišot at all., 2021) showed that sport recreation time increased in Slovenia by 9.7%, while in Italy it decreased drastically (37%), while, Loborec and Videmšek (2021) claim that new sports tourism products will be developed due to the pandemic, such as following the sports routes of famous athletes or photo safaris. According to the World Health Organization, there are more than 1 bil ion disabled people in the world or about 15% of the world’s population. There are 3.6 million people with disabilities in Canada, 8.5 million people in the UK, 54 million people in the US, and 60 mil ion people in Europe (World Health Organization,). Due to the aging population in industrialized countries, the rate of people with mobility disabilities is also increasing, which increases the demand for accessible environment, transport and services, in turn increasing the market value of the accessible tourism segment (Rahman in Linderová and Janeček, 2017). 104 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Disability can be defined as limitations on opportunities to participate in society at the same level as other people due to architectural or social barriers (Shaw and Coles, 2004). The Action Program for People with Disabilities shows that more than 15% of the total population of the European Union is disabled, and in Slovenia the approximate estimate of the share of disabled people is around 12-13% of the total population, which does not differ significantly from the EU estimate. Of these, 8% hold official court decisions on disability according to various laws, and the remaining 5% (according to estimates of disability organizations or membership in them) have major physical disabilities (Disability Action Program 2014-2021, 2014). Ping Kung and Taylor (2013) state that physically challenged sports participants represent a smal proportion of sports participants in English public sports centres, but are important for the social inclusion agenda. The survey states that of al those actively involved in sport at 458 English sports centres from 2005 to 2011 just 9% were physical y chal enged, and most often these people sought training in swimming and general fitness exercises. The authors state that in 2009/10, 18% of people with reduced mobility aged over 16 played sports for at least 30 minutes a week. Pagan (2012) included people with reduced mobility in their research – those whose disabilities cause problems with daily tasks. He found that people with reduced mobility are less likely to participate in tourism activities than people with reduced mobility. He cites as the main limitations of participation faced by people with disabilities: lack of accessible accommodation, difficulties in finding accessible accommodation even when it exists and inadequate information. Reklaitiene, Pozeriene, and Ostaseviciene (2016) state that the participation of people with disabilities in sports and recreation is limited by environmental factors, including the physical and social environment. Research on the possibility of participating in recreational and sports services organizations has shown that policy and legislation have helped remove some such barriers, but sports and recreational areas are still difficult to access for people with reduced mobility. They state that cooperation between service providers, people with disabilities, and professionals with extensive knowledge of environments that adapt to needs are essential in addressing accessibility. Providers of sports and recreation services pointed out the reasons for the inaccessibility/unsuitability of infrastructure for the disabled: high K. Čanžar: European Projects as a Good Practice of Providing More Opportunities for People with Disabilities in Sports Tourism 105 reconstruction costs, low demand for services by the disabled and the lack of qualified trainers. The authors state (ibid.) that a growing group of consumers of fitness and other sports leisure services are becoming disabled. In terms of physical access, older people have similar needs as people with reduced mobility. People with special needs are defined as a growing group of consumers in sports tourism, as sport offers them many physical and psychological benefits, such as social mobility, involvement in family and community activities, improving the quality of life, self-confidence, self-esteem and social acceptance. With awareness, technological progress, and the help of volunteers, more and more sports tourism events are becoming accessible for the disabled. The positive effects of participation in sports are the same for both the physical y chal enged and the physical y handicapped. Also, the inclusion of people with disabilities in sports encourages people with disabilities to regain their identity and master the stigma of the disabled body. However, it is precisely physical y chal enged sports tourists who often face barriers to integration. The main reasons for not including people with disabilities in sports tourism are related to restrictions on accommodation or unsuitable accommodation, and the lack of information on accessible tourist products and services (Khor Poy, Irini and Lim Khong, 2013). McKercher and Darcy (2018) worked on a four-level hierarchy to better understand the nature, effects, and limitations of disability travel. Previous studies have tended to group barriers and treat people with disabilities as homogeneous groups. The authors list 4 different types of barriers that are either common to al tourists or unique to each dimension of disability: 1) Barriers faced by al tourists: religion, health, lack of interest, presence of a travel partner, lack of time, costs, etc. McKercher and Chen (2015) investigated the fact that if someone lacks interest in a tourist trip, they will not decide to travel even if the mentioned obstacles are removed. 2) Obstacles faced by everyone with disabilities: (I) Disability is overlooked or omitted. Accordingly, the United Nations World Tourism Organization (2016), together with advocacy groups and tourists, calls for greater training and awareness of employees in the tourism industry. Daruwal a and Darcy 106 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. (2005) tested the importance of measures to train and raise awareness among tourism students and tourism professionals about the needs of people with disabilities. Both groups showed changes in attitudes towards people with special needs, which included information, video and personal contacts with people with special needs. (II) Neglect, negative attitude and discrimination to the extent that service users prefer to conceal their disability. (III) Lack of information in general and unreliability of information. (IV) Ignorance of the tourism industry, which is still attributed to a rather low awareness of the special needs of people with disabilities. 3) Specific barriers according to the type of disability, such as adaptation of rooms for the disabled, visual warnings for the deaf, etc. 4) Barriers related to individual conditions, for which we need a higher level of service provision in the entire tourism (medicines, dietary specialties, pets, etc.). Khor Poy, Irini, and Lim Khong (2013) developed a questionnaire to collect data on the limitations faced by physical y chal enged sports tourists. The results showed limitations related to access issues and restrictions on the physical nature of the sports destination. Sports tourism providers are proposed to adopt a friendly strategy in the management of transport, facilities and environments for disabled tourists. There is awareness of the great importance of professional y trained employees in sports services and volunteers to help physically challenged tourists. Moreover, researchers are now studying transport issues in relation to sports tourism opportunities for people with reduced mobility, in order for them to overcome some of the issues they face in this context. To increase the understanding of tourism for physical y chal enged sports tourists, studies on their needs with destination experiences and the provision of appropriate accommodation are crucial (Darcy, 2010). The results of Darcy's survey (ibid.) show that the dimensions of disability and the level of support needs are the most important in the selection of criteria and information preferences for physical y chal enged sports tourists. The preferred form of providing accessible accommodation information was based on a combination of text, floor plan and digital photography. The implicit implications show that detailed information using this format has benefits for the profitability of accommodation facilities and for social sustainability. K. Čanžar: European Projects as a Good Practice of Providing More Opportunities for People with Disabilities in Sports Tourism 107 Shaw and Coles (2004) find that access and cost are two important limiting factors for many people with disabilities. Access involves a range of physical barriers, both in public and private spaces, especially in relation to traffic. The authors state that public transport is especially difficult for people with reduced mobility, where there is no room for adjustments. Most people with reduced mobility stil face restrictions due to low income. People with reduced mobility have special needs. Therefore, it is necessary to adapt the various elements in the tourist destination. Customized parking lots are basic needs, special parking spaces with appropriate identification are required, as are adapted communication tools suitable for the physical y chal enged. If people with reduced mobility also have sensory impairments, destination adjustments are also required with sign language or Braille. In accommodation and other facilities, vertical (elevators) and horizontal adjustments (ramps, stairs) and accessible public hygiene facilities are required. Tourism is not just a stay in a destination, but it is a journey. Thus, passenger vehicles, including rental cars, buses, taxis, trams, cable cars, trains, ferries and passenger ships, must be designed so as to enable safe, comfortable and accessible transport even for the disabled. This also includes access stations and passenger terminals. Disabled tourists need to be offered accommodation facilities with adapted rooms, adapted catering facilities, and accessible cultural (museums, theatres, cinemas) and sports facilities (access to the stadium, racetrack, etc.). Architectural barriers are considered the most important in terms of disabled people's participation in tourism, although the dimensions of a wheelchair and the physical abilities of its user are always crucial (Linderová and Janeček, 2017). Rabontu (2018) also finds that accessibility for people with reduced mobility depends on the type of disability. This means that tour operators must adjust experiences for al categories of disability. It should also be noted that each person is unique in their own way, so the same category of disability also involves a different approach. The ADA standards say that tourists must be provided with the four main components of the basic product at the time of choosing a particular tourist product: transport, accommodation, food, and entertainment without discrimination. These standards are designed to ensure the accessibility of people with various hearing, visual, or locomotor disorders. It includes architectural adaptations for all types of 108 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. disabilities. These barriers are physical characteristics that limit or prevent a person with reduced mobility from acquiring the goods or services offered (Butnaru, 2010). Rabontu (2018) dealt with the level of development of tourism for the disabled in Romania and, among other things, explored the possibilities disabled people have for free time and the capacity to increase sports' accessibility. Research has shown that in Romanian tourism, the accessibility of people with disabilities is extremely low, although this category of people has great potential for tourism development. The author states that this is mainly due to the very large investments that would be needed to properly equip accommodation, restoration, sports or entertainment facilities. Romanian transport is also problematic. The author recognizes the solution in compliance with European directives and the principles of equal opportunities in future investments in the elimination of architectural barriers, efforts for which should be significantly increased. In Slovenia, tourist products and services for the disabled is poorly developed. There are some positive points, but certainly not enough to label it a destination that is friendly to the physical y chal enged. In terms of accessible tourism, the most accessible cities in Slovenia are Ljubljana and Maribor, along with the country's various health resorts. These also make many efforts for accessibility in culture, especial y museums, which is also very important for the development of the entire tourism sector. There are also various accommodation facilities owned by disability associations for members thereof. Perhaps what we miss the most is a bit of courage and imagination from sports activity providers, with which guests could be provided a sports holiday on a larger scale. Thus, this part is often limited to various camps prepared for their members by disability associations (Kores, 2015). There is no numerical data in the literature on the level of physical y active people with reduced mobility in Slovenia. Both disability organizations and action plans state that there is stil a big difference between the number of people with disabilities and those with disabilities who play sports. Many projects at various levels are working to reduce inequalities between people with disabilities and the rest of the population. At the national level, the Active, Healthy and Satisfied project in 2017, implemented by the Association for Sports for the Disabled of Slovenia and the Paralympic Committee and funded by Norway, is the most highlighted in the media. The main goal of the project is the integration of people with disabilities into sports K. Čanžar: European Projects as a Good Practice of Providing More Opportunities for People with Disabilities in Sports Tourism 109 and sports organizations, and the purpose is to reduce health inequalities (Active, Healthy and Satisfied, 2017). 2.2 Development of a sports tourism destination for people with disabilities with the help of European projects A destination can be defined according to spatial or geographical aspect, content aspect, tourist views, business or strategic aspect and system aspect (Vodeb, 2014). Hall and Weiler (1992) state that, historically, tourist destinations have developed alongside cultural sights and natural features, and more recently, the fundamental development potentials of tourist destinations have been specific business, leisure and recreational interests. In this context, a particularly dynamic and strong area that offers tourist destinations the opportunity to develop is sport. Laws (1995) defined tourist destinations as places that attract and meet the needs of visitors. Such places exist when resources, infrastructure and services are provided that facilitate travel to the place and the goal of a satisfied visitor is achieved. Ritchie and Crouch (2003) name destinations as complex and multifaceted tourist systems. Smith (in Hall 2000) lists a number of criteria that we must consider when defining and identifying destinations: − The destination should include a set of cultural, physical and social characteristics that together form a regional identity. − The destination should contain an appropriate tourist infrastructure to support tourism development. − The destination should not cover only one community or attraction. − The destination should include existing attractions or have the potential to support the development of successful attractions that are intended to attract tourists. − The destination should be able to support the planning and marketing of this area, which is a kind of guide and stimulus for future development. − The destination should be accessible to a (sufficiently) large group of visitors. Accessibility can be provided via road, air or water connection. 110 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Despite the aforementioned approach and the definition of criteria, Smith is of the opinion that determining the exact boundaries of a destination is stil difficult. The boundaries of a tourist destination are actual y determined by the tourist demand. Weed and Bull (2004) also note that the reasons why people choose to travel to a particular place can be many or few, but one common reason is participation in a sport, which creates important and heterogeneous travel flows. Sport is associated with a rich and diverse visitor experience and provides a unique tourist destination experience, and an increasing number of destinations have been developed through sports tourism development initiatives. Tourist resources are conditioned by tourist trends. Namely, the dialectical connection between the development of human society and the development of tourism has been proven. Over different periods, tourists' expectations have changed and thus helped "shape" destinations' tourist products. The tourist in the postmodern era expects much more from a destination than just sun, sea and sand. A destination's natural resources themselves therefore do not meet modern trends in tourist demand. Trends tend toward an individualized, cutting-edge service that also includes activities, sports, recreation, culture, or the arts. New tourism requires an authentic experience that al ows contact with the local population and enjoyment of the original environment, in addition to other activities and opportunities (Vodeb, 2014). Sports tourism destinations can include sports venues (stadiums and arenas), coaching infrastructure and sports health infrastructure, and there is an important distinction between sports resources that are built and those that are of natural origin (Higham, 2005). Sources of sports tourism at the local level (ibid.) often include local club sports facilities, existing footpaths, cycling paths and recreational facilities (swimming pools, recreational sporting events). Specific chal enges facing destinations at the local level are accessibility, distance to the tourist centre that creates the destination, and lack of tourist infrastructure and tourist services. K. Čanžar: European Projects as a Good Practice of Providing More Opportunities for People with Disabilities in Sports Tourism 111 The National Sport Program in the Republic of Slovenia 2014 – 2023 (2014) states that sport is financed from the budget of the state, local communities, European Structural and Social Funds, FŠO (Fundacija za šport) and FIHO (Fundacija za financiranje invalidskih in humanitarnih organizacij). However, public finances for sports outside the school system account for only 15% of total expenditure on sports. Households contribute the most to sports. They spend around €308 per year or 1.51% of the family budget on sports products and sports services. Private companies, through paying for sponsorship and TV rights,) provide 18% of al funding for sports. Čater and Zovko (2016) state that most public funding for sports in Slovenia falls on local communities, followed by state and EU funds, and a smal er share is contributed by the FŠO. Public funding for sport has risen sharply in nominal terms over the last 15 years, but if we remove the impact of inflation from this nominal increase and then recalculate public funding for sport to a constant level of GDP, this increase is much smaller. Practically all types of public funds for sports are also closely related to the economic situation in the country, which means that funds for sports increase or decrease at the same time as GDP/state and local budgets increase or decrease. The European Cohesion Policy 2014-2020 was weaker in terms of investment, and more space was devoted to activity-focused projects, including in sports. In 2015, the European Commission published for the first time the Erasmus + Sport cal , whose purpose is to finance the promotion of fair play and participation in sport. In the following, we present the development of a sports tourism destination for people with disabilities with the help of European funds. The case study is the municipality of Brežice, which was the only municipality in Slovenia to be successful three times in the Erasmus + Sport tender and received additional funding for project sports activities in the amount of EUR 1,233,485.00. 112 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 2.2.1 The development of a sports tourism destination for people with disabilities with the help of three projects financed by European Commission: “Sports for healthy aging”, “Feel the freedom of the water” and “Bet on health” The “Sport for a Healthy Aging” project was implemented between 1 May 2015 and 30 April 2016. The main objectives of the project were to support the European Week of Sport and to raise public awareness through sport activities that sport is crucial for health and wel -being. The project’s aim was to promote voluntary sports activities in the local environments of four countries – Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina together with social inclusion, new experiences and opportunities for people with disabilities and the elderly, and to promote health through greater participation and equal access to sport for al . Key results: (i) a new network of nine partner organizations from four countries: municipalities, NGOs, public institutions and economic operators working in various fields of sport and health, (ii) more than 5,000 people involved in four major sporting events in four countries, as part of the celebration of the European Week of Sport, (i i) a gala event with 3,150 participants that took place throughout the day and promoted sports areas adapted for people with disabilities and the elderly, (iv) 128 hours of intensive training for young volunteers in six different sports to work with people with disabilities and the elderly, (v) a pilot-designed 3-day sports tourism package for people with disabilities and the elderly and tested with 46 included, (vi) performed 3396 hours of guided exercises for people with disabilities and the elderly, (vii) published the brochure “I can do it”, printed in four languages, to promote sports and recreation, (vi i) outdoor sports areas adapted for the training of people with disabilities and the elderly. The project “Feel the Freedom of Water”, which was implemented in the period 1 January 2016 – 31 December 2018, promoted voluntary activity in sports, social inclusion and equal opportunities, as wel as awareness of the importance of physical activity for health through greater participation in sports and equal access to sports for al . The project partners established sports for the disabled as an opportunity for al . The project followed the chal enge of adapting water sports facilities for use by people with disabilities. The main goal of the project was to provide guided recreational and sports activities for people with disabilities to improve their physical activity and reduce the possibility of later chronic illness. Achieved goals: (i) removed K. Čanžar: European Projects as a Good Practice of Providing More Opportunities for People with Disabilities in Sports Tourism 113 architectural barriers for easier access to sports grounds for people with disabilities, (i ) research, development and purchase of a specialized line of sports equipment suitable for use by people with disabilities, (iii) one-year test of including people with disabilities in sports activities and measuring their progress, (iv) patenting SUP boards designed for people with reduced mobility, (v) extensive promotional activities in all project partner countries in order to raise awareness of the importance of sports for the health of people with disabilities and those without them, (vi) a plan was developed for municipalities tailored to the needs of people with disabilities, (vii) adaptation and equipment of a youth hostel to be accessible to the disabled and the blind and visual y impaired. The target group of the project "Bet on Health" (BOH), which was implemented in the period 1 November 2019 – 31 October 2020, was young people between 15 and 29 years old. Young people were invited to meet people who roleplayed bookmakers, in which they bet that they would improve their health and physical fitness through the project; in short, they bet on their health. Achieved goals: (i) performed exercises in 12 new innovative forms of sports (intergenerational swimming, water rescue course with elements of self-rescue, street handbal , beach handbal , smart warm-up, recreation after the end of a sports career, etc.), (ii) 360 regular users involved, (iii) a motivational “BOH” model for greater involvement in sport and recreation was established, (iv) an international conference was held to bring together leading researchers and experts who shared their experiences and research results on sport, wel -being and health issues, and the role of local communities in planning, implementing and evaluating policies and practices related to public health issues, (v) everyone was equally involved in the activities – including people with disabilities and people with fewer opportunities. 3 Discussion A review of the literature shows that modern tourism is closely linked to economic development, as the strengthening of the economic development of society has the effect of strengthening people's travel needs, and covers an increasing number of new destinations, and that more and more tourism. 114 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. We found that the possibilities of people with disabilities in sports tourism are an increasingly important issue and that the field is developing. European and national policies dictate universal accessibility, which, however, is linked to the cost of architectural remodelling. Although sports tourism is the fastest growing sector in world tourism and presents an opportunity for both existing and developing destinations, sports participants with disabilities comprise a smal proportion of the total. People with disabilities are also less likely to participate in various tourist activities than people with reduced mobility. A review of the research shows that cooperation between service providers, people with disabilities, and professionals with extensive knowledge of the environment that is adapting to needs is essential in addressing accessibility. The latter process depends on the dimension of tourist disabilities, which need to be addressed holistically when planning a destination. Data on the restrictions faced by disabled sports tourists indicate three basic items: lack of destination information, lack access to the destination (transport restrictions), and lack of accessible sports destinations. The findings from the literature review show the need to establish new accessible sports destinations in Europe, or at least to adapt existing ones, which is associated with high costs. As most public funding for sports fal s on local communities, we propose that local communities strengthen their staff and continuously apply for European funds for sports tourism projects. As we learned from the case study of the municipality of Brežice, without European funds from projects, it would not have been possible to involve 2,438 elderly people in organized training, arrange access to sports facilities for people with disabilities, design and test sports tourism packages for people with disabilities, and hold numerous promotional events to involve local people in sports activities and promote a sports tourism destination for people with disabilities. However, EU project funds are only part of the development of sports tourism for people with disabilities at the local level, as after the project usually only infrastructure and equipment are left, and rarely individual activities that applicants undertake to maintain after the project. Rapid and dynamic rise of sports recreation, especial y after the COVID-19 pandemic, should result in revenues for sports facility K. Čanžar: European Projects as a Good Practice of Providing More Opportunities for People with Disabilities in Sports Tourism 115 operators, who could use these funds to organize free or cheaper sports exercises for people with disabilities, including the elderly. We also see opportunities in increasing volunteering in sports for people with disabilities. The literature shows that the boundaries of a tourist destination are determined by tourist demand and that more and more tourist destinations have been developed through sports tourism development initiatives. In the postmodern era, tourists expect much more from their destination than, as is the case in Brežice, swimming in the spa. New tourism requires an authentic experience that al ows contact with the local population and enjoying the original environment, which can be achieved with accessible sports and recreational areas, especial y accessible forms of non-traditional sports and innovative forms of traditional sports that we have developed through European projects in Brežice. Also, as we learned in reading the literature, the basic condition of tourist destinations for people with disabilities is accessible accommodations, which are already present in the municipality of Brežice. We suggest that municipal officials continue to tackle EU projects to ensure the greater accessibility and development of sport at the local level. With project funds, it is necessary to invest even more in international promotion for the recognition of established accessible capacities. 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Retrieved September 1, 2021 from: http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.lib.ukm.si/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=6&sid=b4ad1 8d3-91a2-4d80-bcbb-9262ad54ed1a%40sessionmgr120 Rabontu, C. I. (2018). The accessibility of persons with disabilities in Romanian tourism. Revista de Turism – Studii si Cercetari in Turism; 25 (32-37). Rauter, S. (2012). Socialni profil športnih turistov – udeležencev množičnih športnih prireditev v Sloveniji (Doktorska disertacija, Univerza v Ljubljani). [Social profile of sports tourists – participants in mass sports events in Slovenia (Doctoral dissertation, University of Ljubljana)]. Retrieved September 17, 2021 from: https://www.fsp.uni-lj.si/COBISS/Dr/Doktorat22070030RauterSamo.pdf Reklaitiene, D., Pozeriene, J. and Ostaseviciene, V. (2016), The Accessibility for People with Disabilities – new Chal enge and Possibilities for Fitness and Recreation Services Development. Transformations in Business & Economics, 15 (38B), 699-708. Retrieved September 13, 2021 from: http://revistadeturism.ro/rdt/index Ritchie, J.R.B. and Crouch, G.I. (2003). The competitive Destination: A sustainable Tourism Persective. Wal ingford: CAB International. Robinson, T. and Gammon, S. (2004). A question of primary and secondary motives: revisiting and applying the sport tourism framework. Journal of Sport Tourism, 9(3), 221–233. Ross, S.D. (2001). Developing sports tourism. An eGuide for Destination Marketers and Sports Events Planners. University od Illinois: National Laboratory for Tourism and eCommerce. Retrieved September 5, 2021 from: http://www.lib.teiher.gr/webnotes/sdo/Sport%20Tourism/Sport- Tourism%20Development%20Guide.pdf Sham'aa, F. (2016). World Tourism Day 2016: Tourism leaders commit to advance Universal Accessibility. Retrieved July 21, 2021 from: https://www.hoteliermaldives.com/world-tourism-day-2016-tourism-leaders-commit-advance-universal-accessibility/ Shaw, G. and Coles, T. (2004). Disability, holiday making and the tourism industry in the UK: a preliminary survey. Tourism Management 25, 397-403. Standeven, J. and De Knop, P. (1999). Sport Tourism. United Kingdom: Human Kinetics. Svetovna zdravstvena organizacija. [World Health Organization]. (2018). Retrieved July 21, 2021 from: http://www.who.int/disabilities/infographic/en/ Takayama Declaration on the Development of Communities-for-Al in Asia and the Pacific. (2009). Retrieved July 12, 2021 from: http://www.accessibletourism.org/resources/takayama_declaration_top-e-fin_171209.pdf UNWTO Global Code of Ethics for Tourism. (2001). Retrieved September 20, 2021 from: http://cf.cdn.unwto.org/sites/al /files/docpdf/guidelinesgcetcommitmenten.pdf UNWTO International Tourism Highlights. (2000). Retrieved September 23, 2021 from: https://www.eunwto.org/doi/epdf/10.18111/9789284422456 Vodeb, K. (2014). Turistična destinacija: sodobna obravnava koncepta. [Tourist destination: modern treatment of the concept]. Koper: Založba Univerze na Primorskem. World Tourism Organization (2016), Manual on Accessible Tourism for Al : Principles, Tools and Best Practices – Module I: Accessible Tourism – Definition and Context, UNWTO, Madrid. Retrieved September 20, 2021 from: https://www.eunwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/9789284418077 Weed, M. and Bul , C. (2004). Sports tourism: participants, policy, and providers. Boston: Elsevier. MOST PROMINENT TOPICS IN WELLNESS TOURISM RESEARCH: TOPIC MODELLING ANALYSIS MILA ZEČEVIĆ,1 MILICA RANČIĆ DEMIR2 1 University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Economics, Ljubljana, Slovenia mila.zecevic@ef.uni-lj.si. 2 University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Brežice, Slovenia milica.rancic1@um.si Abstract This paper presents a brief overview of the development of the wellness tourism literature. In addition, an analysis and presentation of the topics that appear within this literature field are given. The purpose of this research was to point out the relevant topics that have attracted research efforts over time. In order to detect these topics, we have selected wel ness tourism literature articles from Web of Science. Our analysis used topic model ing tools using a machine learning algorithm in Python. The results imply the distinction between Keywords: two main research topics within wel ness tourism literature – wellness tourism, wellness and health and medical research. Such differentiation literature, topic modelling, also matches the development of the wel ness tourism research health, field itself. medical DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.ft.6.2022.6 ISBN 978-961-286-642-6 120 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 1 Introduction Tourism is a field that requires special treatment and research. In most cases, the existing segments in the state and society are developing to enable tourism. However, changes across the world have introduced new standards and requirements of tourists. Wellness tourism is precisely one of these new requirements. The concept of wel ness has gained popularity for two main reasons. The first is that the World Tourism Organization has begun to support the integral concept of wel - being and fitness as part of global health policy. Another reason is that health awareness has also increased with the rise in the percentage of educated people. Moreover, wel ness programs are now recognized by an increasing number of companies to improve the morale, loyalty, and productivity of their employees (Rančić et al., 2013). The term “wel ness” originated from the combination of two words: “wel -being” and “fitness”. It appeared in the middle of the 20th century in the United States. The main goal of the wellness movement is to achieve a happy and fulfilled life in both physical and mental terms (Puczko & Bachvarov, 2006). The word wel ness is general y used to indicate a healthy balance of mind, body and spirit, which results in an overall feeling of well-being. In alternative medicine, the term wel ness was first used by Halbert L. Dunn in the mid-1950s, and it became more popular in the 1970s when the American National Wel ness Institute defined it as an active decision-making process for a successful existence. Nowadays, the term does not refer only to a philosophy of life, but also implies a set of services such as tourist and preventive health, good health of “soul and body”, and life satisfaction (Zimmer, 2010). Wel ness can also be described as a condition that combines health and happiness. To achieve the state of life that causes wel ness, it is necessary to work and combine the characteristics that determine a person’s wel -being. The determinants that create wellness in a broader sense include health, spirituality, family, environment, work, money, security, social support and leisure (Strout & Howard, 2012). M. Zečević, M. Rančić Demir: Most Prominent Topics in Wellness Tourism Research: Topic Modelling Analysis 121 The definitions of welness vary depending on who promotes it. Some welness promoters try to enable a healthier population and a higher quality of life, emphasizing the search for a healthy, balanced lifestyle. On the other hand, as an alternative concept, wel ness general y represents much more than the absence of disease, as it implies an optimal state of health. Proponents of these programs believe that the following factors contribute to achieving wellness: living in a clean environment, eating organic food, regular exercise, wel -established balance in career and family, interpersonal relationships, and developing faith (Rančić et al., 2016 ). According to the Foundation for Wel ness Professionals, wel ness is considered prevention without drugs, which cannot eliminate health problems but can prevent them. As an alternative concept in general, wel ness means more than the absence of disease, as it mean maintaining optimal health. Wellness program users believe that many factors contribute to the preservation and good health; they live in a clean environment, eat organic food, engage in regular physical activity, and establish a good balance between career, family, and relaxation (Cherry, 2006). As part of health tourism, wel ness tourism first came to Europe in 1989, when the Austrian spa Bad Hofgastein used the term “magic wel ness” in its brochure. In then began to develop rapidly in the 1990s, especially in Austria, Germany and Switzerland. However, health insurance companies began to cancel the financing of health-tourist stays in health resorts. To survive on the market, spa and health facilities had to introduce changes in their offer to satisfy guests who paid for their own stays. Guests began to expect a higher level of hedonism and individual attention, in addition to the classic medical and hotel services. For this reason, the concept of wel ness tourism appeared, which soon expanded beyond the traditional health resorts and became a trend (Health & Wellness Tourism, n.d.). Wellness tourism is an integral part of the entire offer in tourism. In most cases, wellness tourism is related to health tourism. It includes various programs, facilities and intermediaries that are indirectly connected, such as rehabilitation institutions, physiotherapists, beauty salons, and so on. All services offered by wel ness tourism are included in the public health care system as their additional activities (swimming pools in hotels, spas, etc). The offer of wel ness services and products is, however, subject to several restrictions, mainly related to various legal aspects of consumer protection (Cvikl & Meknic, 2011). 122 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. There are several explanations and definitions of welness tourism. Mueler and Kaufmann (2001) define it as a set of all the relationships and phenomena resulting from travel whose main motive is maintaining and promoting health. Wel ness tourism includes tourists in good health who travel to use treatments that wil al ow them to maintain their current condition. Wel ness tourism includes travel to preserve and improve health and a healthy lifestyle, using numerous therapies and programs offered by wel ness and spa centres. Mueller and Kaufman (2001) tried to unify the concept of wel ness in North America and Europe, describing wel ness as a health condition characterized by the harmony of body, mind and spirit, including aspects of self-responsibility but also physical activity, beauty care, healthy eating, relaxation, meditation, mental exercise, education, sensitivity to the environment and social relations, which are the essential elements of wel ness. According to the definition of the American National Wellness Institute, wellness is defined as a process that helps people make decisions and take steps towards a healthier lifestyle. This is primarily about an optimistic attitude and a holistic, balanced approach to life. The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of the existing literature and investigate the topics that have emerged in the wellness tourism scientific literature. By analysing 212 abstracts, we show that the relevant issues in the existing literature include both health and wel ness themes. Their interconnection is further discussed. The paper is structured as follows. We firstly introduce wellness tourism literature through a brief overview of the existing findings in this research field. We then explore this scientific field by applying topic model ing analysis on the wel ness tourism articles identified in Web of Science. Finally, we discuss the results and findings of this analysis, as well as potential implications for future research. 2 Literature review Before the advent of wel ness tourism, health and medical tourism developed, and in the literature there is still no very clear definition of wellness tourism, and the boundaries between medical, health and wel ness tourism are stil not clearly defined. Therefore, it is necessary to differentiate the concepts of health and wel ness tourism because, in different geographical areas, there are different conceptual and linguistic interpretations of these two terms (Horwath HTL, 2013). Health tourism in the M. Zečević, M. Rančić Demir: Most Prominent Topics in Wellness Tourism Research: Topic Modelling Analysis 123 broadest sense includes healing, medical and wellness tourism. Healing tourism provides prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation, while medical tourism includes travelling to another country for medical interventions. Wellness tourism has become “independent” as a particular branch of tourism and represents the preservation of good health through preventive activities, such as a balanced diet, recreation, relaxation, and the like (Mueller & Kaufmann, 2001). Wellness content refers to the area of stay (wel ness hotel), where specific safety standards are applied in the field of food (i.e. healthy food is offered) and beverages, and where these standards are wel developed for physical activities (physical exercise, swimming, hiking, improving physical fitness, etc). Such measures are also implemented in programs that focus on relaxation (meditation, yoga), mental activities (creative workshops, learning), spiritual activities, medicine (herbs, vitamins, minerals) and alternative medicine (acupuncture, reiki, homeopathy) (Karn, Amarkantak & Swain, 2017). For this reason, the terms wel ness tourism, wel ness tourist, wel ness hotel, wel ness service, hotel, wel ness services, wel ness centre, and so on, as the most frequently used terms in the literature, are also used in our analysis. Various studies provide an overview of the existing literature and most prominent research topics (Kirilenko & Stepchenkova, 2018; Strandberg et al., 2018; Ballantyne et al., 2009; Wang, Togtokhbuyan & Yadmaa, 2021). Kirilenko and Stepchenkova (2018) examined tourism research from its inception to the present, its subject areas, geography, and gender distributions. The authors used the Latent Dirichlet Al ocation (LDA) text mining approach to discover long-term trends in academic tourism research. They analysed the abstracts of published high-ranking tourist papers from 1970 to 2017 from the Scopus database. The results revealed that scholarship geography has significantly expanded, and female authorship has nearly equalled male authorship in recent years. Strandberg et al. (2016) assessed studies published in the journal Tourism and Hospitality using 18 study areas: eTravel, technology, policy, globalization, consumer behaviour, eTourism, leisure and culture, among others. The authors introduced education as a new category and categorized 292 studies based on their main themes. 124 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Ballantyne et al. (2009) examined trends in tourism research, analysing 2,868 research articles distributed in 12 influential travel industry journals from the list given by McKercher, Law and Lam (2006) from 1994 to 2004, arranging them into 21 categories. The following areas were examined “tourist/visitor studies; destinations; tourism planning; marketing; cultural tourism; economic issues; tourism impacts; tourism trends; tourism research issues & methods; hospitality; eco-tourism; sustainable development; special events; transport; management; human resource management; environmental interpretation; tourism policy; tourism education and training; business tourism; and sports and leisure” (Ballantyne et al., 2009). The results showed the propensity for more studies on more recent themes to apply a quantitative methodology. Wang, Togtokhbuyan and Yadmaa (2021) examined the international wellness tourism Web of Science literature from 1992 to 2019, quantitatively analysing 2,154 documents using Citespace software. The authors revealed that the research focus within the past ten years has slowly moved from centring on the effects of tourism assets such as physical wel -being, mental wel -being, and hot spring tourism on wel ness tourism, to topics such as visitor fulfilment, goal administration, and execution administration in a universal setting. 3 Research methodology Technological y aided research is becoming a very relevant approach to systemizing and quantifying the topics examined within a particular body of literature, and methods such as text mining and natural language processing algorithms (NLP) are of great use for analysing and organizing the existing knowledge. Some of the main advantages of these methods include speed, reproducibility and reliability in the processes of classifying and categorizing text (O’Connor, Bamman & Smith, 2011). Due to their ability to spot patterns in a huge amount of data, these techniques are also useful in tourism research, and are mostly used to better understand the opinions (and sentiments) tourists express on popular online platforms such as TripAdvisor (e.g. Xiang, Du, Ma & Fan, 2018; Taecharungroj & Mathayomchan, 2019). M. Zečević, M. Rančić Demir: Most Prominent Topics in Wellness Tourism Research: Topic Modelling Analysis 125 For the purposes of providing an overview of the welness tourism research literature, in this study we have applied a text mining method cal ed topic model ing. This method is frequently used to detect latent topics in a corpus, and it aims at identifying topics (themes) that appear in the text by identifying and grouping words that occur simultaneously. Topic modelling is a probabilistic statistical technique for semantic structures, and it is considered as very efficient in document (text) clustering (Curiskis, Drake, Osborn & Kennedy, 2020). As such, it has been previously used in tourism research, mainly for review analysis and classification (e.g. Calheiros, Moro, & Rita, 2017; Rossetti, Stella & Zanker, 2016). Our study focuses on topics that appear in the scientific wel ness tourism literature, and therefore analyses topics and patterns that appear in the abstracts of scientific articles, similar to already conducted research in other tourism research fields (e.g. Zach, Krizaj & Pretnar, 2019). 3.1 Data col ection As our research aimed at systemizing the existing knowledge on wellness tourism, we tried to col ect as many studies available from this field as possible. In order to create a corpus, we conducted several searches in Scopus for relevant articles. A combination of keywords was created so that they reflect the terminology commonly used in this literature field, and it consisted of the following queries: “Wellness touris*”, “Wel ness hotel*”, “Wel ness service*” AND hotel* , “Wel ness service*” AND touris*, “Wel ness center*” AND hotel*, “Wel ness center*” AND touris* . The search was conducted in August 2020, while the data cleaning took place in September 2020. Only articles and reviews written in English were taken into consideration for this research. Manual inspection of the manuscripts was done, and 212 articles and reviews were selected due to their clear relation with the wel ness tourism literature. Their abstracts were downloaded and used in topic model ing analysis. 3.2 Data analysis Our analysis was conducted on the abstracts of articles from the wel ness tourism literature. As this corpus contained a lot of noise (words that cannot be given thematic meaning such as grammatical articles, (personal) pronouns and function words), the raw text needed to be preprocessed before it could be used in the 126 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. analysis. Several wel-established procedures of data preparation were applied (Gharatkar, Ingle, Naik & Save, 2017; Malley, Ramazzotti & Wu, 2016). The Python libraries numpy and pandas, both wel known in the data science community, were used extensively throughout the entire process of data preparation, along with several other steps, each specialized for a particular task. The following data preprocessing steps were applied: − Language check. The language of the abstract was checked (once again, as the primary language check was done in article selection). All abstracts were written in English and therefore kept for further analysis. − Conversion to lower-case. All words from the selected abstracts were converted to lower-case. − Spell check. Every word in every abstract was checked for spel ing and corrected using the Spel er Python library. − Removal of stop-words. Stop-words such as “I”, “are”, “and”, “the”, etc. were removed, as such common words tend to overwhelm the results. − Removal of special characters and numbers from the text. − Lemmatization. Lemmatization is a process of grouping different forms of morphological y connected words so that they can be analysed as a single item, identified by the lemma of the word, i.e. both “touristic” and “tourist” share the same lemma and become “tourist”. After the procedure of data preprocessing and cleaning was finished, we have proceeded with topic model ing analysis. 4 Results In our topic model ing analysis of wel ness tourism literature, Python Gensim library was used. This library enabled us to generate a mathematical model that classifies words by topic. To determine an optimal number of topics that appear in our data, we ran a Gensim Coherence Model (Röder, Both & Hinneburg, 2015). The limits for the number of topics in such an analysis need to be set by the researchers, and our thresholds were two and 25. The coherence score chart (showing the mathematical appropriateness for each number of topics) for the values between is shown in Figure 1. M. Zečević, M. Rančić Demir: Most Prominent Topics in Wellness Tourism Research: Topic Modelling Analysis 127 Figure 1: Coherence score for 2-25 topics Source: own From Figure 1, we can see that the highest coherence score was obtained for the options with the lowest number of topics. Options with ten or less topics thus seemed to be the most appropriate to describe the wel ness tourism literature. After obtaining these results, we narrowed down our projected number of topics to anywhere between two and 10, since these values in the initial chart obtained the highest values. This analysis showed that two topics got the best results (0.413) for the coherence score (Figure 2). Therefore, our conclusions and comments related to wel ness tourism research focus on the two main topics that were identified. Figure 2: Coherence score for 2-10 topics Source: own 128 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 4.1 Analysis of topics Our results implied that the existing research in wel ness tourism can mainly be classified under two topics. The search for the keywords that are most frequently used in abstracts included in the study was once again conducted using Python and Gensim libraries. The software identified the eight most commonly used keywords per topic. The first topic places content from wel ness tourism abstracts in the context of health and medical aspects. As already discussed, wel ness tourism research historically shows a close connection to health and medical tourism. The development of the wel ness tourism literature has emerged from health and medical tourism studies, where wel ness researchers saw an opportunity to complete our knowledge about the body by incorporating several other elements of immediate importance for its health, including mind and fitness. Therefore, the findings of this study lead to the similar conclusion - health and medical tourism are heavily researched in the wellness tourism literature. The second identified topic captures the core of wel ness tourism research. Keywords like wellness, tourist, travel and destination belong to this topic. Wellness tourism destinations are among most researched concepts within the literature, where researchers aimed at providing a better understanding of the characteristics that wel ness destinations need to offer in order to ensure a proper experience (e.g. Voigt, & Pforr, 2013; Prideaux, Berbigier & Thompson, 2014). Complementary to this, the analysis also identified the importance of experience and activity for wel ness tourism, as those keywords emerged among the top eight in the wel ness tourism cluster. In the literature, wel ness tourism experience is considered to be of utmost importance for holistic wel ness and tourism inspiration, along with the building of tourist loyalty and improving quality of life (e.g. Luo, Lanlung, Kim, Tang & Song, 2018; Dillette, Douglas & Andrzejewski, 2021). Table 1: The most prominent research topics Topic Keywords detected Health and medical aspect Tourism, health, service, medical, spa, development, market, industry Wel ness tourism Wel ness, study, tourist, destination, experience, travel, research, activity Source: own M. Zečević, M. Rančić Demir: Most Prominent Topics in Wellness Tourism Research: Topic Modelling Analysis 129 5 Conclusions and Implications This study aimed at providing a brief overview of the development of wellness tourism research, as wel as the topics that emerge in studies from this field. The results imply that the topic from which wel ness tourism research emerged (i.e. health and medical tourism) stil plays an important part in the wel ness tourism literature, although wellness tourism has now established itself as a topic worthy of thorough research itself. Modern lifestyles open new needs and demands for wel ness tourism services. Tourists in the past did not necessarily spend significant amounts of time or resources on touristic activities. Instead, when suffering from an ailment they turned to medical and health treatments, most of which were available in spas that were also part of touristic offers. Over time, with the development of society, increase in disposable income and switch to a preference for hedonic and holistic experiences, a need for ful er, more complete offers was born, which triggered the development of wel ness tourism, and consequently attracted the interest of researchers as wel . The research we examined in our topic model ing analysis confirms the relevance of both health and medical and wel ness tourism aspects (i.e. topics) for the wel ness tourism research field as we know it today. While this study has identified the presence of the two major topics within the wel ness tourism research field, the ways in which they interact have not yet been explained. Therefore, future research efforts might devote more attention to the connection between health and wel ness within novel wel ness tourism research in order to better understand the strength and nature of this relationship. In addition, further research is needed in order to detect ways in which the wel ness tourism field differentiates itself from the health and medical tourism literature. While the closeness of the fields implies numerous opportunities for mutual development and knowledge sharing, it is stil necessary to understand and pinpoint the specifics that strengthen the uniqueness of these distinct fields. References Balantyne, R., Packer, J., & Axelsen, M. (2009). Trends in tourism research. Annals of Tourism Research, 36(1), 149-152. 130 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Calheiros, A. C., Moro, S., & Rita, P. (2017). Sentiment classification of consumer-generated online reviews using topic modelling. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 26(7), 675-693. Cherry, R. (2006). Can You Pray Your Pounds Away? Vegetarian Times, 80-83. Curiskis, S. A., Drake, B., Osborn, T. R., & Kennedy, P. J. (2020). 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Wel ness. The New York Times, 123(2000), 11. WINE TOURISM AS A TYPE OF WELL-BEING TOURISM – LITERATURE REVIEW JASNA POTOČNIK TOPLER, VITA PETEK University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Brežice, Slovenia jasna.potocnik1@um.si, vita.petek2@um.si Abstract The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of wine tourism on wel -being. Wine tourism includes many activities, and not only wine tastings, perhaps paired with food tastings. It includes hiking and biking in the vineyards, reading literature on wine (fiction and non-fiction), attending seminars and conferences on wine, getting acquainted with new landscapes and socializing with others. Another issue relates to whether wine, particularly red wine, confers additional health benefits. Within the Mediterranean diet, wine seems to be an essential component. The starting point for wine and health studies was the “French Paradox”, which suggests that consuming red wine daily not only helps the cardiovascular Keywords: system, but also increases lifespan due to the resveratrol found health, in the skins and tannins of red grapes. Recent evidence suggests wine tourism, well-being, that wine consumption is correlated with less stress and active life, prevention of the development of certain cancers. rural areas DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.ft.6.2022.7 ISBN 978-961-286-642-6 134 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 1 Introduction In the tourism literature, studies of the so-cal ed happiness factor (McCabe & Johnson, 2013) and well-being are on the rise. Wel -being can be defined as a state “which allows individuals to realise their abilities, cope with the normal stresses in life, work productively and fruitfully and make a contribution to their community” (WHO, 2001). It is thus important that a tourism offer provides tourists with experiences that can positively influence the quality of their lives (Kruger et al, 2013), and wine may easily be associated with happiness and wel -being. Wine is a fruit product, but fermentation produces a variety of chemical changes in the must, and so wine is not simply grape juice with ethanol. Fermentation alters the must by altering the conjugation of organic acids and phenolics (phenolic acids and polyphenols), by extraction and formation of copigments and the development of an anaerobic and protective redox potential (German & Walzem, 2000). Wine is considered as a medicinal dietary product. Hippocrates, traditional y considered as the father of medicine, prescribed wine for a diversity of diseases, and “enotherapy” (wine treatment and “ampelotherapy”) has long been practiced. Grapes contain up to 30 percent easily digestible sugars in the form of glucose, fructose and minor amounts of sucrose. Fructose is absorbed by the human body without the involvement of the gastrointestinal tract, which is of great importance in the prevention of diabetes (Fiore et al., 2019). Today, wine is a unique and highly valuable food product made by the biotechnological processing of juice that is derived from an intensively cultivated agricultural commodity (German & Walzem, 2000). Red wine in particular is a luxury product, usually consumed as part of a full meal, and is astringent and bitter. Wine consumption, particularly within pre-1991 populations, depends on multiple cultural, social, economic, and gender- and age-related factors (Del Rio C & Prada, 1995). Red wines are rich in polyphenols, such as phenolic acids (gallic acid, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, etc.), stilbenes (trans-resveratrol), flavonoids (catechin, epcatechin, quercetin, rutin, myricetin) (Kammerer et al., 2004). Resveratrol is considered the major functional constituent in red wine, which could prevent or slow the progression of a wide variety of illnesses, including cancer (Jang et al., 1997), cardiovascular disease (Bradamante et al., 2004) and ischemic injures (Sinha, Chaudhary & Gupta, 2002), as well as enhance stress resistance and extend the lifespans of various organisms, from yeast (Howitz et al., 2003) to vertebrates (Baur & Sinclair, 2006; Valenzano et al., 2006). J. Potočnik Topler, V. Petek: Wine Tourism as a Type of Well-being Tourism – Literature Review 135 Different grape and wine varieties have emerged over centuries of cultivation, according to the skil s and tastes of grape growers and wine makers. Most of the differences among grape varieties, and thus wines, arise from variations in secondary plant metabolites that influence its taste, flavour, colour, and stability (Schreier & Jennings, 1979), and thus enologists tend to emphasize these characteristics (Sivertsen et al., 1999), and such differences are one basis for wine preferences among consumers and for patterns of wine consumption within populations. Among wines, red wine is considered to have a more protective effect, due to its greater content of antioxidant substances released from the grape’s skin and seeds (polyphenols). In the making of white wine, these are removed immediately from the must, which is left to ferment without them. As antioxidant capacity is strongly correlated with total polyphenol content in vitro, white wines have very weak antioxidant capacity (Lugasi & Hovari, 2003). Notwithstanding the fact that white wine contains hydroxycinnamic acids and tyrosol, which are also known to have antioxidant properties (Thirunavukkarasu, 2008), their effects on the oxidative stress parameters in plasma and urine taken from humans have not been detected, as they have for red wines (Pérez et al., 2002). Additionally, red wines have higher procyanidin B content than white, which further supports their stronger anticancer activities (Eng et al., 2003). The importance of polyphenols in the health-promoting properties of wine is discussed below. Together with polyphenols, ethanol is considered a key component with regard to health effects. A significant part of overall psychological well-being is satisfaction with various aspects of life (Campbell, 1981; Campbell, Converse, & Rogers, 1976; Olsen et al., 1989). Subjective well-being is defined as the feelings individuals have about their lives or their perceptions of achieving what they want in life (Diener, 2000; Veenhoven, 1991). Sagiv and Schwartz (2000) found that personal values affect subjective wel -being in different culture settings. Personal values are defined as “enduring beliefs that guide action, attitudes toward objects, and evaluations of behavior and events” (Rokeach, 1973). Since personal values reflect internal states that affect stimuli and responses (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993), they have been regarded as affective predictors of customer behaviour in various sectors (Beatty et al., 1985; Madrigal, 1995). 136 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. The Mediterranean diet is characterized by a high intake of vegetables, legumes, fruits, nuts and unrefined cereals, high intake of olive oil but low intake of saturated lipids, moderately high intake of fish, moderate intake of dairy products, mainly in the form of cheese or yogurt, low intake of meat and poultry, and regular but moderate intake of alcohol, primarily in the form of wine and generally during meals (Trichopoulou et al., 2003; Willett et al., 1995; Shen et al., 2015). The World Health Organization (WHO) has adopted this pattern as a dietary guideline, with the concept of the “Mediterranean diet” originating from several observational studies done in the 1950s. Later, the Seven Countries Study, a cross-cultural investigation comparing middle-aged men from northern and southern Europe, was important in recognizing the role played by the Mediterranean diet in protection against heart disease (Key, 1980). In 1992, Renaud and De Lorgeril (1992) published a study confirming the association between death by cardiovascular disease and dietary intake. The higher the general dietary intake, the more people died from cardiovascular disease in all European countries except for France. If wine intake was considered, the French population fit the regression model perfectly. Consumption of red wine has increased around the world over the last two decades, and has often been promoted as part of the “French Paradox,” a diet rich in fat but stil with moderate effects observed on public health. The term was first used in the newsletter of the International Organization of Wine and Vine in 1986, and its explained by “the significant source of phenolic compounds, with antioxidant properties especial y in red wines« (Fiore et al., 2019). The research that uncovered the French Paradox and detailed intriguing epidemiological observations was made as part of a large study that compared dietary intakes and disease incidences in several different countries, including Canada, Italy, France, Britain, and the United States. Known as the MONICA Project (Monitoring of Trends and Determinants in Cardiovascular Disease), it found that red wine consumption provided an apparent paradoxical protection from atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in the French population (Renaud & de Lorgeril, 1992). According to the MONICA data on diet and disease, the French population had a lower incidence of atherosclerosis-related deaths than populations from the other countries studied. Low death rates among the French occurred despite the consumption of diets normal y linked to high rates of atherosclerotic mortality and blood cholesterol concentrations consistent with J. Potočnik Topler, V. Petek: Wine Tourism as a Type of Well-being Tourism – Literature Review 137 elevated atherosclerotic risk. That study revealed that the incidence of heart infarction in France is about 40% lower than in the rest of Europe, and this French Paradox was linked to the intake of red wine. Wine tourism can be defined as visits to vineyards, wineries, wine festivals and wine shows, for which wine tasting and/or experiencing the attributes of a wine region are the prime motivating factors for visitors (Cambourne et al., 2009). The picture below shows that the vineyards themselves seem to invite us to walk, ride or cycles among them. Figure 1: Vineyards in Brda region. Source: Petek, 2020 2 Methodology Systematic review In previous tourism research, wine and health have been studied in various fields, including in terms of health (Shrikhande, 2000; German & Walzem, 2000; Xu et al., 2010), chemistry (Xiang et al., 2014; Waterhouse, 2002) or consumer perceptions of wine (Samoggia et al., 2016.). The aim of this chapter is to present a literature review 138 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. on the scientific research already done on wine and health. During the decade 2002−2011, 1,266 papers on related topics were published (1,174 original papers (92.73%) and 92 review papers (7.27%)). The number of papers increased steadily over the decade, from 84 in 2002 to 221 in 2011. Most (65.56%) were published during the period 2007−2011. This growth is more striking for original papers than for review papers. The 1,174 papers were published in 535 different journals (Aleixandre et al., 2013). The method for this study was a systematic review, and the following databases were used: WoS, Scopus and Google scholar. Our main search words were: “wine”, “health”, “wine and health”, “wel -being”, “wel -being and wine”, “resveratrol” and “resveratrol and health”. We included articles written in English, and we did not limit the search with regard to the years of publication. The search was conducted in September 2020. Not al of the found articles were relevant, as they were from completely different fields, such as example chemistry. Altogether, 300 articles were used from 1973 – 2020. Abstracts and conclusions were read for al of them, and for the most interesting of these the whole article was taken into consideration. These were published in many different journals, including Studies in Agricultural Economics, British Food Journal, European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, and International Journal of Wine Research. 2.1.1 Results The analysis showed that a lot of research has already been done in this area and it all started in 1992, when Renaud and De Lorgeril published their study about the French Paradox. Since then there are studies claiming that red wine is very good for our health (Fiore et al., 2019; Guerrero et al., 2009; Higgins, & Llanos, 2015), along with those that are not so sure about this (Xiang et al., 2014). From al the studies that have been carried out in the health and wine field, it can be affirmed that supplementing one’s regular diet with red wine increases total antioxidant capacity in plasma, HDL lipoprotein, fibrinolytic and antithrombin activity, and vitamin C, and also reduces oxidative damage and platelet aggregation. Above all, it diminishes the risk of cardiovascular diseases (Avellone, 2006); Rimm, 1995). More recently the same conclusion was reached for diabetic subjects after myocardial infarction (Marfella et al., 2006). J. Potočnik Topler, V. Petek: Wine Tourism as a Type of Well-being Tourism – Literature Review 139 Some studies argue that wine could have an influence on cancer risk. Moderate consumption of wine reduces the risk of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (Briggs et al., 2002), adenocarcinoma of the oesophagus, prostate cancer (Platz et al., 2004; Schoonen et al., 2005) and gastric cardia (Gammon, 1997). However, other authors have not found any relationship (Bessaoud & Daures, 2008; Sutcliffe et al., 2007), and some even found a negative effect (Longnecker et al., 1990). The results show that long-term, moderate consumption of red wine has reduced the incidence of many diseases, such as risk of coronary heart disease (Leikert et al., 2002), atherosclerosis (Vinson et al., 2001), and cancers (Middleton et al., 2000). Resveratrol has been linked to preventing declines in cardiovascular function caused by age (Das et al., 2011), and it is believed that France surpasses many countries in average life expectancy partly due to the common practice of drinking red wine with meals. The French consume red wine moderately, at 2–3 glasses daily, reducing the unhealthy effects of high cholesterol foods common in the French diet, including bread, cheeses, and rich desserts (Brownlee, 2006). More than 20 years after the discovered of the French Paradox, there have been a substantial number of studies suggesting possible the health benefits of red wine, and if we connect wine and health then we can easily see the connection to a good life and greater wel -being. The picture below shows the wine estate of Marjan Simčič from Brda, Slovenia, where we can enjoy a view of the vineyards from a pool – the ideal setting for a relaxing and enjoyable tourist visit. Figure 2: Marjan Simčič estate. Source: Petek, 2020 140 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 3 Conclusions Based on the literature review it can be concluded that there are health benefits from moderate drinking of red wine, if consumed moderately. Research has established that eating five to seven portions of fruit and vegetables and having two glasses of wine a day can enable a longer and healthier life. However, drinking wine is not an essential part of wine tourism, as engaging in outdoor activities, such as hiking and cycling through vineyards, as wel as other forms of physical, wil suffice. This is why it is essential to raise awareness of an active life and its connection to wel -being, not only among tourists, but also among tourism stakeholders and designers of tourism products. When planning wine tourism products, experts of many fields should be involved, not only winegrowers, as cooperation between different stakeholders and experts is a key to tourism products that enable quality tourism experiences and the greater wel -being of those engaged in them. This is why education of tourism experts and following new trends, such as digitalization and the development of smart villages and towns, is very important. Wel -being can mean different things for each individual. 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Veenhoven, R. (1991). Is happiness relative?. Social indicators research, 24(1), 1-34. Vinson, J. A., Teufel, K., & Wu, N. (2001). Red wine, dealcoholized red wine, and especial y grape juice, inhibit atherosclerosis in a hamster model. Atherosclerosis, 156(1), 67-72. Willett, W. C., Sacks, F., Trichopoulou, A., Drescher, G., Ferro-Luzzi, A., Helsing, E., & Trichopoulos, D. (1995). Mediterranean diet pyramid: a cultural model for healthy eating. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 61(6), 1402S-1406S. Xu, Y., Wang, Z., You, W., Zhang, X., Li, S., Barish, P. A., . . & Ogle, W. O. (2010). Antidepressant-like effect of trans-resveratrol: involvement of serotonin and noradrenaline system. European neuropsychopharmacology, 20(6), 405-413. Xiang, L., Xiao, L., Wang, Y., Li, H., Huang, Z., & He, X. (2014). Health benefits of wine: Don’t expect resveratrol too much. Food chemistry, 156, 258-263. Waterhouse, A. L. (2002). Wine phenolics. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 957(1), 21-36. WHO. (2001). Promoting Mental Health. Available at https://www.who.int/mental_health/evidence/en/promoting_mhh.pdf, 20. 5. 2021. WHEN WINE MEETS GENERATION Z VITA PETEK, MARJETKA RANGUS University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Brežice, Slovenia marjetka.rangus@um.si, vita.petek2@um.si Abstract Generation Z refers to people born in the 90s and raised in the 2000s. They have several nicknames, for example Generation 2020, the Internet Generation, Digital Natives, Screensters, and Zeds. This generation is technological y smarter than the others are and prefers to communicate via social networks. This study is about the relationship between Generation Z and wine consumption. An online survey among students was conducted to achieve this aim. The study was conducted in November and December 2020, in several Central European countries among 123 students aged 18–15 years. The results showed that the majority of respondents consider their knowledge of wines to be mediocre. Most respondents drink wine several times a month and prefer white wine. They also like to drink pure wine or wine with sweet drinks, and, when selecting a bottle of wine, taste, smel , and price are the most important factors. More than 50% of respondents buy wine at supermarkets Keywords: and only 36% in wineries or wine shops. Generation Z has just wine, begun to participate in wine tourism. As a result, their knowledge wine consumption, Generation Z, wil be further upgraded and their opinions wil change over the wine tourism years. millennials DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.ft.6.2022.8 ISBN 978-961-286-642-6 146 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 1 Introduction Generation Z or GenZeris are people born in the 90s and raised in the 2000s. They have several nicknames, for example Generation 2020, the Internet Generation, Digital Natives, Screensters, and Zeds. This generation is technological y smarter than the others and prefers to communicate via social networks. They are the first generation born in an integrated and global y connected world where the internet is always available. A recent study found that more than half of teens do not wear a wristwatch because they use a smartphone to figure out time, get directions, or take pictures (Lanier, 2017). Millennials used to be classified as digital natives, growing up around technology al their lives. However, Generation Z is the first truly connected generation since birth. Many members of Generation Z not only do not remember a time before the internet, but they do not remember the time before social media. This constant connection of Generation Z consumes information faster than any generation before (Lanier, 2017). Generation Z has a positive attitude towards technology, and they are not afraid to try new things (Danilo et al., 2014). How exactly is Generation Z different from earlier generations? They use technology to solve their problems, help coordinate their activities, or provide them with relevant people or information. They find answers to questions on Google and YouTube, but they lack critical thinking skills to evaluate sources (Francis & Hoefel, 2018). They want to change the world, they are social y responsible, and know their work is important. Living through a global recession, Generation Z is focused on reasonable and stable careers, security, and privacy (Rotham, 2020). 2 Wine tourism Wine tourism is one of the subtypes of gastronomic tourism, referring to tourism that features visits to vineyards, wineries, wine tasting, wine consumption, and wine shopping (UNWTO, n. d.). V. Petek, M. Rangus: When Wine Meets Generation Z 147 Wine tourism is connected by four concepts that lead to an ideal ratio, namely entertainment, education, (a)esthetics, and escapism, or 4E. These parts are also said to be a motivating factor for visiting and experiencing wine tourism (Thanh & Kirova, 2018). Wine tourism has appeared in recent years as a tourism of special interest and today there is a lot of research on this topic. The growing interest of tourists in this type of tourism has led to the study of wine tourism to an increasing extent. Also, given the growing number of tourists interested in this type of tourism, many destinations have begun to transition towards sustainable wine tourism. Montella (2017) believes that sustainable wine tourism depends on the development of tourism based on economically, ecologically, and social sustainability (Ritchie & Crouch, 2003). As wel as tourism in general, tourists’ awareness of "green tourism" is important, including in wine tourism. Today wine tourism is significant in the wine and tourism industries and is one of the most rapidly growing industries in the world. The problem is that we cannot recognize whether tourists are visiting some region only because of the wine or whether there are some other motives. 2.1 Generation Z and tourism According to research conducted by the European travel commission (2020), which was based on 2,800 people, aged from 18 to 24 years, in China, Germany, Great Britain, and the United States of America, Generation Z believes that tourism is good for local communities, but is also aware of other positive aspects of travelling, such as getting to know new cultures and valuable life lessons. It is important that we understand the needs of Generation Z for foreseeing the development of their demands on the tourism market. The research has shown that their main reasons when deciding for a travel destination are the quality of services that they pay for (47%), affordable plane tickets (45%), and safety (42%). When asked about accommodation, one of three respondents preferred a hotel with four or five stars, which tel s us that this generation wil be combining cheap transportation with luxury accommodation. When asked about future motives for travelling in Europe 75% of them mentioned food and beverage, 67% local urban culture, and 62% museum and concert visitation. 148 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. A study by Robinson and Schänzel (2019) suggests that Generation Z made up one-third of the USA population in 2020 and that it comprises the most powerful spenders. This drives changes in tourism. The study says that the new Generation will change tourism as the Generation Z is more digital y advanced and is searching for a more digital experience when travelling, the tourist destinations will have to adapt to this new era. Since Generation Z is becoming older and independent, they will figure out the new era of tourism. In another study by Monaco (2018), the Generation Z is also viewed as the more digital-native generation. This may be because they grew up with technology by their side. It is also said that Generation Z is characterized by an unprecedented awareness and determination as consumers. This means that, in the 2020s, they will be the most active players in the tourism market. And tourism as experience wil change based on what they like. In the coming years Generation Z will comprise about half of al travel ers, that is why it is the new focus of travel industry. 2.2 Wine tourism and youth Research on wine tourism usually includes studies on certain generations of wine tourists. Generation Z is the new one, that is being included in wine tourism now, but there stil are not enough studies concerning this field. According to research about consuming wine, they found out that Generation Z drinks less wine than the earlier generation – generation Y. A study in Greece showed that 78% of young between 18 and 24 years old prefer drinking other alcoholic beverages to wine. This is important for wine tourism, since disinterest in drinking wine leads to lower interest in wine tourism (Stergiou, 2019). Bédé and Massa (2015) believe that the Generation Z is getting increased attention in wine tourism but point out that most of the research is done in the United Kingdom, United States of America, and Australia. They warn that with the arrival of the new generation on the market, the providers wil be forced to change their marketing plans and adjust them to the characteristics of the new generation. They found out that their biggest motives for drinking wine are taste, social acceptance, and sometimes also health reasons. Authors believe the Generation Z has more knowledge about the negative effects of excessive alcohol consumption and is more aware of them than the earlier generations. In interviews with various wine producers that belong to this generation, they found out that they stand for raising awareness about the importance of drinking responsibly and in moderation. They V. Petek, M. Rangus: When Wine Meets Generation Z 149 would also like to become more familiar with the culture of drinking wine. Authors also say that young French, who belong to this generation, are aware of the so-cal ed ‘French Paradox’, the phenomenon of drinking wine with the intention of reducing the number of health problems caused by France’s rich cuisine (sklic?). A remarkably similar study was already conducted in Greece in 2018, which was based on 306 members of generation Z. They also yielded the same results, namely that younger people understand wine tourism as a nicely spent day in the company of their friends in a pleasant ambient with wine tasting, even though the wine was not the most important aspect. They also discovered that respondents paid a lot of attention to what the price included (Stergiou, Airey & Apostolakis, 2018). In 2019 a study was conducted in Spain, more specifically in Barcelona, where they interviewed 136 people, aged between 18 and 27. They found out that 60% of them had already had previous experiences with wine tourism. The new generation is mostly interested in visiting wine cel ars and vineyards with the taste of the wines produced there. Similar as in Stergiou (2019), respondents expressed relatively poor knowledge about wine. As regards wine tourism, the most important factors for Spaniards are landscape and food; they also mentioned the importance of culture, heritage, and the quality of wine. Most of the participants said that they were happy with their wine tourism experience and that they shared their feeling and the experience on social media (Toro Teruel & Pozo Marigó, 2019). Creed and McIlveen (2019) ask themselves how significant a role enological terminology plays with wine tourists. The language of wine tourism and wine itself is ful of different phrases that are not clear to the younger wine tourists and they could be the reason for noninterest in wine tourism. 3 Methodology This paper presents a quantitative approach to data collection with a presentation of the prevalence of wine consumption among young people. The method therefore includes a quantitative approach to data collection through an online survey questionnaire. This research was conducted in November and December 2020, in several European countries, such as Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The focus of the work is on gathering as many young people as possible who consume wine to explore the prevalence of certain habits in that 150 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. regard. A survey questionnaire was developed via the online application 1ka, a Slovenian website for creating internet surveys, which was then distributed among young people, members of Generation Z. This survey questionnaire was available online and was active for a total of two weeks, from Monday, 23 November 2020, until Monday, 7 December 2020. The survey questionnaire was shared via the social networks WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram, as wel as via e-mail. This survey questionnaire was completed by 268 people, while 123 questionnaires were completed correctly. All participants in this study were young people who belong to Generation Z and were from 18 to 25 years old. Most of the participants, 26 of them, or 21% were 22 years old. Another 24 people, or 20%, who completed the survey questionnaire were 21 years old. Nineteen people who fil ed out the questionnaire were 20 years old, a total of 15%, and 14% of them, 17, were 19 years old. Fourteen people, 11% of participants, were 23 years old, and 7% of participants, 8 of them, were 24 years old. The remaining 12%, or 15 people, were either 18 years old, or over 25. Also, al of them have consumed wine at least once in their lives so far. This method of collecting data for research provided access to many people from different countries, with different views on wine, and various motives for wine consumption. In this way, the online survey was the drive for access to many people for further research and data analysis. Concerning the questions themselves that were used in the survey, it is important to note that we asked questions that were previously asked in surveys with a similar topic to ours. This is exactly how we created a survey that suited our needs to get the information that was important to us. The whole survey contains 10 questions, of which the first and ninth questions are dedicated to knowledge about wine, the second, third, fourth, seventh, and eighth questions ask about wine consumption, the fifth and sixth questions explore motives regarding wine consumption, and the tenth question is a basic demographic question. The following table shows what the question was, and what the source for each question was. V. Petek, M. Rangus: When Wine Meets Generation Z 151 Table 1: Source of questions Question Source 1. Please use the following scale to define Duarte Alonso, A. (2005). Wine tourism your level of wine knowledge. (Please rate experiences in New Zealand: An exploratory on a scale from 1-7, where 1 means no study (Doctoral dissertation, Lincoln knowledge and 7 means a lot of University). knowledge) Li, J. G. et al., (2011). The wine drinking 2. How often do you consume wine? behavior of young adults: an exploratory study in China. British Food Journal. Garcia, T., Barrena, R., & Grande, I. (2013). 3. The wine consumption preferences of young What type of wine you usual y consume? people: a Spanish case study. International Journal of Wine Business Research. Kušar, V. (2012). Analiza odločanja mladih za 4. nakup vina in drugih alkoholnih pijač. Where do you prefer to buy wine? (Diplomsko delo, Univerza v Ljubljani) 5. What are your motives for drinking wine? Our own source, we devised the question ourselves Duarte, F., Madeira, J., & Barreira, M. M. 6. (2010). Wine purchase and consumption in What is important to you when choosing wine? Portugal – an exploratory analysis of young adults' motives/attitudes and purchase attributes. Ciência e Técnica Vitivinicola, 63-73. Duarte, F., Madeira, J., & Barreira, M. M. (2010). Wine purchase and consumption in 7. Portugal – an exploratory analysis of How do you like to drink your wine? young adults' motives/attitudes and purchase attributes. Ciência e Técnica Vitivinicola, 63- 73. Li, J. G. et al., (2011). The wine drinking 8. Where do you consume wine? behavior of young adults: an exploratory study in China. British Food Journal. Duarte, F., Madeira, J., & Barreira, M. M. (2010). Wine purchase and consumption in 9. What are your information sources on Portugal – an exploratory analysis of wine? young adults' motives/attitudes and purchase attributes. Ciência e Técnica Vitivinicola, 63- 73. Hall, C. M., Mitchell, R., & Treloar, P. (2004). 10. How old are you? Wine tourism and the Generation Y market: Any possibilities? 152 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 4 Results and discussion One question asked how often young people consume wine. This question was answered by 122 respondents. The largest number of respondents answered that they consume wine during weekends or at dedicated events. Later, we wanted to know, what are motives for drinking wine, as you can see on graph 1. 85 90 80 70 56 60 50 40 32 24 24 26 30 16 20 12 9 100 I like taste Wine I like to Wine is Enjoying I prefer Visiting Visiting Other of wine goes wel know and cheap wine is wine to some wine with enjoy factor of other specific cellar meals wine social drinks wine quality status region Graph 1: What are your motives for drinking wine? Source: Own. A total of nine answers were given and the respondents could choose multiple options. The first eight answers were given and last answer was ‘other’ and was left for the respondent to enter their motive by themselves. 85 people chose the answer ‘I like the taste of wine’, while the answer ‘wine goes wel with meals’ was chosen by 56 people. 32 people said that they ‘like to know about and enjoy wine quality’, and the answer ‘wine is cheap’ was chosen by 16 people. 12 people think that ‘wine enjoyment is a factor of social status’ and 24 people ‘prefer wine to other drinks’. 24 respondents drink wine when ‘visiting some specific wine regions’ and 26 when ‘visiting wine cellars’. 9 respondents chose the answer ‘other’, of whom 7 specified their statement with the fol owing answers: we produce wine at home, to get drunk, consume alcohol and party with friends. V. Petek, M. Rangus: When Wine Meets Generation Z 153 100% 90% 80% 80% 70% 60% 50% 43% 48% 40% 31% 30% 23% 25% 20% 9% 14% 19% 11% 10% 0% Graph 2: What is important for you when choosing wine? Source: Own. From this question, we wanted to find out what is important for young people when they are choosing wine. Only 11 respondents (9%) said the label is important, 38 (31%) chose the type of grape as key factor, and 53 (43%) mentioned price as important fact. Region of origin was important to 29 people (23%), vintage was important for 17 (14%) of respondents, brand was important fact to 24 young people (19%), the name of wine producer was mentioned in answers from 31 (25%) respondents, the smell of wine was important to 60 (48%) of young people, the amount of wine is important for 14 (11%) of respondents, and the taste is most important for 99 (80%) of young respondents. 80% 70% 70% 60% 50% 37% 40% 30% 19% 14% 20% 10% 2% 0% Just wine With sweet drinks With soda With water Other Graph 3: How do you like to drink your wine? Source: Own. 154 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. We were interested in how young people like to drink their wine. We learned that young people mostly drink straight wine, because 86 people choose this opinion as the answer (70%). Young people, 45 of them, drink their wine in combination with sweet drinks (Coca-Cola, Fanta, Sprite. ) (37%), rather than with carbonated water (23 of them or 19%). Only 17 young people drink their wine mixed with water (14%). We found that young people prefer to mix their wine with carbonated soft drinks like Coca-Cola or Fanta, rather than with carbonated water. The reason for this may be that young people prefer the sweeter taste of wine. Respondents also share that they prefer to drink wine in combination with “Jamnica”, a Croatian sparkling spring water. RESEARCH QUESTIONS RQ1: What are gen Z’s drinking habits connected to wine? The answers help draw conclusions about gen Z’s drinking habits connected to wine. Analysis showed that, Gen Z buy wine the most at the supermarket. Based on this question, we concluded that people prefer to buy wine at a supermarket, probably because of easier availability and price. When young people choose wine, the most important thing to them is taste. Other important characteristic were type of grape, price, label, origin of wine and brand. We learned that young people mostly drink just wine, they do not mix it. Some of them drink it in combination with sweet drinks rather than with carbonated water. The favourite source of information about wine for young people is from their family and friends. RQ2: What are the wine drinking habits of generation Z (how often do they drink wine and where, which sort is preferred by most, and what are the main motives for decision about wine choice)? We found out that 26% of respondents consume wine a few times a month. From that, we conclude that members of Generation Z drink wine for relaxation. We were interested in the sort of wine that young people prefer and found that 59% of young people prefer white wine, 55% red wine, and far fewer, at 26%, voted for rosé wine. Sparkling wine was chosen by 12%. The main motives for wine choice are that young people love the taste of wine, as reported by 68% of respondents. 45% of them said that wine goes wel with meals, other 26% enjoy wine quality and 13% responded V. Petek, M. Rangus: When Wine Meets Generation Z 155 that wine is cheap. From that, we confirm the earlier fact that young people enjoy quality wine and that they do not view it as a regular beverage. RQ3: What plays a significant role/characteristic for young people when buying wine? We discovered that taste is most important for 80% of respondents and the smell of wine for 48% of respondents. Also 43% list the price as an important factor for buying wine, which is expected because they are mostly students who do not have their own income and are financial y supported by their parents. 31% of respondents voted for type of grape, 25% of young people prefer the name of the vintner, region of origin was voted for by 31%, brand is important for 19%, vintage is preferred by 14%, amount of wine is considered by 11%, and 9% said that label is important. We also concluded that young people prefer to buy wine at supermarkets, 53%, which we can connect with earlier finding about prices and paying of wine products. As we already know, markets have the cheapest price of drinks, wineries visited by 25%, enotecas are visited by 11%, and 11% said that they buy drinks in club, restaurant. 5 Conclusion The aim of our research was to discover the habits of young people in consuming wine and their attitude towards wine. We focused on Generation Z. At the outset, we researched several scientific articles related to the field. It is a generation that grew up with advanced technology, cel phones, the internet, and the emergence of social networks. People born in the 90s are more visual types and are used to being constantly connected, as wel as to being able to access any information at any time. We also got acquainted with wine tourism through extant literature. Wine tourism is part of culinary tourism and is very widespread around the world. It applies to vineyards, wineries, wine tasting, wine consumption, and wine purchases. The wine tourism industry is one of the fastest growing industries in the world. The relationship between Generation Z and wine tourism is that young people are only now starting to get involved in wine tourism and for that reason there is not much research on this topic yet. Previous research has shown that Generation Z drinks less wine than previous generations and that they prefer some other alcoholic beverages. 156 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. After the study, we discovered a few interesting facts. The majority of respondents consider their knowledge of wines to be mediocre. When choosing a wine, the taste, smel , and price are the most important to the respondents. Most respondents like to drink pure wine or wine with sweet drinks. Most people consume wine at home, and there is a very smal difference between those who consume it in restaurants and bars, at parties and special events. Family and friends are the most common source of information about wines, followed by the internet and social networks. Most of the responses obtained were expected and are similar to those from other studies. We were surprised by the result that most young people, 70% of respondents, drink wine alone. We would expect that the most common answer would be mixing wine in sweets and drinks, but only 35% of people answer that. We believe these results wil change over the years as Generation Z ages. As we mentioned at the beginning, Generation Z is just beginning to participate in wine tourism. As a result, their knowledge will be further upgraded and opinions will change. For further research on the same topic, we recommend that more countries be covered. A comparison of Slovenia and Italy, as wel as some other countries, would also be useful. A lot of young people filled out our survey, but a large number of responses were incomplete, so we recommend setting in the survey program that all questions are mandatory. This topic is an excellent basis for some further research. Our suggestion is expanding research in the form of age group comparisons, involving wine providers. Wine tourism is currently dominated by Generation X, but the situation will change over the years. Generation Z is the next generation that wil soon have purchasing power to travel, going on trips and visiting wine cellars. Therefore, it is important to be aware of their characteristics, to be able to work with them, and offer them products suitable for them. Acknowledgments* The article was written wit000000000000000000000000000000h 3rd year students of the Faculty of Tourism, University of Maribor at the subject Sociology of Tourism. V. Petek, M. Rangus: When Wine Meets Generation Z 157 References Bédé, D., & Massa, C. (2015). Intergenerational transmission: an exploratory study of generation z wine consumer behaviour. Awbr, 68. Creed, A., & McIlveen, P. (2019). Uncorking the potential of wine language for young wine tourists. In Management and Marketing of Wine Tourism Business (pp. 25-41). Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. Danilo, G., Milorad, M., Slavko, A., Marina, S., Jelena, G., & Dušan, S. (2014). Generacija Z, Internet i obazovanje. 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(2003). The competitive destination: A sustainable tourism perspective. Cabi. Robinson, V. M., & Schänzel, H. A. (2019). A tourism inflex: Generation Z travel experiences. Journal of Tourism Futures. Rothman, D. (2016). A Tsunami of learners cal ed Generation Z. URL: ht p://www. mdle. net/JoumaFA_Tsunami_of_Learners_Called_Generation_Z. pdf. Stergiou, D. P. (2019). Generation Z as Young Winery Visitors in Greece. In Management and Marketing of Wine Tourism Business (pp. 63-79). Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. Stergiou, D. P., Airey, D., & Apostolakis, A. (2018). The winery experience from the perspective of Generation Z. International Journal of Wine Business Research. Thanh, T. V., & Kirova, V. (2018). Wine tourism experience: A netnography study. Journal of Business Research, 83, 30-37. Toro Teruel, P., & del Pozo Marigó, G. (2019). Analysis of attitude of new generations about wine tourism. Travelmagazine. (2019). Generacija Z insistira na odgovornom turizmu. Available at https://www.travelmagazine.rs/vesti/generacija-z-insistira-na-odgovornom-turizmu/, 8. 11. 2020. UNWTO. (n. d.). Wine tourism. Available at https://www.unwto.org/gastronomy-wine-tourism/, 10. 1. 2021. Williams, P. (2001). The evolving images of wine tourism destinations. Tourism Recreation Research, 26(2), 3-10. LITERARY WALKING TOURS AS A FORM OF WELL-BEING: SLOVENE WRITERS' TRAIL AND THE PREŽIHOV VORANC ROUTE JASNA POTOČNIK TOPLER University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Brežice, Slovenia jasna.potocnik1@um.si Abstract The concept of literary tourism is becoming increasingly interesting, not only for researchers and students, but also for tourism practitioners and destination managers, who are interested in the supply of and demand for this sub-type of cultural tourism. In recent decades, it has become an important niche in tourism. Especially in rural areas it is perceived as useful in supporting the existent tourism activities and helping to develop new ones. Not only is it prose, drama and poetry that inspire people to become literary tourists, but also biographies and autobiographies, screen adaptations of literary works, theatre performances, etc. Literary walking tours have emerged as a wel - Keywords: received type of literary tourism product, which have been literary tourism, associated to wel -being. Some of them are also included in the walking trails, well-being, most popular tour guides, such as, for example, The Lonely literature, Planet. place writing. DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.ft.6.2022.9 ISBN 978-961-286-642-6 160 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 1 Introduction As part of Literary Tourism, literary walking tours are on one hand a tool for attracting cultural and literary tourists, and on the other hand they help redistribute tourists from the most visited areas to less crowded ones. The United Kingdom and France are among the most developed literary destinations in Europe, but there are many other destinations that have rich literary heritage that has not yet been evaluated as a tourism resource for upgrading or developing tourism products. This is also the case in Slovenia, where literary heritage is very important – Slovenes tend to say that their national existence is based on culture and that culture, especially literature, plays a fundamental role in the national identity. Before concentrating on literary walking tours in Slovenia, literary tourism as an increasingly significant tool in the tourism sector (Potočnik Topler, 2020) needs some additional explanation. This phenomenon is understood as travel or movement to a destination due to an interest in some form of literary association therewith (Robinson & Andersen, 2002). It is based on the belief that by visiting a literary site a visitor can understand the author's life and works more than by reading literary reviews. Smith (2012) emphasizes that Literary Tourism is a very broad term, one that connects literature to many other disciplines, offering a shared medium for creating, contemplating, developing places and personalities, etc. Agarwal and Shaw (2018, 8) therefore point out its relation to heritage tourism “since it results from interest in the personal life histories of writers or in their works of literature which are more often than not set in a historical context”. Literary tourism as a type of cultural or heritage tourism is primarily connected to visiting “both those places associated with writers in their real lives and those which provided settings for their novels” (Herbert, 1995:33 in Stiebel, 2007). In addition, Smith (2012: 9) argues that also book signings and creative writing courses are parts of literary tourism, which is, according to her understanding (ibid.), “a form of cultural tourism involving travel to places and events associated with writers, writers’ works, literary depictions and the writing of creative literature.” Many positive examples of Literary Tourism development can be found across the world, of course, with each destination having its own characteristics. Literary walking tours have emerged as a wel -received type of Literary Tourism products, and some of them are also included in the most popular tour guides, such as for example, The Lonely Planet, which is suggesting the so-called top 10 literary walking J. Potočnik Topler: Literary Walking Tours as a Form of Wel -being: Slovene Writers' Trail and the Prežihov Voranc Route 161 tours of the world, among them the Literary Pub Crawl in Joyce's and Beckett's Dublin, the Millennium Tour in Larsson's (thriller author) Stockholm, walking in Jane Austen's Bath, Melbourne and Shanghai Literary Tours, Literary London and Paris, etc. At the moment, online editions of Lonely Planet are advertising walking tours on Google Maps, but the focus of this article, which employs descriptive methods and content and comparative analyses, is on the actual literary walking tours, which enable walking, hiking, physical exercises and, together with reading and possible developing of personal creativity, the overal mental and physical wel - being. 2 Literary Trails in Slovenia In 2013, the Slovenian Writers Association introduced the Slovenian Writers Trail (Figure 1), which leads across al Slovenia, connects the birthplaces and homes of Slovenian writers and poets, from Miško Kranjec’s birthplace in Velika Polana in Prekmurje to the birthplace of Oton Župančič in Vinica in Bela Krajina (Forstnerič Hajnšek et al., 2013: 8), to be precise, the Slovenian Writers’ Trail leads from the Mura region to the Drava region, and further on to Koroška (Carinthia), where it turns to the Savinja region, Celje, and the Obsotelje region, continues to the Sava region (Posavje and Zasavje) and onto Gorenjska (Upper Carniola), then turns to the Primorska region and the Karst, eastwards to Notranjska and comes to the capital of Slovenia, Ljubljana, and then ends in Dolenjska (Lower Carniola) and Bela Krajina. 162 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Figure 1: Slovene Literary Trail. Source: photo by Jasna Potočnik Topler The road distance between more than one hundred authorial destinations makes more than 700 hundred kilometres. Every region in Slovenia has its popular literary places, and the most famous in Slovenia are probably literary places connected to Slovenia's greatest poets and writers, among them France Prešeren in Vrba (Carniola), Ivan Cankar in Vrhnika, Primož Trubar in Velike Lašče, Fran Levstik J. Potočnik Topler: Literary Walking Tours as a Form of Wel -being: Slovene Writers' Trail and the Prežihov Voranc Route 163 (Litija, Čatež) etc. The trail tells the story about Slovenia through literature and thus represents Slovenian literary heritage. The Slovenian Writers Trail has become an integral part of Slovenian tourism products, and it also has the potential to become an important factor in Slovenian cultural tourism (Potočnik Topler, 2016). In this chapter the focus is on the Slovene region of Koroška, where tourism is underdeveloped for several reasons (lack of infrastructure, lack of stakeholders’ cooperation, etc.), but literary tourism based on the literary heritage by Lovro Kuhar – known by his nom de plume Prežihov Voranc - is a tourism project worth developing further. The writer’s ethnographic memorial museum, called The Prežihov Voranc Cottage (“Prežihova bajta” in Slovenian), located in the writer’s birthplace Preški Vrh near Ravne na Koroškem, has been operating and accepting visitors since 1979. The museum is a monument to farmhouse architecture, a characteristic home of a smal -scale farmer from Carinthia (called “bajtler” in the Carinthian dialect) at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th centuries, especial y known for having an open-hearth kitchen (Potočnik Topler, 2016). Today, the museum lets visitors pursue Prežih's (in the Slovene language “Prežihov” means Prežih’s) literary works and tel stories of his life at a young age. Nearby the cottage stands a bronze statue of the writer overlooking the village of Kotlje, designed by the sculptor Stojan Batič (Figure 2). The question, however, is how to use the author and the novel(s) sensitively by the regional DMO to add the value of wel -being to the tourism experience. 164 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Figure 2: A bronze statue of Prežihov Voranc overlooking the vil age of Kotlje, designed by Stojan Batič. Source: photo by Jasna Potočnik Topler J. Potočnik Topler: Literary Walking Tours as a Form of Wel -being: Slovene Writers' Trail and the Prežihov Voranc Route 165 3 The Concept of Wel -Being in Literary Tourism In 1948 Constitution of the World Health Organization, health is defined as “not the mere absence of diseases but a state of wel -being” (WHO, 1948). Despite the fact that it was first mentioned soon after World War II, wel -being is a concept that is challenging to define, but it is definitely what tourists seek (Pyke et al., 2016) and it has a significant role in disease prevention (Hartwell et al., 2012). In the literature, some inconsistency in terminology can be found, as wel -being is sometimes used interchangeably with wellness, life satisfaction, quality of life, and even with health (Hanlon et al., 2013). Quality of life is not the same as well-being, but since quality of life represents the theoretical foundations of wel -being (Pyke et al., 2016), Hagerty’s (Hagerty et al., 2001) model of quality of life needs to be mentioned because it describes objective and subjective features of quality of life and mentions domains that are shared across cultures: emotional wel -being, material wel -being, relationships with family and friends, health and personal safety, work and productivity, and the feeling of being part of one's local community (Hagerty et al., 2001). Farkić and Taylor (2019) propose rethinking well-being through the concept of slow adventure, which enables deeper experiences by slowing down when it comes to journeys, preparing food, and trying new things. This concept is very close to literary tourism and to what Liang et al. (2020, 1) suggest in a recent publication, namely that “subjective wel -being belongs to the category of 'quality of life' and has multiple philosophical foundations and theoretical sources including theories of hedonism, expectation, happiness and various itemised lists of emotions.” McMahan and Estes (2011) argue that well-being has its roots in ancient Greece. It can be explained in two possible ways: eudemonic (arises when meaning and self-fulfilment in life are experienced) and hedonic (occurs when individuals are searching for pleasure and happiness) (Ryan & Deci, 2001; Waterman et al., 2011). While Pyke et al. (2016) believe that cycling paths or walking trails are a eudemonic tourism product, and more in line with health than hedonic products, which include eating and drinking, this text argues that literary tourism offers both, experiences that enable eudemonic and hedonic wel -being and that both types of experiences may affect individual’s health positively. Benefits of well-being from a holiday experience provide many opportunities not only for tourists, but also for the visitor economy, and have the potential to be used as a marketing tool to attract tourists to a holiday destination (Pyke et al., 2016). 166 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. In connection to wel-being, also studies on the so-caled happiness factor (McCabe & Johnson, 2013) are on the rise; these argue that it is important for tourism products and services to provide experiences that can positively influence the quality of tourists' lives (Kruger et al, 2013). Filep (2014, 266) defined tourist happiness “as a psychological state of fulfilment and wel -being that is experienced in anticipatory, on site, and reflective travel phases”. This is important because tourist happiness ultimately influences the promotion of tourist destinations (Filep, 2014). When planning, creating, and developing literary walking tours, paths, and trails, it should be observed that a wel -organised literary walking tour is educational, informative, interactive, unique and entertaining, sharing these attributes in just the right proportion for a specific individual or a group. The objective of literary walking tours is to contribute to participants' emotional and physical wel -being. The recreational aspect of literary tours is in the walking, which can be adjusted to the participants' abilities, age, interests, etc. In Europe, many such tours exist. They are called heritage walking tours, wellness tours, and hiking tours, and offer walkers various programmes with the goal of achieving well-being. What is innovative and wil be presented further on in this chapter, are travel writing walking tours that some DMOs in France and the UK try to introduce into the tourism offer. Some of them are designed based on the DRAMMA model (Newman et al., 2014), which includes six psychological needs: detachment, relaxation, autonomy, mastery, meaning, and affiliation. These psychological needs connect leisure to wel -being and optimal functioning (Kujanpää et al., 2021). 4 The Prežihov Voranc Route Since literary trails already exist in Slovenia and are mapped, the article addresses the research question of how the author Lovro “Prežihov Voranc” Kuhar (1893 -1950), whose legacy continues not only with his works, but also with several primary schools across Slovenia that carry the writer's name of the writer, in addition to Prežih’s Memorial Room and the Prežihov Voranc Museum Cottage (Figure 3), etc., can attract domestic and foreign tourists to Slovenia as a destination, and especially to the destination of Koroška through the concept of wel -being. Domestic tourists J. Potočnik Topler: Literary Walking Tours as a Form of Wel -being: Slovene Writers' Trail and the Prežihov Voranc Route 167 are often attracted by the literary path of Lovro “Prežihov Voranc” Kuhar – caled Vorančeva Pot in Slovenian. Figure 3: A sign informing about the museum. Source: photo by Jasna Potočnik Topler The path starts in the centre of Kotlje, continues to the natural spring called ‘Rimski Vrelec’ and Kotnik’s house, further to nearby Pekel (“Hollow Hel ” from the writer's short story Teardrops), onto the Kogel homestead and the Ivarčko Lake, the Šrotnek homestead, and then finishes at the Kotlje cemetery, where Prežihov Voranc is buried. The path offers beautiful sights of natural and cultural attractions (Figure 4), among which the Peca and the Uršlja Mountain, hayracks, churches and the architecture of Carinthian homesteads merit mention. 168 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Figure 4: Walking trails from Prežihovina. Source: photo by Jasna Potočnik Topler Lovro “Prežihov Voranc” Kuhar is a canonised Slovenian author, but the question of how to attract foreign tourists to get acquainted with his life and works remains a chal enge. One of the possibilities for attracting foreign visitors and tourists is to find references to foreign lands and towns in his life and work, and, further on, to use these references as elements of storytel ing. It is wel known that when Prežihov Voranc was hiding from regimes because of his activist and political work, he was travelling across Europe, spending some time in Italy, Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Norway, France, Russia, etc. These places he visited can, along with Prežih’s writings, stories from his and contemporary times, and various travelogues, be used as references for attracting tourists, as one of the possible tools for attracting tourists and visitors is travel writing, which can be offered for reading, and engaging tourists in travel writings. Prežih’s collection of short stories titled Solzice (Teardrops), along with his works Samorastniki (Self-Sown), Požganica, Jamnica, and Doberdob, which comprise a foundation for creating new stories, notes, and travelogues, can be utilised as tools for attracting J. Potočnik Topler: Literary Walking Tours as a Form of Wel -being: Slovene Writers' Trail and the Prežihov Voranc Route 169 wider audiences, not only visitors from Slovenia. A small museum (Figure 5) devoted to Prežih’s life and work already exists, representing a typical farmer’s cottage from the beginning of the 20th century, but the museum’s management wants to upgrade it into a contemporary museum by involving visitors and using new technologies. Figure 5: Prežihov Voranc Cottage. Source: photo by Jasna Potočnik Topler 170 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. In the case of utilising Prežihov Voranc’s literary heritage for the tourism purposes and branding of the Koroška Region, the municipality of Ravne na Koroškem, and the Mežica Val ey, there are many possibilities of how to employ the author’s personality and his texts. Tourists or visitors can try their own hand at describing the landscapes they see (before or after this activity they can read Prežih’s descriptions). They can take the Prežih route and write down their own observations or perhaps even short literary texts, or just listen to stories narrated by a Tour Guide. Literary texts, indeed, have a significant role in attracting tourists to a certain destination and in keeping their attention, not only at the destination, but even before the actual visit, when tourists or visitors can prepare for a visit of Prežih’s birth place by perusing archives and libraries (the Prežihov Voranc Memorial Room is in the main library in Ravne na Koroškem). Thus, literary trails and literary tours can provide opportunities for mental and physical activities, and, consequently, the overall satisfaction of visitors and tourists. The Literary Tourism experience can be adjusted for various segments of tourists, and the content of literary trails may be enriched in different directions to satisfy different interests of tourists (organising local dishes or must tastings, etc.). A model for successfully branding literary destinations is through travel writing courses, which should be included in higher education institutions’ curricula for tourism studies in order to enhance writing skills as core tourism skil s, enhance literacy, branding processes of products and destinations, and increase employability and overal satisfaction in the tourism sector. 5 Travel writing – A Ticket to Well-Being One of the possible tools for attracting tourists and visitors is travel writing, which can be offered for reading, and engaging tourists in writing activities. Thompson (2011) argues that travel writing’s reputation rose sharply in the second half of the 20th century, with a new generation of critical y acclaimed authors and travel writers such as Paul Theroux, Bruce Chatwin, Ryszard Kapuscinski, and Robyn Davidson. Mansfield (2019) elaborates on the subject in his paper on tourism management and place-branding, and states that where travel writing is developed initially tourists or locals are provided with literary texts that have discoverable places. These places can be museums, statues, trees, plants, lakes, rivers, churches, etc. The next step is the tourists’ guided and self-directed movement to the places mentioned by some J. Potočnik Topler: Literary Walking Tours as a Form of Wel -being: Slovene Writers' Trail and the Prežihov Voranc Route 171 author’s novel. Due to its interdisciplinary nature, the definitions of place writing and travel writing are various and vague, but what is significant is that literature and text comprise an essential medium in many disciplines. Tuan (1991, 685) believes that this is due to “language’s metaphorical power – the way individual words and, even more, sentences and larger units impart emotion and personality, and hence high visibility, to objects and places.” The role that stories play should not be neglected and, according to Rose (2016), the potential of stories is in revealing the origins of thought and in their communicative power. Prežih’s collections of short stories Solzice (Teardrops) and Samorastniki (Self-Sown) and his novels Jamnica, as wel as some of his other works, are ideal for place-branding in the Slovene region of Koroška, and especially in the Municipality of Ravne na Koroškem. Here is a description of a summer’s night from the novel Jamnica in the Slovene language that could be used as a pul factor to start exploring the vil age of Jamnica, which is the actual village of Kotlje: Nad Jamnico se je že zganila topla, poletna noč. Temne sence so pokrile deželo na dolgo in široko, od ene gore na drugo in jo odele z globokim nočnim mirom. Jasno nebo, ki je na zahodu še zardevalo pod poljubčki umirajočih daljnih sončnih žarkov, je bilo naenkrat posuto z zvezdami, tako živimi in gorečimi, kakor da bi z neba gledalo milijon radovednih oči. Kakor daleč je segalo oko, je ležala sama temna širjava, ki so jo stražile še temnejše podobe strahotnih gora. Tudi sape so počivale in glasovi, ki so tu in tam vstajali, so bili čisti in jasni. To je bila prava koroška noč … (Jamnica 37-38). An attempt to translate the excerpt would go something like this: A warm, summer’s night had already set over Jamnica. Dark shadows covered the land long and wide, from one mountain to another, and covered it with deep nocturnal peace. The clear sky in the west, stil glowing beneath the kisses of the dying distant rays of the sun, was suddenly sprinkled with stars, both alive and burning, as if a million curious eyes were looking from the sky. As far as the eye could reach, the dark endless plain lay, guarded by even darker images of the dreaded mountains. Even the breaths were resting and the voices rising here and there were clean and clear. It was a true Carinthian night .. (Jamnica 37-38). 172 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. The excerpt undoubtedly fits into literary tourism and place writing, along with the linguistic characteristics of a place. Thus, the concepts of literary tourism, place writing and travel writing are not only about the features of a landscape, but also about the people, their customs, languages and dialects. Also Teardrops, as probably Prežih's most popular and most widely known text, has the potential and a strong communicative role in the branding of Koroška. This is an excerpt, describing a part of the farm that Prežih's family cultivated as tenants: Trava v Peklu sicer ni bila kdo ve kako bohotna, bila pa je menda posebno sočna, ker jo je živina v tej globači le prerada mulila. Jaz sem se tega kraja bal, odkar sem se začel zavedati svojega bitja. Tega je bilo predvsem krivo njegovo ime. O peklu sem čul govoriti starše, ki so me učili prvih krščanskih resnic, o peklu sem slišal pripovedovati v cerkvi, ko sem začel hoditi tja in se držal matere za janko. Vsa slika pravega pekla v moji mladostni domišljiji je odlično ustrezala našemu domačemu Peklu, manjkal je samo večni ogenj na njegovem dnu. Mislil pa sem si, da je naša globača vsaj kako preddverje pravega pekla, v katerega vodijo tajna vrata bodisi na dnu skrivnostne globače bodisi skozi žrelo gozdnate stene. Vselej sem se z grozo v srcu približeval temu kraju in urno bežal stran, kakor hitro sem mogel. (Solzice, 11-12) Translation: Although there wasn’t much grass in Hel , it seemed to be particularly succulent, because the livestock in this hol ow loved to mulch it. I had been afraid of this place for as long as I could remember. Most of al , its name was to blame for that. I heard my parents, who taught me the first Christian truths, talking about hel , and I heard about hel in church when I started going there, holding onto my mother's skirt. In my youthful imagination, al the picture of real hel was a perfect match for our home hel , only the eternal fire at its bot om was missing. I thought, however, that our hol ow was at least the foyer to the real hel , into which a secret door leads, either at the bot om of a mysterious hol ow or through the maw of a wooded wall. I always approached this place with horror in my heart, running away as quickly as I could. According to Mansfield (2017, 2), “researchers do believe there is a causal link between travel writing, both in the form of travel articles from the media as wel as travel literature from iconic travel writers, and the behaviour of tourists; this behaviour may be to encourage them to make destination choices or as visitors at the destination to make decisions on what to see and do in the city space.” Also J. Potočnik Topler: Literary Walking Tours as a Form of Wel -being: Slovene Writers' Trail and the Prežihov Voranc Route 173 language-placement of readers – visitors and tourists – is essential (Mansfield 2015, 208) because it carries a lot of information about the landscape, its people and heritage. Thus, the usage of dialects or slang may be significant. By employing the DRAMMA model (Newman et al., 2014), and the psychological needs of detachment, relaxation, autonomy, mastery, meaning and affiliation, literary walking tours can be further developed for various segments of tourists. 6 Conclusion A wel -organised literary walking tour is educational, informative, interactive, unique and entertaining, sharing these attributes in just the right proportion for a specific individual or a group to foster well-being by employing the DRAMMA model. The objective of literary walking tours is to contribute to participants’ emotional and physical wel -being. The recreational aspect of literary tours is in the walking, which can be adjusted to the participants' abilities, age, interests, etc. In the case of utilising the literary heritage of Prežihov Voranc for tourism purposes and branding Ravne na Koroškem, the Mežica Val ey, and the whole region of Koroška, there are many possibilities for employing the authors’ personality and his texts. The existing route, which is also a part of the Slovene Writers' Trail, is a good foundation. Tourists or visitors can try themselves in describing the landscape they see (before or after this activity they can read Prežih’s descriptions). They can climb the nearest hil s and the Uršlja Mountain, take the Prežih route, and write down their own observations, perhaps even short literary texts, or just listen to stories narrated by a tour guide. Tours may be structured (with a detailed plan) or semi-structured (ideas offered to tourists). Literary texts, indeed, have a significant role in attracting tourists to a certain destination and in keeping their attention, not only at the destination, but even before the actual visit, when tourists or visitors can prepare for a visit to Prežih’s birth place by exploring archives and libraries (the Prežihov Voranc Memorial Room is in the main library in Ravne na Koroškem). 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INCLUSION OF DARK HERITAGE IN THE CONTEMPORARY TOURIST OFFER OF THE CITY OF MARIBOR KATJA RAUŠL, BORIS PREVOLŠEK, MARJETKA RANGUS University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Brežice, Slovenia katja.rausl@student.um.si, boris.prevolsek@um.si, marjetka.rangus@um.si Abstract Dark tourism is a form of tourism based on visiting Note: places with a connection to death, violence, suffering, or natural Article is based on disasters. Human fascination with death is not new, it has been as translation of: present and observable since ancient times. Nowadays, Raušl, K. (2020). Vključevanje temačne numerous products of the entertainment industry rely on the dediščine v sodobno theme of death as a driving force of humanity. In terms of turistično ponudbo modern dark tourism, we discuss a wide spectrum of motives Mestne občine Maribor. behind this, which primarily come from a desire to encounter Univertsity of death, either staged or from a personal standpoint. In this Maribor, Faculty of Tourism. research, we analysed how dark tourism developed through time and across the world, its role in the tourism offers of Slovenia, Keywords: and what is the perception of dark tourism in the city of Maribor. dark tourism, war, death, Our focus is on several gruesome events that took place over the witches, centuries of Maribor's rich history. In this case study, we analyse cemeteries, the stories based on these events, evaluate the spectrum of dark paranormal, killings, heritage according to theoretical models and suggest the battles, development of new tourism products. Maribor DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.ft.6.2022.10 ISBN 978-961-286-642-6 178 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 1 Introduction Thanatourism, dark tourism, or morbid tourism are al different terms used to describe a form of tourism that has spread quickly in the past few years. This phenomenon is difficult to define, because it covers a wide array of tourism offers (Tarlow, 2007). Foley and Lennon (1996) were the first authors to use the term “dark tourism”, which first appeared in the International Journal of Heritage, and they defined this phenomenon based on events that force the visitor to doubt the present. They saw dark tourism as turning fear and doubt into a marketable product. We could also define dark tourism as visiting spaces, where tragedies or historically important deaths occurred in a way that influences the present. In the widest sense of the term, dark tourism encompasses visiting any of the places that have a connection with death – places of natural disasters, battlefronts, places of celebrity deaths, tombs, cemeteries, etc. (Tarlow, 2007). Even though the interest in dark tourism has grown significantly recently, we cannot claim that this is a new phenomenon. Lennon and Seaton (2004) used gladiator games in Roman arenas, public executions in the Middle Ages, and visiting famous battlefronts as examples of the first occurrences of dark tourism, while Sharpley and Stone (2008) added pilgrimages to the list. Dark tourism is therefore a phenomenon that is both new and old – it reaches to the very beginning of tourism as a form of travel ing from one’s place of residence with motives other than work and survival. There have been several studies of this conducted around the world, although to a much lesser extent in Slovenia. For this reason, we conducted detailed research on dark tourism in Slovenia, with a focus on the city of Maribor. We were especially curious about the following: − What is the general opinion of dark tourism and dark heritage in Maribor? − What kinds of dark heritage can we find in Maribor, and how is the identified dark heritage already included in the contemporary tourist offer of the city? − How can we evaluate dark heritage in Maribor based on the model of the spectrum of dark tourism? K. Raušl, B. Prevolšek, M. Rangus: Inclusion of Dark Heritage in the Contemporary Tourist Of er of the City of Maribor 179 We also wanted to know which parts of the dark heritage of Maribor also have the potential for inclusion in the contemporary tourist offer of the city. 1.1 Methodology We used an interdisciplinary approach in this study. We studied the available scientific and other literature on dark tourism. We used a qualitative methodological approach, interpretation, and description. We gathered information from primary and secondary sources, books, and online sources. We gathered additional information by conducting field research in the city of Maribor, using the method of semi-structured interviews. Our interviewees were employees of Maribor Tourist Information Board, staff at Tourist Information Centres, curators of the Regional Museum of Maribor and the National Liberation Museum, and other relevant individuals – tourist guides, historians, and storytellers. We used content analysis (Seuring & Gold 2012) and summary analysis to examine the data, and then presented the findings. 2 Understanding the motives for dark tourism There are many terms for the phenomenon that is dark tourism. What those names have in common is a description of places with connections to death, accidents, natural disasters, executions, violence, and suffering. Such tourist experiences give visitors a chance to get to know themselves on an interpersonal and intrapersonal level (Roth et al., 2015) . Visiting places connected to death (murder scenes, battlefronts, cemeteries, tombs, churches, homes of dead celebrities, etc.) is an important part of a tourist experience in many destinations. Stone (2012) claims that the attraction of destinations related to death is very clear to tourists, and that dark tourism became much more widespread and diverse in the past half century, as the offers increased greatly and more and more destinations promoted themselves as dark ones. Stone (2010) states that the attraction of dark destinations lies in understanding of the self and mortality, or in identification of a visitor with the victims, called “Significant Other Dead”. Despite this, the relationship between the motives for dark tourism and the experience of dark tourism is not yet fully explained. MacCannel (1976) claims the tourist experience comes from the symbolic meaning thus gained, whereas Wall and Xie (2005) add emotional elements and identify the process of tourist experience as searching for spiritual satisfaction and 180 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. symbolism. Guo et al. (2016) use the example of a demolished building after an earthquake – it has the role of an intimate, emotional space, where visitors can experience sympathy and the symbolism of the destination. Sharpley (2009) describes dark tourism destinations as a way of moral communication in contemporary society with moral implications, such as compassion, reliving an experience, feeling empathy, etc. Guo et al. (2016) describes dark tourism as a form of psychological consumption that offers the visitor desired and actual psychological outcomes that satisfy their emotional needs. It is a symbolic process of consumption that enables visitors to understand emotional and cognitive experiences through interacting with dark tourism products, regardless of whether the product is natural or manmade. We can explain this phenomenon as an interactive process between the tourist and ‘space of death” with shared characteristics to which we can attribute symbolical meanings. Current empirical research shows that visitors experience dark tourism in many ways (Guo et al., 2016; Podoshen, 2013; Seaton, 2009). Stone (2009) uses an example of the connection between a visitor to the London Dungeons and their own funeral, or the way visitors to Body Worlds exhibitions start thinking about their own bodies and health, and visitors to concentration camps relate the experience to their own mortality and that of their loved ones. Based on his research, Stone (2010) created a model of the relationship between the dead and dark tourism to identify the main aspects of a visitor’s view of a dark tourism destination. K. Raušl, B. Prevolšek, M. Rangus: Inclusion of Dark Heritage in the Contemporary Tourist Of er of the City of Maribor 181 Figure 1. Mediation model – the relationship between the dead and dark tourism Source: Stone, 2010 According to Stone (2010), dark tourism is a form of mediation between the dead and the living. He produced the mediation model presented above and highlighted the following main points in understanding a visitor’s view of a dark tourism destination: 182 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. a. Narrative Tel ing the story through information is a key factor in the connection between the dead and the living. Offering information is the first step in the process of mediation, where death and suffering are presented and interpreted in the context of a tourist experience. b. Education One of the most important motives for and functions of dark tourism is education. Dark tourism destinations often use horror as a tool in an educational narrative, to introduce a different point of view to visitors. c. Entertainment Even though the connection between death and fun is not apparent right away, the phenomenon of dark tourism proves otherwise. The dead can thus communicate their presence and other historical events through the entertainment of current-day visitors. d. Haunting (memories) The restless dead can haunt or persecute people, and the memories of murder victims can haunt entire societies. High profile horrific events, past executions, and unsolved murders haunt (and in a way also entertain) society as well as individuals. Fear of death can also increase due to various events related to death and disasters. e. Memorialization Whereas restless death can haunt the imaginations of the living, it is memorialization that al ows for “darker” dark tourism. Different ways of memorialization and remembrance are important in this context, and Stone (2010) divides memorialization into “first generation memories” (e.g., 9/11, which happened in recent times and is stil present in the collective consciousness), “second generation memories” (e.g. the memories of our parents and grandparents, who remember the events of wars taking place in 20th century differently than other visitors) and “third K. Raušl, B. Prevolšek, M. Rangus: Inclusion of Dark Heritage in the Contemporary Tourist Of er of the City of Maribor 183 generation memories”, events for which all living connections are lost, such as those prior to 20th century. f. Moral instruction Dark tourism destinations have strategical y placed taboo objects and use tragic stories to commercial ends, or they offer memorial stories, connecting the dead and the living. The result is those destinations exist on a wider economic spectrum, often as famous tourist attractions, and include ideas and representations that are close to popular culture (Williams & Stone, 2010). Some dark places include nihilistic stories of fear, death, horror, violence, and disease, presented in a vulgar, nearly parodical way, or they are presented in a sharp, strictly uncompromising, dark manner. g. Memento mori The last point in Stone's (2010) model elaborates on the long history of the Latin saying memento mori - remember you will die. In the history of romantic literature and art, this saying was often used along with motifs of death and mortality. Seaton (2009) claims this era was covertly sado-masochistic, as seen in the motifs of pleasure, fear, and horror visible in works of art, literature, and architecture from this era. Stone (2006) defines different levels of dark tourism, going from darkest to lightest. Miles (in Stone, 2006) explains the key difference between places connected to death, and actual places of death. It is important to distinguish between places where a dark tourism offer was created and the places where a dark tourism offer happened by chance, because of direct connection to tragedies, accidents, and disasters. Stone (2006) states that dark tourism appears along a complicated and complex spectrum that includes various definitions. Therefore, he believes it is difficult to speak only of “dark” tourism, because there are several shades of dark, which are not constant and change according to current events, along with time and place. Miles (in Stone, 2006) claims these factors are the most important in the attempt at defining the shades of dark tourism (see Figure 2). 184 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Figure 2 - spectrum of dark tourism Source: Stone, 2006 2.1 Typology of dark tourism The typology of dark tourism, as explained by Grafenauer and Kužnik (2015), will help us understand and define different categories of dark tourism in the city of Maribor. K. Raušl, B. Prevolšek, M. Rangus: Inclusion of Dark Heritage in the Contemporary Tourist Of er of the City of Maribor 185 − Cemetery tourism entails visiting cemeteries, not only because of the people buried there, but also because of their rich cultural heritage. Cemeteries often mirror history, architecture, culture, and people (Pogrebno podjetje Maribor, n.d.). − War tourism is visiting battlefronts and places of war and kil ings. It has grown exponential y in the past century, mainly due to the two world wars. Seaton (1999) defines war tourism as visiting places of armed conflict, either in the past or present. − Holocaust tourism describes tourism related to visiting places of mass ethnic killings (the word holocaust was first used for the mass killings of Jewish people in the Second World War) and mass kil ings of any groups deemed “lesser”, such as Romani people, homosexuals, and the disabled (Abrhám & Heřmanová, 2015). − Genocide tourism is a super-category of holocaust tourism, and it describes visiting places associated with genocide, and this is one of the most extreme forms of dark tourism (Gahigana and Sharpley, 2014). − Communist tourism, also called “red tourism”, describes visiting places connected to communist regimes and their fal . It can be further divided into tourism related to Europe’s communist heritage and Chinese red tourism (Caraba, 2011). − Prison tourism describes visiting places that were once prisons, penitentiaries, and dungeons. Prison tourism is quite widespread nowadays, and there are over 100 prison museums such as those in Alcatraz (San Francisco), Robben Island (South Africa) and Fremantle (Australia) (Aslan, 2015). − Cold War and Iron Curtain tourism started to evolve in the mid-1950's, when tourist agencies wanted to advertise tourism on the east side of the Iron Curtain (Bechmann Pedersen, 2018). − Natural disaster tourism is a form of dark tourism that visits destinations damaged by natural disasters and traumatizing events, such as visiting flooded parts of New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina (Gotham, 2007). 186 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. − Nuclear tourism describes visiting the sites of nuclear disasters. Among the most wel -known destinations are Chernobyl (Ukraine) and Fukushima (Japan) (Berger, 2006). − Tourism of murderers and murder places is visiting places where murders took place and places connected to mass murderers (Gibson, 2006). − Poverty tourism, also known as “slum tourism”, is visiting places of extreme poverty (Frenzel et al., 2015). − Terrorist tourism is visiting sites of terrorist attacks, or countries with an imminent threat of terrorism (Cross, 2019). − Supernatural tourism is visiting haunted houses and places, places where monsters, mythical creatures and aliens are al eged to have been seen, and al other sites of unexplained events (Haynes, 2016). − Witchcraft tourism is visiting places connected with the large-scale killings of people (especial y women) for al eged crimes against God and fraternizing with the Devil. (Grafenauer & Kužnik, 2015). − Accident tourism is visiting site of accidents – car crashes, plane crashes, or work accidents (Foley & Lennon, 2000). − Dark entertainment tourism combines dark elements with entertainment. One such example is the London Dungeons (Grafenauer & Kužnik, 2015). 3 Examples of dark tourism in Slovenia Dark tourism is not widespread in Slovenia, but we have identified certain destinations which use dark heritage as an element of their tourist offer. Nearly all the products listed below focus on and teach about the First and the Second World Wars, and war tourism is currently the most common type of dark tourism in Slovenia. − Posočje peace trail (Pot miru v Posočju) is a 230 km long trail running along the Slovenian-Italian border. On the trail there are several museums, cemeteries, ossuaries, and chapels. The most visited points are the Museum of Kobarid, Sabotin Peace Park, Kluže Fortress and the Church of the Holy Ghost Javorca (Pot miru od Alp do Jadrana, Soča valley, n.d.). K. Raušl, B. Prevolšek, M. Rangus: Inclusion of Dark Heritage in the Contemporary Tourist Of er of the City of Maribor 187 − Hostel Celica (ex-prison hostel) in Ljubljana has over 100 years of history as a military prison. Today it operates as a hostel with over 20 uniquely designed rooms (Hostel Celica, n.d.). − March Along the Barbed Wire (pot ob žici) is a 32.5 km long trail around Ljubljana that symbolizes the barbed wire that surrounded the city until liberation in 1945 (Visit Ljubljana, 2012). − Žale Cemetery in Ljubljana is especially significant because of it was designed by the Jože Plečnik (Pokopališče Žale, n.d.). − War History Park is located in what used to be barracks in Pivka, and it presents entire newer war history of Slovenia (Park vojaške zgodovine Pivka, 2019). − Idrija War Museum presents an exhibition on the First World War to Slovenia’s War of Independence (Vojni muzej Idrija, n.d.). − The Museum of the Slovene Police in Tacen holds exhibits from the beginning of police work in Slovenia (Slovenska policija, n.d.). 4 Presence of dark tourism in the city of Maribor Dark tourism in Maribor is stil quite an unexplored and undeveloped phenomenon. It cannot be found in the current tourist offer of the city, at least not under the name of dark tourism. That is why we thoroughly researched the existing tourist offer and presented the following elements that could be deemed “dark”. − Pobrežje cemetery has been in operation since 1879 and is a part of ASCE – the Association of Significant Cemeteries in Europe (Pogrebno podjetje Maribor, n.d.). − Dobrava cemetery is a younger cemetery that includes a crematorium, memorial park, war graves and several monuments (Pogrebno podjetje Maribor, n.d.). − Maribor National Liberation Museum is a historical museum that covers the events of the First and Second World Wars. It is located in the Scherbaum Mansion (Muzej narodne osvoboditve Maribor, n.d.). − Cona Tezno is an industrial part of the city that also covers a labyrinth of underground tunnels that were built during the Second World War, in 1943, as a form of protection against aerial attacks (Cona Tezno, n.d.). 188 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. − The War Museum of the Slovene Army is located in the barracks on Engels Street. The col ections tel the story and war on Slovenian territory and the development of the Slovene army (Vojaški muzej slovenske vojske, n.d.). As noted above, we did not identify any products in the tourist offers in Maribor that could be deemed explicitly dark. That is why we conducted this research using semi-structured interviews, with a clearly defined sample of interviewees. This research took place between February 7 and March 13, 2019. We contacted possible participants via email or phone, and if they agreed decided on a time and place for an interview. Interviews were conducted in two parts. In the first part, we inquired about dark tourism in general, thoughts, motives, and personal beliefs. In the second part, we focused on the active work of our participants in developing, operating, and promoting dark tourism. We coded the gathered information and analysed the data on three levels. First, we identified relevant codes from transcriptions of the interviews. Second, we established a protocol for clustering the data and organized the codes in clusters. This clustering was performed by two researchers, and after clustering we compared both procedures and discussed any different evaluations. Third, we analysed the clusters and interpreted the content of the interviews in the context of previous research and the knowledge thus obtained. The majority of our participants were familiar with dark tourism to some extent, and agreed it is not moral y wrong to use dark heritage in tourism, if it is presented with respect to the victims, correctly according to the theme, and not as a way to profit off the suffering of others. Understanding and accepting dark tourism is part of having respect for cultural heritage and history, educating visitors on the connections between the past and present. This is a type of tourism that can strongly affect the emotions of visitors. Keeping that in mind, several factors matter when it comes to offering dark tourism products, such as the visitor’s moral standpoint, values, emotional connection, identity, and so on. Themes must be adapted to the different views of individual guests and presented with compassion, consideration, and the intent to educate, and it is also necessary to anticipate visitors’ reactions and behaviours. We must understand a visitor’s motives for visiting dark destinations and offer a way to satisfy their needs through getting to know dark heritage, based on curiosity, a thirst for knowledge, remembrance, empathy, art, aesthetics, and relaxation. A contemporary tourist is K. Raušl, B. Prevolšek, M. Rangus: Inclusion of Dark Heritage in the Contemporary Tourist Of er of the City of Maribor 189 taking a step back from classic forms of travel and constantly searches for something new, exciting, bizarre, mythic, mysterious, and unique. The key to a wel -rounded tourist offer is knowing what to offer to who in what way. Some visitors visit places of death because of a search for peace and calm, and in order to reflect, feelings which might not be clearly connected to such places at first glance. Other visitors desire to gain deeper understanding, get to know the dark side of a story, experience fear and horror. Only a tourist offer encompassing al these criteria can satisfy a wide spectrum of people, not only a “dark tourist”. The interviewees named several destinations where they visited attractions linked to death, such as cemeteries, war museums, witchcraft museums, castles, dungeons, crypts, tombs, churches, etc. They also named several dark sites in Maribor, such as the remains of the concentration camp Stalag XVIII-D in Melje, the cemeteries in Pobrežje and Drava, archaeological findings dating to the Roman era, mass graves on Pohorje and in Stražun forest, monuments, gravestones, ruins, the remains of war barracks, mortuary ruins, the main square’s connection to witch trials (where there were once some gallows, pillory, cage, and wooden block). The interviewees also helped us find the dark stories of Maribor relating to wars, murders, witchcraft, supernatural occurrences, natural disasters, diseases, and so on. We col ected and summarized these stories in Table 1, below. We col ected information about important people visiting (or attacking) Maribor, victims of accidents, stolen children during the Second World War, older war history, facing the plague, cholera and other diseases, along with witch trials and executions. These stories fell under different types of dark tourism, including (but not limited to) war tourism, prison tourism, witchcraft tourism, supernatural tourism, cemetery tourism, holocaust and genocide tourism. We also asked our participants about segments of tourists interested in such stories. The answers varied, because every individual visitor has a personal moral standpoint, life experience and understanding of the world around them. That is why it is difficult to talk about a homogenous segment, because the type of product can apply to diverse groups of people. Some stories are appropriate for school students, some are suitable for younger children (e.g., those related to urban explorers), and some for older visitors who might be related to the victims. There are visitors driven by 190 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. curiosity, who are lovers of history, architecture, or alternative experiences. Another important factor in knowing the type of visitor is offering them relevant marketing channels. Nowadays we have available a wide array of possible resources, digital and analogue, that al ow us to reach a wider audience. We can choose a communication channel based on what type of visitors we wish to attract. We can communicate with the younger population online, through social media, apps, interactive sites and more, and this is now happening in Maribor, with several apps and web platforms enabling visitors to get easily oriented in the city, booking attractions, tours, accommodation, and restaurants online, and so on. Another important aspect is informing tourists on the site itself, with posters, brochures, flyers, interactive boards, and easily available information. There are also the possibilities of television and radio shows for the purpose of educating the wider public and reaching older generations who might not be present on social media as much. One problem is that the vast majority of (especially younger) local residents are not familiar with local history and stories, which are consequential y starting to be forgotten. To avoid this, we must offer products that work with the local people and present history in the correct way. Currently that is one of the reasons why we cannot talk about a huge demand for dark tourism, and why some of the interviewees expressed doubts that it could be an independent tourist product. The majority of interviewees see dark tourism as part of the existing offer, an addition to it, because there are currently not many hyper-focused dark tourists. In this context a wider audience must be targeted, and it is necessary to offer something diverse enough, but also specific enough, to satisfy as many visitors as possible. We spoke about marketing as well, and the interviewees mentioned classic and digital campaigns, exhibitions, quality content and programs, workshops, lectures, themed tours, and the development of niche products. But the first step must be supplying employees with sufficient information to present alternative parts of the tourist offer. Another problem occurs in the current upkeep of some of the dark destinations in Maribor. Many important historical sites are in state of disrepair and ruin, and are not maintained properly or renovated, but instead left to continue fal ing apart. There are currently some projects in action regarding the conservation of important K. Raušl, B. Prevolšek, M. Rangus: Inclusion of Dark Heritage in the Contemporary Tourist Of er of the City of Maribor 191 parts of cultural heritage, but there is a long way to go in preserving and presenting centuries of rich history in Maribor. 5 The typology and stories of dark tourism in Maribor according to the identified dark heritage In our field research, we were searching for authentic stories from Maribor’s history and cultural heritage to identify the dark tourism potential of the city. We analysed the existing literature on different types of dark heritage and consulted professionals in interviews about the subject of our research. We categorized the identified elements of dark heritage into subcategories according to the available literature and examples from interviews. Below we described the preserved heritage (physical or written) and stories relating to it. 5.1 War heritage Maribor has a turbulent war history that reaches far in the past, although records of Bulgarian attacks and several others are scarce or nearly non-existent. For to that reason, this chapter is focused on wars that are wel documented. We divided war heritage in Maribor into older war history (up until the First World War) and newer war history (First and Second World Wars). We further described the events of the Second World War in the chapter on holocaust heritage. Radovanović, Tomažič and Varl (1997) describe one of the worst attacks on Maribor in history. This event is still known as “the days of horror”, and they took place in September 1532, when the Ottoman army returned through Maribor from an unsuccessful attack on Vienna. For three days, a hundred thousand strong army sieged the bridge and city wal , which was defended by around 200 people from Maribor. It turned out that the renovation of the city wal a few years earlier was a great idea, because the siege was unsuccessful. After three days, Suleiman the Magnificent cal ed off the attack and ordered the building of a bridge in Bresternica, some three kilometres away from the city. The Ottomans spent an entire day and night crossing over the bridge and making their way to the city. They did not have the time to do a lot of damage upon reaching the city, however, because the imperial army was already at their feet, but they did manage to burn down several houses, 192 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. farms, and other buildings in their way. There is a story from that time about a brave tailor who saved Maribor from the Ottomans with his courageous action. 5.2 Second World War and holocaust heritage The Second World War was a lot harder on Maribor than the First World War. Žnidarič (1997) describes the uncertainty of those living in Maribor in early April 1941. German scouting planes first appeared over the city on the 4th and 5th of April, and the uncertainty grew. German units attacked Yugoslavia on 6th of April 1941, and two days later, on April 8th, the German army made its way into Maribor. Adolf Hitler visited the city on April 26th, but his visit was short – it entailed viewing the ruined bridges (main and railway bridge), Slomšek square, then stopping at Maribor Castle, where he was ceremoniously greeted by Germans residing in Maribor. A few days later, another important day took place in Maribor – on April 29th, with the first action against the occupiers taking place on Volkmer Street, where people set two German cars on fire, marking the start of the fight for liberation (Žnidarič, 1997). Heinrich Himmler issued an order on June 25th, 1942, declaring a strict punishment for everyone against the Reich, which included people of Maribor. He ordered the murder of al men and their guilty family members, put women in concentration camps and gathered the children in the region of old Reich (Hribar et al., 2002). In early August 1942, two actions took place in which men from Slovene Styria were gathered and sent to concentration camps. The same thing was done to women, while children were ordered to under examinations by “racial inspectors”. Some were sent to the barracks, but the “racially clean” had the privilege of additional inspections and adoptions into appropriate families. Ferenc (1968) states that sources claiming over 600 children were stolen at this time. During the occupation, 29 bombing raids took place in Maribor, and a total of some 15,795 bombs were dropped, demolishing 47% of the buildings in the city and killing around 500 people. It is very likely the actual number was substantially higher, because information regarding the dead in these bombings is very scarce (Žnidarič, 1997). K. Raušl, B. Prevolšek, M. Rangus: Inclusion of Dark Heritage in the Contemporary Tourist Of er of the City of Maribor 193 There are many things related to the Second World War today in Maribor, although many of the damaged buildings were demolished or renovated. Several monuments, memorial plates, tombstones, and the like were added after the war. In the context of specific war heritage, we can mention concentration camp Stalag XVIII-D in Melje, war bunkers on Pohorje and in Stražun forest, tunnels beneath Cona Tezno, the MC pekarna complex – army storage and bread bakery, and monuments on Pobrežje cemetery. There are some written records as wel , especial y a large col ection of letters written by people before their executions. Those letters can be found in the publications Poslovilna pisma za svobodo ustreljenih (1965) and Poslovilna pisma žrtev za svobodo (1969). 5.3 Prison heritage Behind the Europark shopping centre in Maribor lies a former youth penitentiary. The pentagonal building is currently in a bad condition, but in the times of Yugoslavia it was known as one of the most inhumane prisons in the country (Ratej, 2018). It was built in 1889 and accepted its first convicts ten years later. It was meant to house around 550 people, but it was not used to its full capacity until the Second World War. Exact information is hard to come by and the archives of the penitentiary are not available, only some writings about the convicts. The highest recorded number of convicts was 661, mostly convicted of spreading communist propaganda (Filipič, 1985). Ratej (2018) describes the inhumane conditions in the penitentiary, from unsuitable and rotting food, sleeping on hard ground without covers or blankets in cold cel s, to bad hygiene and atrocious work conditions. Those were the reasons for several hunger strikes, and one in 1930 was wel documented. The ordinary prisoners wanted the political prisoners to be moved to a different penitentiary, they wished to receive packages from their families, and enough heating and lighting. During these hunger strikes the prisoners were not treated wel , and often fed by force. Usual y, the prisoners would be put in a straitjacket and iron tongs were inserted in their mouths, to prevent them from closing. Then a rubber tube was put in their mouths, al the way to the stomach, and soup would be poured down the tube. That kind of force feeding was humiliating, painful and it always ended with vomiting, but it was repeated twice a day until the end of the hunger strike. This action ended with a moderate success, because the prisoners got different cel s and books, and the lights could be kept on for longer. This was not the first 194 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. hunger strike, however, as the first documented one was in August 1927, and it ended unsuccessfully for the prisoners (Ratej, 2018) Many important political persons were held in the penitentiary, among them Boris Kidrič and Josip Broz Tito. The yard of the penitentiary was also used for eight executions between 1923 and 1935. Those executions were not public, but newspapers published articles detailing the horrors happening behind the wal s of the prison. They were the only ones who offered insight to the public, and they spared no gruesome detail. 5.4. Cemetery heritage Cemetery heritage in Maribor goes a long way back, long before the two main cemeteries were established. Most of the cemeteries up until the second half of the 18th century were located around parish churches. The parish church of Maribor (today known as the Cathedral of Anton Martin Slomšek) was built in the early 12th century, along with the cemetery around it, for the residents of the city. Nearly 14,000 people were buried there between 1664 and 1783, when it was moved to the place that is known today as the stadium Ljudski vrt (Glaser, 2009). Glaser (2009) mentions several other cemeteries in Maribor: − The Jewish cemetery, which, according to the beliefs of the religion should not be placed too close to the synagogue but was anyway because of the spatial limitations of the city. Due to the remains of the graves, historians assume this cemetery laid between the synagogue and the Jewish tower, on what is today known as the Jewish Square. There was another Jewish cemetery on the outer part of the city wal , and it was used until 1496, when Jews were exiled from the city by the order of Emperor Maximilian I (Kmetič, 2016). − The Cemetery of Maltese Order of Knights in Melje used to be an outpost. In 13th century, the Church of St. Catherine was built there. According to legends, there was a deep dungeon under the church, and one of the monks was walled up alive there because of his relations with some winemaker. It is very likely there are several tombs underneath the church, where more important knights were buried. The cemetery surrounding the church was in use for nearly six centuries, and the remains of the church are still visible today (Kmetič, 2016). − The protestant cemetery in Betnava was built because it was forbidden for people of this faith to be buried in Catholic cemeteries. Baron Herberstein of K. Raušl, B. Prevolšek, M. Rangus: Inclusion of Dark Heritage in the Contemporary Tourist Of er of the City of Maribor 195 Betnava offered a part of his estate for a cemetery, a house for a pastor, a school, and a church. The cemetery only lasted 12 years before anti-Protestant soldiers burned the wal s surrounding the cemetery and some nearby buildings. The graves remained untouched, the wall was rebuilt, and the cemetery was in use (although in a limited scope) for another 27 years. The remains visible today are tombstones in the castle of Betnava (Kmetič, 2016). − The Cemetery in Magdalenski Park, where the remains of mortuary are stil visible today. This cemetery was closed in 1880, the same year that the Catholic cemetery was added to Pobrežje (Kmetič, 2016). − Studenci cemetery between 1878 and 1941. − The cemetery under Pekrska gorca. − Scherbaum cemetery in Radvanje. 5.5 Witchcraft Witch trials were widespread across Europe (and later America) between the 15th and 18th centuries. The exact timeframe is unknown, but the mass killings (usually of women) reached an al -time high in the 17th century in Slovenia. The mentality was very different back then, and the common people were unable to explain phenomena such as changes in the weather, diseases, mental il nesses, wars, and famine. The Church also had a huge influence and spread fear of the devil. It was an epidemic of superstition, and nobody was safe from it, because belief in the devil was almost more common than faith in God, and people were terrified also of the devil's helpers –witches. The first suspicions of witchcraft date to the ninth century, but it was a few centuries later that the fear of witches spread so much that the clergy (considered the educated part of the population) set the course for bloody and terrifying witch trials. They believed that witchcraft was based on a contract with the devil, and because the devil was seen as a man, it was only normal that he was worshipped by women, who also had intercourse with him. The first “witch” was publicly burned in 1275 in southern France (Radovanović, 1997). The first documented witch trial in Maribor took place in 1546, and there are 45 more that were recorded over the course of the following 200 years, leading to 40 executions. During that time, Maribor was under the influence of the Reformation, and the provincial jailer was Jakob Bithner, an ex-soldier and 196 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. evangelical theologist. Bithner was the reason for most of the witch trials in Slovene Styria after 1580. In that same year, several women were condemned in Maribor, and after extensive torture they confessed to murders, riding the devil, poisonings, and cooking up storms. Because of their al eged crimes, they were sewn into bags and thrown in the River Drava, and were not burned at the stake because they did not have sex with the devil (Radovanovič, 1997). Witches also stirred the imaginations of storytel ers, and it is not surprising there are several tales about them, all meant to frighten children. In those stories, passed on mostly orally, witches would often kidnap children (or adults), turn them into various animals and spirits, or do serious harm with their magic (Raušl, 2020). 5.6 Supernatural heritage – myths, fables, and legends The River Drava has stirred the imagination of local people since time immemorial, as it used to be much more wild than it is today. We discovered several tales relating to the river, and stories connected to the supernatural. There are recurring characters in these, most often water beings, such as the River Man, sirens, mermaids, ghosts and the like (Haramija, 2011). Those stories usually describe the workings of higher forces, supernatural creatures, demons, and devils, and they are often closely intertwined with nature. The most wel -known of those stories are Dravska roža (the flower of Drava), that tel s the story of three sons of a woodcutter who met a bitter end because of a mean-spirited noblewoman; Dravski vodovnik (the River Man of Drava), that describes the unrequited love of the River Man's three daughters for rafter's sons; Kačja kraljica (Snake Queen), who lived on Maribor island with other snakes; and the story of Pekrska gorca (Pekre mountain), which was the work of the devil (Haramija, 2011; Tomažič, 1993; in Raušl, 2020). 5.7 Natural disaster heritage Maribor has suffered several natural disasters through its long history, the worst of which was the Black Death, which killed many of its inhabitants. There are not many records regarding the plague, medicine, or doctors during this period, but we used all the available information in this study. K. Raušl, B. Prevolšek, M. Rangus: Inclusion of Dark Heritage in the Contemporary Tourist Of er of the City of Maribor 197 According to the spectrum of dark tourism presented above, it is clear there are several shades of darkness to be found in Maribor. We gathered the stories and summarized them, then evaluated them based on the spectrum, presented by Stone (2006), identified the main characters, placed them in temporal and spatial frames, and added the corresponding type of dark tourism classification. 198 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Table 1: Overview of dark stories, their summaries, and characters Story Spectrum Characters Time Place Summary Dark tourism type Ottoman invasions In times of the Ottoman invasions, the brave Tailor who between tailor disguises himself as one of the saved Maribor Light Tailor, Ottomans 15th and Maribor, city wall Ottomans, so he can sneak undetected to the War tourism 17th floodgate, open it and flood a defensive century trench, thus drowning the attackers. Letters of the those executed Darkest Real people 2nd world Usually abroad, also The real last letters of victims who were shot Holocaust for freedom war Maribor, Melje during and after Second World War. tourism Real people, the Real event describing the last death Last executions murderers Ivan sentences by hanging in Maribor. Even Prison in Maribor Darker Lakner and 1935 Former male penitentiary though the executions were not public, they tourism Stanko Pančur were seen by nearly 300 people. The real tragedy of young Avgust Kelnarič, Buried alive Darker Real person, April 17th, Accident Avgust Kelnarič 1935 Pobrežje cemetery who was buried alive while digging a well. A 3-day rescue attempt was unsuccessful. tourism Musician and In this tale, the witches kidnap a musician Witchcraft the witches Lighter Musician, witches / / who must play for them the entire night while they dance. tourism A cunning witch changes her servant boy into a horse every night and rides him to the Witch wife Lighter Witch, husband, Witchcraft servant boy / / dance, without the knowledge of her husband. In the end the servant boy gets a tourism chance for revenge. Water Man Gestrin is the protector of the Drava. To Supernatural Gestrin Lightest the Water Man, timber rafters / River Drava cross the river safely, one must give him gifts of gold. tourism The River Man The River Man, The River Man lives in the Drava with his Supernatural of Drava Lighter sirens, rafter, / River Drava three daughters, the sirens, who fal in love rafter’s sons with the rafter's three sons. But the water tourism K. Raušl, B. Prevolšek, M. Rangus: Inclusion of Dark Heritage in the Contemporary Tourist Of er of the City of Maribor 199 Story Spectrum Characters Time Place Summary Dark tourism type and the land are not a good match, and the story ends in tragedy. Woodcutter, The woodcutter's sons meet an evil The flower of woodcutter's noblewoman, who demands they bring her Supernatural Drava Lighter sons, / River Drava, Maribor noblewoman, Island, Limbuš the flower of the Drava – a magical plant tourism dragon that grows at the bottom of the river. The Snake Queen lives with her servant Snake queen Lightest Snake Queen, snakes on Maribor Island. Her treasure is a Supernatural snakes, duchess / Maribor island, River Drava crown that the greedy duchess wants for tourism herself. Based on the legend of Pekre mountain, the Pekrska gorca Lightest God, devil, St. creation of which is attributed to the devil, Supernatural Mary / Radvanje who threw a piece of Pohorje rock onto tourism Maribor. Plague doctor The real story of an Italian plague doctor Natural Black death Darker Hannibal 17. century Maribor who was so afraid of the disease he offered disaster Bottinoni medical advice from horseback. tourism 200 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 6 Conclusion Based on our research, we have learned that Maribor and Slovenia have rich potential for dark tourism development, but until now it has not been explored in the city’s tourism offer. There is a significant number of attractions with connections to dark heritage to be explored further, but it is important to present them in an appropriate manner. A key factor in developing dark tourism offers further is the cooperation of everyone involved in shaping the tourist offer in Maribor. We answered the questions we asked at the beginning of this research and found that the general opinion of dark tourism is positive, people working in the tourism industry are mostly familiar with it and see it as an interesting part of the tourist offer in Maribor. We identified several types of dark heritage, including war heritage, holocaust heritage, prison heritage, cemetery heritage, witchcraft heritage, supernatural heritage, and natural disaster heritage. We found that these were already included in tourist offers to a lesser extent, mostly in guided city tours or museum exhibitions. We evaluated the dark heritage we found according to the spectrum of dark tourism, from darkest to lightest, and determined the potential for inclusion of dark heritage in the tourist offers of Maribor. There is a lot of potential in dark tourism in Maribor that suggests several possible directions for further research. The logical next step would be researching the relationship between local inhabitants and dark tourism, how they view it, accept it, and add to it. We believe that the development of dark tourism in Maribor would lead to greater inclusion of local inhabitants into this sector. Individual inhabitants have unique, personal stories and experiences that could be included in the tourism offers, in a way that is mutually beneficial. 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While Airbnb was originally optimistically discussed as an element of ‘the sharing economy’, it has become known as one of the key players of the ‘platform economy’, belonging to the area of the so-called capital platforms, which allow participation-based primarily based on ownership of capital. Our research amongst a sample of 103 officially registered accommodation providers in Slovenia has shown that Airbnb is the second-most used platform, on average bringing a third of income for the surveyed participants, while Booking.com brings about half of their income. Furthermore, the results show that monetary motives prevail among Slovene hosts. However, social and moral motives are also strongly expressed. These findings indicate that the perceived primary purpose of Airbnb is generating additional Keywords: Airbnb, earnings due to a surplus of real estate capital. A higher share of motivation for income from hosting in comparison to other types of income is accommodation correlated with the expressed importance of monetary motives. provision, sharing economy, In contrast, the prevalence of social motives is influenced by fear platform economy, of loneliness, cultural openness, and hosts’ global prosociality. hospitality DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.ft.6.2022.11 ISBN 978-961-286-642-6 204 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 1 Introduction Peer-to-peer accommodation is defined as the provision of an apartment or room for rent to another person, which is available through digital platforms such as Airbnb. Three components are key to this business model: provider, consumer, and web platform. The company that owns the platform gets a share of each transaction, the consumer pays a lower price than it would in a traditional market, and the provider has a guaranteed source of revenue (Aloni, 2016). The term sharing economy refers to activities in which the profits and benefits of al participants are achieved by sharing or exchanging goods, assets, or services (Seo, Jeong, & Kim, 2017). The provider can offer their surplus goods for free or demand payment of a certain amount (McCabe, 2017). These are activities based on the idea of access to surplus goods that the provider does not currently need, i.e., to underused goods or dead capital. Critics, however, point out that the term sharing economy is misleading when used for platforms such as Airbnb versus its earlier counterpart Couchsurfing. Turnšek and Ladkin (2017) present the debate on whether Airbnb is representative of ‘sharing’ in such an economy and argue that, in the case of Airbnb, the term ‘platform economy’ is a more valid description of the phenomenon. In ‘sharing economies’ the users are said to ‘share’ their resources: car rides, as in the case of Uber, and homes and apartments as in the case of Airbnb. In reality, Turnšek and Ladkin (2017) claim, users more often provide services rather than share resources ‘for example, the act of “hosting” as social interaction is a vital part of the sharing process, having a major effect of the perceived quality of the user’s experience. They follow Oskam and Boswijk (2016), who propose to obviate the term sharing economy. Sharing is about more efficient use of physical assets and not about private individuals delivering each other service, and the essence of sharing is that it does not involve the exchange of money. Duggan et al. (2020) thus positioned accommodation platforms such as Airbnb into ‘capital platform work’. Airbnb was founded in San Francisco in 2008. It is a platform that enables the short-term rental of a room, bed, or apartment that an individual does not currently need (Cusamano, 2015). Since then, Airbnb has become one of the largest accommodation companies, as most people prefer to stay in private apartments K. Kokot, M. Turnšek: Motivations for Hosting On Airbnb: The Case Of Slovenia 205 rather than hotel rooms during their vacations. Additionally, as guests, they experience greater relaxation, homeliness, and genuine contact with the local culture. The Airbnb community and the networks among its members have already been established and are operating in Slovenia as well. Given the tourist conditions and potential of Slovenia, and the high share of owner-occupied flats and houses, the economic potential of the short-term rental of these accommodation capacities is vast – for individual hosts as well as for the overall economy, tourism, and society (Gajšek, 2017). According to the Ministry of Economic Development and Technology of the Republic of Slovenia, in 2018, there were 3,200 Airbnb hosts in Slovenia, where 208,000 tourist visits were recorded, of which 51% stays were in the capital city of Ljubljana (Korošec, 2018). In Slovenia, Airbnb accommodation is available mainly in Ljubljana (44% of beds), Bled (15% of beds) and Piran (11% of beds). Together, these three destinations make up about 71% of Airbnb accommodation in Slovenia (Kneževič Cvelbar & Dolničar, 2017). Ljubljana is an example of high tourism growth. The number of beds located in Ljubljana and promoted on Airbnb.com grew 84% annually over the five-year period from 2013 to 2018 (AirDNA, 2020). Meanwhile, the structure of peer-to-peer accommodation in Ljubljana was changing – it was developing to become more professional. In 2019, hosts listing more than six properties (offering between 12 and 15 beds in total – a number comparable to a smal hotel) comprised 36% of Airbnb listings (AirDNA, 2020). As the platform economy has expanded on both global and national levels and has become a trend among Slovene accommodation providers, it is important to understand the motivations for using Airbnb. Therefore, the study’s primary purpose is to determine the prevailing motives for use among Slovene hosts and which independent variables influence the motives for use. The studied topic is relevant, as Airbnb has already become very stable in the Slovenian tourism industry. 2 Motives to participate in the platform economy from the perspective of providers The platform economy offers business opportunities for a wide range of people. Many believe it fil s the gap between permanent employment and entrepreneurial desires (Stemler, 2017). Table 1 presents previous research to 2019 and their findings examining the main motives for using Airbnb and similar forms of accommodation provision. 206 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Table 1: Motives for the use of sharing economy platforms AUTHORS MAIN MOTIVES FOR USE − Income increase Deale & Crawford (2016) − Adapting to their needs − Meeting new people − Income increase Lemonis (2015) − Social interaction − Escape from routine − Feeling like they travel themselves − Social interaction Lampinen & Cheshire (2016) − Income increase − Later expressed motives: satisfaction with being perceived as a good host − Income increase Lampinen & Ikkala (2015) − Social interaction − Escape from routine − Income increase Karlsson & Dolničar (2016) − Social interaction − Sharing − Income increase Hardy & Dolničar (2017) − Social interaction − Ethical motives Farmaki & Stergiu (2019) − Income increase − Social interaction Deale and Crawford (2016) identified three motives for providing accommodation as wel as for further participation in the platform economy: (a) income, which means additional earnings, offset cost of ownership and better use of extra resources; (b) adapting to their needs; which means that being a host is a flexible job, without hassle or superiors, and the hosts can independently control when they offer accommodation; and (c) meeting new people including from meeting new people to forming new relationships and developing deep friendships. A survey conducted by Lemonis (2015) has also shown that the main motives for using Airbnb are additional income and social interaction, with almost all interviewees in the survey highlighting both motives. Additionally, they also stated that providing accommodation offers them an opportunity to escape from their daily routine. Providing accommodation allows them to feel like they are travelling on their own. For these hosts, monetary reasons are merely an added value for using Airbnb. K. Kokot, M. Turnšek: Motivations for Hosting On Airbnb: The Case Of Slovenia 207 Lampinen and Cheshire (2016) interviewed twelve US accommodation providers on the Airbnb platform. After analysing the answers, the motives for providing accommodation were divided into social interaction with guests (meeting new people, spending free time with guests, making new acquaintances or friendships), satisfaction in being perceived as good hosts (satisfaction with being competent hosts and surprising their guests, sharing tips and returning to the local community), income (to repay a mortgage, to finance studies, to make it easier to pay rent, to repay a student loan, to pay for medical services). Ikkala and Lampinen conducted twelve interviews in Finland with Airbnb hosts (2015). The results indicated three predominant motives for use: income increase (able to spend money on extra luxuries), social interaction (meeting and socialising with new people as wel as expanding social circle) and escape from daily routine. Similarly, an online survey among 244 hosts in Australia (Karlsson & Dolničar, 2016) showed that the three most important motivational factors for becoming Airbnb hosts are income, social interaction and sharing. Income as the primary motivator among Australian hosts was divided into three main sub-categories. The sub-category to “Pay the bil s” referred to reasons such as paying bills, covering basic needs, and trying to get through the month. The sub-category “For money” included responses such as money, cash, income, or financial help that could not fit into the other two categories. The last sub-category, “To afford luxury”, included motivations that referred to covering basic needs and expenses, but more to afford something usual y unaffordable and make money for the finer things in life. Social Interaction was the second motivational factor among Airbnb hosts in Australia. The first sub-category, “To meet people”, included reasons such as interest in interaction, meeting new people, and meeting new and exciting people. The sub-category “For the love of it” referred to a genuine passion for meeting people, expressing real excitement for connecting with people and being hospitable in their own homes. The last sub-category, “Other”, was related to reasons that focus on a desire not to live alone but to have company and meet people of different nationalities for a certain period. The last motivator was Sharing, with the first sub-category, “Unused space”, referring to hosts expressing that they have extra space, such as an unused bedroom, or the property was usual y empty. The sub-category “Sharing my world” was about the desire to share the world hosts live in, rather than just unused space. The third sub-category was “Sharing my resources” with answers 208 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. such as “share my house” and “share my space with other travelers” (Karlsson & Dolničar, 2016). Hardy and Dolničar’s (2017) study proposes that hosts fit in three main types: Capitalists, Befrienders, and Ethicists. Pure Capitalists strive to receive the maximum return on investment, have high profits, and use the platform only as a distribution channel. On the other hand, pure Befrienders look to socialise with guests, meet new people and make new friends. The last type is pure Ethicists, who want to live an ethical life. Their main goal is to achieve sustainability throughout life. It is crucial to utilise the space they have. The pure types are hard to find as hosts are usual y a mixture of al these types. In fifteen interviews with hosts on the Airbnb platform, Farmaki and Stergiu (2019) found that income increase is one of the primary motives for hosts (example of the statement: “Airbnb offers me extra financial security”) and the other is social interaction (example of the statement: “it is not al about the money, I also like the feeling of having people with you … I don't go out much or have many visitors and I like hosting people”). 3 Survey of Slovenian hosts The motives for using the Airbnb platform among Slovene hosts have not yet been sufficiently researched; therefore, the primary purpose of this study is to determine precisely the predominant motives thereof Additional y, the goal is to research how different independent variables affect the expression of motives for using Airbnb. The hypotheses of the research were: − H1 – Monetary motives predominate among Slovenian Airbnb hosts. According to a survey based on interviews with more than 2,000 adults in the UK in 2013, 72% of people involved in the platform/sharing economy have the primary motivation for additional earnings (Stephany, 2015). Also, in other surveys where in-depth interviews were used, almost al participants expressed that the main reason for their presence on Airbnb was additional earnings (Lemonis, 2015). K. Kokot, M. Turnšek: Motivations for Hosting On Airbnb: The Case Of Slovenia 209 − H2 – The amount of a host’s real estate capital is positively correlated with the expressed importance of monetary motives for using Airbnb. Kwok and Xie (2018) confirmed that hosts with more units broadcast on Airbnb generate more revenue from Airbnb than those with just one unit. The same was confirmed by Xie and Mao (2017); however, it is implied that such hosts then achieve poorer social performance (they are less often “superhosts” and respond more slowly to questions and criticisms). However, we believe that higher revenues from more units on Airbnb positively impact the expressed importance of monetary motives for using Airbnb. − H3 – The host’s social class is positively correlated with the expressed importance of monetary motives for using Airbnb. We anticipate that a higher social class is likely to mean a greater chance of owning more real estate. Consequently, a higher share of Airbnb revenue, possibly due to renting out better-equipped, luxury real estate or real estate in a more desirable location, may also affect the expression of monetary motives to use Airbnb. − H4 – The share of host’s rental income in comparison to other income is positively correlated with the expressed importance of monetary motives for using Airbnb. We anticipate that the higher share of revenues from Airbnb compared to other revenues has a positive effect on the expression of monetary motives for use. This surplus is likely to be most evident in people who own at least one or more additional properties and can rent them out throughout the year, as there are also many business hosts present on Airbnb, e.g. owners of apartment houses, small hotels and similar. − H5 – The host’s fear of loneliness is positively correlated with the expressed importance of social motives for using Airbnb. We assume that the fear of loneliness has a positive effect on the expression of social motives, which can be a critical factor in shaping the intention to broadcast through the Airbnb portal. To the extent that individuals also have access to a property or 210 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. part of a property they can rent out, they see the role of host as an excelent opportunity to address loneliness, which we assume occurs predominantly in older people whose children have left home and left them alone. If they are stil retired and have much free time, this degree of loneliness may be even higher. They want to expand their social circle (example of the statement from previous research: “It is not easy for me to meet new people in Helsinki. Of course, I could go to a bar or something like that. However, it is not so easy for people my age (older senior) to meet people. However, sometimes I have very wonderful conversations and moments with my guests, people who are strangers to me.” (Ikkala & Lampinen, 2015). − H6 – Hosts’ cultural openness is positively correlated with the expressed importance of social motives for using Airbnb. In past research, Airbnb hosts have expressed that their past travels and good experiences with hosts from other cultures have positively affected their participation in the sharing economy. Examples of quotes are, for example: “I am slowly getting used to the role of host… In the past, I travel ed a lot al by myself, so now I think I wil be able to do it [able to act as a host]. Without this experience, I certainly would not have gotten into it” (Lampinen & Cheshire, 2016). − H7 – Hosts’ global prosociality is positively correlated with the expressed importance of moral motives for using Airbnb. Research to date has shown that hosts on Airbnb often feel obligated to help others and share their knowledge. Example quote: “For more than a year, many people from different countries have helped us see the world during our trip, provided us with traditional food, offered transportation and accommodation, given information about their lives and culture. We are so grateful for their kindness and hospitality. So now, when we get home, we plan to do the same for others. We want to host, pamper, show off our place and, of course, help others. We feel the need to give back to the world al this positive energy that others have given us on this long journey!” (Decrop et al., 2018). K. Kokot, M. Turnšek: Motivations for Hosting On Airbnb: The Case Of Slovenia 211 For the purpose of the study, a structured questionnaire was designed. The content of the questionnaire was divided into six sets of questions/statements. The first set of questions included the question of which online platforms they use to promote their services, the question of the percentage of monthly revenue from renting accommodation, and the question of the percentage of revenue from the different online platforms. The second set included 13 statements in the form of a Likert scale. The claims were translated from research on motives for sharing online (Bucher, Fieseler, & Lutz, 2016). The third set of claims contained ten statements about cosmopolitanism obtained from the study on the impact of cosmopolitanism on ecological behaviour (Leung, Koh, & Tam, 2015). The fourth set contained six statements about fear of loneliness from an abbreviated version of the questionnaire on loneliness (Nazzal, Cruz, & Neto, 2018). Finally, the last set of questions inquired about the survey participants’ socio-demographic status. We were interested in the respondents’ age, gender, level of education, average monthly income, type of residential settlement, marital status, social class, and the amount of real estate capital. The survey was conducted online from 8 to 17 February 2020. It was available via the website www.1ka.si. The respondents’ e-mail addresses were obtained on 20 December 2019, from the Register of Accommodation Establishments of the Republic of Slovenia (AJPES, n.d.) Although renting on Airbnb as an unregistered host is illegal in Slovenia, there is currently no public data on how many of the hosts are potential y not registered at the Register of Accommodation Establishments of the Republic of Slovenia. However, the National Tax Authority, since 2017, has al egedly been cooperating with Airbnb and Booking.com with regards to data on hosts (Furs pridobil podatke o dohodkih z Airbnb in Bookinga ter grozi z globami, 2017), wherefore we assume that the number of il egal accommodation provisions is negligible. E-mail addresses of legal entities with a registered standard classification of activities, namely 55.202 Tourist farms with rooms, 55.203 Private rooms for rent to guests, and 55.209 Other short-term accommodation were obtained from the register. An invitation to participate in the survey was sent to 1,569 people. 212 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. One hundred and three questionnaires were answered for data processing. The results of the demographic data analysis of the sample are presented in Table 2. In the sample, individuals in the age group of 60 years or more are slightly predominant (28.0%). The largest share of respondents had completed higher education (35.9%). The question about the average monthly income showed that most respondents have between 1001 and 2000 EUR of monthly income (52.7%). Most respondents live in a house, in a hamlet or a small village with up to 500 inhabitants (29.0%). In the sample, men slightly predominate (51.6%). Most respondents are married (53.8%) and self-reportedly belong to the middle class (50.5%). The majority of respondents own 100 to 300 m2 of real estate (49.5%). The question on the average monthly share of rental income compared to other income showed that, on average, rental income represents 44.2% of all individual’s income. The question in which the respondents had to state what percentage of the income from freelance accommodation provision is brought to them by each online platform showed that Airbnb brings on average 31.1%, Booking 53.1% TripAdvisor 2.0%, HomeAway 7.74% and other channels 27.5%. The majority of respondents rent out one unit (57.1%), followed by those who rent out two units (17.1%), those who rent out three units (12.9%), those who rent out five units or more (7.1 %), and the fewest rent out four units (5.7%). Most respondents rent out a house (37.5%), fol owed by those who rent out an apartment (25.0%), ancillary building (25.0%), or Bed and Breakfast (10.0%), with the fewest renting and the least rent out a unique home (2.5%). The analysis of expressed importance of motives for hosting (see Table 3) shows that monetary motives predominate among the respondents (Table 3). The arithmetic mean is 4.47 for this group of motives, and the arithmetic means are higher than 4 for al statements. The arithmetic mean is 3.75 for social motives. The lowest arithmetic mean is for moral motives (3.26). At the same time, the latter two also have a higher standard deviation (0.93 compared to 0.59). Those results lead us to confirm, in a moderate way, hypothesis H1 that the monetary motives predominate among Slovenian Airbnb hosts. K. Kokot, M. Turnšek: Motivations for Hosting On Airbnb: The Case Of Slovenia 213 Table 2: Demographic characteristics of the sample Variable N % Age group Less than 20 years 0 0.0 20– 29 years 8 8.6 30–39 years 16 17.2 40–49 years 20 21.5 50–59 years 23 24.7 60 years or more 26 28.0 Level of education Primary school 1 1.1 Secondary school 24 25.8 Vocational school 16 17.2 Higher education (university degree) 37 35.9 Masters or doctorate 15 14.6 Average monthly net income Less than 400 EUR 5 5.4 401–1000 EUR 19 20.4 1001–2000 EUR 49 52.7 More than 2000 EUR 14 15.1 Without answer 6 6.5 Type of settlement Detached house, hamlet or small village with up to 500 inhabitants 27 29.0 Village or town with over 500 to 2000 inhabitants 23 24.7 Town with over 2000 to 10.000 inhabitants 18 19.4 Town with more than 10.000 inhabitants 25 26.9 Gender Female 45 48.4 Male 48 51.6 Marital status Single 7 7.5 Single – divorced 9 9.7 Single – widowed 4 4.3 Marries 50 53.8 Non-marital partnership 19 20.4 Partnership without living together 1 1.1 Without answer 4 3.2 Lower middle class 5 5.4 Middle class 47 50.5 Upper middle class 31 33.3 The upper class 1 1.1 Without answer 9 9.7 Amount of real estate capital Up to 100 m2 11 11.8 100-300 m2 46 49.5 More than 300 m2 26 28.0 Without answer 10 10.8 214 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Table 3: Motives for renting out on Airbnb Expressed importance of motive for renting out on Arithmetic Standard Airbnb mean deviation MONETARY MOTIVES 4.47 0.59 I rent the unit because it pays wel . 4.44 0.69 Earning extra money is an important factor when renting. 4.48 0.80 Renting al ows me to make money with my real estate. 4.43 0.81 Renting makes it easier for me to pay my expenses. 4.41 0.80 Renting is a good way to supplement my main income. 4.51 0.72 SOCIAL MOTIVES 3.75 0.93 Renting is a good way to meet new people. 3.97 1.03 Renting al ows me to socialite with other people. 3.74 1.19 Renting is an opportunity to meet like-minded people. 3.73 1.13 Due to renting, I am a part of a wider community. 3.64 1.10 MORAL MOTIVES 3.26 0.93 Renting is a decent thing to do. 3.64 1.25 Renting al ows me to do something meaningful. 4.03 1.06 I perceive renting as an act of generosity. 2.83 1.18 I rent because I want to help others. 2.65 1.18 The analysis of three independent variables: cultural openness, global prosociality and fear of loneliness (see Table 4) shows that global prosociality (3.74) and cultural openness (3.72) are relatively highly expressed among the Airbnb hosts. The arithmetic mean of the variable fear of loneliness is lower (2.44), and the standard deviation is higher (0.96). A Pearson correlation test was performed to test the subsequent six hypotheses to understand the linear correlation of two numerical variables. The Pearson coefficient (r) tel s us the strength of the connection between two variables, and r2 tel s us how much the change in the value of one variable is related to the change in the value of the other variable. A 0.05 significance level was employed to test the study hypotheses. Figure 1 displays the outcomes of the hypothesis checks. K. Kokot, M. Turnšek: Motivations for Hosting On Airbnb: The Case Of Slovenia 215 Table 4: Arithmetic means of statements regarding cultural openness, global prosociality and fear of loneliness Statements Arithmetic Standard mean deviation CULTURAL OPENNESS 3.72 0.77 I am wil ing to study or work abroad in another culture. 3.57 1.03 I am open to living in a different culture. 3.08 1.01 I enjoy learning more about different cultures in the world. 4.07 0.88 I want to travel to experience many different cultures. 4.2 0.92 It is exciting to immerse in a foreign culture. 3.75 0.99 GLOBAL PROSOCIALITY 3.74 0.75 I would serve the world community by helping human 3.47 0.96 beings. I get upset when people do not want to offer help when 3.49 1.17 those in need are foreigners. I want to play my part to help make the world a better place 3.95 0.89 for all. When people from other countries are in need, I wil help 4.11 0.88 them to the best of my abilities. I want to help the unfortunate ones even if they are from 3.74 0.97 other countries. FEAR OF LONELINESS 2.44 0.96 I'm afraid I would lack companionship 2.13 0.92 I'm afraid of not having friends. 2.41 1.16 I am afraid of becoming excluded from the environment. 2.36 1.13 I don’t want to feel isolated from other people. 2.91 1.29 I don't want to be unhappy because of my distance from 2.77 1.26 other people. I'm afraid of not being able to connect with other people. 2.13 1.06 Figure 1: Hypothesis model results Source: own. 216 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. In the case of the variable of real estate capital and arithmetic mean of monetary motives, the correlation is not significant (p = 0.192). Therefore, H2: The amount of a host’s real estate capital positively affects the expression of monetary motives for using Airbnb, is rejected. Testing the variables, the social class of the hosts and the arithmetic mean of the monetary motives, the correlation is not significant (p = 0.368); accordingly, H3: The host’s social class positively affects the expression of monetary motives for using Airbnb, is rejected. The higher share of rental income in comparison to other income influenced the expression of monetary motives, as the correlation is significant (p = 0.003). The value of r = 0.364 and r2 = 0.132 implies a weak correlation. These values indicate that H4 – The share of hosts’ rental income in comparison to other income has a positive effect on the expression of monetary motives for using Airbnb, is supported. In the case of the variables fear of loneliness and the arithmetic mean of social motives, the correlation is significant (p = 0.002). The value of r is 0.380, which means a weak correlation, and the value of r2 is 0.145. H5 is thus supported by the data – The host’s fear of loneliness is positively correlated with the expressed importance of social motives for using Airbnb. The testing proved that the cultural openness of the Airbnb hosts and the arithmetic mean of social motives are correlated as the correlation is significant (p = 0.038). The value of r = 0.260 and r2 = 0.068 imply a weak correlation. Accordingly, the data supports the H6 – Hosts’ cultural openness is positively correlated with the expressed importance of social motives for using Airbnb. The relationship between the dimension of global prosociality and expression of the moral motives shows a significant correlation (p = 0.000) with the value of r = 0.441 and r2 = 0.195, which indicate moderate correlation. Therefore, the data support the H7 – Hosts’ global prosociality is positively correlated with the expressed importance of moral motives for using Airbnb. 4 Conclusions The results of the study have shown that among the Slovene Airbnb hosts, monetary motives for use predominate (arithmetic average 4.47). However, social motives (arithmetic mean 3.75) and moral motives (arithmetic mean 3.26) are strongly expressed as wel . The finding that monetary motives for use predominate among Slovenian hosts is consistent with research in other Airbnb markets such as Australia (Karlsson & Dolničar, 2016), Great Britain (Stephany, 2015) and Greece (Lemonis, K. Kokot, M. Turnšek: Motivations for Hosting On Airbnb: The Case Of Slovenia 217 2015); therefore, we cannot claim that the Slovenian market is significantly different from others. Furthermore, the quantitative study findings are similar to the qualitative study by Kambič (2020), where the main motives of the Slovene hosts were additional income and exploiting the available empty space. We found that monetary motives are not affected by the amount of real estate capital and social class. It should be noted here that the measurement of these two variables depended on only one question in the questionnaire. At the same time, many respondents did not want to answer these two points due to the nature of the questions, so measuring the variables on a larger sample might yield different results. The finding that a higher share of revenues from renting out compared to other revenues is positively correlated with expressed importance of monetary motives for using Airbnb among Slovenian hosts is not surprising, as Airbnb already has many business hosts, e.g. houses with apartments, smaller hotels and the like, which are otherwise legal entities, most of which are engaged only in accommodation activities. Therefore, the surplus of income and the desire for monetary goods can be more significant among these users. Fear of loneliness has a positive effect on the expression of social motives for using Airbnb, which is an expected finding that has been proven by other researchers (Ikkala & Lampinen, 2015). This result may be influenced by the fact that this variable is a negative emotion, usual y present more in the human subconscious. Consequently, it makes more sense to analyse it with qualitative methods. Therefore, the low arithmetic mean (2.44) of this variable may be due to in-depth consideration by respondents while completing the questionnaire. However, it should be noted that quantitatively measuring this variable in the context of the platform economy is original in the sense that the present research is one of the first to highlight the importance of this variable. The findings that a higher level of cultural openness has a positive effect on the expression of social motives and that a higher level of global prosociality has a positive effect on the expression of moral motives in Slovenian hosts are yet again in line with previous research. Given that the arithmetic mean of both variables is 3.8, we can conclude that these motives, stereotypical y assumed to be the essence of hospitality (Aramberri, 2001), are strongly expressed in Slovenian hosts. The originality of the present research is again in this, to our knowledge, being the first 218 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. to create and test the quantitative scale for this variable. Other researchers have used qualitative methods such as interviews and focus groups (Hardy & Dolničar, 2017; Lampinen & Cheshire, 2016; Decrop et al., 2018). When interpreting the results, it should be borne in mind that the sample of 103 hosts in Slovenia is not necessarily representative. Therefore, the findings cannot be generalised to the entire population of Slovenian hosts on Airbnb. To achieve more representative results, it would be good to increase the sample. Increasing the sample would also mean that the research results could be used to form a typology of hosts, which would also be a unique contribution to the understanding of the Slovenian Airbnb market. Another potential limitation of the study stems from the connection between national accommodation regulation and the sampling method. The sample consisted only of Airbnb hosts that are official y registered as accommodation providers, which may explain the predominance of monetary motives. With regards to the practical value of the research results, understanding the motives for using Airbnb by both hosts and guests can serve to create algorithms on the Airbnb website that would connect like-minded users, resulting in a lower likelihood of a negative experience on both sides, as it would be a relationship between persons who have similar or compatible values and requirements. Also, the results of our research can help businesses that target Airbnb hosts, such as intermediaries between Airbnb and accommodation providers, or consulting companies, as they would understand the motives for Airbnb usage, especial y the importance of motives beyond monetary rewards. They could also offer customised content according to the interests of individual hosts, which would have a long-term impact on the satisfaction of both hosts and providers of these services. In the future, it would make sense to explore this area with qualitative methods, e.g. interviews or focus groups, to gain more detailed information to understand the motivations of the hosts. Another area of research would be to analyse how different expressed importance of motives of hosting reflect in the way the hosts present themselves on Airbnb and similar platforms. Trdina et al. (2021) namely point out that these platforms cal for new kinds of capital, where not much is known about how motives influence and reflect hosts’ online representation and positioning. K. Kokot, M. 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International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 29(9), 2240–2260. NEW TOURISM TREND: TRAVELLING WITH PETS OR PET SITTING AT A PET HOTEL? NADJA MLAKAR, SAŠA ZUPAN KORŽE University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Brežice, Slovenia nadja.mlakar95@gmail.com, sasa.zupan@vanadis.si Abstract Animals have been an important part of human life for ages. Nowadays, some people even treat pets as life-companions, which accompany them even on vacations. The main purpose of this article is a) to identify issues that owners deal with while planning a trip or when travel ing with their pets and b) to present the attitudes of Slovenian pet owners regarding pet hotels. The research was conducted in Slovenia in 2019 and 2020, using a combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods. The findings show that Slovene pet owners rather travel with their pets than put them in pet hotels, particularly when going on vacation by car and travel ing on short trips through Slovenia or in neighbouring countries. Regarding pet Keywords: tourism, hotels, pet owners are mostly concerned about professional care human-animal for their pets and less about the price of the service. The study bond, gives important information to tourist accommodation providers pets in tourism, travelling with and pet hotel providers on how to adapt their services to their pets, ‘pet guest’ and satisfy the pet owners. pet hotels DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.ft.6.2022.12 ISBN 978-961-286-642-6 222 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 1 Introduction In the 21st century, tourism does not only involve the movement of people, but also the movement of pets (Leggat & Speare, 2000) and other non-human “travellers” (e.g. electronic devices, robots, pet rocks, etc.) (Ivanov, 2018). In the last few years, the number of tourists travel ing with their pets has been increasing (Condor Ferries, 2021). Carr & Cohen (2009) highlight travelling or holidaying with family pets as the fastest growing niche market in tourism. Consequently, tourist accommodation providers have been adapting to this trend and answering this demand by al owing coexistence of pets and their owners in tourist accommodations. In Slovenia, e.g., the coexistence of guests and their pets in tourist accommodation facilities is even regulated by a special hospitality by-law. Many researchers find that safety and comfort of the pets is the main issue the owners are dealing with, while planning trips or travelling with their pets (Leggat & Speare, 2000; Kirillova, Lee & Lehto, 2015; Peng, Chen & Hung, 2014). Desire to travel with pets is strong, but actual rates of travelling with pets might be comparatively low due to the insufficiency of pet-friendly accommodations (Carr & Cohen, 2009). Due to various problems that arise when travel ing with pets, some owners prefer to leave their pets at home with people they trust (non-professional care) or seek organized care, like pet hotels (Jetpet resort, 2021). Therefore, “hotels” for animals have been established as facilities that take professional care for pets in the absence of their owners. In Slovenia, ‘hotel for animals’ is a formal term taken from a special by-law (Rules on the protection of pets, 2009). Exploring the relationships between owners and their pets is a common topic of studies (Berryman, Howells & Lloyd-Evans, 1985; Archer, 1997; Hall et al, 2004; Huselja, 2008; Jurgiel et al, 2020; etc.). However, only a limited amount of research can be found in existing literature on the pet-owners’ attitudes to their pets related to travel and to their decision to take pets with them (or not) when going on vacation. In Slovenia, this is the first study of its kind and is, therefore, of an exploratory nature. It is focused on Slovenian pet owners’ overal perception of travel ing with pets, on the struggles they deal with while planning a trip, and on the N. Mlakar, S. Zupan Korže: New Tourism Trend: Travel ing with Pets or Pet Sitting at a Pet Hotel? 223 struggles they face with while travelling with pets. Its goal is to find the answers to two research questions: − RQ1: How do pet owners in Slovenia perceive traveling with their pets? − RQ2: What is the Slovenian pet owners’ attitude towards pet hotels? The two research questions were developed on findings from existent literature, which clearly show that pets are important part of many people’s lives, to the point where they even take their pets on holidays (Ying et al, 2021). If their pets are not able to accompany them on travel they search for professional care for them while being on the trip. 2 Literature review 2.1 From animals to pets The history of human-animal interaction dates way back to ancient times (Krishna, 2010). Moreover, the domestication of animals is considered one of the most important turning points in human history (Alberta, 2020). The first species that made a pass from wild to domesticated animals were wolves, the ancestors of today’s dogs (Serpell, 1996). First, strong DNA evidence of that domestication dates back to 14,700 B.C.(Starr, 2017); therefore, the idea that dogs are man’s best friend is a very old and valid concept (Lear, 2012). Animals continue to play an important role in people’s lives (Casciotti & Zuckerman, 2016) and some of them have even become an integral part of their families (Greenbaum, 2004). Numerous scientific and professional articles confirm that today animals, especially pets, are very useful members in the society and have positive effects on humans in many ways (Blenkuš, 2019). As the human population increases, so does the pet population (Walden, 2017). In Europe, 88 million households own a pet (FEDIAF, 2020) and statistics clearly show that industry related to pets is booming (Puac, 2021). Demel o (2012) states that an animal becomes a pet when it is given a name that al ows people to interact with it and consequently they can become emotional y attached to it. Britannica (2020) defines pets as ‘any animal kept by human beings as 224 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. a source of companionship and pleasure’. For Shell (1986) the term ‘pet’ is indispensable in expressing the relationship of intimacy between certain people and selected domesticated species. In recent years, however, the term ‘pet’ has been gradually replaced by the term ‘companion animal’; the new expression is more used in literature, but in public, the term ‘pets’ is stil more common than ‘companion animal’. Companion animals or pets are deeply loved and cared for (Markwell, 2015. They contribute to their owners’ wel -being and provide important physiological and relational benefits to their owners (Walsh, 2009). A segment of people exists that have even replaced human company with their companion animals/pets, making them immensely attached to them. As pets play such an important role in the lives of many people (Salmon & Salmon, 1981), some owners do not want to be separated from them when they travel and they take them even on vacation (Carr &Cohen, 2009). 2.2 Pets in tourism Traveling with pets often involves more negotiation and restrictions than many other forms of tourism (Ying et al., 2021). There might be challenging policies that prohibit public transport use (Kent, Mulley& Stevens, 2020), contracting dangerous diseases (Trotz-Willias & Gradoni, 2003), or simply troubles finding suitable accommodation that al ows pets as guests (Car & Cohen, 2009). While travelling, pets can be exposed to various risks (Kirillova, Lee & Lehto, 2015). Travelling with pets might be also challenging while animals are extremely different from one another in terms of character. This is the important reason for the pet owner to estimate whether it makes sense to take a pet with him on vacation and causing it unnecessary distress. The fact that animals might not be ful y capable of self-control (Ying et al., 2021) can lead into severe pet health problems, injuries, or even deaths during a trip if owners do not choose the appropriate way of transportation. N. Mlakar, S. Zupan Korže: New Tourism Trend: Travel ing with Pets or Pet Sitting at a Pet Hotel? 225 To minimize the inconveniences that might occur to pats when traveling with their owners, various providers have developed a number of gadgets. Among these products we can find transport boxes, seat covers, portable bags, pillows, drinking and feeding utensils, leashes, products for keeping animals clean, first aid kits, etc. (Furrytravelers, 2020; Petco Animal Supplies, 2021; Pettravelstore, 2021; etc.). Pet owners who travel with their pets have become one of the fastest growing tourism segment. Many destinations and providers of tourism services have recognised that and designed special facilities and services to satisfy a wide array of pet-loving tourists (Camilleri, 2018). They allow pets to be accommodated in the same space as their owners (Carr & Cohen, 2009). In some occasions, particularly due to different travel restraints, it is more appropriate to leave pets at home, no matter how much people love them and may want to be with their pets at all times. To avoid animals’ distress, it is better for pet owners to find another way of taking care for their pet, which might include professional care, such as pet hotels. 2.3 Pet hotels The term ‘pet hotel’ is used for the facility that takes professional care for animals while their owners are traveling (Anderson, 2021). In Slovenia, they are official y named ‘hotels for animals’ and are subject to specific regulation that requires providers of such care to undergo prior certified training. The training approved by the special institution (named Administration for food safety, veterinary and plant protection - in continuation: AFSVPP), includes technical and administrative aspects of legislation regarding animal care. People, who work at pet hotels are acquainted with animal physiology and their physical needs (in particular for water and food), with animal behaviour, and with the concept of stress. They are also trained about the practical aspects of animal treatment, care for animals in the case of emergency, and their own safety. Pet hotel owners are subject to regular inspections of the veterinary institution. They must keep detailed records about the accepted pets and their owners (Rules on the protection of pets, 2009). 226 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. In practice, services offered by the hotels for animals differ considerably. As the regulation define only the minimum conditions for the operation of pet hotels, there are significant differences in equipment and in the services. Some providers offer luxury dog hotels, where dogs can even enjoy acupuncture, massages, fitness centre, room service, etc. (Rupar, 2021). The closest luxury pet hotel to Slovenia is in Zagreb, where three different categories of apartments are offered for the pet care; there is a luxury spa for dogs, and services of the highest quality (Krstić, 2020). Despite the fact that hotels for animals hotels offer very different services from traditional hotels for accommodating people, there is a common denominator between them. Animal hotels solve the problems of people who travel, but for various reasons cannot travel with their pet. 3 Methodology The empirical research was conducted in Slovenia in 2020 and 2021. It consisted of combination of the qualitative and quantitative research methods. It designed and conducted in two steps. Table 1: Methodology design Research Type of Source of Methods for Methods for Methods for step research data data data results col ection processing presentation 1st Qualitative Primary Focus group Content analysis Description 2nd Quantitative Primary Online Descriptive Description, survey statistics Tables, Graphs Source: own. In the first step, the fol owing data were col ected in the focus group: on the pet owners’ attitude towards pets, experiences and constraints when they travel with pets and their opinion related to pet hotels. The first researcher moderated discussion among 10 participants, 6 women and 4 men. Participants of the focus group were chosen from different geographical areas in Slovenia (all 10 from southern Slovenia), from different types of settlements (3 from rural and 7 from urban), different age groups (half of them were less than 25 and 2 of them were over 50 years old), and N. Mlakar, S. Zupan Korže: New Tourism Trend: Travel ing with Pets or Pet Sitting at a Pet Hotel? 227 from different education levels (half of participants had completed secondary school, one master’s degree, and the rest had a bachelor’s degree). The pre-set questions helped in the development of the discussion, in encouraging participants to express their opinions and in guiding the discussion if participants strayed from the research subject related to pets, travel ing and pet hotels. To gain a broader view and understanding of the topics and to encourage group interaction between the participants, the focus group mediator sometimes even created disagreements between the participants. The collection of data in the focus group took place on 6 November 2020. Due to Covid-19 movement restrictions and strict lockdowns, the focus group was conducted via Zoom. With the prior consent of the participants in the focus group, the whole conversation was recorded; nevertheless, the anonymity of the participants was guaranteed. A transcript of the discussion was made based on the audio recording. The statements and opinions were processed using content analysis. The results are presented in descriptive form. The focus group discussion took place in three parts related to chosen topics (relationships between owners and their pets, travel ing with pets and opinion about pet sitting in pet hotel), so the findings are also presented in three content sets. In the second step of the empirical research, online survey was used for col ection of quantitative data. The aim of the quantitative study was to get additional data for answering the research questions. The questionnaire for online survey was based on the existing literature related to pet travel ing, on results obtained from the focus groups, and on different questionnaires from other studies similar to ours (e.g. Mariti et al., 2012; Kirilova, Lee & Lehto, 2015). The questionnaire was designed by using the following types of questions: closed-ended questions with only one possible answer, multiple-choice questions, open-ended questions, and questions with Likert scale type answers (measuring the scale of agreement, satisfaction and frequency). 228 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. The survey was sent out in February, 2021. The online survey was conducted using website 1ka, which is a very common tool for online surveys in Slovenia. The questionnaire was published on the popular social network Facebook and 10 Slovenian closed Facebook groups with the main theme on travel ing or topics related to pets. The number of members in closed groups ranged between 2,000 and 65,000 people of different age groups and from different areas of Slovenia. Before posting the survey in groups we obtained permission from administrators. The survey was also posted on one of the first researchers’ private profile in a public post, which was also shared among friends on their wal , thus reaching an even larger audience. To be qualified to fill out the survey, respondents were required to be pet owners, or to have had a pet in their household during the last year, though currently and temporarily they are not pet owners. The chosen sample of participants was given 12 days to fill in the questionnaire. Out of 864 people who opened the survey, 291 correctly completed it. The questionnaire contained 2 conditional “if” questions: if the responder answered ‘no’ at a certain point of the survey, they were unable to give answers to the following questions. Consequently, the number of the sample differs three times; a further explanation is presented in section 4.2. The data from the online questionnaire were exported from the 1ka website and analysed with the help of the SPSS program. For data analysis, statistical methods were used: frequency percentage, mean and standard deviation. The results are presented in the form of tables, graphs and in descriptive form. 4 Results 4.1 Focus group results The findings of focus group research are presented in three subparts: − The relationship that participants have with their pets − Pet-owners’ opinions about travel ing with their pets and their possible travel habits with them and − Views from focus group participants regarding professional care in pet hotels N. Mlakar, S. Zupan Korže: New Tourism Trend: Travel ing with Pets or Pet Sitting at a Pet Hotel? 229 Relationship that owners have with their pets The results reveal that participants in the focus group have different relations with their pets. Majority of them perceive their pets as family members and are emotional y very attached to them; some of them even perceive them as ‘their children’. The other members of the group do not perceive their animals as pets and not even al ow them to enter their house or apartment. We also noticed differences in perceptions of pets of the same species within a single family, e.g. the purebred dog can sleep on the bed while the mixed breed is not even al owed to enter the common living spaces and does not travel with the family. Travel ing with pets Focus group participants expressed different approaches about traveling with their pets. Participants with a high emotional attachment to their pets also travel with them. This applies especial y for travelling with dogs. Focus group participants think that travelling with other types of pets (except dogs) would cause unnecessary distress to them. They are certain that it is only appropriate or acceptable to travel with dogs, while other types of animals must be excluded from accompanying their owners on tourist trips or vacations. The participants who travel with their pets regularly travel with dogs on day trips around Slovenia. They also travel and spend the night in various accommodations with pets within the country and in the neighbouring ones, particularly to Croatia. When owners travel with their pets to Croatia, Italy, Austria, or Hungary, they always chose private tourist accommodations where pets are al owed. Two of the participants also noted that their dog not only travels with them in private accommodation, but also in traditional hotels that welcome pets. Those focus group participants who travel with their dog completely adapt their trips or vacation to the needs of their animal. If the dog is not suitable for participation in a given tourist activity, they leave it at their place of accommodation for the time they are engaged in such activity. All participants who travel with a dog are certain that their dog enjoys traveling with them and thus they enrich its life. 230 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. About care in hotels for animals (pet hotels) None of the pet owners in the focus group had ever used services of pet hotels. Due to various concerns and limitations regarding their pets, they would not even choose professional care in a pet hotel in the future. Participants strongly believe that their pet is not accustomed to separation from the family; it would be in a crisis were it placed in a professional care away from familiar places or people. Owners believe that changing the environment would not suit their pet, because in the past it led to health and behavioural problems, also due to separation from family. Furthermore, in most cases, pets of the focus group owners are not accustomed to coexisting with other animals, which can be a problem in a professional care, where they take care of more pets at once. Pet owners with a low level of attachment to their pet were highlighting the potential behavioural problems of their animals. Some pets are not accustomed to staying indoors, which means that they are unsuitable for handing over to professional hotel care. Participants are afraid and do not rule out the possibility that their pet will get sick while staying at the pet hotel. Some pets had previously health problems and are not vaccinated, making the possibility of care in animal hotels impossible. Owners are most concerned about the fact that their pet would be lonely and miss the human company and interaction that they are used to every day at home. Moreover, pet owners in the focus group do not trust the staff at pet hotels and doubt in the proper care of their pet. They believe that an animal placed in hotel care would not be given the same attention as at home. They are sure that they would think about their pet in professional care al the time on a trip and it would be difficult for them to relax and enjoy the vacation. Most participants have the opinion that the cost of professional care in a pet hotel is excessive and that everyone would much rather use professional pet care at home. One of the main reasons why focus group participants never used hotel care is the fact that everyone has someone to take care of their pets while they are away from home on vacation. For help with their pets, they always ask family members, friends, or neighbours. N. Mlakar, S. Zupan Korže: New Tourism Trend: Travel ing with Pets or Pet Sitting at a Pet Hotel? 231 4.2 Online survey results The first group of the results of the quantitative research (Table 2, Figure 1) are based on 291 answers col ected by online questionnaire. The second group of the results (who passed the first “if” question) were processed using 176 answers (Table 3-9 and Figure 2), while only those pet-owners who take their pets with them when travelling answered the following questions in the questionnaire. The third group of results (Table 10-11) are based only on 35 answers, while only so many participants have had experiences with pet hotels. Table 2 presents the socio-demographic characteristics of the survey participants. More women than men answered the questionnaire. More than the half of the respondents belonged to the age group 25-44. A good tenth was under 25 years old, while a quarter was between 45 and 64 years old. The largest share of respondents had a tertiary or higher level of education. Most respondents live in smaller cities or in rural areas. Only 5.2% of respondents live alone, a quarter live with another member of the family, and most have more than two household members. Table 2: Demographic characteristics of the study sample f f% Gender Male 70 24.1 Female 220 75.9 Age Less than 25 34 11.7 25-44 175 60.1 45-64 79 27.1 65 and more 3 1.0 Education Primary 7 2.4 Secondary 104 35.7 Bachelor 131 45.0 Master 39 13.4 Doctor 10 3.4 Settlement Ljubljana with suburbs 45 1.5 Larger city with suburbs 26 8.9 Smaller city with suburbs 87 29.9 Rural site 133 45.7 Household One 15 5.2 Two 75 25.8 Three 69 23.7 Four 74 25.4 More than four 58 19.9 Total 291 100.0 Source: own Note: f- frequency (n=291), f% -percentage 232 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Figure 1 shows that 40% of respondents never take their pet on trips or vacations; however, more than half of the pet owners do (60%). Frequently: 17% Never: 40% Often: 13% Sometimes: 16% Rarely: 14% Figure 1: Travel ing with pets Source: own. The following answers (Table 3 to 9) were processed on 176 respondents, those, who travel with their pet. Most Slovene pet owners are accompanied on their journeys by dogs (92%) (Table 3). Some owners travel with cats (8%), with rodents (1.7%), with smal er or larger birds (0.6%), and with other species (1%), such as lizards or guinea pigs. In general, results reveal that the share of pets other than dogs that travel with their owners on vacation is very small. The value of all travelling pets (f%) exceeds 100% because several answers were possible due to the fact that some owners travel with more than just one type of pet. For example, some owners travel with a dog and a cat, or with a dog and a lizard, etc. N. Mlakar, S. Zupan Korže: New Tourism Trend: Travel ing with Pets or Pet Sitting at a Pet Hotel? 233 Table 3: Pet species that travel with owners f f% Dog 162 92.0 Cat 14 8.0 Rodents 3 1.7 Birds 1 0.6 Other 2 1.1 Source: own. Note: f- frequency (n=176), f% -percentage. Table 4 presents the choice of travel destinations. This question allowed only one answer. Most owners (28.5%) travel with their pet in Slovenia and in its bordering countries. Out of 176 participants that travel with their pet, one-fifth of them travel only in Slovenia, while only tenth of them travel with their pet everywhere they go. Table 4: Choice of travel destinations Only SLO and border SLO countries Everywhere Answered Missing (if) Total f 61 83 32 176 115 291 f% 21,99 28,5 11.0 60.5 39.5 100.0 VP 35% 47% 18% 100% CP 34.7% 81.8% 100% Source: own. Note: f- frequency (n=176), f% -percentage, VP-valid percentage, CP-cumulative percentage. When travel ing with pets, respondents rarely use other types of transport (Table 5) than car. Driving is extremely prevalent over travel by other means of transport. The lowest asymmetric mean and standard deviation show that, when traveling with pets, Slovenians rarely use air travel. The biggest fluctuations of opinions are when respondents are using a motorhome as a type of transport. Al items were measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale from 1 (never) to 5 (very often). Table 5: Choice of transportation N Min Max M SD Other 77 1 5 1.44 1.045 Plane 176 1 5 1.06 .336 Train 176 1 5 1.27 .695 Ship 176 1 5 1.39 .875 Motorhome 176 1 5 1.44 1.057 Car 176 1 5 4.37 .977 Source: own. Note: N-number of answers, Min-lowest value, Max-highest value, M-mean, SD-standard deviation. 234 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. When asked about the number of overnight stays with pets on the trip (Table 6), 176 out of 291 answered - only those respondents who actually travel with their pets. Only a fifth of the respondents do not go with their pet on longer trips, but make daily trips with them. Most respondents coexist with a pet for more than just one day; even more, they stay with their pets for more than a week when they are travelling together. Table 6: Number of overnights with pets Only day 1 2-3 4-7 More than 1 Answered Missing Total trips week (if) f 39 6 34 33 64 176 115 291 f% 13.4 2.1 11.7 11.3 22.0 60.5 39.5 100.0 VP 22.2 3.4 19.3 18.8 36.4 100.0 CP 22.2 25.6 44.9 63.6 100.0 Source: own. Note: f-frequency (n=35), f%-percentage, VP-valid percentage, CP-cumulative percentage. Table 7 shows the degree of agreement with certain statements in relation to the reasons why respondents do not go on a trip with their pet. The results show that the most important reason is the fact that owners on a trip with a pet cannot attend all the desired activities. Respondents largely agree that taking a pet on vacation is too chal enging because they have to adapt too many things (e.g. choice of transportation, destination, and accommodation) to their pet. The highest standard deviation (1.345) suggests that there are also large deviations regarding whether traveling on holiday with pets is too stressful, because owners have to adapt too many things to meet their pet’s needs. The lowest score in al statements refers to the occurrence of pet death along the way (1.32) and lowest standard deviation of 0.750 indicates minimal deviations in response to this claim. Respondents’ answers show that it is not very common in Slovenia for pets to have health problems when traveling. All items were measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). N. Mlakar, S. Zupan Korže: New Tourism Trend: Travel ing with Pets or Pet Sitting at a Pet Hotel? 235 Table 7: Problems, related to pets when traveling with them N Min Max M SD I have already experienced the death of my pet while I travel ed with it. 291 1 5 1.32 0.750 On trips, my pet experiences severe health problems. 291 1 5 1.94 1.089 I am afraid the pet would suffer injuries and die. 291 1 5 2.30 1.260 My pet is not suitable for travel. 291 1 5 2.34 1.323 On the trip, my pet has behavioural problems. 291 1 5 2.93 1.330 On trips, my pet has mild health problems. 291 1 5 2.51 1.301 It’s too stressful because I have to adapt too many things to animals. 291 1 5 2.68 1.345 I can’t attend al the activities I want with a pet. 291 1 5 3.33 1.227 Source: own. Note: N-number of answers, Min-lowest value, Max- highest value, M-mean, SD-standard deviation. Respondents often travel with their pet on day trips, on vacation or other tourist activities. The lowest standard deviation indicates that many respondents travels with their pet precisely because of tourist motives. The lowest number of respondents travel with their pet on business or for exhibition purposes. Among other reasons for traveling with pets, 70 respondents also listed different types of visits (friends, family, etc.) or change of their residence, hiking, etc. All items were measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Table 8: Reasons for traveling with pet N Min Max M SD Other. 40 1 5 2.50 1.601 I travel with pets for business or exhibition purposes. 176 1 5 1.63 1.114 I take pets with me on vacation or tourist activities. 176 1 5 4.18 .969 I travel with pets on day trips. 176 1 5 4.23 1.061 Valid N 176 Source: own. Note: N-number of answers, Min-lowest value, Max- highest value, M-mean, SD-standard deviation. 236 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. When respondents do not take their pets with them on holiday, they find care for them with relatives, friends, or neighbours (Table 9). During their absence, they rarely find any options for pet-sitting (1.41), which is also confirmed by the low standard deviation of 0.975. Among the ‘other’ options, participants listed leaving their pet with wel -known people with a high level of trust. Leaving animals alone during absence of its owner is not a common practice, which is shown by the mean of 1.19 and the low standard deviation of 0.685. All items were measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale from 1 (never) to 5 (very often). Table 9: Care for pet during owner’s absence N Min Max M SD Other. 69 1 5 1.41 .975 During my absence I leave my animal alone at home. 291 1 5 1.19 .685 I arrange for care at a pet hotel. 291 1 5 1.35 .891 I provide professional and paid pet care at my home. 291 1 5 1.46 .973 I leave the care of my pet to relatives/friends/neighbours. 291 1 5 3.69 1.339 Valid N 291 Source: own. Note: N-number of answers, Min-lowest value, Max- highest value, M-mean, SD-standard deviation. Out of 291 surveyed people, only 35 (12%) had used services of pet hotels at least once (Figure 2). The study showed that most pet owners do not have experience with pet hotels and most of them prefers to travel with pets or look for another form of care. When asked about the frequency of using services of a pet hotel (Table 10), only 35 people or 12% of all sample answered this and the following questions. Majority of the responders of this group left their pet in a pet hotel 1-3 times. A fifth of the responders left their pets in a pet hotel 4-7 times, while a little less more than 10 times. N. Mlakar, S. Zupan Korže: New Tourism Trend: Travel ing with Pets or Pet Sitting at a Pet Hotel? 237 Yes: 12% No: 88% Figure 2: Experience with pet hotels Source: own. Table 10: Frequency of use of pet hotels More than 10 7-9 4-6 1-3 Answered Missing (if) Total f 6 3 4 22 35 256 291 f% 2.1 1.0 1.4 7.6 12.0 88.0 100.0 VP 17.1 8.6 11.4 62.9 100.0 CP 100.0 82.9 74.3 62.9 Source: own. Note: f- frequency (n=35), f% -percentage, VP-valid percentage, CP-cumulative percentage. Only 35 respondents answered the following questions (those who used pet sitting at pet hotels at least once) (Table 11). For them, the most important thing in a pet hotel is the personal attitude of the hotel’s administrators towards the animals left to them for protection. This is closely followed with the same value (3.9) by the implementation of additional activities for the animal in care (such as walks and games), arranged infrastructure and hotel facilities, and an excel ent range of services. For the respondents, the favourable price of accommodation for a pet is the least important factor in the case of using the services of hotels for pets. 238 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Table 11: Importance of factors related to pet hotels N Min Max M SD Good price. 35 1 5 3.3 1.132 Special services (grooming, school and socialization). 35 1 5 3.6 1.140 Proximity of the pet hotel to my home. 35 1 5 3.7 1.022 Suitable equipment in boxes/cages. 35 1 5 3.8 1.132 Great range of services. 35 1 5 3.9 1.051 Arranged infrastructure and hotel facilities. 35 1 5 3.9 .951 Implementation of additional activities for animals (walks, playing). 35 1 5 3.9 1.110 Personal relationship of caregivers. 35 1 5 4.1 1.040 Source: own. Note: N-number of answers, Min-lowest value, Max- highest value, M-mean, SD-standard deviation. 5 Discussion This study gives insight into Slovenian pet owners’ perception about travelling with pets and addresses their attitudes towards pet hotels. The results of the study reveal that pets have become a very important part in the lives of many pet owners. The majority of Slovene pet owners travel with their pet, mainly for tourist reasons. They take their pets with them on trips or vacation, particularly when travel ing by car; they rarely use any other type of transport. They avoid air transportation, as they are aware that most pet accidents and deaths occur when pets travel by planes. The reason that Slovene pet owners do not have many negative experiences with pet travel ing might be in the fact that they mostly travel around Slovenia and in some cases also around neighbouring countries. During vacations of this kind, animals are exposed to less risk. Due to the shorter length of the route in familiar environments, pet owners avoid many restraints and regulations that can make travelling with animals more difficult. Existing studies show that travelling with pets improves owners’ overall holiday experience, and this study shows the same for Slovene pet owners. In general, pet owners are ready to deal with many restrictions to travel together with their pet (Kirrliova, Lee & Lehto, 2015). This study reveals that the majority of Slovene pet owners are also ready to adapt their travel plans (destinations, routes, N. Mlakar, S. Zupan Korže: New Tourism Trend: Travel ing with Pets or Pet Sitting at a Pet Hotel? 239 accommodation) to take their pets with them. Slovene pet owners are encouraged to travel with pets if the destination has pet-friendly rules and regulations. The most surprising result of the study was that Slovene pet owners rather take their pets with them on vacation (regardless of many restrictions and difficulties that can arise while travelling with pets) than use services of pet hotels. If they are unable to take their pet with them, they usually ask family members or friends to take care of it. They avoid putting their pets in pet hotels. Searching for this kind of professional care would cause them too much concern about their pets’ wel -being, about their health condition, and about the distress the animal might be exposed to due to an unfamiliar environment. Furthermore, the study reveals that majority of pet owners in Slovenia do not have sufficient trust in pet hotels’ personnel. However, this might be just their prejudice. Therefore, the findings of this study might be an opportunity for pet hotels’ providers to address this huge share of pet owners that have never used their services and correct mistrusting sentiments about proper care for animals. Pet hotels should promote their activities and better present their services to reassure owners about the wel -being of their animals. In comparison with other tourism studies, the field of pets in tourism is still quite unexplored. In recent years, this field has gradually gained recognition in foreign literature, while it remains rather neglected in the Slovenian academic world. Due to the quickly evolving pet tourism segment, it would be appropriate to encourage research on this field in the country. E.g., in 2020, there was around a quarter of a million registered dogs in the country (Željan, 2020). On 9 July 2021 according to data, 244.127 dogs were registered in Slovenia (Šoln, 2021). If – according to the results of this study - 60% of pet owners travel with their pats, that means 150.000 Slovene households. 100.000 households should be addressed for using pet hotels’ care. Those numbers present a visible potential for tourist accommodation and pet hotel providers. Better understanding of pet travelling trend would offer improvements, which tourism providers can make and satisfy needs of pet owners and their pet that are travelling. Further research should also be focused on a group of people who frequently use pet hotel services and learn more about their demands, their 240 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. expectations and requirements. It would be beneficial to increase the number of studies on pet hotel providers in Slovenia and identify the challenges they currently face with. Furthermore, this study might encourage the studies on how tourist accommodation providers might address the pet owners’ segment market. Moreover, further studies might address the general attitude toward animal treatment and related regulation in Slovenia, EU in other part of the world. Certain limitations need to be addressed with this research. The first one is related to the limited number of existing studies of this filed. The second one might be in collection of focus group participants and subjectivity with the interpretation of their answers. However, as results of the online survey is very consistent with the focus group results, the limitation might be minor. The following limitation can be viewed in the population, addressed with the questionnaire in the study, in the number of col ected questionnaire and the gender structure of the participants. Therefore, the sample might not be generalised to the Slovenian pet owner population. 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Our research focuses on explainer videos and their importance in marketing for the tourism sector aimed at young people. Our research was conducted with a group of Slovenian students. The results show that explainer videos have great potential in field of destination marketing, event promotion (such as for sport and cultural events) and services (such as sharing-economy systems and health services) among the student Keywords: population. Our research has also shown the content and explainer videos, animation/images used in explainer videos are the most storytelling, tourism, important elements in attracting and holding the attention of health services, younger generation. marketing DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.ft.6.2022.13 ISBN 978-961-286-642-6 244 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 1 Introduction In today’s business environment, digital marketing has been gaining attention and increasing in popularity. Video is widely seen by academics and professionals as the most efficient tool that can capture the attention of the target audience, and help companies and their offers become more visible in the digital world (Krämer & Böhrs 2017, LinkedIn 2020, Sedej 2019). LinkedIn (2020) notes that in 2018 Cisco predicted that 82% of internet traffic will be video by 2022, driven by increases in bandwidth and processing power. More video content is created every 30 days than the major US TV channels have created in 30 years. Since video marketing is also becoming increasingly essential, there is a need to choose the type of videos that will provide value and have unique appeal to target audiences. Sedej (2019, 37) explains that in the 21st century video marketing has been becoming the centre of attention with regard to strategic marketing planning, and the trend is stil on the rise. Video content has become a powerful way to send messages to customers. Krämer and Böhrs (2017, 254) confirm the importance of video content and explain that the development of the video-hosting platform YouTube shows the growing interest in online video. Explainer videos have a special place among the various different types of videos, because they offer great value and outstanding potential in B2B and B2C marketing (LinkedIn 2020, Reiss et al. 2017, Sedej 2019). Reiss et al. (2017, 519) note that explainer videos are a commonly used medium for giving a short overview of the focal, while Krämer and Böhrs (2017, 254) state that more and more people use videos not only as a source of information, but also as a learning tool. T. Sedej, S. Mlaker Kač: Influence of Explainer Videos in Marketing Communication for Tourism and Health Services 245 2 The rise of video marketing 2.1 The video marketing It is clear that video content has now become a necessity for every organization, no matter the size or sector, and many authors (Mangold & Faulds 2009, McCue 2018, Mowat 2018, Sedej 2019) agree that video marketing is becoming more significant every year. Sedej (2019, 46) notes that research confirms that the trend of video communication is still on the rise. Video is a versatile and engaging content format, and Mowat (2018, 11) states that video has become an entirely new marketing option on its own, driven by technology and customer preferences. Videos are a great way to engage potential customers and familiarize them with a firm’s core business, although it is important for a company to have a clear idea of what it wants a video to accomplish. Mangoldand and Faulds (2009, 357) explain that because it is a visual medium, video can be used to teach complex concepts or motivate and inspire actions. Video has a power to bring an organizational vision to life. McCue (2018) believes that marketing via video is the best way to reach people today, while Mowat (2018, 11) agrees and explains that it engages people’s emotions. Retention rates for information - which is both seen and heard - is higher when watching a video compared to reading a text. Sedej (2019, 46) explains that one of the main reasons why video is extremely popular is that our brains are programmed to retain visual content better than text. 2.1.1 The immense potential of explainer videos There are many different types of videos, and to create an effective content marketing strategy it is important to have a solid understanding of the main strengths and weaknesses of these. 246 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Despite the wide range of options, explainer videos have been insufficiently integrated into marketing strategy plans. While the awareness of the potential of good video content is high, explainer videos have not yet been ful y exploited, and this is one of the main reasons why they present an opportunity for organizations to explain their products, services and other issues in an appealing and effective manner. Reiss et al. (2017, 520) strongly believe that the relevance of explanatory videos in both education and practice has been rising. There are many definitions of explainer videos, with Sedej (2019,155) noting that the definitions focus on one or more key characteristics of them. Reiss et al. (2017, 519) describe explanatory videos as short animated videos that are used to explain a complex issue. Krämer and Böhrs (2017, 255) state that explainer videos effectively convey complex facts to a target group within a very short time. Similarly, Sedej (2019, 150) believes that explainer videos translate complex issues into simple stories, which people enjoy watching. Effective explainer videos ones are focused, concise and have one main goal – to engage viewers. Krämer and Böhrs (2017, 255) report that explainer videos are usually one to three minutes long, and rather than going into detail they focus only on the most relevant facts. Sedej (2019, 160) agrees, and explains that with explainer videos companies can explain a business idea, product, or project in a one-to-three-minute-long video with informational, educational, and even entertainment value at the same time. Reiss et al. (2017, 519) state that one of the many advantages of explainer videos is that they can enable better understanding and increased memory performance among viewers. Sedej (2019, 160) agrees, and explains that the use of engaging visuals and clear animations make them the best type of content that stimulates our memories and increases rates of retention, much more so than text or still images. Krämer and Böhrs (2017, 264) provide evidence that explainer videos not only improve the knowledge level of the users, but also increase consumers’ involvement and activation potential. Storytel ing remains a fundamental approach in the sharing of ideas, concepts and knowledge in video format. Krämer and Böhrs (2017, 255) agree, and note that explainer videos tend to make use of storytelling and multisensory elements. T. Sedej, S. Mlaker Kač: Influence of Explainer Videos in Marketing Communication for Tourism and Health Services 247 Explainer videos are designed to grab people’s attention, with Krämer and Böhrs (2017, 255) noting that such visualizations often include animated illustrations, graphics, or photos. 3 Storytelling in tourism Storytelling is widely researched in the literature, and therefore we can find several definitions from different points of view (Howison, Higgins- Desbiolles & Sun 2017, pp. 328). Stories present what we do as humans or companies in order to make sense of the world. The usually contain characters and their relationships, and chronological development, and this is what develops the meaning of a story (Escalas 2004). Several authors (e.g. Cihan Yavuz et al., 2016, pp. 71) argue that a storytelling approach can be used for strategic destination identity development, branding and marketing in a long-term, multi-actor and multilevel process. Therefore destination management has to establish active multidisciplinary group efforts in the tourism industry. Successful communication between visitors and destinations can best be transmitted by verbs, objects, experiences, places and characters. Stories can thus be used as a framework for organizing and presenting key destination components (Cihan Yavuz et al. 2016, pp. 71, Frost et al. 2019). Tourism storytelling means stimulating the desire to tell a story and make someone want to own the narration of a potential and/or actual experience. This has two effects: the company-customer relationship is better, and the company can involve customers emotional y by using the most truthful and credible testimonials (Bassano et al. 2019, pp. 18). By tapping into the power of storytel ing, brand marketers can inject greater meaning and emotion into their brands (Baker 2007). Baker (2007) also claimed that storytelling is often undervalued in tourism and destination marketing, although we argue that this has changed over the last decade. 248 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Some important storyteling elements are trust-building, character development, inspirational content and the quality of writing (Hulda & Gray 2009). Digital narratives can play a special role in tourism in each phase of the customer experience (Bassano et al. 2019, pp. 18) with regard to: awareness (which is connected to identity and reputation), valuation and the decision-making process, and post-sales services (sharing stories through digital media improves trust in customer relationships). Stories in tourism can be presented in several different ways: (1) stories about a destination explained by tourist guides presented through audio-visual presentations, guidebooks and digital platforms; (2) activities that encourage tourists to enact their own personal stories, and (3) transmedia stories explored in different media and locations (Moscardo 2020, pp 3). The types of stories in tourism can also vary. Stories used in promotion are co-created by tourists and tourism practitioners, stories in tourism planning are presented by tourism practitioners and destination communities, and stories in experience co-creation and tourist management are created in collaboration among tourists, tourism practitioners and destination communities (Moscardo 2020, pp 3). Some studies (Su, Cheng, & Swanson 2020, pp. 8-9) have shown the great impact of emotional factors on the tourism industry, and these can also be achieved though storytelling, such as that presented via explainer videos. Bassano et al. (2019) claim that there are four important categories in story-building: (1) value categories, (2) interpretative patterns, (3) informative units and (4) sharing, and their research shows that storytel ing has an important role in helping firms achieve greater overall competitiveness. Our research focuses on storytel ing through explainer videos, which can be categorized under digital storytelling, which refers to online communication practices through technologies where individuals or companies have the main role of storytellers in order to build relationship experiences (Robin 2008, Kim & Hal 2020). Digital storytel ing has become increasingly important in travel and tourism marketing, entertainment, adventure and cultural tourism (Wu 2006, Pera 2017, Bassano et al. 2019, Chen, Mak & Kankhuni 2020, Kim & Hall 2020). T. Sedej, S. Mlaker Kač: Influence of Explainer Videos in Marketing Communication for Tourism and Health Services 249 4 Storytel ing in health sector Several authors (Day 2009, Gubrium 2009, Haigh & Hardy 2011, Houston 2015, Marin et al. 2017, Patel 2017) see the great potential of storytelling in the health sector, through which information can be presented in an understandable and pleasant form. For example, Patel (2017) strongly believes that the most effective communication strategy in the public health sector is a storytelling communication strategy. Nevertheless, storytelling has a power to inform, explain, learn, and persuade. Moreover, it has a power to build relationships and make people care, filling them with energy and inspiring them to act. Haigh and Hardy (2011), among others, explore the foundation, techniques, skills, and role of storytelling in health care and the use of storytel ing strategies in nurse education. In today’s environment, with an overload of information always available, good storytelling can raise awareness and understanding in the health sector. Day (2009) promotes the use of storytelling in the health sector with the main purpose of increasing health literacy, especial y among patients, who have a desire for an experimental learning approach. Many authors (Gubrium 2009, Marin et al. 2017, Moreau 2018) have a clear focus on digital storytelling. Gubrium (2009) discusses the use of digital storytelling in practice, its benefits, and chal enges, in health promotion research. He defines digital storytelling as visual narratives lasting from three to five minutes, which include text, illustrations, videos, voiceover and music to create a captivating experience. Moreover, as stories disarm us and prepare us for the main message, Moreau (2018) reviews and examines the reasons for using digital storytelling in the health education sector, although his focus is also on the impact of stories on health professionals’ learning and behaviours. On the other hand, Marin et al. (2017) explores the possibilities of digital storytelling as a pedagogical strategy for the construction of professional identity in health, social care and education. 250 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Storytelling has the power to stir up people's emotions and establish a positive attitude towards the information they receive. Haigh and Hardy (2001) discuss the importance of technology in communication, such as internet discussion boards or digitally facilitated storytel ing, which has an evolving role in building relationships with patients. Patel (2007) lists digital storytelling, virtual games, photographs, audio as wel as social media applications as platforms that can be used to communicate health information with community and practitioners. Different approaches towards storytel ing exist, and we can divide them into traditional and digital. Patel (2017) also discusses the various communication possibilities that are now available, but emphasizes that storytelling using digital technologies is not user-friendly for all age groups. 5 Research methodology Since explainer videos are especial y important and often used with the younger generation, we conducted an online study using a population of Slovene students. A total of 200 students were involved in the research, 60% of whom were female and 40% were male. They came from al different parts from Slovenia, their average age at the time of the survey was 21, and they were enrol ed in bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral study programmes, and thus the sample is representative of the student population in Slovenia. The research data was analysed using SPSS, and some basic univariate analysis was conducted. A recent study of destination brands’ promotional videos (Alegro & Turnšek 2021, pp 9) shows that 84% of such videos on YouTube include at least one sequence of tourists performing generic, common tourism activities, such as sightseeing, visiting museums, and hiking, and thus there is relatively little creativity in these, with most videos being rather similar. This is why our research focused on explainer videos, with special emphasis on: − the role of explainer videos in tourism and health services among Slovene students, T. Sedej, S. Mlaker Kač: Influence of Explainer Videos in Marketing Communication for Tourism and Health Services 251 − the media that is the most frequently used among Slovene students, and − elements of explainer videos that are understood as the most important in among Slovene students with regard to tourism and health services. 6 Research results According to our results (Table 1), explainer videos are quite popular among the student population in Slovenia, with 33.5% watching them once a week, 17.5% see them three times a week, and 6.5% every day. Table 1: How often the respondents watch explainer videos Frequency Number Percentage Every day 13 6.50% Three times a week 35 17.50% Once a week 67 33.50% Once a month 50 25.00% A few times a year 33 16.50% Have never seen one 2 1.00% Every day 13 6.50% Source: author’s own data. The results show that Slovenian students usual y watch half of the content of explainer videos (45,69%) or until the end (40.61%), with just 13.71% stating that they only watch the beginning (see Table 2). Table 2: How much of the explainer videos are usual y watched by the respondents How much is watched Number Percentage Only the beginning (first 15 sec) 27 13.71% Approximately half of the explainer videos 90 45.69% Until the end 80 40.61% Source: authors’ own data. Among those who answered that they do not watch explainer videos until the end, the following four reasons were given (Table 3): the duration of the explainer video (the average answer on a scale from 1 to 5 was 4.182), content of the explainer video (average 4.688), degree of personal interest in the content (4.453) and quality of the explainer video (4.600). The 80 students (in Table 2) who watched to the end did not answer this question. 252 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Table 3: Factors that influence whether an explainer video is watched to the end, according to the respondents who usual y do not watch until the end Factors Average score Duration of the explainer video 4.182 Content of the explainer video 4.688 Quality of the explainer video 4.453 Personal interest 4.600 Source: authors’ own data. General videos and explainer videos are shared via different channels, the most common of which for the Slovenian students survey are YouTube and Facebook. Table 4: Where the respondents usual y watch general and explainer videos Where the videos are usual y seen Average score (general) Average score (explainer videos) YouTube 4.556 3.888 Facebook 3.930 3.313 Instagram, Instagram TV 3.364 2.477 Vimeo 1.429 1.365 Snapchat 2.152 1.548 Source: authors’ own data. We also examined which elements attract the most attention when watching explainer videos (Table 5). The highest scored elements, on a scale of from 1 to 5, were: content (4.187), pictures (4.010), music (3.823), text (3.587), colours (3.347), tone of voice (3.323) and character of the animated figure (3.323). Table 5: The elements that attract the most attention among the respondents in explainer videos Elements Number Average score pictures/ animations 197 4.010 colours 196 3.347 lightness 197 3.020 tone 198 3.323 music 198 3.823 tempo 198 3.066 text 196 3.587 rhetoric 198 3.197 content 198 4.187 animated figure (character) 198 3.323 Source: authors’ own data. T. Sedej, S. Mlaker Kač: Influence of Explainer Videos in Marketing Communication for Tourism and Health Services 253 We also listed several different occasions when explainer videos can be used, and the most common responses where for the promotion or presentation of the different products (3.628), promotion of different events (sport events, concerts, etc.) (3.558), promotion of different tourist destination (3.371), and promotion of different services (3.164). Table 6: The most common uses for explainer videos, according to the respondents Fields of use Number Average score Presentation of business processes and activities 198 2.904 Promotion of products 196 3.628 Promotion of services 195 3.164 Presentation and promotion of destinations 197 3.371 Presentation and promotion of events (such as sports, health events and 197 3.558 concerts) Presentation and promotion of learning activities 197 2.843 Source: authors’ own data. 7 Discussion and conclusion Our research focuses on different explainer videos and their potential in promoting tourism and health services, with the survey carried out among a population of Slovenian students. We examined all the important issues and elements, and can conclude that explainer videos have huge potential with regard to tourism and health services in Slovenia. Our research has shown that explainer videos are mostly used and watched for presenting and promoting destinations, events (sport and cultural events) and different services (such as sharing details of systems used for tourism purposes and health services). Storytel ing is one of the clearest ways for a destination brand promotional video to stand out (Alegro & Turnšek 2021, pp 11), and our research shows that when preparing such videos the content and pictures/ animations used have to be considered careful y, since according to our research results these are most likely to attract attention. 254 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. YouTube and Facebook were considered as the most suitable channels among Slovene students for explainer videos, including those used for tourism and health services, and thus social media is the best platform for such content. Since the travel and tourism industry, as well as private health services, are highly competitive, explainer videos can be a great aid for the online marketing promotion of such services, especial y among the younger population that is constantly working and living online. Such videos have great value in attracting potential visitors, explaining problems and presenting solutions. The appropriate text and animations need to be considered as a priority when preparing explainer videos for younger people, as these are very powerful tools to drive people’s emotions. A positive attitude towards the information received about tourism and health can be developed with explainer videos, while explainer videos and digital storytelling in these sectors have an important and evolving role when building long-term partnerships with customers and patients. References Alegro, T. & Turnšek, M. (2021). Striving to Be Different But Becoming the Same: Creativity and Destination Brands’ Promotional Videos. 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The impact of tourism activity type on emotion and storytelling: the moderating roles of travel companion presence and relative ability. Tourism Management. 81, 1- 12. doi: 10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104138 Victoria I. Marín, Gemma Tur & Jane Chal inor (2018) An interdisciplinary approach to the development of professional identity through digital storytelling in health and social care and teacher education, Social Work Education, 37 (3), 396-412, doi: 10.1080/02615479.2017.1408790 256 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Wu, Q. (2006). Commercialization of digital storytelling: an integrated approach for cultural tourism, the Beijing Olympics and wireless VAS. International Journal of Cultural Studies. 9 (3), 383- 394. doi: 10.1177/1367877906066884 About authors Dr. Tanja Sedej obtained a PhD in business science at the Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Maribor, Slovenia. She is a co-founder of the marketing agency We Explain, LLC. She has extensive experience in marketing and communication, as well as in education as an assistant professor/lecturer in marketing, communications and entrepreneurship with a deep understanding of change management. She is a member of management board of a Slovenian advertising chamber, a member of the market research centre EUMMAS, and on the editorial board of two scientific journals. Dr. Sonja Mlaker Kač obtained a PhD in logistics at the Faculty of Logistics, University of Maribor, Slovenia, after studying marketing communication at the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana. She is an assistant professor at the Faculty of Logistics University of Maribor. She has extensive experience of research in the fields of organisational communication, international communication and human resources in logistics, and the relationships in supply chains. NATURAL DISASTERS AND TOURISM. ARE THE RISKS TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT? ALEŠ SEMEJA University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Brežice, Slovenia ales.semeja@adria-ankaran.si Abstract The tourism sector can be severely affected by unforeseen events, such as natural disasters, which are characterized as events with low probability but high impact. The COVID-19 pandemic came as an unprecedented shock to the tourism sector, with numerous reports appearing in many media outlets showing industry experts and directors calling for outside help to avoid worst-case scenarios for their businesses, even in the early days of the pandemic. We therefore wonder whether the approach of tourism companies to risk was inappropriate. Given the number of natural disasters that have occurred over the past few decades, we cannot argue that there have not been enough warning signs to encourage tourism companies to prepare for unforeseen events. A comprehensive review of Keywords: natural disasters in recent years can be a valuable tool for tourism natural disasters, companies to assess such risks and develop strategies and action tourism, risk, plans to increase resilience and sustainability. The latter should resilience, become key components of regular business. sustainability DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.ft.6.2022.14 ISBN 978-961-286-642-6 258 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. 1 Introduction Tourism is influenced by a wide range of factors, with natural disasters being prime examples of such determining risks, as they are general y unpredictable, have profound effects on individuals and society, and as a result have the potential to significantly harm tourism in affected destinations. Tourism is the single largest non-government economic sector in the world, and the most important economic activity for several local economies worldwide. It is also a fragile industry, in that demand for travel and perceived safety are highly susceptible to disasters and crises. The globalization of the tourism industry has added to this vulnerability, as crises that occur in a single place can affect tourism around the broader area or even worldwide. The problems that natural disasters cause the tourism sector can be summarized as an increase in tourists’ concerns about safety and/or destruction of infrastructure and facilities, both general or tourism-related (Maditinos, Vassiliadis 2008). The COVID-19 pandemic has added a new dimension to the problems caused by natural disasters as it is without doubt the most influential natural disaster in terms of number of affected people and economic impact in modern history. Global y, as of the 6th of December 2021, there have been 265,194,191 confirmed cases of COVID-19, including 5,254,116 deaths, reported to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2021). Tourism was hit especially hard, with the majority of tourism companies caught off-guard by the speed and severity of the drop in tourism flows, which were caused by unprecedented government measures to limit the spread of infection and steep deterioration in perceived travel safety. According to UNWTO, there was a 76% drop in international tourist arrivals by September 30, 2021 compared to the same time period in 2019 (UNWTO, 2021). Aside from world wars, there are virtually no events in modern history that have limited travel on such a global scale and for such a prolonged period of time. But smaller incidents did occur surprisingly often, affecting the tourism of regions, countries or individual destinations. The impact of a natural disaster can vary significantly by how long it lasts, how many cumulative effects it has across various areas, how many industries it affects, and whether a shock hits the supply side alone A. Semeja: Natural Disasters and Tourism. Are the Risks Taken Into Account? 259 or also the demand side. Supply chain disruptions lasting a month or longer now happen every 3.7 years on average (Lund et al., 2021). The nature and extent of impacts depend on the type of shock and the resilience of the affected system (OECD, 2014). The assessment of the impact of natural disasters on tourism with regard to economic damage, affected populations and lives lost is gaining greater attention, as natural disaster risk management is becoming increasingly important (Maditinos & Vassiliadis, 2008). Understanding crises and disasters and their potential impacts can help in the development of responsive strategies by organizations, thus reducing the severity of their impacts on business and society (Elsubbaugh et al., 2004). The aim of this article is to explore data on past natural disasters that severely influenced tourism, thus presenting a shock to the system in affected regions, with the aim to provide an overview of most common natural disaster threats to tourism businesses, thus providing a framework for risk assessment that companies can use while assessing their risk profiles in order to improve their resilience in this context. 2 Natural disasters 2.1 Definition There are many different terms used the in literature regarding unpredictable and adverse natural events, such as disasters, crises, shocks, risks, stresses, emergencies, catastrophes, events etc. The differences are, to some extent, a matter of perception. Stephenson Disaster Management Institute (2021) defines a crisis in terms of a threat to core values or life-sustaining systems, which requires an urgent response under conditions of deep uncertainty. A disaster is determined by the outcome or consequences for a society: a disaster is a “crisis with a bad ending”. When a crisis is perceived to have very bad consequences, we speak of a catastrophe. 260 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Crises can also be defined as low-probability, high-impact events that threaten the viability of an organization, and are characterized by ambiguity of cause, effect, and means of resolution, as wel as by a belief that decisions must be made swiftly (Pearson & Clair, 1998). Laws and Prideaux (2005) argue that the term crisis in tourism refers to a sudden, unexpected event that leads to a shock. The OECD defines a risk as a probability of a negative event and its negative consequences. A shock occurs when this risk becomes reality. Stress on the other hand is the result of a long-lasting trend. There are different types of risks, shocks and stresses (OECD, 2014): 1. infrequent events with an impact on almost everyone in the target group, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or pandemics – covariate shocks, 2. significant events that specifically affect individuals and families, such as the death of the main breadwinner or the loss of income-generating activity – idiosyncratic shocks, 3. seasonal shocks, such as annual flooding linked to the rainy season, or recurring shocks such as frequent displacement or endemic cholera in particular communities, 4. long term trends, weakening the potential of a system and deepening the vulnerability of its actors, like increased pollution, deforestation, etc. – stresses. Despite the fact that there are differences among the definitions of disaster, crisis and emergency, the terms are closely interconnected, interdependent and overlap significantly. The sudden nature of the event and the damage caused are the common features of al three, though an emergency is not always of a sudden nature. Further, many common features have been identified between disasters and crises, so they can be used interchangeably to a certain extent. The term emergency, however, does not share many common features with the other two terms, and has some contradictory features (Al-Dahash et al., 2016). A. Semeja: Natural Disasters and Tourism. Are the Risks Taken Into Account? 261 For purposes of this article the EM-DAT definition of natural disasters will be used. The EM-DAT database (2021), one of the most comprehensive databases on natural disasters, defines a disaster as an event conforming to at least one of the following criteria: − 10 or more people dead, − 100 or more people affected, − The declaration of a state of emergency, − A cal for international assistance. Table 1: General classification of natural disasters Disaster Disaster Group Subgroup Definition Main Types of Disaster A hazard originating from solid Earthquake Geophysical earth. This term is used Mass movement interchangeably with the term (dry) geological hazard. Volcanic activity A hazard caused by short-lived, Extreme Meteorological micro- to meso-scale extreme weather temperature and atmospheric conditions that last Fog from minutes to days. Storm A hazard caused by the occurrence, Flood Hydrological movement, and distribution of surface Landslide and subsurface freshwater and saltwater. Wave action A hazard caused by long-lived, meso- to macro-scale atmospheric processes ranging from intra-seasonal Drought Climatological to multi-decadal climate variability. Natural Glacial Lake Outburst Wildfire A hazard caused by the exposure to Epidemic living organisms and their toxic Insect infestation substances (e.g., venom, mould) or vector-borne diseases that they may Biological carry. Examples are venomous wildlife and insects, poisonous plants, Animal Accident and mosquitoes carrying disease- causing agents such as parasites, bacteria, or viruses (e.g. malaria). A hazard caused by asteroids, Impact meteoroids, and comets as they pass Extraterrestrial near Earth, enter the Earth’s atmosphere, and/or strike the Earth, Space weather and by changes in interplanetary conditions that effect the Earth’s 262 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. Disaster Disaster Group Subgroup Definition Main Types of Disaster magnetosphere, ionosphere, and thermosphere. Source: (EM-DAT, 2021) http://www.emdat.be Natural disasters can be further dived into sub-groups that describe individual events with greater precision. Detailed definitions of natural disasters subtypes types are presented in Table 2. Table 2: General classification of natural disasters – subtypes Disaster Disaster Main Subgroup Type Disaster Sub-Type Disaster Sub-Sub-Type Ground movement Earthquake Tsunami Mass Rock fal Movement Landslide Geophysical (dry) Ash fal Volcanic Lahar activity Pyroclastic flow Lava flow Extra-tropical storm Tropical storm Derecho Hail Lightning/thunderstorm Storm Rain Convective storm Tornado Sand/dust storm Meteorological Winter storm/blizzard Storm/surge Wind Severe storm Cold wave Extreme Heat wave temperature Snow/ice Severe winter conditions Frost/freeze Fog Coastal flood Riverine flood Hydrological Flood Flash flood Ice jam flood A. Semeja: Natural Disasters and Tourism. Are the Risks Taken Into Account? 263 Disaster Disaster Main Subgroup Type Disaster Sub-Type Disaster Sub-Sub-Type Avalanche (snow, debris, Landslide mudflow, rockfall) Rogue wave Wave action Seiche Drought Glacial lake outburst Climatological Forest fire Wildfire Land fire: brush, bush, pasture Viral disease Bacterial disease Epidemic Parasitic disease Fungal disease Biological Prion disease Insect Grasshoppers infestation Locusts Animal accident Impact Airburst Space weather Energetic particles Extraterrestrial Geomagnetic storm Shockwave Source: (EM-DAT, 2021) http://www.emdat.be 2.1.1 Occurrence of natural disasters After detailing the classification of natural disasters, we must further determine the occurrence of different subtypes. To determine what are the prevalent types of natural disasters that represent a shock to the system, how common are they and where they appear, we must look at historic data on such events. An extensive database of georeferenced natural disasters can be found in the Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT) provided by the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters at the Catholic University of Louvain in Belgium. The GDIS dataset includes the dominant geophysical, meteorological, hydrological, and climatological disaster types: floods, storms, earthquakes, volcanic activity, extreme temperatures, landslides, droughts, and (dry) mass movements (EM-DAT, 2021). 264 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. The EM-DAT database includes all reported disasters from 1900 until the present and in total contains spatial information on 39,953 locations for 9,924 disasters occurring worldwide between 1960 and 2018 (Rosvold, Buhaug, 2021). That is roughly 165 significant natural disasters per year, but the numbers are growing year-by-year at an ever-faster pace. We can argue that information technology has made it easier to gather data on such incidents, but some authors believe that number of natural disasters is rising because of factors such as global warming, population growth that forces habitation in more dangerous environments, and other developments (Becken et al., 2014). As such, changes in the environment and the global economy are increasing the frequency and magnitude of shocks. Forty weather disasters in 2019 alone caused damage exceeding $1 bil ion each – and in recent years the economic tol caused by the most extreme events has been rising (Lund et al., 2021). Figure 1 presents the occurrence of different subtypes of natural disasters from 1960 to 2018. Figure 1: Natural disaster by type, from 1960–2018: Source: Rosvold & Buhaug, 2021 A. Semeja: Natural Disasters and Tourism. Are the Risks Taken Into Account? 265 According to UNDRR there were 7,348 major disaster events recorded between 2000 and 2019 alone, claiming 1.23 million lives, affecting 4.2 billion people and resulting in approximately US$2.97 trillion in global economic losses. This represents a sharp increase over the previous twenty years. Between 1980 and 1999 there were 4,212 disasters linked to natural hazards worldwide, claiming approximately 1.19 million lives and affecting 3.25 billion people, resulting in approximately US$1.63 trillion in economic losses. The last twenty years has seen the number of major floods more than double, from 1,389 to 3,254, while the incidence of storms grew from 1,457 to 2,034, with floods and storms were the most prevalent such events (UNDDR, 2020). Over the last two decades a global increase in the damage coming from natural disasters has been recorded, with the death rates in low-income countries considerably higher than in richer nations (Kirchberger, 2017). 3 Effects of natural disasters on tourism flows Rosselló et al. (2020) carried out extensive research on the effects of various natural disasters on tourism flows. Figure 2: Model of natural disasters effect on tourism flows Source: Rossel ó et al. 2020 Researchers found that different types of disaster have different impacts on tourism. Volcanic eruptions are expected to have the most significant and substantial negative impacts on tourism. Floods and tsunamis are also very destructive when they occur, although it is difficult to establish whether the negative effects they have on tourism 266 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. flows are caused by destruction of or damage to infrastructure, or by the negative image of the destination generated by such events. Similarly, wildfires, earthquakes, storms or droughts present a threat to tourism flows when economic and infrastructural damage occurs. Researchers found that when these types of disasters result in economic or infrastructural damage, a negative and significant relationship can be established. Landslides, cold waves or heat waves are unlikely to have a major effect on tourist arrivals, which can also be attributed to them having little or no impact on infrastructure and presenting no long-term risk to tourists after the event has finished (Rosselló et al., 2020). Although Rosselló et al. (2020) did not establish a meaningful negative impact of epidemics on tourism flows, probably because at the time of their work epidemics represented isolated events in relatively remote places, other empirical research has indicated that when there is high numbers of infections epidemics can have an significant impact, as observed in the cases of the SARS and avian flu epidemics (Mao et al., 2010). With the COVID-19 pandemic the literature wil certainly change to reflect the fact that epidemics and pandemics are among the potential y most influential natural disasters with regard to tourism flows. The impact of natural disasters depends on what one is considering. With regard to the loss of life, ground movements are the deadliest, followed by tsunamis and storms. In terms of the number of affected people, floods and droughts have the greatest impacts. With extensive media coverage it may appear to the general public that the number of fatalities from natural disasters has grown significantly in recent years, and destination risk perception has therefore emerged as one of the critical factors in the travel decision-making process (Becken et al., 2016). However, the good news is that the number of fatalities from natural disasters has fal en significantly in recent decades (Ritchie, Roser, 2021), as shown in Figure 2 which presents the number of fatalities caused by natural disasters each year from 1978 to 2020 (the COVID-19 pandemic not being included in the data). A. Semeja: Natural Disasters and Tourism. Are the Risks Taken Into Account? 267 Figure 3: Number of fatalities caused by natural disasters per year Source: Ritchie & Roser, 2021. The distribution of disasters differs across regions and shows considerable variation both in terms of event type and resulting impacts. For instance, although only 16.8% of storms take place in the Americas, the impact in terms of deaths, affected people and costs is comparatively high compared to other regions (above 50%). Earthquakes are most common in the Asia-Pacific region, with disproportionally high impacts with regard to the number of deaths, affected people and economic costs. More than 90% of deaths form natural disasters in Africa are related to droughts, which is the prevalent type of natural disaster on that continent. Europe, with some exceptions, is characterized by a lower incidence of deaths and affected people from natural disaster, although with much higher economic costs, caused mainly by storms, heath and cold waves. We can summarize that in terms of the economic costs of disasters, the developed world leads with storms ranking first. In terms of lives lost from natural disasters, those living in poverty in less developed nations are most heavily affected (Rosselló et al., 2020). High death tolls tend to be found in low-to-middle income countries without the infrastructure to protect and respond to such events (Ritchie & Roser, 2021). Below we summarize some of the biggest natural disasters in recent decades in terms of lives lost, people affected and economic damage. Please note that infectious diseases are taken into account only if they occur as a sudden outbreak, while epidemics like HIV, tuberculosis, malaria and so on with no doubt have tremendous 268 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. effects on the affected populations, they can be better characterized as persistent stresses to the system, not as unforeseen natural events. Table 3: Main natural disasters in terms of lives lost Type of Disaster Deaths Year Country Description Pandemic 5,250,000+ 2019- Global SARS-Cov-2 pandemic Earthquake (ground movement) 222,570 2010 Haiti Earthquake (ground movement) Earthquake (Tsunami) 165,708 2004 Indonesia Tsunami/Tidal wave Storm 138,366 2008 Myanmar Tropical cyclone Heat wave 55,736 2010 Russia Heat wave Flood 30,000 1999 Venezuela Flash flood Epidemic 6,908 2011 Haiti Bacterial disease. Cholera epidemic. Landslide 1,765 2010 China Landslide Cold wave 1,317 2008 Afghanistan Severe winter conditions+ snow avalanche Epidemic 774 2003 China & HK SARS epidemic Volcanic activity 322 2010 Indonesia Ash flow (Mt. Merapi) Wildfire 240 1997 Indonesia Forest fire Flood 200 2021 Germany Flash flood Source: EM-DAT (2021) www.emdat.be, CDC (2021) www.cdc.gov/DataStatistics/, WHO (2021) www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news Table 4: Main natural disasters in terms of economic damage Type of Disaster Cost in USD Year Country Description Pandemic 24,000,000,000,000+ 2019- Global SARS-Cov-2 pandemic Earthquake (tsunami) 210,000,000,000 2011 Japan Earthquake, tsunami Storm 125,000,000,000 2005 USA Katrina. Tropical cyclone + flood Earthquake 100,000,000,000 1995 Japan Ground movement + fire Epidemic 40,000,000,000 2003 China & HK SARS epidemic Flood 40,000,000,000 2012 Thailand Riverine flood, landslide Cold wave 21,100,000,000 2008 China Severe winter conditions Drought 20,000,000,000 2012 USA Drought Flood 20,000,000,000 2021 Germany Flash flood Wildfire 8,000,000,000 1997 Indonesia Forest fire Heat wave 4,400,000,000 2003 Italy Heat wave Landslide 890,000,000 1998 China Landslide Volcanic activity 150,000,000 2006 Ecuador Ash fall (Tungurahua) A. Semeja: Natural Disasters and Tourism. Are the Risks Taken Into Account? 269 Table 5: Main natural disasters in terms of the affected population Type of Disaster Affected population Year Country Description Pandemic global 2019- Global SARS-Cov-2 pandemic Drought 300,000,000 2015- 2016 India Drought Flood 238,970,000 1998 China Riverine flood. Broken dam/burst dan Storm 100,000,000 2002 China Convective storm Cold wave 77,000,000 2008 China Severe winter conditions Earthquake 45,980,000 2008 China Earthquake, Earthquake (tsunami) 2,670,000 2010 Chile Tsunami/tidal wave Landslide 2,100,000 2010 China Landslide Wildfire 1,000,000 2007 Macedonia Forest fire Epidemic 940,000 2011 Brazil Viral disease. Dengue Heat wave 500,000 1995 Australia Extreme temperature Volcanic activity 300,000 2006 Ecuador Ash fal (Tungurahua) Source: EM-DAT (2021) www.emdat.be, CDC (2021) www.cdc.gov/DataStatistics/, WHO (2021) www.who.int/emergencies/disease-outbreak-news 3.1 Natural disasters in Europe Since Slovenia is part of this territory, we are obliged to take a closer look at natural disasters in Europe. There were roughly 1,000 natural disasters in Europe over the last two decades, of which 951 were weather-related. The combined death toll of these events are estimated at some 150,000 people, while the affected population amounts to well over 11 million with 217 billion US Dollars in economic damage (Below & van Loenhout, 2021). 2% 6% Drought 23% Extreme temperature 27% Flood Landslide 1% Storm 41% Wildfire Figure 3: Occurrence of weather related natural disasters in Europe by type from 2001 to 2020. Source: EM-DAT 2021 270 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN TOURISM. In Europe, most deaths from natural disasters over the last 20 years were caused by heath waves (146.000) and cold waves (3.800). In terms of the number of people affected, floods (60%) rank first, followed by storms, droughts and wildfires, each representing an approximately 10% share of the total. Most of the economic losses in Europe are caused by floods (50%), fol owed by storms (29%). 4 Conclusion Natural disasters pose a very real risk to tourism, due to damage to general infrastructure, tourism facilities, the perceived safety of a destination, disruption of tourism flows, lives lost, and so on, and can have long lasting negative impacts on the sector. By acknowledging and understanding the risk posed by natural disasters, companies can develop strategies to better cope with and reduce their negative impacts to tourism. Taking into account the sheer number of natural disasters that occurred in recent decades, we cannot argue that there are not enough warning signs to urge tourism companies to prepare for such events. In the case of Europe, the systemic ability to respond to natural disasters saves lives, although the economic impact is stil severe. Tourism companies should therefore evaluate the risks in destinations where they operate, have sufficient insurance coverage and build up financial reserves in order to boost their resilience. A classification of possible events, backed by data and statistics, can serve as a very effective tool in order to properly assess the real risk in micro locations. A coordinated response from government bodies and tourism entities plays a significant role in post-disaster actions to cope with the negative impacts of major incidents. Re-establishing public perceptions of safety and attractiveness following a disaster is crucial to attract and reassure potential visitors to travel to an affected destination and, by doing so, assisting the affected area to regain functionality and achieve an economic recovery (WTTC, 2018). This kind of cooperation is currently seen at unprecedented levels as governments and companies col aborate to deal with the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. Past studies have shown that tourism recovers rapidly from natural disasters if basic and tourism infrastructures are not damaged, but only the future will tell if that will be the case with COVID-19. Will tourism quickly return to pre-pandemic levels once the pandemic is suppressed, as A. Semeja: Natural Disasters and Tourism. Are the Risks Taken Into Account? 271 general and tourism infrastructures were not damaged. Or wil the lower perceived safety of travel prevail, with longer lasting negative effects on tourism flows? With the occurrence of natural disasters becoming more common over recent decades, preparation for such events can no longer be separated from regular business activities. Therefore, sustainability and resilience are becoming more and more important strategic factors, and companies should incorporate the risk posed by natural disasters in their strategies and action plans to a greater extent. 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University of Maribor, Faculty of Tourism, Brežice, Slovenia maja.zibert1@um.si, milica.rancic1@um.si Abstract The scientific monograph on current topics of tourism development, which is intertwined with the field of health, wellbeing, and the role of local authorities in planning, implementing, and evaluating policies and practices related to public health issues, offers the reader a systematic theoretical review of scientific literature, as wel as case studies of the topics discussed. The content is presented by numerous researchers and experts Keywords: who are active in Slovenia or other countries of the former tourism, development, Yugoslavia. The topics address current issues in the development thematic tourism, of tourism science. The content is multidisciplinary and sport tourism, interconnects various views and concepts that provide an insight well-being, public health, into the profession for the needs of further development of the the role of local sector. authorities DOI https://doi.org/10.18690/um.ft.6.2022 ISBN 978-961-286-642-6 Document Outline 1 Introduction 2 Local Self Government in Slovenia 2.1 Development of tourism at the local level 3 Financial resources of municipalities 4 Local budgets and tourism development: a case study 5 Conclusion Sources 1 Introduction 2 Caring for traditional sports and games in an international framework 3 Traditional sports and games in ex-Yugoslav republics 4 Methodology 5 Research results https://www.primorske.si/2018/09/26/sosedski-obracun-dobili-hrvati 6 Discussion Bečejsko udruženje mladih (2019, August 19). “Bačke ajkule” pobednici jubilarne desete Vojvođanske olimpijade starih sportova u Bačkom Gradištu [“Bačka sharks” winners of the jubilee tenth Vojvodina Olympics of old sports in Bačko Gradište]. https://b... 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Mandić, S. (2017, August 28). Nikšić: Održane prve župske seoske igre [Nikšić: The first Zupa village games were held]. Retrieved April 26, 2021, from: https://www.vijesti.me/vijesti/drustvo/67159/niksic-odrzane-prve-zupske-seoske-igre Nevesinje: Tradicija Nevesinjske olimpijade jača od ratova i nepogoda [Nevesinje: The tradition of the Nevesinje Olympics is stronger than wars and disasters]. (2020, August 17). eTrebinje. Sport: Stari vojvođanski sportovi popularni među svim generacijama [Sports: Old Vojvodina sports popular among all generations]. (2016, August 21). TV Bečej. http://www.tvbecej.rs/index.php?c=vest&vestid=1391&slider=off&lg=sr UNESCO (n.d.). Browse the Lists of Intangible Cultural Heritage and the Register of good safeguarding practices. UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage. https://ich.unesco.org/en/lists 2020 Vijekovna tradicija: Borba pelivana u selu Studeničani kraj Skoplja [Century tradition: Pelivan fight in the village of Studenicani near Skopje]. 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Retrieved May 24, 2021, from: http://kultura.gov.mk/prodolzuva-petve... 1 Introduction 2 Sustainable mountain tourism 3 Structure and methods of the review 4 Impacts of tourism in mountain regions 4.1 Environmental impacts 4.2 Socio-cultural impacts 4.3 Economic impacts 4 Conclusion 1 Introduction 2 Literature review 4 Empirical part 1 Introduction 2 Sports tourism 2.1 Opportunities for people with disabilities in sports tourism 2.2 Development of a sports tourism destination for people with disabilities with the help of European projects 2.2.1 The development of a sports tourism destination for people with disabilities with the help of three projects financed by European Commission: “Sports for healthy aging”, “Feel the freedom of the water” and “Bet on health” 3 Discussion 1 Introduction 2 Literature review 3 Research methodology 3.1 Data collection 3.2 Data analysis 4 Results 4.1 Analysis of topics 5 Conclusions and Implications 1 Introduction 2 Methodology 2.1.1 Results 3 Conclusions 1 Introduction 2 Wine tourism 2.1 Generation Z and tourism 2.2 Wine tourism and youth 3 Methodology 1 Introduction 2 Literary Trails in Slovenia 3 The Concept of Well-Being in Literary Tourism 4 The Prežihov Voranc Route 5 Travel writing – A Ticket to Well-Being 6 Conclusion 1 Introduction 1.1 Methodology 2 Understanding the motives for dark tourism  Nuclear tourism describes visiting the sites of nuclear disasters. Among the most well-known destinations are Chernobyl (Ukraine) and Fukushima (Japan) (Berger, 2006).  Tourism of murderers and murder places is visiting places where murders took place and places connected to mass murderers (Gibson, 2006).  Poverty tourism, also known as “slum tourism”, is visiting places of extreme poverty (Frenzel et al., 2015).  Terrorist tourism is visiting sites of terrorist attacks, or countries with an imminent threat of terrorism (Cross, 2019).  Supernatural tourism is visiting haunted houses and places, places where monsters, mythical creatures and aliens are alleged to have been seen, and all other sites of unexplained events (Haynes, 2016).  Witchcraft tourism is visiting places connected with the large-scale killings of people (especially women) for alleged crimes against God and fraternizing with the Devil. (Grafenauer & Kužnik, 2015).  Accident tourism is visiting site of accidents – car crashes, plane crashes, or work accidents (Foley & Lennon, 2000).  Dark entertainment tourism combines dark elements with entertainment. One such example is the London Dungeons (Grafenauer & Kužnik, 2015). 3 Examples of dark tourism in Slovenia 4 Presence of dark tourism in the city of Maribor 5 The typology and stories of dark tourism in Maribor according to the identified dark heritage 6 Conclusion 1 Introduction 3 Survey of Slovenian hosts 4 Conclusions 1 Introduction 2 Literature review 2.1 From animals to pets 2.2 Pets in tourism 2.3 Pet hotels 3 Methodology 4 Results 4.1 Focus group results 4.2 Online survey results 5 Discussion 1 Introduction 2 The rise of video marketing 2.1 The video marketing 3 Storytelling in tourism 4 Storytelling in health sector 5 Research methodology 6 Research results 7 Discussion and conclusion 1 Introduction 2.1 Definition