Univerza v Ljubljani Fakulteta za gradbeništvo in geodezijo 1 i .... tV,v I I 1 I l| I l il I I I 1 h n 11111 h m iiumlii!! INTERDISCIPLINARNI PODIPLOMSKI ŠTUDIJ PROSTORSKEGA IN URBANISTIČNEGA PLANIRANJA Kandidatka: DINA STOBER, univ. dipl. inž. arh. PRIMERJAVA VREDNOSTNIH OCEN SLOVENSKEGA, MADŽARSKEGA IN HRVAŠKEGA PREBIVALSTVA O TRAJNOSTI NA OSNOVI VIDNE TRANSFORMACIJE OBREČNIH KRAJIN Doktorska disertacija štev.: 227 COMPARISON OF VALUE ATTITUDES OF SLOVENIAN, HUNGARIAN AND CROATIAN CITIZENS ON SUSTAINABILITY USING VISUAL TRANSFORMATION OF THE RIVER LANDSCAPE Doctoral thesis No.: 227 Soglasje k temi doktorske disertacije je dala Komisija za doktorski študij UL na 17. redni seji, dne 11. maja 2011. Za mentorja je bil imenovan prof. dr. Andrej Pogačnik, za somentorja pa prof. dr. Janez Marušič, UL BF. Ljubljana, 16. november 2012 Univerza v Ljubljani Fakulteta za gradbeništvo in geodezijo 1 i 11 1 I ll I "I 111 I 1 1 h n 11111 h m liumll!!! Komisijo za oceno ustreznosti teme doktorske disertacije v sestavi: - prof. dr. Andrej Pogačnik - prof. dr. Janez Maruši č, UL BF, upokojen, - prof. dr. Ana Kučan, UL BF, - prof. dr. Anka Mišetič, Inštitut za družboslovne raziskave Zagreb, je imenoval Senat Fakultete za gradbeništvo in geodezijo na 17. redni seji, dne 26. j anuarj a 2011. Poročevalce za oceno doktorske disertacije v sestavi: - izr. prof. dr. Drago Kos, UL FDV, - prof. dr. Ana Kučan, UL BF, - prof. dr. Anka Mišetič, Inštitut za družboslovne raziskave Zagreb, je imenoval Senat Fakultete za gradbeništvo in geodezijo na 32. redni seji, dne 20. junija 2012. Komisijo za zagovor doktorske disertacije v sestavi: - prof. dr. Matjaž Mikoš, predsednik, - prof. dr. Andrej Pogačnik, UL FGG, upokoj en, mentor, - prof. dr. Janez Maruši č, UL BF, upokojen, somentor, - izr. prof. dr. Drago Kos, UL FDV, - prof. dr. Ana Kučan, UL BF, - prof. dr. Anka Mišetič, Inštitut za družboslovne raziskave Zagreb, je imenoval Senat Fakultete za gradbeništvo in geodezijo na 34. redni seji, dne 24. oktobra 2012. Univerza v Ljubljani Fakulteta za gradbeništvo in geodezijo 1 i 11 1 I ll I "I 111 I 1 1 h n 11111 h m IlUKll!!! IZJAVA O AVTORSTVU Podpisana DINA STOBER, univ. dipl. inž. arh., izjavljam, da sem avtorica doktorske disertacije z naslovom: »PRIMERJAVA VREDNOSTNIH OCEN SLOVENSKEGA, MADŽARSKEGA IN HRVAŠKEGA PREBIVALSTVA O TRAJNOSTI NA OSNOVI VIDNE TRANSFORMACIJE OBREČNIH KRAJIN«. Izjavljam, da je elektronska različica v vsem enaka tiskani različici. Izjavljam, da dovoljujem objavo elektronske različice v repozitoriju UL FGG. Ljubljana, 16. november 2012 (podpis) STRAN ZA POPRAVKE Stran z napako Vrstica z napako Namesto Naj bo BIBLIOGRAFSKO - DOKUMENTACIJSKA STRAN IN IZVLEČEK UDK: Avtor: Mentor: Somentor: Tip dokumenta: Obseg in oprema: Ključne besede: Naslov: 502./504: 556(497.4)(497.5)(439)(043.3) Dina Stober, dipl. ing. arh. prof. dr. Andrej Pogačnik prof. dr. Janez Marušič Primerjava vrednostnih ocen slovenskega, madžarskega in hrvaškega prebivalstva o trajnosti na osnovi vidne transformacije obrečnih krajin doktorska disertacija 187 str., 69 pregl., 63 sl., 15 pril. obrečna krajina, medkulturne okoljske vrednote, vizualno ocenjevanje, krajinski scenariji Izvleček Doktorsko delo se ukvarja s primerjavo mnenj kulturnih/nacionalnih skupin, ki si na državni meji delijo rečni prostor. Delo se osredotoča na vprašanje, kako različne kulturne in interesne skupine prednostno vrednotijo različne elemente rečnega prostora, ki vplivajo na spremembe opazovanega prostora. Mnenja so bila raziskana s pomočjo vrednotenja vizualne transformacije rečnega prostora s spremembami funkcije in pisnim vprašalnikom. Na ta način je bila razvita metoda predvidevanja in prepoznavanja potencialnih konfliktov pri načrtovanju rečnega prostora kot tudi ravni sprejemljivosti načrtovane prostorske spremembe v odvisnosti od začetnega stanja lokacije. Disertacija prostorsko-načrtovalno temo raziskuje na naslednjih področjih: 1. na teoretski podlagi dokazuje, da so nacionalne skupine obenem tudi kulturne skupine, katerih vrednotni sistemi višjega reda vplivajo na okoljske orientacije, in da razlike v vrednotnih sistemih interesnih skupin predstavljajo potencialne konflikte v načrtovanju deljenega rečnega prostora; 2. za praktično sfero razvija metodo, s katero se opredeljujejo konkretne razlike v vrednotnih sistemih kulturnih in interesnih skupin v vrednotenju transformacije rečnega prostora s ciljem doseganja kulturne trajnosti načrtovanega prostora. BIBLIOGRAPHIC-DOCUMENTALISTIC INFORMATION AND ABSTRACT UDC: Author: Supervisor: Cosupervisor: 502./504: 556(497.4)(497.5)(439)(043.3) Dina Stober, B.Sc.Arch. Prof.Andrej Pogačnik, Ph.D. Prof.Janez Marušič, Ph.D. Comparison of Value Attitudes of Slovenian, Hungarian And Croatian Citizens on Sustainability Using Visual Transformation Of The River Landscape Doctoral Dissertation Title: Document type: Notes: Keywords: 187 p., 69 tab., 63 fig., 15 ann. river landscape, cross-cultural environmental values, visual assesement, landscape scenarios Abstract This doctoral dissertation deals with comparison of attitudes of cultural/mational groups who share the borders of a particular river area. The thesis is focused on the question of how different cultural and interest groups prefer different elements of river area which affects the changes investigated area. Attitudes are explored through visual evaluation of the transformation changes to the function of the river area and the written questionnaire. In this way, methods of prediction and identification of potential conflicts in planning of river area are developed, as well as the level of acceptability of the planned changes in reference to the initial state of the area. The dissertation deals with spatial planning in the following areas: 1. The theoretical background shows that national/cultural groups whose value system of higher order affects the environmental orientation. It also demonstrates that differences in value systems of interest groups can become background for a potential conflict when planning the shared river area. 2. The practical part develops a method that defines the specific differences in value systems of cultural and interest groups while evaluating the transformation of the river area in order to achieve cultural sustainability of the planned area. ZAHVALA Ob zaključku se iskreno zahvaljujem vsem, ki ste mi kakor koli pomagali na poti priprave tega dela. Izjemen čar take poti je, da ti v življenje lahko prinese posebne ljudi, ki ostanejo s tabo tudi, ko se delo zaključi. Hvala mentorju, prof. dr. Andreju Pogačniku, za to priložnost, za usmeritve pri izboru teme doktorske disertacije in konstruktivne pripombe v času njene izdelave. Hvala tudi izr. prof. dr. Dragu Kosu, prof. dr. Ani Kučan in prof. dr. Anki Mišetic za temeljit pregled doktorske disertacije in plodne konzultacije, ki so delu dale dokončno obliko in vsebino. Hvala raziskovalni mentorici, prof. dr. Sanji Lončar - Vickovic, in doc. dr. Zlati Dolaček - Alduk, za spodbudne besede, dobronamerne nasvete in potrpežljivost, še posebej v zadnjih mesecih. Posebno se zahvaljujem prof. dr. Vladimiiju Sigmundu in prof. dr. Damirju Markulaku za zaupanje in finančno podporo, brez katere bi bila izbrana pot izjemno težko uresničljiva. Hvala dr. Bernadett Kovacs Horvath s kaposvarske univerze, celotni Katedri prostorskega planiranja na UL FGG in vsem z ljubljanske in osiješke univerze, ki so osebno sodelovali v raziskovanju. Prav tako hvala doc. dr. Tanji Gradečak - Erdeljic za angleški prevod besedila in Sabini Koželj Horvat za slovenski del. Hvala staršema za svobodo. Odkar se zavedam, sta mi svet okoli mene pustila v lastno presojanje in samostojno izbiro poti. Mama, ti si moja snaga. Hvala vsej moji družini, ker mi ves čas stojite ob strani. Še posebej hvala za nesebično podporo teti Slavki, ki mi je bila v veliko pomoč v ljubljanskih dneh. Hvala Nevenu za vso podporo, ljubezen, potrpežljivost in pomoč. Hvala moji Zoe in mojemu Roku za vso ljubezen, ki mi jo dajeta. KAZALO VSEBINE Bibliografsko-dokumentacijska stran in izvleček Bibliographic-documentatalistic information and abstract Zahvala 1 INTRODUCTION 1. 1 Background to the research question 1.2 Working hypotheses 1.3 Research goals and expected results 1.4 The applied research methods 1.5 The structure of the dissertation 2 THEORETICAL OUTSET 2. 1 Ethics and value s 2.2 Cross-cultural values 2.3 Three different cultures 2.4 Moral subject and moral object in the relationship of man and nature 2.5 Conclusion of the chapter on ethics and values 2.6 Cultural sustainability 2.7 Visual, ecological and ecologically-visual value of landscape 2.7.1 Evaluating landscape in the objective and subjective paradigm 2.7.2 Aesthetics and Ecology or Aesthetics-Ecology 2.7.3 Values and landscape research 2.7.4 An overview of graphic representations of the human - landscape interaction 2.8 Human and landscape dependence on perception and preference 2.8.1 Respondent group coherence 2.8.2. Attachment to the river 2.8.3 Familiarity 2.8.4 Age 2.8.5 Place of re sidence 2.8.6 Education 2.9 Landscape characteristics and preference 2.10 Conclusion of the chapter on visual and ecological dimensions in landscape research 2.11 The place of water landscapes in landscape research 2.11.1 Planning of the river- and cross-border river area 2.12 Conclusion of the chapter on the researched riverscape area 2.13 Conclusion of the chapter 3 FOUNDATION FOR THE STUDY 3. 1 Data entry 3.2 Data analysis 3.2.1 Quantitative analysis 3.2.2 Qualitative analysis 3.3 Selection of riverscapes 3.4 International sample 3.4.1 Student sample 3.4.2 Expert sample 3.5. Frame s of the survey 3.5.1 Environment value orientations 3.6 Resources for planning riverscape and flood risk management 3.7 The connection of the ecological and the visual - structural simulations 3.9 Policy preferences in river management and authorities 3.10 Survey instrument and procedure 4 RESULTS AND RESULTS ANALYSIS 4.1 The attitude of the total student sample on the design of the Mura and Drava river bank area 4.1.1 Environment value orientations 4.1.2 Resources for planning riverscape 4.1.3 Flood risk management 4.2 Conclusions for Environmental orientations, Resources for planning riverscape and Flood risk management 4.3. The connection between the ecological and the aesthetic - structural simulations 4.3.1 The connection between the naturalness of the initial and the invasion of the modified vista 4.3.2 Correlation of visual simulations and intrinsic and extrinsic motivations 4.3.3 The best and the worst Scenes - investigation on valuing naturalness in transformation of river landscape 4.3.4 Results of ranking functional scenarios in riverscape 4.4 Attachment to the river 4.5 Policy preferences on river management and authorities 4.6 Description of the results of the total student sample 4.7 Differences in the perception of the visual transformation of the river environment by respondent interest groups on the arrangement of the Mura and Drava riverbank area 4.7.1 Relation between the naturalness of the initial vista and the invasiveness of the modified vista 4.7.2. Acceptability of functional scenarios in river area 4.7.3 Motivational values to the nature 4.7.4 Resources for planning riverscape 4.7.5 Flood risk management 4.7.6 Attachment to the river 4.7.7 Policy preferences on river management and authorities 5 CONCLUSIONS AND REPHRASED RESEARCH QUESTIONS 6 SUMMARY 7 POVZETEK VIRI PRILOGE KAZALO PREGLEDNIC Preglednica 1: Razlikovanje med t. i. želenim in zaželenim in sorodnimi razlikovanji (Hofstede, 1981: str. 20) Preglednica 2: Vrednosti višjega reda, ki temeljijo na medkulturnih študijah avtorjev Hofstede, Schwartz in Inglehart in Welzel Preglednica 3: Ekspresivne vrednote in obseg individualizma in samostojnosti se nanašajo na skupno dimenzijo (Inglehart in Welzel, 2005: str. 143) Preglednica 4: Velikost zadnjega merjenja vrednosti po Inglehart in Welzel (svetovni vrednosti val 4) in Hofstedeju Preglednica 5: Pregled avtorjev etičnih razsežnosti okoljske orientacije; Cifric (2009: str. 74-84), dopolnitev * Preglednica 6: Vrednosti višjega reda, motivacijske vrednosti in navedki po Schwartz (1994: str. 294, 295) Preglednica 7: Odnos vrednosti višjega reda po Schwartz (1984), dimenzij Milfonta in Duckitta (2010), dimenzij Cifrica (2008) in izjave v vprašalniku Preglednica 8: Značilnosti objektivističnih in subjektivističnih paradigm (Lothian, 1999: str. 178) Preglednica 9: Fizične in prednostne paradigme (Lothian, www.scenicsolutions.com.au/Typologies.html (pridobljeno 28. 10. 2010) Preglednica 10: Povzetek vizualne in ekološke vsebine konceptov, ki se nanašajo na krajinsko strukturo (Fry et al. 2009: str. 942) Preglednica 11: Vpliv socio-demografskih spremenljivk na percepcijo lepote krajin Preglednica 12: Okoljska prednost: primerjava štirih področij kazalcev (Kaplan, Kaplan, Brown, 1989: str. 524) Preglednica 13: Dimenzije krajine kot kazalci lepote Preglednica 14: Vrednotenje javne podpore projekta Prostor za reke (Buijs, 2009: str. 2684) Preglednica 15: Ključni vidiki in razlike med vodami 20. in 21. stoletja (Van den Brugget et al., 2005: str. 169) Preglednica 16: Varnost in poplavne nevarnosti v skladu z vodnimi upravitelji in prostorskimi planerji (po Immink, 2005) Preglednica 17: Projektni načrti in strateški načrti (Faludi in Van der Valk, 1994: str. 3) Preglednica 18: Značilnosti posameznih disciplin (Becher, 1994: str. 154) Preglednica 19: Podatki o Muri in Dravi v obdobju med letoma 1961-2005 in oktobra 2010 Preglednica 20: Družbeno-demografske značilnosti anketirancev (študenti), del 1 Preglednica 21: Družbeno-demografske značilnosti anketirancev (študenti), del 2 Preglednica 22: Družbeno-demografske značilnosti anketirancev (študenti), del 3 Preglednica 23: Število izjav v raziskavah glede na okvirje Preglednica 24: Viri za načrtovanje rečne krajine (Marušič, 1991) Preglednica 25: Seznam programov in projektov, vključenih v pisno obliko scenarija Preglednica 26: Neodvisne spremenljivke v scenarijih Preglednica 27: Interesni akterji v procesu načrtovanja rečnega prostora (po Orr et al. (2007) in Wostl (2002)) Preglednica 28: Porazdelitev odgovorov na vprašanje o odnosih med ljudmi, naravo, kulturo in tehnologijo Preglednica 29: Najmanjše in največje sprejete izjave na vprašanje št. 2 Preglednica 30: Faktorska analiza v povezavi z okoljskimi smernicami Preglednica 31: Porazdelitev vzorca v skladu z usmeritvami glede na okolje Preglednica 32: Porazdelitev vzorca v okoljsko usmeritev glede na spol Preglednica 33: Splošni statistični rezultati za mnenja študentov o uporabnikih obrečnega prostora in trajnosti Preglednica 34: Splošni statistični rezultati glede mnenja študentov o pomembnosti razvojnih pojavov v obrečnem prostoru Preglednica 35: Najmanjše in največje sprejete izjave na vprašanje št. 11 Preglednica 36: Splošni statistični rezultati glede mnenja študentov o pomembnosti pojavov za načrtovanje obrečnega prostora Preglednica 37: Splošni statistični rezultati glede mnenja študentov o ukrepih za varovanje pred poplavami Preglednica 38: Spearmanova Rho povezava med okoljskimi usmeritvami in scenariji - panoramami za izvirne panorame in panorame scenarija obnove Preglednica 39: Spearmanova Rho povezava med okoljskimi usmeritvami in scenariji - panoramami za scenarij rekreacije na prostem in turizem ter scenarij stanovanja Preglednica 40: Spearmanova Rho povezava med okoljskimi usmeritvami in scenariji - panoramami za scenarij proizvodnje energij Preglednica 41: Splošni statistični rezultati za mnenja študentov o ukrepih za varstvo pred poplavami Preglednica 42: Spearmanova Rho povezava med okoljskimi usmeritvami in scenariji - panoramami za scenarij proizvodnje energij Preglednica 43: Najboljši in najslabši prizori - rezultati skupnega vzorca, prvotna scena glede na število simuliranih scenarijev, število in delež odgovorov Preglednica 44: Najboljši in najslabši prizori - rezultati skupnega vzorca od največjih do najmanjših rezultatov Preglednica 45: Splošni statistični rezultati razvrščanja po naborih prikaza, rezultati po srednjih ocenah Preglednica 46: Lestvica scenarijev glede na povprečne ocene Preglednica 47: Splošni statistični rezultati, razvrstitev scenarijev energetske proizvodnje Preglednica 48: Ime reke zadnjega obiska Preglednica 49: Rezultati pogostosti obiskov rečnega prostora, izraženo v deležih Preglednica 50: Delež odgovorov anketirancev za navedene aktivnosti, v katerih preživljajo čas ob reki Preglednica 51: Spearmanova Rho povezava med večjo pogostostjo bivanja ob reki in vsebino Preglednica 52: Spomin vprašanih na zadnji obisk obrečne krajine Preglednica 53: Odzivne kategorije in pogostost Preglednica 54: Spearmanova Rho povezava med pogostostjo obiska obrečne krajine in vsemi izjavami v instrumentu Preglednica 55: Splošni statistični rezultati za mnenja študentov o subjektih načrtovanja in upravljanju rek Preglednica 56: Splošni statistični rezultati za mnenja študentov o mednarodnih sporazumih in odgovornosti za bogastvo Preglednica 57: Splošni statistični rezultati za mnenja študentov o temah mednarodnih sporazumov Preglednica 58: Pearsonova povezava med stališči o mednarodnem upravljanju rek in temo upravljanja ter akterji upravljanja Preglednica 59: Pearsonova povezava med stališči o odgovornosti bogatejših držav za ekološke probleme in temo upravljanja ter akterji upravljanja Preglednica 60: Pearsonova povezava med stališči o odgovornosti bogatejših držav za ekološke probleme in za druga stališča v instrumentu Preglednica 61: Pregled najboljših in najslabših prizorov glede na skupine madžarskih, hrvaških in slovenskih študentov Preglednica 62: Pregled najboljših in najslabših prizorov glede na skupine disciplin Preglednica 63: Pregled najboljših in najslabših prizorov glede na skupine okoljskih usmeritev Preglednica 64: Pregled najboljših in najslabših prizorov za študente in strokovnjake glede na delež navajanja scene Preglednica 65: Pomembnost razlik glede na razvrstitev prikazov med kulturnimi/nacionalnimi skupinami Preglednica 66: Pomembnost razlik glede na razvrstitev prikazov med različnimi disciplinami Preglednica 67: Pomembnost razlik glede na razvrstitev prikazov okoljskih usmeritev Preglednica 68: Pomembnost razlik glede na razvrstitev prikazov s strani študentov in strokovnjakov Preglednica 69: Delež kulturnih/nacionalnih skupin v posameznih okoljskih usmeritvah KAZALO SLIK Slika 1: Vzroki za spremembe družbenih vrednot v sodobnem času (Giddens, 1998: str. 42) Slika 2: Teoretični model odnosov med desetimi vrstami motivacijskih vrednot (Schwartz, 2006: str. 3) Slika 3: Dinamične podpore univerzalnih vrednostnih struktur (Schwartz, 2009: priloga, str. 9) Slika 4: Človekov razvoj, Inglehart in Welzel (2005: str. 140) Slika 5: Tri ravni edinstvenosti v duševnem programiranju (Hofstede, 1991: str. 6) Slika 6: Uvrstitev Madžarske, Slovenije in Hrvaške na svetovnem kulturnem zemljevidu vrednot, Inglehart in Welzel, 2005, str. 63 Slika 7: Koncept moralne odgovornosti za življenje (Cifric, 2009: str. 71) Slika 8: Hierarhija ekoloških etičnih vrednot po Neassu (1995) Slika 9: Diagrami modelov vpliva na okolje, iz splošnih vrednostnih orientacij, na skrb za obrečno krajino (po Nordlund, 2002) Slika 10: Vennov diagram in tridimenzionalni prikaz trajnostnega razvoja (Lozano, 2008) Slika 11: Štirje stebri modela trajnostnega razvoja (Soini in Birkenland, 2009; Runnalls, 2007: str. 10) Slika 12: Shema konceptualnega skupnega vizualnega in ekološkega področja (Fry et al., 2009: str. 934) Slika 13: Statični in dinamični model interakcije družbe in krajine (Buchecker et al., 2003: str. 30, 31) Slika 14: Krog sprememb krajine na regionalni ravni (Palang, 2000: str. 86) Slika 15: Proces krajinske percepcije (interakcija) (Zube et Al., 1982: str. 24) Slika 16: Transakcijski model odnosov človek-okolje (Zube, 1987: str. 40) Slika 17: Model odnosa človek-okolje (Tress in Tress, 2001: str. 151) Slika 18: Model interakcije okolje-človek v okolju (Gobster et al., 2007: str. 963) Slika 19: Dinamično preoblikovanje podobe narave in krajine (Buijs, 2004: str. 378) Slika 20: Oblikovanje okoljskih estetik (Porteous, 1996: str. 14) Slika 21: Dvodimenzionalni model prednosti krajine (Kaur et al., 2004: str. 111) Slika 22: Oblikovanje okoljskih estetik (Porteous, 1996: str. 14) Slika 23: Scenariji za obnovitev reke, ki temeljijo na vrsti degradacije, in odgovor obnove (Fryirs in Brierly, 2008: str. 75) Slika 24: Od tradicionalnega prostorskega načrtovanja k strateškemu načrtovanju (Albrechts, 2004: str. 748) Slika 25: Projekcija potrošnje energije za države članice OECD in nečlanice OECD do leta 2035 http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/ieo/index.cfm (pridobljeno 20. 10. 2011) Slika 26: Metafora morebitnih sporov na področju načrtovanja obrečnih krajin Slika 27: Koncept načrtovanja vzorca treh kulturnih/nacionalnih skupin in disciplin Slika 28: Koncept tematskih okvirov instrumenta po Zube et al. (1982) Slika 29: Izbrane scene Mure in Drave Slika 30: Shema vizualizacije človeškega vpliva Slika 31: Začetne scene in scenariji Slika 32: Donava-Drava-Mura, zemljevid biosfernih rezervatov UNESCO za zaščito narave in divjih živali vzdolž rek Mure, Drave in Donave (http://wwf.panda.org/, pridobljeno 20.03.2012.). Slika 33: Spremenljivke v scenarijih (1 - vegetacija, 2 - stik območja reke, 3 - igralci, 4 - infrastruktura) Slika 34: Koncept instrumenta Slika 35: Splošni statistični podatki o reki kot ekološki in estetski videz pokrajine Slika 36: Najboljši (levo) in najslabši (desno) izvirni prikaz Slika 37: Diagram pričakovanih prizorov in rezultati evalvacije začetnega prizora in modificiranih prizorov Slika 38: Trije najboljši (levo) in trije najslabši (desno) modificirani prikazi Slika 39: Obnova/most za pešce Križnica Slika 40: Naselje/splav Križnica Slika 41: Scenarij zunanje rekreacije in turizem/ most za pešce Križnica Slika 42: Izvirni prikaz/splav Podturen Slika 43: Primerjava povprečnih rezultatov doseženih točk ocen; osem vprašanj o odnosu med človekom, naravo, kulturo in tehnologijo interesnih skupin Slika 44: Delež odgovorov kulturnih/nacionalnih skupin na estetske in okoljske vrednostne dimenzije Slika 45: Delež odgovorov skupin različnih disciplin na estetske in okoljske vrednostne dimenzije Slika 46: Delež odgovorov skupin študentov in strokovnjakov na estetske in okoljske vrednostne dimenzije Slika 47: Delež odgovorov skupin okoljskih usmeritev na estetske in okoljske vrednostne dimenzije Slika 48: Primerjava povprečnih rezultatov kulturnih/nacionalnih skupin na želeno smer razvoja obrečne krajine Slika 49: Primerjava povprečnih rezultatov različnih disciplin na želeno smer razvoja obrečne krajine Slika 50: Primerjava povprečnih rezultatov skupin študentov in strokovnjakov na želeno smer razvoja obrečne krajine Slika 51: Primerjava povprečnih rezultatov skupin okoljskih usmeritev na želeno smer razvoja obrečne krajine Slika 52: Primerjava povprečnih rezultatov kulturnih/nacionalnih skupin o pomembnosti navedenih tem za razvoj obrečne krajine Slika 53: Primerjava povprečnih rezultatov različnih disciplin o pomembnosti navedenih tem za razvoj obrečne krajine Slika 54: Primerjava povprečnih rezultatov študentov in strokovnjakov o pomembnosti navedenih tem za razvoj obrečne krajine Slika 55: Primerjava povprečnih rezultatov skupin okoljskih usmeritev o pomembnosti navedenih tem za razvoj obrečne krajine Slika 56: Primerjava povprečnih rezultatov različnih interesnih skupin o metodah zaščite pred poplavami Slika 57: Delež odgovorov interesnih skupin o pogostosti obiska obrečne krajine Slika 58: Delež odgovorov interesnih skupin o vrsti dejavnosti med obiskom obrečne krajine enkrat mesečno in pogosteje Slika 59: Delež odgovorov interesnih skupin o spominu na zadnji obisk krajine ob reki Slika 60: Primerjava povprečnih rezultatov interesnih skupin o organizaciji za načrtovanje in upravljanje območja reke Slika 61: Primerjava povprečnih rezultatov interesnih skupin o organizaciji za načrtovanje in upravljanje območja reke Slika 62: Delež odgovorov interesnih skupin o odgovornosti bogatejših držav za ekološke probleme Slika 63: Primerjava povprečnih rezultatov interesnih skupin za teme, ki morajo biti urejene z mednarodnim sporazumom LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Distinction between the desired and the desirable and associated distinction (Hofstede, 1981: p 20). Table 2: Higher order values based on Hofstede, Schwartz and Inglehart and Welzel cross-cultural studies Table 3: Self-Expression values and individualism and autonomy scales tap a common dimension (Inglehart and Welzel, 2005:p 137). Table 4: Values by Inglehart and Welzel (World Values wave 4) and Hofstede Table 5: Author's classification of ethical dimensions of environmental orientation; Cifric (2009:p74-84), supplemented *. Table 6: Higher order values, motivational values and Items according to Schwartz (1994: p 294, 295). Table 7: The relationship of higher order values according to Schwartz (1984), Milfont and Duckitt's (2010) dimensions, Cifric's (2008) dimensions and a statement in the questionnaire Table 8: Characteristics of objectivist and subjectivist paradigm (Lothian, 1999: p. 178). Table 9: Physical and Preference Paradigms (Lothian, www.scenicsolutions.com.au/Typologies.html (accessed 28-10-2010) Table 10: Summary of the visual and ecological content of concepts related to landscape structure. (Fry et al. 2009:pp. 942) Table 11: The impact of socio-demographic variables on the perception of scenic beauty. Table 12: Environmental preference: A Comparison Of Four Domains Of Predictors (Kaplan, Kaplan, Brown, 1989:p 524). Table 13: Dimensions of landscape as predictors of scenic beauty. Table 14: Evaluation of public support for Room for the River measures (Buijs, 2009: p. 2684) Table 15: Key aspects and differences between water management style of 20th and 21th century (Van den Brugge et al., 2005:p 169). Table 16: Safety and flood risks, according to water managers and spatial planners (based on Immink, 2005). Table 17: Project plans and strategic plans (Faludi and Van der Valk, 1994:p 3). Table 18: Characteristics of individual disciplines (Becher, 1994:p 154). Table 19: Data on the Mura and Drava River flow for the period 1961-2005 and October 2010 Table 20: Socio-demographic characteristics of the survey respondents (students) part1 Table 21: Socio-demographic characteristics of the survey respondents (students) part2 Table 22: Socio-demographic characteristics of the survey respondents (students) part3 Table 23: Number of items in survey frames Table 24: Resources for planning river landscape (Marušic, 1991). Table 25: List of programs and projects included in scenario writing Table 26 Independent variables in scenarios Table 27: Stakeholders in the process of planning the river area (according to Orr et al. (2007) and Wostl (2002)). Table 28: Distribution of the answers on question about human, nature, culture and technology Table 29: The most and the least acceptable items on the Question No2 Table 30: Factor loadings of the varimax rotated factor analysis on environmental orientations Table 31: Distribution of the sample according to environmental orientations Table 32: Distribution of the sample of environmental orientations according to gender Table 33: General statistical results for the attitudes of students on actors along the river and sustainability Table 34: The general statistical results for the students' opinion on the deal of importance to the phenomenon of development in the area by the river Table 35: The most and the least acceptable items on the question No11 Table 36: The general statistical results for the students' opinion on the deal of importance of planning in the area by the river Table 37: The general statistical results for the students' opinion on the flood protection measures Table 38: Spearman's Rho correlation between environmental orientations and scenario vistas for Origin Vistas and restoration Scenario Vistas Table 39: Spearman's Rho correlation between environmental orientations and Outdoor recreation and Tourism Scenario and Settlement Scenario Table 40: Spearman's Rho correlation between environmental orientations and Energy production Scenario Table 41: The general statistical results for the students' opinion on the flood protection measures Table 42: Spearman's Rho correlation between environmental orientations and Energy production Scenario Table 43: The best and the worst scenes - results of the total sample, original scene in relation to the simulated scenario, the number of answers and the share in the answers Table 44: The best and the worst vista - results of the total sample, from highest to lowest results Table 45: The general statistical results of ranking according to the sets of vistas, results according to the mean grades Table 46: Ranking of Scenarios according to mean scores Table 47: The general statistical results of ranking of Energy production Scenario Table 48: Name of the river last visited Table 49: The results of the frequency of visits to the river area, in percent Table 50: Share of the respondents' answers for the activities that are done by the river Table 51 Spearman's Rho correlation between a higher frequency of staying by the river and the contents of the stay Table 52: The memory of the respondents' last visit to the river Table 53 Response categories and their frequency Table 54 Spearman Rho correlation between frequency of the visits to the river landscape and other statements in the instrument Table 55: The general statistical results of the students' opinion on the subjects of management and planning of rivers areas Table 56: The general statistical results of the students' opinion on international agreements and obligations with respect to the economy Table 57: The general statistical results of the students' opinion on the subjects of international agreement Table 58 Pearson correlation between the attitude on international management bodies and management topics and the stakeholders in managing river Table 59: Pearson correlation between the attitude on the responsibility of wealthier countries for the ecological problems and topics about international agreements and stakeholders in the planning and management of the river landscape Table 60 Pearson correlation between the attitudes on the responsibility of wealthier countries for the ecological problems of other attitudes in the instrument Table 61: Overview of best and worst Vistas by groups of Hungarian, Croatian and Slovenian students Table 62: Overview of best and worst Vistas by groups of disciplines Table 63: Overview of best and worst Vistas by groups of environmental orientations Table 64: Overview of best and worst Vistas by students and experts according to percentage of choosing a scene Table 65: The relevance of differences within ranking Vistas of cultural/national groups Table 66: The relevance of differences within ranking Vistas in different disciplines Table 67: The relevance of differences within ranking Vistas of environmental orientations Table 68: The relevance of differences within ranking Vistas by students and experts Table 69: Share of cultural/national clusters in the environmental orientations LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Causes of changes in social values in modern times (Giddens, 1998: p 42). Figure 2: Theoretical model of relations among ten motivational types values (Schwartz, 2006:p 3). Figure 3: Dynamic underpinnings of the universal value structure (Schwartz, 2009: appendix: p. 9). Figure 4: Human development, Inglehart and Welzel (2005:p 134). Figure 5: Three levels of uniqueness in mental programming (Hofstede, 1991:p 6). Figure 6: Positions of Hungary, Slovenia and Croatia on the World Values Survey Cultural Map by Inglehart and Welzel, 2005, p 63. Figure 7: The concept of moral responsibility for life (Cifric (2009: p. 71). Figure 8: Hierarchy of ecological ethical values according to Neass (1995). Figure 9: Path diagram of the model of the influence from general and environmental value orientations, on concern for river landscape (according to Nordlund, 2002). Figure 10: Venn's diagram and the three-dimensional image of sustainable development (Lozano, 2008) Figure 11: Four pillars model of sustainability (Soini and Birkenland, 2009; Runnalls, 2007:10) Figure 12: The schema of a conceptual common ground between the visual and ecological (Fry et al. 2009: p934). Figure 13: A static model of the society- landscape interaction (Buchecker et. al, 2003: 30-31). Figure 14: The cycle of landscape change at the regional level (Palang, 2000: p. 86). Figure 15: Landscape perception (interaction) process (Zube et. al, 1982: p. 24). Figure 16: A transactional model of human-landscape relationships, (Zube, 1987: p. 40). Figure 17: The people-landscape interaction model, (Tress and Tress, 2001: p. 151). Figure 18: A model of environmental-human interaction in landscape (Gobster et al., 2007:p 963). Figure 19 Dynamic transformation of images of nature and landscape (Buijs, 2004: p. 378). Figure 20: Structuring environmental aesthetics (Porteous, 1996: p. 14). Figure 21: Two-dimensional model of landscape preference (Kaur et al., 2004:p 111). Figure 22: A nested hierarchy of landscape preferences (Porteous, 1996: pp. 124). Figure 23: Scenarios for river recovery based on type of degradation and recovery response (Fryirs and Brierly , 2008: p 75). Figure 24: From traditional land use planning to strategic planning (Albrechts, 2004:p 748) Figure 25: Projection of energy consumption for OECD and non-OECD countries by 2035 http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/ieo/index.cfm (accessed on 20.10.2011) Figure 26: The metaphor of potential conflicts in the planning watershed area Figure 27 The concept of planning the sample of three cultural/national groups and disciplines Figure 28: The concept of thematic frames of the instrument by Zube et al. (1982). Figure 29 Selected Vistas of the Mura and Drava Rivers Figure 30 Schema of visualizing human impact Figure 31: Original Vistas and Scenarios Figure 32: Danube-Drava-Mura Map UNESCO Biosphere Reserve to protect their shared nature and wildlife along the Mura, Drava and Danube rivers (http://wwf.panda.org/, accessed on 20.03.2012). Figure 33: Variables varied in scenarios (1-vegetation, 2- contact zone river bank, 3-actors, 4-infrastructure) Figure 34: Concept of the instrument Figure 35: General statistical results for the river as an ecological and aesthetic phenomenon of the landscape Figure 36: The best (left) and the worst (right) Original Vista Figure 37: Diagram of the expected vistas and the results of evaluation of initial and modified vistas Figure 38: Three of the best (left) and three worst (right) modified Vistas Figure 39: Restoration/Pedestrian bridge Križnica Figure 40: Settlement/ Križnica ferry Figure 41: Outdoor recreation and Tourism Scenario/Pedestrian Bridge Križnica Figure 42: Original Vista/River ferry Podturen Figure 43: Comparison of mean score results of stakeholder evaluations of eight questions about the relationship between man, nature, culture and technology Figure 44: The response rate of cultural/national clusters to the aesthetic and environmental value dimension Figure 45: The response rate of different disciplines to the aesthetic and environmental value dimension Figure 46: The response rate of students and experts to the aesthetic and environmental value dimension Figure 47: The response rate of environmental orientations to the aesthetic and environmental value dimension Figure 48: Comparison of mean scores of cultural/national groups for the desired direction for the development of the river area Figure 49: Comparison of mean scores of different disciplines for the desired direction of the development of the river area Figure 50: Comparison of mean scores of students and experts for the desired direction of development of the river area Figure 51: Comparison of mean scores of environmental orientations for the desired direction of development of the river area Figure 52: Comparison of mean scores of cultural/national groups based on the importance of issues for the development of the river area Figure 53: Comparison of mean scores for different disciplines based on the importance of issues for the development of the river area Figure 54: Comparison of mean scores for students and experts based on the importance of issues for the development of the river area Figure 55: Comparison of mean scores for environmental orientations based on the importance of issues for the development of the river area Figure 56: Comparison of mean scores for stakeholders on methods of flood protection Figure 57: The response of stakeholders on the frequency of visits to the river area Figure 58: The response of stakeholders on the type of activity during visits to the river area, monthly and more often Figure 59: The response rate of stakeholders for the memory of the visit to the river area Figure 60: Comparison of mean scores of stakeholders on authority on spatial planning and managing river landscape Figure 61: Comparison of mean scores of stakeholders on authority on spatial planning and managing river area Figure 62: The response rate of stakeholder to responsibilities of wealthier countries to ecological problems Figure 63: Comparison of mean scores of stakeholders on the topics to be regulated by an international agreement SEZNAM PRILOG Priloga A Priloga B Priloga C Priloga D Priloga E Priloga F Priloga G Priloga H Priloga I Priloga J Priloga K Priloga L Priloga M Priloga N Priloga O Vprašalnik v madžarskem jeziku Vprašalnik v slovenskem jeziku Vprašalnik v hrvaškem jeziku Splošni statistični rezultati izbire najboljših in najslabših scen in Pearsonov hi-kvadrat za pomembnost razlik glede na možnosti scen v kategorijah „najboljša" in „najslabša" med interesnimi skupinami Pomembnost razlik glede na odnos človek, okolje, kultura in tehnologija za različne interesne skupine Splošni statistični podatki o reki - ekološki in estetski videz pokrajine za različne interesne skupine; Pomembnost razlik glede na reko - ekološki in estetski videz za različne interesne skupine Splošni statistični podatki o mnenju študentov o uporabnikih obrečnega prostora in trajnosti Splošni statistični podatki o mnenju interesnih skupin o pomembnosti navedenih tem za razvoj obrečne krajine; Primerjava povprečnih rezultatov interesnih skupin o pomembnosti navedenih tem za razvoj obrečne krajine; Primerjava povprečnih rezultatov interesnih skupin o pomembnosti navedenih tem za razvoj obrečne krajine Splošni statistični podatki glede mnenja interesnih skupin o ukrepih za varstvo pred poplavami; Primerjava povprečnih rezultatov mnenja interesnih skupin o ukrepih za varstvo pred poplavami Delež odgovorov interesnih skupin o pogostosti obiska obrečne krajin; Primerjava značilnosti razlik v pogostosti obiska obrečne krajine interesnih skupin Delež odgovorov interesnih skupin o vrsti dejavnosti ob obisku obrečne krajine enkrat mesečno in pogosteje; Primerjava značilnosti razlik o vrsti dejavnosti ob obisku obrečne krajine Delež odgovorov interesnih skupin o spominu glede zadnjega obiska krajine ob reki; Primerjava značilnosti razlik interesnih skupin o spominu glede zadnjega obiska krajine ob reki Primerjava povprečnih rezultatov interesnih skupin o organih za načrtovanje in upravljanje območja reke; Primerjava značilnosti razlik rezultatov interesnih skupin o organih za načrtovanje in upravljanje območja reke Splošni statistični rezultati mnenja interesnih skupin o mednarodnih sporazumih in odgovornostih glede na gospodarstvo; Primerjava značilnosti razlik mnenja interesnih skupin o mednarodnih sporazumih in odgovornostih glede na gospodarstvo Primerjava povprečnih rezultatov interesnih skupin glede na teme, ki jih je treba urejati z mednarodnimi sporazumi; Primerjava značilnosti razlik mnenja interesnih skupin glede na teme, ki jih je treba urejati z mednarodnimi sporazumi LIST OF ANNEXES Annex A Questionnair in Hungarian Annex B Questionnair in Slovenian Annex C Questionnair in Croatian Annex D The overall statistical results of the selection of the best and the worst scene and Pearson Chi square on the importance of differences with the options scenes in the category best and worst among stakeholders Annex E Importance of differences with respect to the man, the environment, culture and technology for a variety of stakeholders Annex F General statistical results for the river as an ecological and aesthetic appearance of the landscape for a variety of stakeholders; Importance of differences for the river as an ecological and aesthetic appearance of the landscape for a variety of stakeholders Annex G General statistical results for the views of students on actors along the river and sustainability; Importance of differences for the views of students on actors along the river and sustainability Annex H General statistical results for the views of different stakeholders relied on the importance of issues for the development of riverside landscapes; Comparison of mean scores of different stakeholders relied on the importance of issues for the development of riverside landscapes Annex I The general statistical results for the stakeholders' opinion on the of flood protection measures; Comparison of mean scores of different stakeholders' opinion on the of flood protection measures Annex J The response of stakeholders on the frequency of visit to the riverside landscape; Comparison of response on the frequency of visit to the riverside landscape of stakeholders Annex K The response of stakeholders on the type of activity during the visit in the river area, monthly and more often; Comparison of response of stakeholders on the type of activity during the visit in the river area Annex L The response rate of stakeholders on the memory of the visit at the river area; Comparison of response of stakeholders on the memory of the visit at the river area Annex M Comparison of mean scores of stakeholders on authority on spatial planning and managing river area; Comparison of response of stakeholders on authority on spatial planning and managing river area Annex N The general statistical results of the stakeholders' opinion on international agreements and obligations with respect to the economy; Comparison of response of the stakeholders' opinion on international agreements and obligations with respect to the economy Annex O Comparison of mean scores of stakeholders on the topicsto that need to be regulated international agreement; Comparison of response of the stakeholders' opinion on the topicsto that need to be regulated international agreement 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the research question Since its definition by the Brundtland Commission (WCEC, Our common future, 1987) to Agenda 21 (UN, Earth Summit in Rio, 1992), a new concept of sustainability has developed into a paradigm that is present in national and regional development strategies. The concept of sustainability has been accepted through three pillars - economic, social and environmental. The report on the analysis of national strategies on sustainability (OECD Report, 2006) emphasises the environment itself as a dominant topic in most of the documents. The landscape and environment have for a long time been recognised only in the forms of natural values. According to the European Landscape Convention (CE Florence, 2000), the landscape is defined as: "an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors", so that it was assigned the element of visual perception as well. The role of the public has been recognised in that domain so that the European Landscape Convention in its preamble calls for the public "to play an active part in the development of landscapes" because the landscape is no longer just a matter of natural sciences. Participation has the role of expanding the scientific scope. A great number of landscape researches strive to link the variables of technical and natural discourse with the social variable and to cross the chasm between the scientific or professional and the public. The field of studying visual attributes and values of the landscape began to develop different models of valorisation even half a century ago, looking for objective criteria of visual quality. The scientists from the American continent have studied this topic with a stress on psychological, cognitive and phenomenological theories, analyzed them with different mathematical approaches and checked their conclusions in practice with concrete examples (Lothian, 1999). In the European research fields most recent researches have broadened their structural findings by using a holistic approach and by looking for indicators in line with the paradigm of sustainable development and its cultural dimension (Naveh, 2000; Palang, 2000; Tress et al. 2004, Antrop, 2000, 2006). In their studies the authors have researched the relationship between different types of landscape and scenic beauty, such as wetlands (Smardon and Fabos, 1976; Nassauer, 2004), town areas (Pogačnik, 1976;1979; Nasar, 1984; Galindo and Rodrigez, 2000), open spaces (Ulrich, 1986; Purcell and Lamb, 1990), highway areas (Garre et al. 2009), forests (Sheppard, 2001), and watersheds (Herzog, 1985; Ryan, 1989; Jessel and Jacobs, 2005; Junker and Buchecker, 2008; Buijs, 2009). Expert studies have dealt with this to a great extent (Carver et al., 2001; Golobič, 2005; Golobič and Marušič, 2007) with a general conclusion about the positive influence of public participation in forming and accepting the planned alternations. Several researchers have ventured to conduct international and transnational studies (Palmer et al., 1990; Yang and Brown, 1992) with research on the perception of participants with different cultural backgrounds (Buijs et al., 2008) and comparisons of expert approaches in different nations (Jakobsen et al., 2004). The more extensive transnational studies based their analyses on the comparison of age, level of education, place of residence etc. as well as the attitudes of different cultural groups, which have contributed to a high degree to the variability of the answers. This can be seen in research studies by photo surveys of visible changes in the environment that show differences in sensibility towards new phenomena in the perception of Asian and European respondents (Nasar, 1985; Palmer, 1992) as well as in the research on perceiving the wilderness which reveal a major difference between the attitudes of the domicile population of Western Europe and the immigrants (Buijs et al., 2008). Thus, "culture matters", as the global conclusion claims of one of the waves in the largest cross-cultural study, the World Value Survey by Inglehart and Welzel (2005). Landscapes become international possessions, their values gain in global relevance. They compare and compete as "tourist destinations or places of interest by international organisations due to scarce or extraordinary ecological, cultural and aesthetic values" (Penker, 2009). Natural resources are neglected and endangered, as well as the areas under great pressure. Therefore, the planning in rural and open spaces should not done according to landscapes composed way back in the past, but should be planned as the shaping of the new social and economic system which relies on heritage and partially on contemporary cultural trends as well. Regulation and melioration works in the Drava plain have had considerable impact on the development on its relief, as supported by the fact that the river flow has been reduced by 60 percent or by 182 km in the part from the Mura confluence to its confluence with the Danube (Bognar, 1985; Slukan-Altic, 2002). This has resulted in the increase of eroding force, whereas wood cutting in the source area as well as melioration works (embankments and drainage canals) have influenced the level of flood waters (frequent floods). The influence on the morphological forming of the river bed has been exerted by water steps and accumulations (Austria and Slovenia 19, Croatia 3). Current events around the Drava River basin have brought together international activities in the form of projects The Mura-Drava Euro-region, Drava River Basin, and The Drava river Declaration so that at the beginning of February 2008 the ministry of Culture of the Republic of Croatia declared the preventive protection of the Mura -Drava corridor in the category of "regional parks" in accordance with the Nature Protection Law (Official Gazette No. 70/05) of the Republic of Croatia. With Croatia's accession into the European Union the area along the Mura and Drava will become a part of the NATURA 2000 Network, as has already been the case in Hungary and Slovenia. Spatial planning in its formal process does not possess a mechanism which would control the shaping, i.e. the aesthetics of landscape. Landscape shaping is generally influenced by four state mechanisms: market, institutional hierarchy, hybrid forms (public-private partnership, state-person contracts etc.) and networks (public and private organisations, civilian social movements, organisations etc.) (Penker, 2009). Other stakeholders are direct owners and users of open space. Tourists are an important group, whose focus is directly linked to a preserved and unique landscape. Developmental interests of these arenas do not always coincide in full measure so that conflicts may arise. Different interests at local, regional, national and even international levels also offer a foundation for overlaps and conflicts. Public opinion polls within these groups may point at a possible way of resolving those conflicts. Changes in value systems have been especially visible in transition countries (Cifric, 2009). A public response and participant planning are contemporary topics in transition countries which have only recently reached the maturity of public arenas for participation in decision- making. A question is posed whether the structure of social attitudes will follow the impulses from western countries or whether they will contain to some degree the characteristics of both social systems, the former and the one which needs to be created (Milas and Rihtar, 1998). Croatia, Hungary and Slovenia are countries with different attitudes toward transition. Formal systems of planning are comparable, and the obstacles to possible coordination are objective. There is a question of how to achieve a decrease in potential conflicts in stakeholders' attitudes on transnational natural units and what influences the value system in planning the transnational element. 1.2 Working hypotheses The space along watercourses is under a great influence of natural transformations, but there is at the same time a trend of the increase in anthropocentric influences in the form of new functions in that space. The creation of recreational, touristic, hydro-energy and residential objects as well as shaping the banks in harmony with nature influences this landscape in a completely new way. That is why the development issue is linked to the kind of relationship and attitude toward a river, the newly built units along the watercourses and how they reflect and the quality of life in this area. This doctoral dissertation will pose a working hypotheses and research questions which should serve to either confirm or refute the hypotheses. Working hypotheses: H1 In planning new features along watercourses (the Mura and the Drava Rivers) the adequacy of the new landscaping/external appearance will be dependent on the evaluation of naturalness of the observed location. H2 The same interest groups of different national backgrounds will show a similar tendency to changes along watercourses. H3 Different ethnic groups will show different levels of sensitivity to the bank arrangement in accordance with nature. Research questions: I. What kind of changes in landscape (a change of one element, pattern, road, creation of hydroelectric power plants) represent a significant change in perception of different stakeholders? II. Which demographic and structural characteristics of the population determine the attitude toward changes in appearance of different intensity in river areas? III. How does an accumulation of cultural and historical influences shape the attitude toward human influence in harmony with nature? 1.3 Research goals and expected results Spatial planning of a culture region in a time of fast and dynamic changes faces a conflict between the necessity to protect and the necessity to develop. Are we witnessing the birth of the middle road - a moderate development as a method of protection? Once there was a slogan in Austrian agriculture: "There is no culture without agriculture!" (Penker, 2009). River watercourses are specific natural phenomena which act as a medium in cases where one culture of living influence the other. A relationship to an area is expressed through values which are, from the position of sustainable development, separated into the ecological, economic, cultural and social ones. The information coming from the environment is modified in different groups of people, depending on socio-geographical filters and that information is not static but dependent on the state of an environment, on historical processes and the state of the society (Cifric, 1987). Can we expect more progressive attitudes in relationship to the development along a river considering the fact that we live in a time of a global crisis or is the attitude toward the value of a river landscape a stable value in comparison to the economic state? The theoretical outset and working hypotheses are the basis for the expected results and the aim of the dissertation: The theoreticalpart of the dissertation: ■ A rationale on ethical principles in the development of socio-ecological orientations ■ Defining a culture group as a stakeholder in evaluating a river landscape ■ The influence of the social and demographic characteristics of respondents and of the structural characteristics of the landscape in the human-nature interaction ■ Defining the common goals of river management and spatial planning The practicalpari of the dissertation: ■ Detecting the acceptability of different scenarios in the development of a river area through visual transformation ■ Defining the dominant elements in the system of evaluation of the visual transformation of a river area with different stakeholders ■ The national cultural influence on the general attitude toward sustainable development of a natural landscape along watercourses 1.4 The applied research methods This dissertation is based on a scientific explanation which has established a correlation between the respondents' characteristics (gender, place of residence, religion, motivational values, interest focus etc.) and the surveyed attitudes about the general concept of nature as well as about a river area. Secondly, there are descriptive and historical methods as an addition to and preparation for making a statistical analysis of the gathered results. The selection of locations for making simulations has been made after the initial overview of the existent documentation and references. During the empirical tours of the riverine landscapes a set of photographs was taken with a particular emphasis on historical and important loci such as Veliki Pažut, the confluence of the Mura into the Drava, Molve - a locus for a smaller hydroelectric power plant, of a rural character situated along the watercourse with the Križnica settlement, a pedestrian bridge, ferries, meanders, aits, shoals, shallow lakes, technically arranged bank etc. A selection of a sequence of five colour photographs has been made which represent the characteristic and specific scenes along the observed watercourses displaying an increase of human influence. A structured questionnaire consists of three parts. In the first part visual material is displayed representing the original and the modified scenes of the Drava and the Mura Rivers. A sequence of five original scenes was chosen depending on the human impact on the scene. The landscapes were shaped as a human living space, a resource and a natural ecosystem (Marušič, 1995) and were structurally modelled through four variables. The simulations were made by using the software packages Max3D and Photoshop PS. The second part of the survey researched a wider system of values related to nature, man, technology and culture, as well as the attitudes on protection and development linked to the river area. The third part of the questionnaire researched the age, gender, place of residence and other socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents. The structure of the convenience sample was planned so that a comparison of attitudes of the following groups: cultural/national groups, different disciplines groups (according to Biglan, 1973) and the attitudes of experts and the young population at the regional level. The convenience sample comprises the student population from three universities in the cross border region. The students from the University of Ljubljana (Slovenia), the University of Kaposvar (Hungary) and the University of Osijek participated in the survey. The experts whose attitudes were researched are also participants from the Slovenian, Hungarian and Croatian region. There were 421 students and 58 experts participating in the survey. The results were analyzed by using the statistical methods in the software package SPSS. In addition to the survey, for the purposes of this doctoral dissertation, we have collected the data from national and international literature, articles and other sources, as well as overviews of other examples of research on the attitudes about the river area at the transnational scope, in order to enable a critical analysis of the researched topic. The results of the research are presented both in a graphical (maps, tables, visual simulations in colour photographs) and written manner. 1.5 The structure of the dissertation The dissertation opens with an introductory part which presents the topic, the working hypothesis, the objectives, the expected results of the research and the research methods. The second part offers an overview of the theoretical background in creating the research instrument and in interpreting the expected results. This chapter deals with the topic of the theory on culture groups, of values and cross-cultural values, ethical basis of socio-environmental orientations, of the human-environmental and human-river interaction. The definitions of values and value systems were Parsons (1991), Giddens (1998), Schwartz (1994), Hofstede (1984) and Williams (in Rokeach, 2000) were studied along with the definition of culture by Taylor (cited in White,1959), Kluckhohn (1994), Bodley (1994), Giddens (1998), and Linton (cited in Haralambos, 1994). Further on there is a scientific explanation of the theory on cross-cultural values, as suggested by Inglehart (1995), Inglehart and Welzel (2003), Hofstede (1983) and Schwartz (1994). On the basis of the definition of the moral scope by Leopold (1948), Kirn (2004), Cifric (2009), Marušic (1995) and Naess (see Cifric, 2002) there is a table overview of different concepts of socio-environmental orientations and dimensions. This is followed by an overview of the models for researching the visual domain of landscape according to the review papers by Arthur et al. (1977), Zube et al. (1982), Daniel and Vining (1983), Lothian (1999) and Sevenant and Antrop (2010). After that there is an overview of the graphic expression of the human-environmental interaction by Jacobs (2011), Zube et al. (1982), Sheppard (2001), Gobster et al. (2007), Tress and Tress (2001) and Fry et al. (2009). The preference of specific landscapes depends on the human and environmental variable. The empirical and theoretical papers have been researched which speak of the influence of the former or the latter variable by the authors such as Ulrich (1986), Swanwick (2009), Kaltenborg and Bjerke (2002), Kaplan et al. (1989), Chenowet and Gobster (1990), Herzog (1985), Pogačnik and Prelovšek (1987), Ode et al. (2009), Sevennat and Antrop (2010). The perception and preference of river areas is a separate topic within the preference of landscape in general. This was pointed out in works by Kuiper (1998), Burmil et.al. (1999), Brown and Daniel (1991), Ryan (1998), Herzog (1985), Le Lay et al. (2008) and Buijs (2009). The first part concludes with an overview of the spatial and planning tendencies and the meeting points with the management of the river area in the overview of articles by the authors from the Dutch and British area (Healy,1992, 2004; Albrechts, 2004; Salet and Faludi, 2000; Moss, 2004; Van der Brugge, 2005; Wiering and Immink, 2006). The first part of the research offers the preparation for the creation of visual simulations - the selection and the description of the locations, the selection of the colour photographs and the simulated scenario. The questionnaire and the questions will be formed on the basis of the simulations. The third part develops the research method, the research frame and the frames for grouping of the observed stakeholders. The selection criteria of the original scenes are described and there is an analysis of the structure and the variables of modifying the original scenes with the descriptive scenarios. Then there is a description of the data collection progress and procedure by surveying the three cultural/national groups and the experts. The fourth chapter offers the rationale for using computer programs to analyze and process the data (Microsoft Excel, SPSS). The results of the research are presented as the results of the total sample and the comparison of the results of different stakeholders. In the fifth chapter a commentary is offered as well as the generalisation of the results, the principle and the special conclusions, the contribution to science and to the spatial planning profession. The dissertation concludes with a critique of the approach and the suggestions for further research. The conclusion of the doctoral dissertation presents the reflection on the possibilities of transnational spatial planning of natural phenomena. The dissertation ends with the appendixes and the resources used. 2 THEORETICAL OUTSET In this chapter we shall offer an objectivist and subjectivist paradigm of landscape in philosophical discussions and in scientific and professional debates. An overview will be provided of the research on human values within ethics, the relationship between values, environmental attitudes and environmental behaviour as well as of the concepts of culture, cross-cultural research and differences and meeting points in spatial planning and river management. 2.1 Ethics and values A fundamental relationship of human towards nature has been changing through history. The interpretation of virtue and good, egoism, altruism, happiness, innateness and right as well as of other definitions in ethics follows the path of qualitative leaps, and not of continuity (Kirn, 2004). A turning point comes with the Rationalism in the 17th century and the Enlightenment which transformed into the scientism of today (Bezic, 1995). The criterion of scientific quality has required a strict separation of the subject and the object where science was strictly deprived of any subjectivity. The German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) established the modern principles of ethics, taking into his focus of observation the manner of conception of a human moral and practical sphere and the manner of evaluating moral actions. He assigned morals to the human sphere, and everything else was separated as the object. Philosophical ethics branches into general and applied ethics. General ethics branches into normative, descriptive and metaethics. Ethical beliefs in the form of values are a part of descriptive ethics which, among other topics, classifies and sums up the relationship of human and nature. The practice of ethics in society can be found in the notions of values, value orientations and attitudes. Wiliams (cited in Rokeach, 2000) defines values as one of normative elements which represent a criterion of desirability. The second element is the norms in the form of requirements, expectations and rules. The author relates values to the concepts of knowledge and beliefs, adding that values are measured through attitudes, and are expressed through judgment, preference and choice. The sociological notion of values was improved at the beginning of the 20th century by theoreticians such as Weber, Pareto, Durkheim and Simmel (Buchecker, 2009). They had a direct influence on the theoretician Talcott Parsons who in his book Toward a General Theory of Action: Theoretical Foundations for the Social Sciences (2001) observes values through the aspect of the functioning of society, posing questions such as to what extent are societies homogenous regarding values and what is the society's "capacity" in reference to the coexistence of opposed values. Parsons suggests social values as a source for introducing and directing social action. Social values are represented as a framework we use to adjust our choices at an individual level. He introduces the concept of "pattern variables" which are interpreted as five fundamental choices: to listen to your own emotions or to remain emotionally neutral; to be oriented by your private interests or by the interests of the collectivity; to listen to universal norms or to specific norms; to interpret the behaviour of the others or to evaluate by using their assigned qualities; whether or not a particular relation is only one of many various among the same participants. The critique of Parsons' theory refers to the static frames of social values and to the interpretation of the dynamics of individual value orientations only (Jonas, 1992, according to Buchecker, 2009). Giddens (1998) differentiates societies and cultures and says that "there is no society without culture" and he notices that the reasons for changes in culture are in the social changes. He explains values with the notion of abstract ideas which "provide meaning and direct people in their interaction with society." He considers cultural norms and values rooted in society and slow to change. According to Giddens (1998), the potential and possibility to change social values and norms is connected to creativity and opposition of "subcultural and countercultural" values and norms whose standpoints represent an alternative to dominant social standpoints. Further on, he lists various possible cultures within a society and links them to music, ideology, environmental orientation, sport etc. Schwartz claims that value is "(1) a belief, (2) pertaining to desirable end states and modes of conduct, that (3) transcends specific situations, (4) guides selection or evaluation of behaviour, people, and events, and (5) is ordered by importance relative to other values to form a system of value priorities" (Schwartz, 1994:20). Further on, he makes three existential claims for shaping motivational values: needs as biological organisms, requisites of coordinated social interaction, and requirements for the smooth functioning and survival of groups. Thereafter, the author extracted four basic value clusters: self-transcendence, self-enhancement, openness to change and conservatism. Value content has been researched in different ways. Rokeach based his choice of researched values on intuitive choice (according to Schwartz, 1994), whereas the other group compiled a list of values empirically. Schultz compiled his value list empirically by doing a cross-cultural content analysis of answers to the following question: "What is the environmental problem that concerns you the most and why?"(Schultz, 2000 cited in Amerigo et al. 2007). According to Hofstede (1981) values have intensity and direction and also size and sign. Values can be desired or desirable. Hofsted gave an overview of assigned characteristics presented in Table 1 in his book Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-related Values (1981:20). Desired values can thus be related to Parsons' "pattern values", whereas desirable values represent a wider frame of social values. Preglednica 1: Razlikovanje med t. i. želenim in zaželenim in sorodnimi razlikovanji (Hofstede, 1981: str. 20) Table 1: Distinction between the desired and the desirable and associated distinction (Hofstede, 1981: p 20). NATURE OF A VALUE dimension of value nature of corresponding norm of value corresponding behaviour dominant outcome terms used in measuring instrument affective meaning of this term person referred to in measuring instrument THE DESIRED intensity statistical, phenomenological, pragmatic choice and differential effort allocation deeds and/or words important, successful, attractive, preferred activity plus evaluation me, you THE DESIRABLE Direction absolute, deontological, ideological approval or disapproval (based on Kluckehohn (1951:404-405) Words good, right, agree, ought, should evaluation only people in general Values on an individual level are learned (Williams, in Rokeach, 2002) and the author compares them to an experience of anticipating emotion (pain, leisure, success, defeat, affirmation etc.). The transition from individual to cultural values is found in the communication on acquired experiences of a larger number of culture members. Mass experience present in wider communication can shape group culture values. The educational system influences significantly the forming of attitudes both on an individual and social level (Hofstede, 1983; Schwartz, 2006). The influence of education on value system formation has been studied from the sociological aspect. French sociologist Durkheim (1858-1917) considers education to be a component which prompts and strengthens the homogeneity of society, so that an individual becomes a social being by acquiring it. The interaction of education and society happens through values which pass from the society onto an individual. Education is a processual medium where there is a parallel development of the educational system and social changes. Durkheim explains that "every society, considered at a given moment in its development, has a system of education which is imposed on individuals" (Durkheim, cited in Filloux, 2002:305). 2.2 Cross-cultural values The definition of culture has been studied in the realm of sociology, and has been most frequently defined as a way of life. In 1871, in Primitive Culture. E. B. Tylor described culture as: "a complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by a human as a member of society'(cited in White, 1959:23). In 1944, in Mirror for Man Kluckhohn's definition of culture also starts with "the total way of life of people" and follows with "the social legacy the individual acquires from his group"; "a way of thinking, feeling and believing"; "an abstraction from behaviour"; "a theory on the part of the anthropologist about the way in which a group of people in fact behave"; "storehouse of pooled learning"; "a set of standardised orientations to recurrent problems"; "learned behaviour"; "a mechanism for normative regulation of behaviour"; "a set of techniques for adjusting both to the external environment and to other man"; "a precipitate of history" (Kluckhohn, 1944 cited in Geertz, 1973:4). Kluckhohn's integral definition is as follows: "culture consists in patterned ways of thinking, feeling, and reacting, acquired and transmitted mainly by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e. historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values (Kluckhohn, 1944, cited in Hofstede, 1981:9). Giddens (1998:22) says that "cultures are difficult to understand from the outside" and that they should be studied inside their values and relations. He calls this idea "cultural relativism" and links culture exclusively with the learned, and not with the inherited aspects of life. He sees socialisation as a principle road to transmitting culture in time and between generations. Same as Parsons, he prefers hierarchically the individual values to the social ones. The social values are transmitted into the concept of social identity, and the individual ones into personal identity. He claims that social identity is a collective dimension defined by a set of common goals, values and experiences which may be a foundation for social changes. Social identity is defined as a dimension denoting "that individuals are the same as the others". Personal identity is explained in the context of modernisation and the increasing possibilities and choices. He claims that personal identity "is constantly created and recreated" (Giddens, 1998:23). A social change of the premodern society is interpreted through three factors: the environment, political organisation and cultural factors. The environment is seen as an influential factor if it is in its extreme form (extreme natural conditions) or if the environmental conditions shape the way of life intensively (the environment shapes the favorable or unfavorable conditions). Political systems are not related to economic organisations but he does not analyze explicitly the relationship between the changes and the political system in premodern, but in modern countries. Out of the set of cultural factors influencing the changes he sets apart religion, the nature of communication systems and leaders. He sees the economic, political and cultural influences as sources of changes in the modern age (Figure 1). At the same time, just like Inglehart and Welzel (2005), he considers industrialisation to be an important factor. The interaction of science and technology with political and cultural areas is seen by Giddens (1998) as very important. The way in which culture influences social changes has also been altered. A critical and innovative way of thinking has changed the content of ideas, so that customs and habits are not accepted anymore because they have the authority of tradition, but we re-evaluate them by using new social values. Slika 1: Vzroki za spremembe družbenih vrednot v sodobnem času (Giddens, 1998: str 42) . Figure 1: Causes of changes in social values in modern times (Giddens, 1998: p 42). Linton claims that "the culture of a society is the way of life of its members; the collection of ideas and habits which they learn, share and transmit from generation to generation" (cited in Haralambos, 1994:33). Culture is, according to some researchers, a natural category and has its own material evidence, whereas, according to others, it is an idea, or a set of ideas of all people or of ethnologists only (White, 1959). The sociological aspect of culture presupposes its reality and holds that it happens with the society. Culture develops in the dimensions of values, norms, ideas, beliefs, attitudes, traditions and artefacts. Culture definitions designate it as learned, unconscious, to be shared, symbolic, dynamic and relative. As a research goal of this dissertation, the theory on cultural values and cross-cultural value research have been considered. There are three most frequently quoted cross-cultural theories and authors: Hofstede, Schwartz, and Inglehardt and Welzel. Hofstede's study was based on the responses of 116,000 personnel from a large American-owned multinational company (IBM) in the period between 1967 and 1973. On the basis of a factor analysis of mean responses from forty nations1 on fourteen items concerning the importance of different work goals, Hofstede identified two factors that he labelled individualism and masculinity. A further two dimensions of national culture labelled power distance and uncertainty avoidance emerged from a so-called eclectic analysis, combining items largely on the basis of theoretical expectations (Smith and Dugan, 1996). Hofstede's power distance dimension is defined in terms of the prevailing norms of inequality within a culture. Individualism-collectivism refers to the extent to which the identity of members of a given culture is shaped primarily by personal choices and achievements or by the groups to which they belong. Individualist cultures promote introspection and focus attention on inner experience. In contrast, collectivist cultures do not encourage focusing attention on the inner self - the most salient features of emotional experience are external and interactional. Research confirms that 1 The then state of Yugoslavia also participated in the research. cultural individualism is correlated with subjective well-being when high income, human rights and equality are controlled (Diener and Diener, 1995 cited in Basabe and Ros, 2005). Masculinity-femininity corresponds to a "tough-tender" dimension. In masculine cultures, values such as competition, success, and performance are relatively more prevalent than in feminine cultures, where there is relatively more emphasis on values such as warm social relationships, quality of life, and care of the weak. The fourth dimension, uncertainty avoidance, alludes to the degree to which members of a culture are uncomfortable with uncertainties in life. Societies high on this dimension prefer structured rather than unstructured situations, where there are clear guidelines for behaviour (Smith and Dugan, 1996). Hofstede's analysis of his data bank was later expanded to 53 cultures (Hofstede, 1983). The author presents three basic reasons for linking values to the concept of society, i.e. nation: the political, the sociological and the psychological reason. While elaborating the psychological reason Hofstede evokes the educational system, as well as early family education. He stresses education as the most important in shaping the national cultural framework and calls it collective mental programming, defining it as follows: "...it is that part of our conditioning that we share with other members of our nation, region, or group but not with members of other nations, region, or groups" (Hofstede, 1983). Schwartz (2009:262) defines values as follows: "Values are beliefs. But they are beliefs tied inextricably to emotion, not objective, cold ideas. Values are a motivational construct. They refer to the desirable goals people strive to attain. Values transcend specific actions and situations. They are abstract goals. The abstract nature of values distinguishes them from concepts like norms and attitudes, which usually refer to specific actions, objects, or situations. Values guide the selection or evaluation of actions, policies, people, and events. That is, values serve as standards or criteria. Values are ordered by importance relative to one another. People's values form an ordered system of value priorities that characterise them as individuals. This hierarchical feature of values also distinguishes them from norms and attitudes." He proposes a multidimensional value space which he usually represents in a multi-dimensionally scaled "value circle" (Figure 1). Schwartz identifies ten different values which are paired in polarities along which these values cluster: egoism versus altruism (in Schwartz's terminology: self-enhancement vs. self-transcendence) and conformism versus individualism (conservation vs. openness to change). Openej chan: Self-Trancendence Self- Conservation Enhancement Slika 2: Teoretični model odnosov med desetimi vrstami motivacijskih vrednot (Schwartz,2006: str 3). Figure 2: Theoretical model of relations among ten motivational types of values (Schwartz, 2006: p 3). Schwartz and associates developed empirical research that examines the value hierarchies of individuals in different nations. They base their research on three different sets of samples, a representative or a near representative sample, college students and a school teacher sample in order to answer the question: Does the average value hierarchy based on representative or near representative samples also characterise more specific groups and does it generalise across a larger set of nations?. They identified a set of cross-cultural similarities and differences and then developed explanations for them. Schwartz (1994) surveyed value preferences of individuals in twenty five countries. Results showed that benevolence consistently emerges at the top of the value hierarchy, with self-direction and universalism close behind. Security, conformity and achievement are located in the middle of the hierarchy, followed by hedonism. Stimulation, tradition, and power are at the bottom of the hierarchy, with power consistently last. Individual differences in the importance attributed to values reflect the individuals' unique needs, temperaments, and social experiences. But the pan-cultural similarities in value importance are likely to reflect the shared bases of values in human nature and the adaptive functions of each type of value in maintaining societies (Schwartz and Bardi, 1997). Schwartz (2001) claims that there is a great deal of variation in the importance of individual values both within groups and across societies (Figure 3). This variation in individual values is systematically related to differences in individual behaviour (Rokeach, 1973; Schwartz, 1996) and it arises from systematic differences in social experience (Rokeach, 1973). Differences help us identify the influences of unique genetic heritage, personal experience, social structure and culture on value priorities. Anxiety-based values Anxiety-free values Prevention of loss goals * * Promotion of gain goals Self-protection against threat Self-expansion and growth Personal Focus Social Focus Self-Enhancement Openness to Change Achievement Hedonism Power Stimulation Self-Direction Conservation Self-Transcendence Security Universalism Conformity Benevolence Tradition Slika 3: Dinamične podpore univerzalnih vrednostnih struktur (Schwartz, 2009: appendix: str 9). Figure 3: Dynamic underpinnings of the universal value structure (Schwartz, 2009: appendix: p. 9). Inglehart imported into cross-cultural research several concepts of value change by suggesting a one-and two-dimensional concept. Following Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Inglehart (1997) suggested that value orientations are organised hierarchically on a uni-dimensional continuum from material to post material values. Inglehart (1997) considers life security to be a key variable. In analyzing the importance of the material he evokes Maslow's hierarchy of needs and relates the concept of self-expression values to conditions when material security is of a long standing character. The shift from the materialist to post-materialist values is explained by Inglehart as non-linear. Inglehart's materialists have physiological needs and stress physical and economic security. Post materialists, by contrast, strive for self-actualisation, stress the aesthetic and the intellectual, and cherish belonging and esteem. Inglehart's theory of value change is one that assumes a linear progression in steps upwards of Maslow's pyramid. Once physiological lower-order needs are met and appear uncontested, individuals develop higher-order needs. Inglehart and Welzel (2005) suggested a two-dimensional value space and conducted a cross-cultural World Values Survey on seventy five societies amounting to eighty percent of the world population. A global conclusion of the survey confirmed Huntington's thesis that "culture matters", as well as it defied the claim that the differences are based on the level of democracy of a culture, but it pointed out that its root is in gender in/equalities and sexual liberalisation (Inglehart and Welzel, 2005). The World Values Surveys were designed to measure all major areas of human concern: religion, politics, economic and social life. The research is based on differences measured along two dimensions: (1) Traditional vs. Secular-rational values and (2) Survival vs. Self-expression values. The first dimension shows the contrast between societies in which religion is very important and those in which it is not. In traditional societies of high importance are: parent-child ties and deference to authority, absolute standards and traditional family values, as well as rejection of divorce, abortion, euthanasia and suicide. These societies have high levels of national pride, and a nationalistic outlook. Societies with secular-rational values have the opposite preferences on all of these topics (Inglehart and Welzel, 2005). The second dimension is linked to the extension of the moral object. They suggest that individual safety and autonomy decrease egocentrism, and their growth increases homocentrism (Maslow, 1988, cited in Inglehart and Welzel, 2005). They further analyse the topic through the concept of a dynamics between materialistic and post materialistic priorities. The authors conclude that self-expression values encourage the perception of risk, but that the development of self-expression values does not subsume eradication of human material needs. The authors further point out and explain that cognition and experiences are the causes of value change. At the same time they offer a critique of Weber's theory on the rise of a rational worldview through the spread of scientific knowledge with the example of Central and Eastern Europe. The changes linked to the fall of communism are studied in relation with the phenomenon of the spreading of scientific knowledge, and the change of the system of values is linked to the experiential change in existential security, uncertainty and a decline in the standard of living. In the case of the change of life circumstances and the decrease of security there is a reversion in value priorities, a shift backwards. The authors conclude on the basis of empirical results that the sense of existential security pervasive in a society is more important than cognitive factors and that cultural change is not determined by simple cognition and rational choice but by exposure to different existential conditions. The change in culture is linked to the accumulation of tolerance and not to short term fluctuations. Inglehart and Welzel are the only ones among these cross-cultural researchers dealing with the relationship of culture and democratisation and within this with the attitude toward institutions. The authors differentiate between the inertial variables (socioeconomic development) and those which change in an explosive manner (democratisation and institutional changes). Post-industrial values are related to the weakening of the respect for authorities and the growing support to participation and expression. The basic concept stressed by the authors as a central topic is a concept of "a demand for freedom" which in empirical research displays the strongest factor loading toward the higher order concept - self-expression values. Besides the fundamental meaning of freedom, the authors relate the demand for freedom to an ecological and ideological orientation which emphasises the environment protection and preservation and humane society. They also conclude that the self-expression and not secular-rational values reflect cultural change. The succession of changes from cultural to political at the end is represented in a linear manner in Figure 4. existential security ECONOMIC CHANGE self-expression values CULTURAL CHANGE POLITICAL CHANGE democratic institution > Slika 4: Človekov razvoj, Inglehart in Welzel (2005: str 140). Figure 4: Human development, Inglehart and Welzel (2005: p 134). Inglehart (1997) and Inglehart and Welzel (2005) concluded on the basis of the empirical research on world nations in several waves that the affiliation of a society to a cultural zone depicts a common state of traditional or secular-rational values, but that human development, the change, is primarily directed toward the development of self-expression values Scientific literature also studies the mutual link of value dimensions of these three concepts: Hofstede's concept of collective mental programming, which is national; Schwartz's multidimensional concept of values and Inglehart's concept of opponent values which determine the state and the change. Preglednica 2: Vrednosti višjega reda, ki temeljijo na medkulturnih študijah avtorjev Hofstede, Schwartz in Inglehart in Welzel Table 2: Higher order values based on Hofstede, Schwartz and Inglehart and Welzel cross-cultural studies Hofstede Schwartz Inglehart Individualism-collectivism Self-transcendence Traditional Masculinity-femininity Self-enhancement Secular-rational values Power distance Openness to change Survival Uncertainty avoidance Conservatism Self-expression values Table 2 offers an overview of higher order values for all three authors, whereas Table 3 displays a common platform of dimensions used by the three authors, which was reached by Inglehart and Welzel (2005) and confirmed by other authors. Preglednica 3: Ekspresivne vrednote in obseg individualizma in samostojnosti se nanašajo na skupno dimenzijo (Inglehart in Welzel, 2005: str. 143) Table 3: Self-Expression values and individualism and autonomy scales tap a common dimension (Inglehart and Welzel, 2005:p 137). The Individualism/Autonomy/Self-Expression Dimension: 78% Emphasis on Intrinsic Human Choice (Principal Variance explained Component Analysis Inglehart: Survival vs. Self-expression values .91 Hofstede: individualism vs. collectivism ranking .87 Schwartz: Autonomy vs. embeddedness (mean of student/teacher .87 samples) We conclude that values originate in individual knowledge acquired through experience and perception which can shape the cultural value of a society through mass communication. There is interaction between individual and social values. Values as a general concept are a stable category (Williams, in. Rokeach, 2000), but we can distinguish the values which are more or less static (Inglehart and Welzel, 2005). The change in values happens in qualitative leaps, and not in continuity and depends more on accumulated tolerance than on a relative shift of some value (Inglehart and Welzel, 2005). Values are also learned so that education is an important medium in forming social values (Hofstede, 1983; Schwartz, 2006; Durkheim cited in Filloux, 2002). Age is also an influential factor in a value system, which instigates the so called intergenerational value changes (Inglehart and Welzel, 2005). Values are submerged in the concept of culture. Culture is expressed through "government, legal systems, educational systems, industrial relation systems, family structures, religious organisations, sports clubs, settlement patterns, literature, architecture, and even scientific theories" (Hofstede, 1981:). "Culture matters", i.e. societies differ according to their different cultural values and structures, but there are the ever present, universal values, too. Extensive global cross-cultural surveys of the leading scientists in the field show the results whose values correlate for the concepts of individualism, expression and autonomy whose common denominator is in the values related to human freedom and freedom of choice. The differences between cultures are more influenced by "Eros than Demos" (Inglehart, 2003). Cultural differences and similarities should be observed through opposing themes and through the analysis of a national sample. At an individual level the differences become less dominant (Schwartz, 2001; Inglehart and Welzel, 2005) but are still in interaction with a social level so that they may reflect it (see Figure 5). PERSONALITY Universal Speci to gro or cati Inherited Slika 5: Tri ravni edinstvenosti v duševnem programiranju (Hofstede, 1991: str 6). Figure 5: Three levels of uniqueness in mental programming (Hofstede, 1991: p 6). The research design followed the concept of cross-cultural differences according to Hofstede (the idea of national culture) and according to Schultz's environmental value orientations by following his definition of values. The comparison of attitudes of different stakeholders was researched by comparing attitudes at a national level. Schwartz's value theory in research on environmental orientations was applied by Schultz and Zelezny (1999) at a cross-cultural level of general landscape and by Buchecker and Junker (2008) in researching the attitudes of the Swiss nation relationship to the changes in riverine landscapes. The research included a cross-cultural comparison of confidence toward institutions and of attitudes on international cooperation in managing natural phenomena (rivers). 2.3 Three different cultures "We make landscapes according to the political system in which we operate, the economic use we see for land, our aesthetic preferences, our social conventions - all of these are summarised here under the label of culture." (Nassauer, 1995:230). Slovenian, Hungarian and Croatian cultures are assumed to be three different cultures as they do not have "a common dominant language, do(es) not share mass media and national symbol" (cited Hofstede 1980 in Schwartz, 1999:25). Nowadays all three nations have a democratic political system but they have had different political ways of achieving them. Once being a part of the common Austro-Hungarian state (until 1918) all three countries had a common political frame. In the period afterwards, Slovenia and Croatia retained a common political history during the second part of the 20th century by being a part of the state of Yugoslavia. Slovenia became an independent country (1991) by secession, whereas Croatia underwent military actions (1992-1995) in order to achieve territorial sovereignty. Hungary was under Russian occupation during the mid 20th century. In 2004 Slovenia and Hungary joined the European Union and Croatia is in the period of accession. Inglehart and Welzel (2005) mention that political culture is influenced by "individual attitudes" and "participant orientation". They conducted an empirical research which established that citizens' expressive values shape a democratic society, and not vice versa, that a democratic society influences the shaping of attitudes. They include three aspects of culture research: the legitimacy approach (confidence in the institutions and support for a system), the communitarian approach (conformity to norms, activity in associations and interpersonal trust) and the human development approach (aspirations for freedom and choice). The third approach to researching political cultures is in favour of linking the activities against the elites with previous experience in democracy, i.e. with the length of that experience. Thus the research hypothesized that Hungary, Croatia and Slovenia, assuming their different experiences as democratic societies, are in different positions to "participant orientation". Schwartz (1994) compared the intra- and inter-country cultural distances across various nations. He finds that the cultural distance between samples from different countries is greater than the distance between samples from the same country, suggesting a similarity of cultural value orientations within a nation that could be used as meaningful cultural units. Table 4 displays the results of the global research in Hofstede (2010) and Inglehart and Welzel (2010), and in Figure 6 and Table 4 there is a focus on the position of the three observed cultures/nations in the World Value Survey Cultural Map. Preglednica 4: Velikost zadnjega merjenja vrednosti po Inglehart in Welzel (svetovni vrednosti val 4) in Hofstedeju Table 4: Values by Inglehart and Welzel (World Values wave 4) and Hofstede Dimensions of values Inglehart and Welzel (2010) * Hofstede (2010)** Nation Croatia Hungary Slovenia a ra H P4 0.08 0.40 0.95 d et l te .S ö a o se u le la 0.31 -1.22 0.38 e c cna e w o P il s la iv u vi 3 £ iv el 12 o £ o nli n u in e Ph 73 46 71 33 80 27 40 88 19 yt tn e ni c an tr a ed H^ cd 80 82 88 *WWS - 4 wave * * http://geert-hofstede.com/geert-hofstede.html Slika 6: Kraj Madžarsko, Slovenijo in Hrvaško na svetovni kulturni zemljevid vrednota, proti Inglehart in Welzel, 2005: str 63. Figure 6: Positions of Hungary, Slovenia and Croatia on the World Values Survey Cultural Map by Inglehart and Welzel, 2005: p 63. According to the theoretical overview of cross-cultural research and the relationship of the constructs, we can interpret Table 4 which provides the data on the observed three countries. The greatest difference is noted in Survival vs. Self-oriented values, which, according to Ingelhart and Welzel (2005) and Basabe and Ros (2005), correlate with individualism/collectivism (Hofstede) and autonomy vs. commitment values (Schwartz). The results expressed for Hungary carry a negative sign, whereas the results for Croatia and Slovenia are positive and similar. In line with this, a difference in attitudes is expected which would form two poles - a Hungarian on the one hand and a Slovenian on the other. Since expressive values contain environmental orientations, it is expected that Hungarian respondents (students) would express to a lesser degree the attitudes in which they proclaim environment protection and care for others (altruism) than the Slovenian and Croatian ones. The same is expected considering the results of Inglehart and Welzel's (2005) (Figure 6) research of correlation of Post-transition freedom and Liberty Aspiration for the three countries, i.e. that Croatian respondents would express a lower level of social confidence than the Hungarian ones, and even greater difference is expected for Slovenian respondents. 2.4 Moral subject and moral object in the relationship of human and nature In the period of the modern, post paleolithic and post neolithic human, anthropocentric ethics developed in the European area when economic forces managed the environment and morals originated in human nature (Lončaric-Horvat, 2003). Kirn (2004) explains anthropocentrism in four theses: (1) man is a central and most important being in the universe, (2) man is the measure of all things, (3) the world is interpreted according to a human's values and human's experience and impression and (4) only humans create a moral community. Awareness of destruction of nature and the necessity for change appeared already in the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th century. A new direction in the -nature relationship was initiated by environmental problems and an environmental crisis. This was publicly and globally confirmed by the United Nations Declaration on Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972) so that the change was evident in equating what is good for nature is also good for man.2 Morals thus still originate in man himself but nature is absorbed as a moral object, which is the basis of ecological ethics (Kirn, 2004). 2 The Declaration proclaims: 1. Man is both creature and moulder of his environment, which gives him physical sustenance and affords him the opportunity for intellectual, moral, social and spiritual growth. In the long and tortuous evolution of the human race on this planet a stage has been reached when, through the rapid acceleration of science and technology, man has acquired the power to transform his environment in countless ways and on an unprecedented scale. Both aspects of man's environment, the natural and the man-made, are essential to his well-being and to the enjoyment of basic human rights the right to life itself. http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.Print.asp?documentid=97&articleid=1503 Moral subject unborn life dying anthropocentric pathocentric human race Moral object humankind \high animals biocentric all living beings holistic eco-systems Slika 7: Koncept moralne odgovornosti za življenje (Cifric (2009:str 71). Figure 7: The concept of moral responsibility for life (Cifric (2009: p. 71). Krebs (1999) offers a sequence of widening the moral subject in the following list: • only myself (egoism) • myself, my family, and friends (small group egoism) • all people of my class (classism) • all citizens of my country (nationalism) • all people of may race (racism) • all people of my sex (sexism) • all living human beings (universalism of the present) • all living human beings and those of the past (universalism including the past) • all living human beings and those of the future (universalism including the future) • all sentient beings (pathocentrism or sentietism) The notion of extending morals to added objects is vividly depicted by the pioneer of ecological ethics, Aldo Leopold, famous for his classic "The Land Ethics", which appeared in A Sand County Almanac in 1949. In the story, upon returning home, Odysseus punishes his disobedient slave girls by sentencing them to hanging. Three thousand years after, the slave girls are objectivised and moral behaviour was not extended to them, as they were considered as property or object, not as a moral subject. Leopold draws an analogy with the current situation across a time distance and says: "Land, like Odysseus' slave girls, is still property. The land relation is still strictly economic, entailing privileges but no obligations" (Leopold, 1949:237). Thereby the author introduces a concept of responsibility into the human-nature relationship and sets the foundation for ecological ethics. Ecological ethics is a part of applied ethics defined as a specific area of theological or philosophical research on establishing ethical norms as criteria for moral behaviour regarding the treatment of world life and natural ecosystems. It offers norms, defines human responsibility and shows how that responsibility is justified (Cifric, 2009). Ecological ethics will start functioning when all acts unsuitable for the environment are sanctioned and forbidden, not only legally but morally as well (Kirn, 2004). This attitude anticipates Leopold's idea and his "land ethics" on the superiority of social goals to personal goals of an individual (Marušic, 1999). Leopold (1949) evokes Darwin's idea of unity with the natural world and proclaims a "living world" ("susvijet"/"Mitwelt") as described in Cifric (2002). In his book, Respect for Nature, Paul W. Taylor (1986) analyses the concepts of a moral subject and a moral agent (object), which differ in their moral activity and according to which the moral subject is active in choice, unlike the moral agent, who can be governed in a right or a wrong way. In his work he presents three key elements: • Bio centric (life-centred) environmental ethics: neither anthropocentric, nor sentience-centred Individualistic (not holistic-as is Leopold's land ethic): Individual organisms (not species or ecosystems or natural processes) have moral worth. Taylor thinks individualism follows from biocentrism, as only individuals are alive. • Egalitarian: All organisms (including human organisms) have equal inherent worth In four basic principles Taylor (1986:46) presents the bio centric heterarchical ethics according to which there are no "inherently superior or inferior" living beings: 1. Humans are no privileged members of the earth's community of life 2. The natural world is an interdependent system 3. All organisms (and only organisms) are teleological centres of life (think of plants seeking light) that have goods of their own that we can morally consider for their own sake. Organisms have a "point of view" we can adopt by judging events as good or bad depending on whether the organisms are benefitted or harmed. 4. The belief in human superiority is an unjustified bias; we should be species impartial and egalitarian. (Taylor, 1986:99-100 according to Marušič, 2002:31) Empirical sociological research studies established that there is a socio-ecological orientation which has been discussed by different authors inside the anthropo-eco polarity or, in the case of focusing on life only, inside the anthropo-bio polarity. The extremes are found in the concepts of moral chauvinism and the concept of deep ecology (holism) construct invented by Naess, (Cifric, 2002). Cifric (2009) analyses the degrees of ecological ethics, not in the sense of higher or lower levels, but in the sense of enclosing moral objects (Figure 6). Intrinsic and instrumental values are inseparable from discussing the source and the perimeter of the moral scope. Krebs (1999) explains the difference with the notion of "answers", and differentiates between "ethical answers" for intrinsic values and "technical answers" for instrumental values. Within the notion of intrinsic values he introduces the division into "eudaemonic" and "moral", applying them to the concept of life and differentiating between "good" and "right" life. The same division within intrinsic values is cited by Neass (1995) referred to as a "moral act" and a "beautiful act" by recalling Kant's derivatives (see Figure 8). Immanuel Kant clarified moral behaviour within two concepts: acting in harmony with the universal or acting by duty and acting in line with duty. Moral action related to values is found in the quote: "Thus neither is morality, to be true, the learning of how we should make ourselves happy, but how we should become worthy of happiness" (Kant,1990). Slika 8: Hierarhija ekoloških etičnih vrednot po Neassu (1995). Figure 8: Hierarchy of ecological ethical values according to Neass (1995). Reviewing the literature (see Table 5) we can see that the authors have dealt with analyzing the degrees of ecological ethics through two basic dimensions: the scope of the moral (intrinsic values) and the time scope (past-present-future). Preglednica 5: Pregled avtorjev etičnih razsežnosti okoljske orientacije; Cifric (2009:str 74-84), dopolnitev *. Table 5: The author's classification of ethical dimensions of environmental orientation; Cifric (2009:p74-84), supplemented *. AUTHORS DEGREES OF ECOLOGICAL ETHICS/DISTRIBUTION Armstrong and Botzler Frankena, W. Hoffe, O. Aesthetic Evaluation of Nature, Economy, Politics, Law Anthropocentrism Individualism Ecocentrism Ecofemminism Jewish-Christian Perspective Multicultural Perspectives Ethical Egoism Personalism-Altruism Holism Ecological Fraction Physiocentric Fraction Theism Ethics Linking The Second and the Sixth Degree Natural Right Personal Or Economic Legitimate Demand for a Just and Solidary Distribution of Healthy Environment to all People Justice for Future Generations Departing Anthropocentrism and the Right of Nature Teutsch G. Egoistic Anthropocentric Patocentric (All Beings Capable of Suffering) Biocentric Holistic Meyer-Abich K.M. Egocentric - Me Homo-Economicus - Me and Family, Friends Chauvinist - Me, Nation and Immediate Past Mit-Mensch - Me, Nation, Present Generation Anthropocentrics - Me, People, Past and Present All Consciously Sensory Beings Holism - Everything Irrgang B. (a) Anthropocentrics: Egocentrics A Classic Anthropocentric Responsibility for Future Generations (b) Non-Anthropocentric: Patocentric Biocentric Physiocentric Concepts Theistic Ethics Natural Right Schlitt, Anthropocentric Patocentric Biocentric Physiocentric Arsene G.G.* Anthropocentric Biocentric Ecocentric Cifric, I.* Anthropocentric Ecocentric Technocentric Schultz, S.H.* Egoistic Socioaltruistic Biospheric Hernandez et al.* Anthropocentrism Progress Naturalism Thompson and Barton* Anthropocentric Ecocentrism Kaltenborn and Bjerke Amerigo et. al* Milfont and Duckitt* Environmental Apathy (a) Anthropocentrism Ecocentrism (b) Anthropocentrism Biospherism Egobiocentrism Self-Transcendence Self-Enhancement Openness to Change continues continues Conservatism Biospheric Altruistic Dunlap and van Ecocentrism Liere* Anthropocentrism Van der Windt et al. Strong Anthropocentric * Weak Anthropocentric Ecocentric The critique of extreme holistic and biocentric concepts calls for the subject of morals and the source of value, as Warren (1997) says, at the end: "All ethics is anthropocentric to a certain degree. We should not forget that humans are the sole moral agent in every case. When considering non-human entities with their own inherent value, we should not forget that it is humankind itself that Attributes value to nature" (cited in Arsene, 2007:24). 2.5 Conclusion of the chapter on ethics and values Values have been a central concept in the social sciences since their inception. They have played an important role not only in sociology, but in psychology, anthropology, and related disciplines as well. They are used to characterise societies and individuals, to trace change over time, and to explain the motivational bases of attitudes and behaviour. The interdisciplinarity of spatial research and spatial planning research inevitably includes different topics and sociological discourse, including attitude sampling with an aim of conflict solution, which has become part of the process in spatial planning. There are obvious changes in the relationship between human and nature, and consequently, the attitude to nature over the centuries, which are reflected precisely in the changes of attitudes and behaviour. On a global level, the changes in attitudes and behaviour have been monitored by using the concept of culture and by using the comparison with the concept of cross-culture. Empirical research studies on the population's attitudes to bioethical questions have an aim not only to research attitudes themselves, but to connect them to the origins of those attitudes and the consequences of those attitudes in the form of behaviour. There is a simultaneously developed theoretical platform used for the analysis of the structures of the society, the moral scope in the observed society, the changes in the value structure etc. Such research is necessary in order to establish the major social stakeholders of an ideology and the system of values which legitimates the behaviour of individuals and of groups. For the purpose of this research, the concept of socio-ecological values (Schultz and Zelezny, 1999) and the concept of national cultures (Hofstede, 1984; Schwartz, 2001) were applied for comparing the three nations whose respondents were connected to the Mura and Drava area on a local and regional level. Environmental orientation is related to key values (human, people, nature) according to which "the sense" is attributed to life activities. The established specific dimension of orientation is called orientational identity (anthropocentrism,-egoism, anthropocentrism-altruism, biocentrism) and is not subject to changes as an identification profile of an individual or of a group (Cifric, 2008). Following Stern and Dietz (1994), who used Schwartz's (1992, 1994) value items to assess a person's value orientation, Schultz (2000) identified three clusters of environmental attitudes which represent egoistic, altruistic, and biospheric concerns. The participants in this study were college students, so we can talk about the values of the young people. The structure of value dependencies, motivational values and environmental values is based on (1) Schwartz's (1994) definition of an individual higher order value, (2) prior results on correlation of values and environmental attitudes (Schultz, 2000) and regression analyses using values to predict environmental attitudes (Schultz and Zelezny, 2000). The structure of the sequence for higher order values, motivational values and environmental attitudes is given in Table 6: Higher order values, motivational values and items according to Schwartz (1994: p 294, 295). Preglednica 6: Vrednosti višjega reda, motivacijske vrednosti in navedki po Schwartzu (1994: str 294, 295). Table 6: Higher order values, motivational values and items according to Schwartz (1994: p 294, 295). Higher order values Values Items Self-transcedence Benevolence 12. It's very important to him to help the people around him. He wants to care for other people. 18. It is important to him to be loyal to his friends. He wants to devote himself to people close to him. 27. It is important to him to respond to the needs of others. He tries to support those he knows. 33. Forgiving people who might have wronged him is important to him. He tries to see what is good in them and not to hold a grudge. Self-transcedence Universalism 3. He thinks it is important that every person in the world be treated equally. He wants justice for everybody, even for people he doesn't know. 8. It is important to him to listen to people who are different from him. Even when he disagrees with them, he still wants to understand them. 19. He strongly believes that people should care for nature. Looking after the environment is important to him. 23.He believes all the worlds' people should live in harmony. Promoting peace among all groups in the world is important to him. 29. He wants everyone to be treated justly, even people he doesn't know. It is important to him to protect the weak in the society. 40. It is important to him to adapt to nature and to fit into it. He believes that people should not change nature. Self-enhancement Power 2. It is important to him to be rich. He wants to have a lot of money and expensive things. 17. It is important to him to be in charge and tell others what to do. He wants people to do what he says. 39. He always wants to be the one who makes the decisions. He likes to be the leader. Nordlund (2002) hypothesized about a hierarchical model in which ecocentrism has a positive influence on the problem of awareness, and anthropocentrism has a negative one. The results confirmed the assumed hypothesis so that the conclusion was reached that higher order values influence environmental behaviour indirectly from those two poles. In the conclusion the author confirms the heterogeneous nature of anthropocentrism in the directions of egoism and altruism. The research hypothesized about the hierarchy of higher order values which were not researched by an instrument but was assumed on the basis of a theoretical frame and the results from previous research (Schultz and Zelezny, 1999; Schultz, 2001; Nordlund, 2002). In this case the environmental orientations were investigated in order for them to be interpreted in relation to evaluating the visual transformation of the river landscape. According to Kaltenborn and Bjerke (2002), ecocentrism correlates positively with evaluating the wild land and cultural landscape, whereas anthropocentrism correlates with the farm environment. A hierarchical model was created, according to which environmental orientations originating in higher order values would influence value attitudes toward the river landscape. Slika 9: Diagrami modelov, ki pogosto najbolj vplivajo na okolje in iz splošnih vrednostnih orientacij na skrb za obrečno krajino (po Nordlund, 2002). Figure 9: Path diagram of the model of the influence from general and environmental value orientations, on concern for river landscape (according to Nordlund, 2002). Survey items, which had an objective of differentiating respondents in environmental orientation clusters were construed according to the overview of dimensions, content and items by Schwartz (1984), Milfont and Duckit (2010) and Cifric (2008). The dimensions and environmental orientations are displayed in Table 7. A portion of items (*) is taken from the survey conducted within the project "Modernisation and Identity in Croatian Society. Social and Cultural Integration and Development" (130-1301180-0915), and a portion was investigated on the sample of 103 students of the Josip Juraj Strossmayer University in Osijek (Faculty of Civil Engineering and Law Faculty) during May 2010. According to the results provided, the respondents were recognised as belonging to a particular orientation (Stober, 2011). e- h 3' s- S fT Crt o B H cn tr fO O n Si £L o- c?. » § Cfl to tf o >a S o \_✓ o- & 3 S q cn G 3 3. 0Q fö* O. ß 3. O o o S^ 00 -J 3' O i-. o. ■ ■ Ö o — o S q g. BL ^ o C/l Cfi SO so 8 " 3 2 H B & § a> . —s < fO ^ § Cfl C/X E- c 3.|< o' p o 3 00 CD o. Ö C o oo rt o2 Ö C o to o to o Scale label Survey Items Schwartz Values Milfont-Duckitt (2010) Construct definition Cifric (2008) Frame attitudes Anthropocentric egoistic Self-oriented Human is an absolute master of nature in which he lives and he can treat it whichever way he likes* Developing technological solutions brings new advantages and pleasures to humankind* Power Human dominance over Nature Human utilization of Nature Belief that nature exists primarily for human use, versus belief that humans and nature have the same rights. Belief that economic growth and development should have priority rather than environmental protection, versus belief that environmental protection should have priority rather than economic growth and development. Relation to myself I only believe in myself Technology is a means to my power Ecocentric Biospheric-oriented If some landscape is preserved and original, the culture of its inhabitants is more advanced Rivers connect regions they flow through in a physical and cultural way Preserving nature is preferred to all other tasks of a society* Universalism Ecocentric concern A nostalgic concern and sense of emotional loss over environmental damage and loss, versus absence of any concern or regret over environmental damage. Relation to nature I am an integral and equally important part of the ecosystem Human's world is a part of nature Nature is something valuable in itself Anthropocentric altruistic Human-oriented River should serve human for leisure, recreation and enjoyment in a nice view Human today is completely controlled by the most contemporary technology and thus prevents possible accidents* Cities through which a river flows are more beautiful than cities which j---* i----------- Benevolence Conservation motivated by anthropocentric concern Support for conservation policies and protection of the environment motivated by anthropocentric concern for human welfare and gratification, versus support for such policies motivated by concern for nature and the environment as having values in themselves. Relation to world The world is as it is shaped by human Technology is inseparable from human O x S. p O L, S s§ ,r o C' 2 CT C C P r p C ►n c O S P ; S3 s t»< K C C c M i ^ s C H g 2.6 Cultural sustainability Except for the Brutland definition from 1987, "Sustainable development" also means satisfying the needs of the present generation without compromising the capacity of future generations to satisfy their needs " (WCED, 1987: 14). In the extremely extensive literature on sustainability, what seems to be common to numerous papers, reviews and analyses is the critique of its fluidity, ambiguity, deficiency, polysemy, multidisciplinarity, immeasurability, and, on the other hand, simultaneous positive critique of the theoretical platform and the astonishing speed and strength with which it permeated global thought. Sustainability is most frequently defined by three pillars: environmental protection, economic growth, and social equality, which are very frequently joined by the concept of "development" into the structure "sustainable development", which has suffered some critique, too, mostly due to its semantics (Blassingame, 1998; Redclift, 2005). Jacobs (1995) quotes 386 definitions on sustainable development, mostly oriented towards separate sectors. The development and expansion of the term "sustainability" can also be seen in the development of the graphic expression, from Venn's diagram (in which all three topics overlap) to a three-dimensional image in which the dimensions of sectors and the time dimensions are joined (see Figure 10) (Lozano, 2008). Slika 10: Vennov diagram in trodimenzionalni prikaz vzdržnog razvoja (Lozano, 2008). Figure 10: Venn's diagram and the three-dimensional image of sustainable development (Lozano, 2008) Overviews of historical development of the concept of sustainability started to appear from the environment crisis in 1960/70's onwards, mentioning Limits to Growth (1972) as a theoretical and notional precursor (Ekins, 1993; Stern et al., 1998;Kos, 2004). After the 1987 definition, the expression is mentioned in a series of institutional documents on a global level (UN Documents http://www.un-documents.net/k-001303.htm; accessed on 28-09-2012). An "epidemics" of national documents was prompted by Agenda 21, which says: "National Strategy for Sustainable Development should build upon and harmonise the various sectorial economic, social, and environmental policies and plans that are operating in the country" (Chapter 8.7), and which serve most frequently as umbrella documents for other sectorial strategies. First Ti«r Sustamabitliy Equilibrium »PKl> inti Second Tier Sustainability Equilibrium The World Commission on Culture and Development in its 1995 Report introduces the concept of culture in the sustainability paradigm and defines it as "the whole complex of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features that characterise a society or social group. It includes not only the arts and letters, but also modes of life, the fundamental rights of the human being, value systems, traditions and beliefs" (UNESCO, 1995:22). Followed by the 2004 document, Agenda 21 for Culture, in which culture is advocated as the fourth pillar of sustainability. The Australian researcher Jon Hawkes has formulated the need to structure a new "pillar" for sustainability. His document "The Fourth Pillar of Sustainability - Culture's Essential Role in Public Planning" from 2001 is recognised as a masterpiece for local policy making in many European cities (Pascual). The author claims that "a sustainable society depends upon a sustainable culture. If a society's culture disintegrates, so will everything else ... vitality is the single most important characteristic of a sustainable culture. Cultural action is required in order to lay the groundwork for a sustainable future ....the initial strategies that need to be implemented to successfully achieve sustainability must be cultural ones." (Hawkes, 2001:12). Culture merges with the sustainability paradigm as the fourth pillar for the idea of sustainability by developing the following topics, as suggested by Soini and Birkeland (2009): - heritage, - tourism, - availability of technology - arts - developing countries and indigenous cultures, - natural resource management, - urban design, housing and architecture and planning - values and value change Literature offers some new graphic expressions for sustainability (Picture 11) . Social Economic Slika 11: Štirje stebri model vzdržneg razvoja (Soini and Birkenland, 2009; Runnalls, 2007:10) Figure 11: Four pillars model of sustainability (Soini and Birkenland, 2009; Runnalls, 2007:10) Thorsby (2003) proposes six principles by which the sustainable management of cultural capital can be judged: material and non-material well-being; intergenerational equity; intragenerational equity; maintenance of diversity, precautionary principle and maintenance of cultural systems and recognition of interdependence. 2.7 Visual, ecological and ecologically-visual value of landscape 2.7.1 Evaluating landscape in the objective and subjective paradigm Twenty five years ago, in the introduction of Scenic Assessment: An Overview, Arthur et. al. (1977) claimed that "there is no longer a need for researchers and land managers to treat Refrescenic beauty assessment as virgin territory". Even half a century ago the field of researching visual landscapes started developing different models looking for objective measures of visual quality. Review papers by Arthur et al. (1977), Zube et al. (1982), Daniel and Vining (1983) and Lothian (1999) detected two models (subjectivist and objectivist) and a total of eight paradigms of researching the visual domain of landscape (expert, psychophysical, cognitive, experiential, ecological, formal aesthetic, psychological, phenomenological) (1)Expert models include: (a) Expert approach: evaluation of the visual landscape by experts and trained observers (e.g. landscape architects, geographers, spatial planners), characterised by the use of systematic descriptive inventories, visual management systems, etc. (b) National institutional landscape assessment (c) Ecological (d) Formal Aesthetic (2)Public preference models: (e) Psychophysical-approach: testing general public or selected populations' evaluations of landscape aesthetics by environmental psychologists, landscape architects, characterised by the use of photo questionnaires. In these studies the behavioural approach is the dominant methodology. (f) Psychological-approach: search for human meaning associated with landscape or landscape properties by environmental psychologists, characterised by mapping landscape experience. (g) Phenomenological-approach: research on subjective experience of the landscape (phenomenologists, psychologists, humanistic geographers), characterised by the interpretation of paintings, poetry, etc. These studies show a humanistic approach. In 1982 Zube et al. studied the published papers by reviewing twenty journals (USA, The Netherlands, England) and in the paper Landscape Perception: Research, Application and Theory presented the conclusions related to the classification of the research. Paper selection was based on the choice of those papers dealing with the following key words: scenic beauty, landscape quality, landscape character, aesthetic, visual quality and landscape values. A choice of sixty papers was made, which they distributed according to the following four paradigms: expert, psychophysical, cognitive and experiential. The authors offered the following clarifications for the paradigms: expert paradigm includes a qualitative evaluation of landscape on the basis of a skilled and educated observer assessing the environment in two directions - ecological and aesthetic; cognitive paradigm establishes a relationship between value attitudes and cognitive variables originating in the information from the environment; psychophysical paradigm searches for a link between physical phenomena in the environment and values related to environment and aesthetics; experiential paradigm requires a deeper understanding of individual experience in interaction with nature. There are two basic groups whose attitudes are investigated: experts and non-experts. The attitudes of the experts are investigated in the domain of visual quality and ecology, whereas that of the non-experts is linked in that time stretch with experimental psychology and research of individual experience and reaction to landscape. The research concentrates on describing "what" in landscape perception, and not on "how" and "why". Analysing the overlap of four paradigms the conclusion is reached that there are possibilities of a common framework for integrative landscape research. Daniel and Vining (1983, cited in Lothian, 1999:180) coined the term "landscape-assessment models" and defined five such models - ecological, formal aesthetic, psychophysical, psychological, and phenomenological. They described each and evaluated them on the basis of their reliability, sensitivity, validity, and utility. The Ecological Model: Experts assess the environmental qualities of the landscape including its natural amenities. Naturalism is an important dimension. Leopold's river landscape assessment (1969) is an example. The Formal Aesthetic Model: Analyses landscapes on the basis of their formal qualities - forms, lines, colours, textures and their interrelationships, plus elements such as variety, harmony, unity and contrast. An example is the US Forest Service's Visual Management System based on a system developed by R.B. Litton. The Psychophysical Model: Psychophysical methods aim at defining the functional relationships between physical stimuli and psychological responses. Mathematical equations are derived to describe these relationships. The Scenic Beauty Estimation method developed by Daniel and Boster (1976) is a psychophysical method. The Psychological Model: This approach examines the feelings and perceptions derived from landscapes - the emphasis is on the cognitive and affective reactions evoked by various landscapes. High quality landscapes may result in positive feelings of happiness, security and relaxation, while low quality landscapes may be associated with negative feelings such as a sense of stress or gloom. Studies by Rachel and Stephen Kaplan are examples of how the approach has been applied. The Phenomenological Model: This model emphasises the individual's subjective feelings, expectations, and interpretations with landscape perception regarded as an encounter between the individual and the environment. Works by Lowenthal and Lynch are examples of this approach (Lothian3). In the overview of approaches to researching landscape studies Lothian3 mentions two additional types defined by Brush (1976, cited in Ulrich, 1986) as preferential judgment and comparative appraisal. The former approach is judged to be an insufficiently clear concept of evaluation for establishing the standards of environmental quality. The latter one is designated by a value system because assessment is done in the context of some idea. This approach is judged by the authors as favourable due to the conclusions which are to be used in public decision-making. On his web domain, www.scenicsolutions.com.au, Lothian gives an overview of Typologies of landscape studies, from Penning-Rowsell (1973) to Dearden and Sadler (1989), and in 1999 publishes his overview of landscape researches in Landscape and Urban Planning in the context of a philosophical analysis of conceiving beauty. In the overview of the typologies he determined two basic approaches: the objectivist and the subjectivist (Table 8) and offered at the end of the article a suggestion on the integrative approach to outlining a landscape study. According to Lothian (1999), there is a subjectivist theory in the core of the objectivist paradigm and, vice versa, in the subjectivist paradigm we strive to measure some experience in an objective way. Preglednica 8: Značilnosti objektivističnih in subjektivističnih paradigm (Lothian, 1999:str 178). Table 8: Characteristics of objectivist and subjectivist paradigm (Lothian, 1999: p. 178)._ OBJECTIVIST OR landscape quality is an intrinsic physical attribute PHYSICAL assessed by applying criteria to landscape PARADIGM subjectivity presented as objectivity SUBJECTIVIST landscape quality derives from the eyes of beholder OR assessed using psychophysical methods PSYCHOLOGICAL objective evaluation of subjectivity PARADIGM 3 www.scenicsolutions.com.au/Typologies.html (pridobljeno 28-10-2010) The landscape has its objective nature which is of material structure and measurable, and at the same time it has its subjective nature within the value structure, which is both qualitative and aesthetic. The landscape as a sum of physical characteristics which are classified according to numerical scales is the basis of the objectivist paradigm. It is assumed that the category of quality for this paradigm has been derived according to clear, objective criteria for some decided indicators. In keeping with this is an objective assessment, too, when the psychophysical methods are used, which, on the other hand, use statistical instruments and mathematical models to classify the visual quality of the landscape. In that way we have quantificational methods to define the landscape that we find more beautiful than the others. Lothian (1999) based his analysis on a basic dichotomy between the source of value and a moral subject: whether the value of landscape is inherent or whether it is in the "eye of the beholder". By analysing both theoretical and review articles the author presents the basic differences in the subjectivist and the objectivist paradigm in Table 9. Preglednica 9: Fizične in prednostne paradigme (Lothian, www.scenicsolutions.com.au/Typologies.html (pridobljeno 28. 10. 2010) Table 9: Physical and Preference Paradigms (Lothian, www.scenicsolutions.com.au/Typologies.html (accessed 28-10-2010) Characteristic Physical Paradigm Preference Paradigm Basis Beauty an intrinsic quality of the landscape Beauty in eye of the beholder - human preferences Aims Seeks to understand landscape so that it can Seeks to understand human preferences be better protected and managed regarding landscapes to assist in their management Causes Silent on underlying reasons Seeks to explain why Methodology Empirical; applies approach Experimental; testing hypothesis Objectivity of Subjectivity presented as objective Objective evaluation of subjectivity approach Standardisatio Lack of standardisation - uses different and Standardised research instruments & n of tools unique methods and techniques. Generally statistical tools, although used in a variety of field-based. ways. Often based on surrogates [e.g. photographs] Site specificity Specific to site or area - generally cannot Not site or area dependent - in theory can transfer to other localities transfer to other localities Human Does not differentiate between different Examines effect on preferences of human specificity human observers, assumes uniformity differences - age, gender, socio-economic, education Value of Often of questionable worth and of short- Results in new knowledge which is of findings lived value lasting value Arthur et al. (1977) find that the disadvantage of the quantitative concept is in understatement and require a subjectivist extension and a desired research link - why do we find some landscapes more beautiful than the others. These researches comprise cognition, perception and preference. Swanwick (2009) mentions methodological dualisms popular even today, such as quantitative and qualitative, objective and subjective, expert and public and components or whole landscapes. He divides researches into three paradigms: formal aesthetic studies, behavioural studies and humanistic studies, where the first paradigm belongs to the objectivist, the third to the subjectivist paradigm whereas behavioural studies have elements of both. Contemporary trends in landscape research have been dealing with the integration of different disciplines and discourses (Nassauer 1995; Naveh 1995; Tress et al. 2006), a holistic approach (Palang 2000; Antrop 2000; Antrop and van Eetvelde 2000) and in the direction of spatial planning (Pogačnik 1979, 1990; Burmil et al.1999; Butula 2003, 2008; Golobič and Marušič, 2007, Penker 2009). Ryan (2012) advocates another direction of research on the manner of noting the scientific and expert findings on landscape in practice by using GIS tools. The methods of landscape research are inevitably different due to the specificity of each landscape (river, sea, mountain, wild, agricultural etc.) as well as due to the specificity of the landscape observer (age, culture, education, familiarity etc.). A consensus must be reached in ethical principles of landscape research of it being a disposable, endangered resource as well as a presenter of human culture. In the process we should observe the physical characteristics of a landscape through the unit of ecosystem and through landscape change, and the human component through the dependency of a cognitive image and the real image of a landscape in the scope of culture. 2.7.2 Aesthetics and Ecology or Aesthetics-Ecology There has been an attempt in scientific and expert works in the field of landscape research to bridge the chasm between the subjectivist and the objectivist paradigm in researching the relation between the ecological and the visual quality of landscape. Aesthetic experiences may lead people to change the landscape in ways that may or may not be consistent with its ecological function. There have been some opposing opinions on the relation between aesthetic and ecological parameters. In her paper entitled Culture and Changing Landscape Structures, Nassauer (1995) mentions the following hypotheses which establish a direct link between ecology and aesthetics The following broad principles are proposed: 1. Human landscape perception, cognition, and values directly affect the landscape and are affected by the landscape. 2. Cultural conventions powerfully influence the landscape pattern in both inhabited and apparently natural landscapes. 3. Cultural concepts of nature are different from scientific concepts of ecological function. 4. The appearance of landscapes communicates cultural values. Thereby she placed the relationship of aesthetics and ecology in the context of culture. Analyzing the third hypothesis on the difference between the cultural and ecological concept of landscape the author says: "What looks like beautiful nature may be a polluted former landfill, and what looks like a neglected abandoned lot may be a rich ecosystem."(Nassauer, 1995:234). It follows that the cultural concept of landscape is actually identified with landscape "as it should be" in the context of the visual. That idea is close to the "image of nature" by Buijs (2006, 2009). The following is said there regarding the cultural concept of landscape: "The cultural perception of nature is not wrong, it simply is."(Nassauer, 1995:234). Thus it is perceived as necessary in planning to regard the concept of cultural expectations. The author finishes her paper with an integral recommendation on subjects and objects of planning in order to satisfy both the cultural and ecological criteria in landscape planning: "Cultural knowledge, scientific knowledge and design innovation are all needed to accomplish cultural principles for landscape ecology." In 2001 Nassauer published an edition entitled Placing Nature: Aligning Aesthetic and Ecology. In the text there is a thesis that a "more beautiful" landscape has greater possibilities of remaining healthy and preserved than the one which people simply do not like. Moreover, she mentions the importance of a scale we use when observing some space and detects a conflict between the small and big landscape scale in an ecosystem and its processes. She sees human scale as a compromise, where there is a yard, a national park and river basin. A real integration of aesthetics and ecology is in the adjustment of policies and strategies, landscapes and technologies which should be designed to align aesthetic experiences that people already value with ecological health they do not yet know how to recognise while simultaneously new cultural expectations for ecological health is built. Sheppard (2001) suggests an integration of aesthetic and ecological elements by analyzing the new theoretical background by the construct visible stewardship as a supplement to scenic theory and aesthetic ecology theory by Gobster (1999) and Nassauer (1997). She expands the theory with an emotion dimension, introduces the notion of spiritual value and develops it on the example of forest area planning creating the context for integration in the idea of sustainability. Sheppard criticises and reevaluates the aesthetics-ecology hierarchy in which there is ecology at a higher range of values by posing the following questions: "What if the ecologists are proven wrong in the long term? Is it conceivable that the conventional scenic aesthetic may turn out to be just as ecologically beneficial (at least in a forested landscape setting), after so much energy has been expended on converting people's opinions? Secondly, the theory fails to take into account people's instinctive, genetically-programmed reactions."(Sheppard, 2001:158). Indeed, how comprehensively do ecologists see the mechanism of nature and the ability of the mechanism to govern its equilibrium? Are the scopes observed by ecologists indeed units of the ecosystem? By reassessing the subjective principles of the objectivist paradigm we reassess its very foundation. On the basis of the discussion above, Sheppard poses a new theory: 'What we can call a theory of visible stewardship adds a key missing ingredient to the ecological aesthetic for working (human-modified) landscapes: that, other things being equal, we find aesthetic those things that clearly show people's care for and attachment to a particular landscape; in other words, that we like man-modified landscapes clearly demonstrate respect for nature in a certain place and context. This theory emphasises not whether the landscape looks natural, or orderly, or culturally appropriate, or controlled, so much as whether it looks as though real individuals care for the land or place: people who are linked to it, rooted in it, invested in it, working in it in a respectful, symbiotic, and continuously vigilant manner, perhaps even from generation to generation."(Sheppard, 2001:159). The idea of "visible stewardship" is followed by Nassauer (1997) with the construct cues to care and vivid care and she places the value attachment to the place (environment) in a heterarchy with aesthetic and ecological values. In their empirical research Fry et al. (2009) looked for a common ground of the visual and ecological through the concepts of Stewardship, Coherence, Disturbance, Historicity, Visual Scale, Imageability, Complexity, Naturalness and Ephemera, the concepts from the psychophysical paradigm of a great number of authors (see Fry et al., 2009). A common ground was looked for in a hierarchical frame for Dimensions, Landscape attributes and Indicators (Figure 12). Slika 12: Shema konceptualnega skupnega vizualnega in ekološkega področja (Fry et al. 2009: str. 934). Figure 12: The schema of a conceptual common ground between the visual and ecological (Fry et al. 2009: p.934). The research resulted in fifteen concepts of the conceptual common ground, the visual and ecological aspect. Table 10 provides an overview of the concepts. Preglednica 10: Povzetek vizualne in ekološke vsebine konceptov, ki se nanašajo na krajinsko strukturo (Fry et al. 2009:str. 942) Table 10: Summary of the visual and ecological content of concepts related to landscape structure. (Fry et al. 2009:p. 942) Visual aspect Conceptual common ground Ecological aspect Stewardship Order and care Coherence Unity/harmony Holistic Balance and proportion Disturbance Lack of contextual fit Scale Visibility Complexity Diversity of elements Naturalness Perceived naturalness Historicity Historical continuity Historical richness Ephemera Imageability Sense of place Genius loci Uniqueness/distinctiveness Active and careful management Upkeep Land cover suitability Intactness of vegetation Fragmentation Lack of coherence Openness Complexity of shapes Pattern Diversity of land cover Intactness Wilderness Natural Continuity Seasonality, temporal and cyclical change Ecosystem management Habitat management Coherence Connectedness Disturbance Lack of ecological integrity Scale Distance Isolation Complexity Habitat heterogeneity Naturalness Ecological naturalness Continuity Ecological continuity Ephemera Key ecological structures Source patches Key patches Key spatial elements It is visible from this shared platform that the authors extricated a series of concepts which support Sheppard's (2001) and Nassauer's (2001) theoretical foundation on common aesthetic and ecology values of active and careful management of the environment which overlaps in the concept of naturalness with the concept of the wild and nature and in the concept of scale with the concept of openness. In the 2007 paper The Shared Landscape: what does aesthetics have to do with ecology? A group of authors (Gobster, Nassauer, Daniel, Fry) suggests the following theoretical platform: • landscape aesthetics provide critical linkage between humans and ecological process, • the most important emotional pleasure has a fundamental influence on our response to the stimuli • aesthetic experience can drive landscape change • understanding how people perceive and experience the beauty of all landscapes is central to achieving public support, especially when aesthetic preferences and ecological goals are not aligned • people tend to interpret their aesthetic experience of landscape as providing information about its ecological quality • landscape planning, design and managment are key to the cultural sustainability of vital ecosystem functions • aesthetic experiences are fundamentally triggered by affective (emotion-based) processes The authors formed the model which puts the landscape pattern in interaction with situational context and has as a principle goal the ecological-aesthetic construct to "align ecological goals with aesthetic experiences to achieve culturally and ecologically sustainable landscapes" (Gobster et al., 2007:970). The authors assume that there are two possible directions - intervention: by planning (shaping) and education, i.e. knowledge transfer. 2.7.3 Values and landscape research What is the role of values in the context of landscape research? As it was already mentioned in the chapter on values, they are stable ideas, and are expressed through judgment, preference and choice (Williams in Rokeach, 2000) influencing people 's action. Values form the frame through which we influence the environment and which we use to create an image of landscape according to which we assess it (culture as reality and culture as an idea). Research from the end of the last century rarely included a wider discourse of value judgments and they dealt with the evaluation of perception, cognition, and evaluation only at the level of the observed environment in field research. The reason for excluding a great number of value and landscape research studies is in the complexity of the research on value systems related to an observed object in relationship to the research of the general value system in life (Buchecker et al., 2009). The authors mention the possibility of an indirect research of correlations between value orientations, behaviour, preferences and attitudes. "Attitude" is defined by a mental stance, while "preference" means liking one area of land or landscape better than another. "Perception" includes sensual responses to landscapes and to it attached meaning and value" (Swanwick, 2009). Slika 13: Statični in dinamični model interakcije družbe in krajine (Buchecker et. al, 2003:str.30;31). Figure 13: A static model of the society-landscape interaction (Buchecker et. al, 2003: p.30-31). Empirical research on the wetland landscape confirmed the hypothesis that "...cultural concepts of nature are different from scientific concepts of ecological function" (Nassauer, 2004). The author gives an opinion that we shape landscape according to the political system we are in, the economic management of land and our aesthetic preferences, social conventions and all that is comprised under the label of culture, but that culture at the same time filters the perception of landscape (Nassauer 2004). This is in line with the social and individual level of values and with Parsons' action theory of choice. To which scale should a change of landscape be observed? Palang (2000) suggests the regional level as a common level of a cultural group sharing the regional and sectoral policies as instruments of landscape change and presupposes a cyclic relationship of social cultural values and intrinsic landscape values. The transfer of values from landscape to the human is presented in Buchecker et al. (2003) with a static and a dynamic model (Figure 13), and Palang sets a dynamic model at a regional level (Figure 14). Slika 14: Cikel sprememb krajine na regionalni ravni (Palang, 2000:str 86). Figure 14: The cycle of landscape change at the regional level (Palang, 2000: p. 86). 2.7.4 An overview of graphic representations of the human - landscape interaction A multidisciplinary approach to landscape in the narrower scope of aesthetic landscape produced a series of graphical representations of the interaction between human and landscape phenomena in the related scientific literature (Zube et al., 1982, Zube and Sell, 1987; Tress and Tress, 2001 and Gobster et al. 2007). The interaction is represented as dynamic and cyclic and the complexity of the relationship is visible in the complexity of the graphic representations below. The representations vary according to the direction of influence, interactivity, the number of concepts used to depict the process and according to the depicting of levels at which the process takes place. Zube et al. (1982) presented a human-landscape dichotomy (Figure 15) and separated the concepts of interaction and outcomes. They mention the level of individual (person) and the level of social context (group). Zube and Sell (1986, cited in Zube 1987) present the interaction in Figure 16 with a smaller scope of concepts. They put concepts in the relation, and landscape and individual are in the basis of the interaction. The authors presuppose a cyclic transfer of influences in smaller and larger cyclic transactions. The largest cycle moves from landscape to response, whereas the smaller ones connect the concepts of information, experience, perception, personal utility function, sociocultural context. Outputs of landscape are information and experience which shape perception. This schema presents the shaping of an individual response influenced by the sociocultural context on one and the personal utility function on the other side. HUMAN LANDSCAPE Expectations Expierences Motivation Social Context Education Culture Information Personality Physical Elements Compositional Constructs Locational Context Naturalism Man-made features Gestalt Smells Sounds People INTERACTION person-person- landscape person-group-landscape person-landscape active passive perposful accidental unique habitual Information Satisfaction Wellbeing Physical Activity Stimulation Refuge I OUTCOME Opportunity Values Predictive Equations Salicat Landscape Elements Habitual Behaviour Fear Slika 15: Proces krajinske percepcije (interakcija) (Zube et. al, 1982:str 24). Figure 15: Landscape perception (interaction) process (Zube et. al, 1982: p. 24). Tress and Tress (2001) in Figure 17 used the term people and introduce in the graphic representation a dimension of time. The landscape is defined in five dimensions: spatial entity, mental entity, temporal dimensions, nexus of nature and culture and as a complex system. They design the image as a three dimensional display of relationships where there are two parallel platforms of culture and nature, and in the field of landscape, the dynamic happens between geo-, bio- and noosphere. Gobster et.al (2007) offer some wider constructs in Figure 18, so that at one pole they mention environmental phenomena which have their lower level expressed as landscape patterns, and the other pole contains human phenomena with perceptual processes and affective reactions at the lower level. The interaction is analysed through a one directional influence from the human to the environmental via actions that affect landscapes, and the direction from environmental to human through aesthetic experiences. Slika 16: Transakcijski model odnosov človek-okolje, (Zube, 1987:str 40). Figure 16: A transactional model of human-landscape relationships, (Zube, 1987: p. 40). Slika 17: Model odnosa človek-okolje, (Tress in Tress, 2001:str 151). Figure 17: The people-landscape interaction model, (Tress and Tress, 2001: p. 151). Environmental Human phenomena Slika 18: Model interakcije okolje-človek v okolju (Gobster et al., 2007:str 963). Figure 18: A model of environmental-human interaction in landscape (Gobster et al., 2007:p 963). 2.8 Human and landscape dependence on perception and preference The psychology of perception refers to two different processes: (1) the basically unconscious processing of sensory information, and (2) the more or less conscious experience of analysing and interpreting this information (Jacobs, 2006). Preference for a specific landscape has been defined by a series of landscape research reports in which authors looked for the elements which had shaped positive preference. Basic actors of space changes were defined by the European Landscape Convention (Council of Europe, 2000) as action and interaction between human perceptions vs. the perceived area. Although "perceived by people" refers to a holistic experience using all the senses, very often it is reduced to the visual aspects. Research in the domain of interaction has dealt with perception, preference and studied the connection with various input data. Research has shown that there is no unique indicator that demographic factors influence attitudes and preference, but that there is a scientific consensus that some landscapes are preferable to others. This research deals with the correlation of preference with the subject's (respondent's) characteristics; the object's (researched landscape) characteristics or they combine and link those dimensions. Buijs (2004, 2006, 2009) dealt in his research with the part of the relationship related to unconscious sensory information (Jacobs, 2006) and she defined it with the concept of the "image of nature". The author says that people believe that a yard, a park, a field, a forest, or a city should look a certain way without questioning the necessity of that appearance. Slika 19: Dinamično preoblikovanje podobe narave in kraj ine (Buijs, 2004:str 378). Figure 19: Dynamic transformation of images of nature and landscape (Buijs, 2004: p. 378). In his research Buijs (2009) compares different images of nature between nations (the Danes and the French) and concludes that they are different and that they influence environmental behaviour and landscape appearance. The path of transformation for images of nature and the influences for its forming is presented in the diagram in Figure 19. 2.8.1 Respondent group coherence Research classified respondents in different ways, according to sociodemogaphic interests or some other characteristics. The basic distribution of respondents is into expert and non-expert groups. But literature does not recognise an expert group as coherent. Not all experts evaluate the landscape with the same values and in the same way. Porteous (1996) offers a division of expert groups involved in landscape research according to the following two criteria: relevance and rigor. The groups are represented by humanists, experimentalists, activists and planners. Their relationship toward the criteria is shown in the diagram in Figure 20. 9 ■ PLANNERS A HUMANISTS*-► EXPERIMENTALISTS -Rigour Slika 20: Oblikovanje okoljskih estetik (Porteous, 1996: str 14). Figure 20: Structuring environmental aesthetics (Porteous, 1996: p. 14). Most frequently, research observed different sociodemographic characteristics of respondents as well as some specific characteristics related to the observed spatial problem. Familiarity with the scene and the length and character of residence in the space for which the preference was researched have appeared as external influential variables. The relationship toward nature in childhood has been equally important. Most of the research did not find differences in gender distribution. 2.8.2 Attachment to the river On the basis of the results, the framework of the attachment to the river was established by Ryan (1987), Buchecker and Junker (2008) and Buijs (2009). Their results show a different attitude toward river and river area restoration considering the situational coherence and the life experience of the observed respondents. Attachment to the river was measured by four questions in order to detect the respondent's attitude to the river area. The first piece of information represents the identification of the river last visited, with an aim of determining the sample of those who were in touch with the observed river bodies (the Drava and Mura). The second two questions relate to the frequency of the respondent's visits to the river and the identification of the manner of spending time at the river. The last question is of an open type and it investigated the respondents' memory regarding their last visit. The answers were coded in four groups after the first review of the concepts. The groups are: nature, water, action and emotion. peculiar Slika 21: Dvodimenzionalni model prednosti krajine (Kaur et al., 2004:str 111). Figure 21: Two-dimensional model of landscape preference (Kaur et al., 2004:p 111). 2.8.3 Familiarity Swanwick (2009) mentions the importance of familiarity with the space. The local population sees "more" but evaluate changes by projecting influences on everyday life. In his research on river landscape preferences Ryan (1998) found the correlation with land use and length of residence. The first variable is reflected in the following results: "Farmers preferred farm field scenes as equally as river scenes. In contrast to the non-farmers, they also indicated a far higher likelihood of taking visitors to see the rural countryside. Residential owners liked the scenes of the river photo category significantly more and would miss the presence of the nearby river or other water features more than the farm. As in the river landscape, demographic differences in perceptions of the woods further validates the notion that those moving to rural areas are attracted to the natural amenities. The length of residence had a strong, significant influence on how much value participants placed on the natural areas along the river, such as woods, wildlife, and quiet location. Newer residents felt that these characteristics of riverfront land were much more valuable than did the long-time residents. This supports the notion that long-time residents may appreciate developed areas equally as much as natural areas, while newcomers are more biased towards natural areas. Long-time residents (over 25 years) had a higher relative preference for the domestic landscape in the backyard photo than those in the short and mid-ranges of residency. One of the major differences appears to be that farmers and longtime residents appreciate the more domesticated farm and developed areas while new residents and non-farmers are attracted to the more natural landscapes of the river and woods (Ryan, 1998). The results showing different preferences of respondents of different origin were acquired by Buijs (2009) who compared a group of immigrants and local population and Zube and Pitt (1981) who compare Anglo-Americans, Afro-Americans and Latino-Americans. The results indicate a similar distribution where Anglo-Americans are more inclined toward a more natural and the others to a more developed environment. Immigrants also expressed a weaker support to environment protection. Familiarity is quoted by other authors as well, e.g. Kaur et al., (2004) and Daearden (1989) who terms this very dimension as decisive at the level of Region Biome (see Figure 22). Slika 22: Oblikovanje okoljskih estetik (Porteous, 1996: str 14). Figure 22: A nested hierarchy of landscape preferences (Porteous, 1996: pp. 124). 2.8.4 Age Swanwick (2009) provides results which are in favour of the fact that attitudes are formed by childhood experience, and is demonstrated as a greater tendency for spending time in nature (Thompson et.al, 2007 in Swanwick, 2009). Although it is mentioned that growing up in a rural area influences the attitude on responsibility for nature protection, there are some contradictory results as well (Tress and Tress, 2003). The results of the research conducted in the UK (Swanwick, 2009) showed that the population aged 45 to 65 spends time in nature more frequently than in other activities than those younger than 45 (visiting historical places, gardens etc.). Inglehart (1997) demonstrated that older people in much of the world give higher priority to materialist vs. post-materialist values than younger people. People form values in adolescence that change little thereafter. The more economic and physical insecurity the adolescents experience, the more important materialist values are to them throughout their lives. The lower priority on materialist values in younger cohorts is due to the increasing prosperity and security many nations have enjoyed during most of the past 50 years. 2.8.5 Place of residence Some research has shown the differences in preferences for respondents with a different place of residence (Junker and Buchecker, 2008) whereas Tress and Tress (2001) differentiated respondents according to the distance of residence into local population, closer regional and distant regional population. The results showed considerable differences in preferring desired development scenarios. Junker and Buchecker (2008) show the attitude, too, that the results shown can be generalised to Switzerland and even to the West European population, but not to cultures and nations with different value systems related to nature4. Sevenant and Antrop (2010) observed the following variables for respondents' demographic indicators: gender, education, place of residence in the childhood, place of current residence. The results showed that gender does not influence the results significantly, that education influences the results but cannot be separated in any way. The data on the place where the respondents spent their childhood influences the result in the way that the respondents who lived during their childhood in an open landscape show more positive attitudes to environment protection than those who lived in the centre of a settlement. This is in line with Inglehart's (1997) theory on cohort values according to which values are shaped during childhood and so they become less flexible and variable after that. There are some contradictory results according to which the NEP result (Hawcroft and Milfont, 2010) is bigger for respondents who lived in the town centre than for respondents form the village centre. It is obvious that measuring instruments and sample character influence the results to a high degree as well as the correlation with the sociodemographic characteristics of respondents. The concept of attachment also appears as a variable in several research studies (Buijs, Buchecker et al.). The results are also contradictory in interpreting the dependency of the variable for scenic beauty when farmers project agricultural plots into beauty whereas population in urban centres consider that beauty is Arcadian nature without any human touch, as shown in Ryan (1998), in his study of preferences for riverine landscapes. Kaplan and Herbert (1987) studied the differences between American and Australian students in perception and preference. Differences were observed in both cases with a greater difference in perception. 4 They consider that to be the Easterneuropean area for which they assume a lower level of awareness of environmetal problems. 2.8.6 Education Kaplan and Kaplan (1989) established that the difference between preference to natural and artificial landscape depended on belonging to a particular social group and the level of education. Ulrich (1983) found a positive correlation with age and a negative correlation with education. In Table 11, we summarised the impact of socio-demographic variables on the perception of scenic beauty. Preglednica 11: Vpliv socio-demografskih spremenljivk na percepcijo lepote krajin. Table 11: The impact of socio-demographic variables on the perception of scenic beauty. Decreasing Increasing Neutral _Scenic beauty_Scenic beauty_ + + + + + + + + + + + Age/ Older Gender Education/ Higher Social status/ Higher Place of living/ Attached to nature Place of Childhood living/ Attached to nature Attachment/ (e.g. Farmers, long time inhabitants) Attachment/ (e.g. non-farmers, new inhabitants, experts) 2.9 Landscape characteristics and preference Ulrich (1986) defines the following six dimensions of positive influence on preference: • complexity, or the number of independently perceived elements in the scene to be moderate to high • the complexity is structured to establish a focal point, and other order or patterning is also present • there is a moderate to high level of depth that is clearly defined • the ground surface has even or uniform length textures that are relatively smooth, and the observer judges that the surface is favourable to movement • a deflected or curving sightline is present, conveying a sense that new landscape information lies immediately beyond the observer's visual bounds • judged threat is negligible or absent. Kaplan et al. (1989) defined in four categories the dimensions relevant for preference and tested them empirically (Table 12). The results of regression analysis showed that the variable perceptual domain is the strongest predictor, whereas physical domain did not show any relevant influence on preference. From the set of twenty dimensions the authors extracted the following dimensions as influential for landscape preference: mystery and smoothness as positive variables and weedy field, scrubland and openness as negative variables for landscape preference. Preglednica 12: Okoljska prednost: primerjava štirih področij kazalcev (Kaplan, Kaplan, Brown, 1989:str 524). Table 12: Environmental preference: A Comparison Of Four Domains Of Predictors (Kaplan, Kaplan, Brown, 1989:p 524). LANDCOVER INFORMATIONAL PERCEPTUAL PHYSICAL agriculture coherence openness slope/relief cut grassland weedy field complexity smoothness edge contrast scrubland legibility locomotion spatial diversity forests mystery naturalism wood lawn compatibility height contrast variety Chenoweth and Gobster (1990) used a specific method of decoding respondents' diaries to extract the following objects with respective ratios in their observations: Vegetation (21%): e. g., flowers, single trees, forest, marsh, prairie Water (32%): e.g., lakes, rivers, ponds, ocean Wildlife (18%): e.g., birds, pets, deer, other Artifacts andpeople (19%): e.g., buildings (historic, modern, vernacular), people, various land uses Sensations (12%): e.g., colors, sounds, smells, motion Ephemerals (30%): e.g., changing of seasons, clouds, sunsets, weather, precipitation Compositions (30%): natural and built landscapes where the stated emphasis was on the whole scene rather than on specific objects. Except for the above mentioned dimensions used in preference research, researchers used different sets of dimensions synthesised in Table 13 below. Preglednica 13: Dimenzije krajine kot kazalci lepote. Table 13: Dimensions of landscape as predictors of scenic beauty. Author Year Dimensions Herzog 1985 Spaciousness, Texture, Coherence, Complexity, Mystery, Identifiability Pogačnik 1987 Spaciousness, Identifiability, Color, Locomotion and Prelovšek Chenoweth 1990 Vegetation, Water, Wildlife, Artifacts And People, Sensations, and Gosbster Ephemerals, Compositions continues continues Hunziker 1995 Tradition, Nature Conservation, Profit And Emotion Kaplan 1995 Mystery, Coherence, Complexity, Legibility Van den 1998 Cultivatedness, Roughness, Wetness, Biodiversity, Complexity, Coherence, Berg et al. Mystery Bralic 1999 Diversity- Heterogeneousness, Particularity -Rarity- Uniqueness , Attractiveness- Picturesqueness, Typical- Characteristic Palang 2000 Vertical Coherence Horizontal Coherence Functional Horizontal Coherence Visual-Spatial Diversity Land Use Types Diversity No. Of Elements Continuity Nasar 2008 Identifiability, Complexity, Mystery And Coherence, Spaciousness, Texture Sevenant 2008 Preservation, Historicity, Coherence, Complexity and Antrop Buijs 2009 Vegetation, Landscape Diversity, Naturalness, Water Presence, Internal Landscape Cohesion Ode et al 2009 Coherence, Stewardship, Naturalness and Disturbance Ode et al. (2009) combined the research connected both to the subject and the object and researched landscape preference in relation to various sociodemographic factors and to three indicators of perceived naturalness. The theoretical framework comprised four dimensions according to which three indicators were set: level of succession, number of woodland patches and shape index of edges. The results showed that sociodemographic factors influence preference to a lesser degree than naturalness indicators. Among sociodemographic indicators it was gender and profession and country as factors which showed some indicative influence on the observed. The study showed a strong relationship with preference for both the level of succession and number of woodland patches, and a weaker relationship with shape index of edges. Palmer and Hoffman (2001) offered a critique of research in the aesthetic dimension of landscape by checking the two components: (1) the degree of similarity among evaluators (reliability) and (2) the equivalence of judgments made from photographs and in the field (validity). They classified all research according to the number of locations, the place of research, the type of landscape, the medium used in research, research design and the respondents' sample. The results showed a relative inconsistency in assessment in the case of individual or group assessment and in the case of different information on the validity of the photograph as a presenter of landscape. The authors recommend three things for future landscape assessment research in order to acquire relevant and reliable results: to establish the reliability of professional ratings; to establish the validity of each landscape representation and to establish record of preparing valid visual simulation (Palmer and Hoffman, 2001). Jacobs and Buijs (2010) adopted a different approach to reveal various dimensions of sense of place. Instead of a theoretically determined categorisation, they formulated dimensions on the basis of an open, in-depth account of people's place meanings as elicited in two studies. Five categories of abstract place meanings emerged from the data-driven analysis: beauty (place meanings related to aesthetic judgments), functionality (place meanings that express ways of using the landscape), attachment (place meanings that convey belonging relations between subjects and the place), biodiversity (place meanings pertaining to species and nature), and risk (place meanings that articulate worries about current or expected problems). 2.10 Conclusion of the chapter on visual and ecological dimensions in landscape research From the 60's in the 20th century until today the topic of landscape research has represented a heterogeneous platform which offers discussions about research on biotic characteristics of landscape, the relationship between human and landscape, as well as about the research method itself. There are also analyses and overviews of the conducted and published studies and analyses of the new requirements in future research. It has been established that the visual domain of landscape is a domain that is favourable to communication between the experts and the public, as well as to defining its cultural variable. There is a clear trend toward the necessity of a comprehensive landscape research and of including a new paradigm of sustainability, as well as toward the question of how to introduce the results into practice. In addition to the traditional social and economic dimensions, landscape planners are now asked to integrate territorial policy agendas for environmental sustainability and cultural identity as well (Friedmann et al., 2004). 2.11 The place of water landscapes in landscape research A river area comprises the space of a river as a water body and the space along the river. A diversity in defining river landscape can be found in the complexity of its content which anticipates a discourse derived from the plant, animal and human habitats as well as from numerous disciplines dealing with the river course and the area around it. Starting with a narrower focus of a water body itself, we come across the division (Marcus et al., 2009, cited in Butula, 2003) into (1) quantitative models such as the concept of continuity of the river flow or the concept of a series of discontinued units, or (2) quantitative models relying on the measuring of elements such as the speed of flow etc. The concept of the ecosystem which was created at the beginning of the 20th century (Tansley, 1935) is suitable for an integral conception of river and its space and it broadens the conception to mutual linking of elements so that a river area is observed in the context of landscape. The new sustainability paradigm expanded the concept of modern development to protection discourse and to the relation between the three pillars of economy, environment and society with the extensions to culture. In their review of trends in European landscapes Vos and Mekees (1999) provide the instructions on sustainable future and separate water landscapes from the typology of natural phenomena and distinguish the recommendations of high priority as two separate items: ecological and hydrological research and research into water usage in the light of sustainable spatial planning. Sustainability presupposes in its basic form the following pillars: ecological, social and economic and in a broader perspective the cultural. Nassauer (2004) claims that "cultural sustainability can be achieved only by the landscape people are proud of or they love" and thus imposes culture into the heterarchy with other pillars. The role of water has been changing over time, from the role it had in the Mesopotamian and Egyptian gardens until modern recognition of water in a landscape as a distinguished, relevant factor. Water has been observed in human life with its religious, spiritual and mythological meanings until the meanings imparted to it today by modern technical and scientific findings - (energetic, social, cultural meaning etc.). Burmil et.al. (1999) mention the water discourse through the following prisms: a bio-psychological perspective of water as a primary and secondary element of landscape); a philosophical and spiritual perspective (images and symbols connected to water); water in the environment (a spirit of the place near water); water in the shaping of landscape (formal horticultural shaping, water and landscape aesthetics); human perception and attitudes (on perception, recreation by the water); legal and technical attitudes (acts and norms). Kuiper (1998) thinks that river landscape, more than other types of landscapes represents a link between the everyday rhythm and the continuous flow of the river, man and nature, and past and present. In the middle of the 19th century managing river flow was marked by a technological approach which focused on defence against floods and a maximal control by using technical measures. The revolution happened in the 70's when care for nature and landscape quality was born (extending/spreading of the moral object). In the context of landscape value research reported in the chapters above, both river area, as well as a general concept of landscape, have been observed through objectivistic and subjectivist research and more recently with an intention of a holistic, integral approach to water landscape in ecological-visual research. The objectivist ecological paradigm relies on the 2000/60/EC Water Framework Directive by the European Parliament and of the Council which establishes the framework for acting of the European Union in the field of water policy. The Water Framework Directive (hereafter WFD) was adopted on 23 October 2000. The Water Framework Directive (WFD) is the most substantial piece of EC water legislation to date and is designed to improve and integrate the way water bodies are managed throughout Europe. The WFD provides a comprehensive view of aquatic ecosystems and water management with the overall objective to achieve a good status in all water bodies by 2015. It deals likewise with surface water and groundwater, whereas surface waters comprise rivers and lakes (inland waters) as well as coastal and transitional (e.g. estuaries) waters. Being a "framework", the Directive focuses on establishing the right conditions to encourage efficient and effective water protection at local level, by providing a common approach and common objectives. However, the mechanisms and specific measures required to achieve a "good status" are left to each EU member state and will be within the responsibility of competent authorities appointed on a national level. The WFD is based on five key principles: 1. It is holistic: the whole water system is considered in a coordinated way, where synergies are identified and duplicates avoided. The water system comprises groundwater, surface water and marine water 2. It applies an integrated approach: links to other policies, such as agriculture and land use planning are identified 3. It is transparent: public participation and consultation is a central issue. 4. It follows economic principles: cost-effectiveness of measures and efficient water use through proper pricing policies are key issues. 5. It is ecological: the overall target is to reach the good status of a water body. This includes the good ecological status which is assessed by comprehensive biological monitoring. (Quevauvillerimas, 2007) The WFD foresees a clear roadmap for achieving the good status in all water bodies. Starting with a characterisation of surface waters and groundwater systems and finally resulting in a comprehensive river basin management plan that comprises a detailed course of action for achieving the good status. The novelty introduced by the WFD was the fact that water management is not anymore within the administrative borders but within the river basin as a hydrological unit. In addition, the criterion of "good status" is clearly described and measurable. An economic price for water distribution and the treatment for polluted waters has been established, and finally, the public has been involved in the creation of management plans. In the past the focus of those plans was on a few hazardous substances, water quality in households, visible pollutions like foaming and massive death of fish. Over time the focus has shifted to water shortage and the need to use water more efficiently, then to river renaturation and maintenance of the ecosystem in the river area and to treat pollution on a much smaller scale, i.e. to monitor the status of waters at a microbiological level. The member states have a deadline to implement this Directive by the year 2015. All ecological river paradigms have been marked by this Directive which has become the starting point for the lower levels due to its dimensionality. In the review article "The human role in changing river channels," Gregory (2006) offers an overview and classification of human impact on the river flow. He defines five types of impact: dams, channelization, channel modification, river diversion and water extraction. The role of geomorphologists, physical geographers or environmental scientists is seen in their participation in a multidisciplinary team as members who have the advantage of knowledge of the evolution of river channel systems and river landscapes. Design is seen as a possible context of implementing geomorphological information into existing practices of river management. The paper also mentions the importance of cultural perception of river corridors and suggests a research set of cultural geomorphology. Fryirs and Brierly (2008) studied models for restoration of river channels. Among other things, they offered a conceptual view of changing chanels (see Figure 23). Slika 23: Scenariji za obnovitev reke, ki se temeljijo na vrsti degradacije in odgovor obnovitve (Fryirs and Brierly , 2008: str 75). Figure 23: Scenarios for river recovery based on type of degradation and recovery response (Fryirs and Brierly 2008: p 75). Since the late 1960's landscape preference research results presented water as a strong positive contributor to perceived landscape beauty (Shafer et. al, 1969; Palmer and Zube, 1976; Zube et al., 1982; Kaplan and Kaplan, 1982; Ulrich, 1983, Herzog, 1985; Parsons and Daniel, 1991; Yang and Brown, 1992; Nassauer 1995; Ryan, 1998; Buchecker and Juncker, 2008; Buijs, 2009). All waterscapes are not preferred to the same degree. In line with this it is the variable of the openness of a water body which affects the preference in the sense that a lake has an advantage to a river scene, which has an advantage to swamp (Ellsworth, 1982 cited by Ryan, 1998; Herzog, 1985). Fry et al. (2009) defined in their research the common ground between the visual and the ecological, water as a common theme in the field of imageability and key ecological structures. In the dimension of vividness, the concept of water is a landscape attribute, and on the level of an indicator there are definitions of the presence of water and of moving water. Nassauer (2004) reached the same decision in her research of wetlands, where the open swamp water was assessed as more preferable. Herzog (1985) found mountain riverine landscapes as the most preferred and swampy areas as the least preferred water phenomena. He studied four categories of waterscapes: (1) mountain waters, (2) wetlands, (3) rivers and (4) lakes. He also studied the movement of water as a variable for preference and the results showed that people prefer an open waterscape, waterfalls and running waters and disliked stagnant water. Brown and Daniel (1991) examined the relationship between flow quantity and scenic beauty and found out that preference increases to the specific point and after that decreases as flow continues to increase. Riparian vegetation is also defined as a variable for prediction of preference (Mosley 1989, cited in Le Lay, 2008) and is increased by an open forest, with a mixture of grass and plants. Reflection is also defined as an increasing element for perceiving waterscape naturalness (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989). Le Lay et al. (2008) conducted a cross cultural research on perception on in-channel wood in riverine landscapes. The results show different attitudes to riverine landscapes and perception of in-channel wood between two groups. Students from China, India and Russia do not perceive wood as a positive scenic issue and represent the "against nature" group while those from Germany, Sweden and Oregon represent the environmentally sensitive students. The authors explained these results to be associated with the differences in decision-making philosophy, in land-use contexts, and in environmental education. The variability in attitudes towards riverine landscapes is seen by the authors as a difficulty of the sustainable development concept at a global scale and propose to local residents to be more involved in watercourse management. Kaltenborg and Bjerke (2002) established a positive correlation of ecocentric environmental orientation and a preference for wild lands with water and for cultural landscapes, while the anthropocentric value orientation correlated positively with preference for farm environments. Buijs (2009) compared the dimensions of preference on the basis of changes in the same waterscape (Table 14). He compared the perception of scenic beauty before and after river restoration and the influence of the dimensions on the increase in scenic beauty. Results separate the following dimensions as positive, neutral and negative in the evaluation: Preglednica 14: Vrednotenje javne podpore projekta Prostor za reke (Buijs, 2009: str 2684) Table 14: Evaluation of public support for Room for the River measures (Buijs, 2009: p. 2684) EFFECT RIVER RESTORATION Coherent area STRONGLY POSITIVE Diversity of landscape Attractive water Unspoilt Impressive POSITIVE Tidy and well-groomed Dynamic Visibility of river NEUTRAL Many different species of animals and plants Grand views Vegetation Seasonal variation Many rare species Peace and quietness NEGATIVE Prior results of river area research indicate a special "sensibility" of these natural phenomena, their specific multi-disciplinary and cross-cultural scope and the need to draw attention to them in the field of visual domain. In accordance with this, Decamps (2001) points out the importance of ecological and cultural sustainability of river areas, whereas Buchecker and Junker (2008), search for the link between the visual and the ecological dimension for river areas. 2.11.1 Planning of the river- and cross-border river area Planning of river area anticipates different professions: spatial planners, landscape architects, economy subjects, farmers, inhabitants, tourists, energetic specialists, environment protectors and others. Spatial planning as an interdisciplinary profession whose objective is shaping, using and managing of planned space comprises all stakeholders (Marinovic-Uzelac, 2003). In many countries planning is a top-down process. In the international field interactive planning is mainly used in land consolidation and Natura 2000 projects. The connection between river basin planning from the hydrological and spatial planning discourse has become more dynamic in recent decades. In the integrated European space the WFD (2000) has received its cross-border scope with the promotion of river basins (Molle, 2009), whereas the European area is treated in the field of spatial planning as unique in the form of strategic recommendations (ESDP, 1999) and financial programs (INTERREG). In EU member states, water resources management is practiced at the basin level pursuant to the WFD - River Basin Management Plans (RBMPs) being the main tools. Preglednica 15: Ključni vidiki in razlike med vodami 20. in 21. stoletja (Van den Brugge et.al, 2005:str169). Table 15: Key aspects and differences between water management style of the 20th and the 21st century (Van den Brugge et al., 2005:p 169). Water management style Water management style the 20th century the 21st century Command and control Prevention and anticipation Focus on solutions Focus on design Monistic Pluralistic Planning approach Process approach Technocratic Societal Reactive Anticipative and adaptive Sectoral water policy Integral spatial policy Pumping, dikes, drainage Retention, natural storage Rapid outflow of water Retaining location specific water Hierarchical and closed Participatory and interactive The connection between water management and spatial planning was the object of study of several authors (Moss, 2004; Van der Brugge, 2005; Wiering and Immink, 2006) and lately of several projects under different EU Funds (LIFE, INTERREG, IPA). Wiering and Immink (2006) in Table 15 offer an analysis of two systems of planning (spatial and fluvial) on the basis of overview of the traditional approach to spatial planning and river management and the changes brought by contemporary requirements and shock events (floodings) in the Dutch area. Traditional planning is defined as "facet-sector planning hierarchy" which uses the following concepts: concentration of urbanisation, the compact city, spatial cohesion, spatial diversity, central-places hierarchies and distance-decay models (Hajer and Zonneveld, 2000 cited in Wiering and Immink, 2006:427). The authors judge the "rule and order" doctrine in both planning systems as favourable to cooperation but the presence of water and land were treated separately in that system. The authors envisage the restructuring of that cooperation by changing the approach to spatial planning and by applying the new system of strategic planning, where the change in the system of river management happened in the change of scope, from the narrower technical river scope to a wider "space for river" scope. The authors provide a parallel overview of safety and flood risks according to water managers and spatial planners (Table 16 based on Immink, 2005). Preglednica 16: Varnost in poplavne nevarnosti v skladu z vodnimi upravitelji in prostorskimi planerji (temelji na Immink, 2005, Wiering i Immink, 2006:str.432). Table 16: Safety and flood risks, according to water managers and spatial planners (based on Immink, 2005, Wiering i Immink, 2006:p.432 ). Issue Water managers Spatial planners Flood risk Flood risks are measurable cause / effect (ontological relations within water systems. Probabilities discourse) and effects can be translated into universal norms and comprehensive models. Perspective ' Safety first' is the leading policy principle. on safety River management must be focused on (normative making room for the riverbed itself to reduce discourse) the probabilities of risk. Policy Modelling of probabilities and effects strategy and translated in spatial claims for dike measures relocation and other water system related (strategic measures. discourse) Flood risks are context dependent, being part of a complex of interrelations between social, physical, and spatial features of a particular place, as well as depending on human risk perception. Safety is one of the more strategic principles underlying a sustainable, resilient, and attractive spatial and landscape planning in river basins. Flood risks can be reduced by incorporating the specific features of the region and facilitating collaborative planning to create strategic and creative perspectives on regional spatial development. By comparing Table 15 and Table 16 we may observe that water management style of the 21st century has come closer to a multidisciplinary character of spatial planning. Therewith the trend of water management was defined. The field of planning theory has gone through periodical changes, with previous dominant theories drawing on, and in turn reacting to, urban-form concepts; comprehensive, rational decision-making, advocacy, and equity planning (Huxley and Yiftachel, 2000; Faludi and Van der Valk, 1994; Table 17). On the West European theoretical platform of planning in the 90's the titles of scientific papers on the theory of planning offer concepts such as "new planning" (Healy, 1992), "new approaches" (Albrechts, 2001), and "innovative" (Rivolin and Faludi, 2005). Concepts of comprehensive planning, rationalism, technicism and land-use suffer critique and shift to strategic planning, communicative planning, structural plans and emancipatory planning. Preglednica 17: Projektni načrti in strateški načrti (Faludi and Van der Valk, 1994:str 3). Table 17: Project plans and strategic plans (Faludi and Van der Valk, 1994:p 3). Project plans Strategic plans Object Material Decisions Interaction Until adoption Continuous Future Closed Open Time element Limited to phasing Central to problem Form Blueprint Minutes to last meeting Effect Determinate Frames and reference The classification of types of planning in the EU Compendium (1997) argues that Belgium, France, Ireland, Luxembourg and the UK are taking up elements of the comprehensive integrated approach. It also asserts that Germany, Ireland, Sweden and the UK are moving towards the regional economic planning style, and that Spain and Portugal are moving towards more land-use regulation. The reform of planning subsequently calls for a stronger role for the planning system in shaping change and a shift in the very culture of planning. The new approach requires the reworking of the tools of planning to offer the planning authorities more opportunities to take the initiative in development, to provide a strategic framework, and to engage stakeholders more effectively (Nadin and Stead, 2008). British author Healy (2004) defines strategic spatial planning as: "self-conscious collective efforts to re-imagine a city, urban region or wider territory and to translate the result into priorities for area investment, conservation measures, strategic infrastructure investments and principles of land use regulation." Albrechts (2004) provides an overview of definitions ranging from the Webster's dictionary, authors who developed the concept within the economic discipline to the spatial context of the American and West European area. This overview establishes a clear connection between the concepts of modern state, competition and strategic planning. Kunzmann (2006) also poses the question of strategic planning in the context of the market economy and interprets the difference between the side favouring the market economy over the state interventions and the side that believes in state authorities undertaking long-term spatial plans. This explains the reason for the non-existence of any strategic plans in the regions with a high degree of centralisation where the market economy was limited and unacknowledged as a management mechanism. Such a situation can be found in the area of ex-communist countries in Southeastern Europe. Prior practice relied on the authority of profession which was considered legitimate. By using implementing acts such as site and building permits, spatial plans were the instruments for discarding unwanted phenomena in space, and not the instruments for planning of desired functions and structures (Albrechts, 2004). Salet and Faludi (2000) identify three main approaches to strategic spatial planning at the beginning of the new century: "• An institutional approach, which favours two main directions: one oriented at legitimising planning activity, the other seeing institutionalisation processes mainly as an opportunity for the implementation of plans and projects. • A communicative and discursive approach that favours framing and sense-giving activity; an interactive approach, suspended in a technocratic tension, oriented to building up connections between public and private organisations in order to improve performance in planning. • A sociocratic tendency, focused on the inclusion of society and emergent citizenship." (Salet and Faludi, 2000 in Healy, 2004:35). As an integral part of strategic planning there is a concept of "communicative planning". According to Throgmorton (1993) (cited in Faludi, 1994) the communicative approach builds on three principles: (1) Plans, analyses, and in fact the stories in plans are always addressed to someone, so the audience is important. (2) Planning-related utterances are replies to other utterances, so we always argue in the awareness of differing or opposing views. (3) The meaning of such utterance is beyond the control of the author, so we must think about this "play of meaning" and about how audiences reconstruct meanings. In the last decade the philosophy of planning has been changing which caused a change in the type of plans. Albrechts (2004) summarises the changes as in Figure 24. Type of planning Type of plans from Managing change Guidinggrowth Promoting development Regulation of private development Technical regulation Land use planning Destination plans "Physical "Solution to social problems to Spatial development strateg\- which seeks to worktlirouhgthe interests and strategies of selected stakehoiders Strategic and negotiated form in govemance Strategic plans Spatial implementation plans Framing activities of stakeholder to lielp achieve shared concems about spatia changes Slika 24: Od tradicionalnega prostorskega načrtovanja k strateškemu načrtovanju (Albrechts, 2004: str 748). Figure 24: From traditional land use planning to strategic planning (Albrechts, 2004:p 748) The critique of strategic planning is found in its vagueness, too much challenge for the profession (education for strategic planning) and insufficient maturity of the arenas which should participate in communication in order for planning to be successful. "Today's modellers seem very uncomfortable with the uncertainty, which they try hard to quantify and excise, whereas the planners do not sufficiently appreciate the indeterminacy that alone leaves room for shaping the future. Both sides need to be bolder" (Coucalis, 2005). In addition to the traditional social and economic dimensions, planners are now asked to integrate territorial policy agendas for environmental sustainability and cultural identity as well (Friedmann et al., 2004). Not sooner than in the previous decade did scientific and expert literature on planning expand its discourse to Central and Eastern Europe due to the expansion of the area of the European Union and due to the harmonisation of legislation. The Alps-Adriatic Working Community published in the year 2002 the publication "With Spatial Planning Instruments to More Effective Solution." The connective link covered the eastern part of the EU - Austria and Italy, as well as the neighbouring countries of Slovenia, Croatia and Hungary. The publication provided an overview of the spatial planning system in member states (Austria, Croatia, Italy, Hungary, Slovenia). The role of strategic planning in planning cross-border river areas has a potential due to its characteristics of flexibility of the temporal dimension where it is possible to find the solution for shock events such as floods or draughts but also to look for long term solutions in accordance to the demands of sustainable planning. The modus of conflict resolution can be a harmony or conflict model (Jones 1993 in Kaur, 2004). The former is based on the responsibility of institutional tools, and efforts are directed toward coordination and agreements. This model is characterised as a passive approach which treats values technically. The latter model searches for the source of conflict in value differences so that the efforts are directed toward active confrontation of interests, stakeholders, negotiations and overcoming dissatisfaction. The author suggests a combination of the two models as the most favourable solution. 2.12 Conclusion of the chapter on the researched river landscape area Trans boundary river basins cover up to 90% of South-Eastern Europe, and more than a half is covered with basins shared by three or more countries. Alongside the problems stemming from industrial and agricultural pressures, an increase in the burgeoning regional tourism sector has also placed additional seasonal stress on water resources by increased water use, and generated higher levels of sewage and water pollution (UN Second assessment on trans boundary rivers, lakes and ground waters, 2011). A traditional use of rivers as recipients of effluent has had obvious negative environmental impacts. But there are other negative impacts such as "river regulation" (irrigation, drainage, the construction of navigation channels, reservoirs, dams, etc.); damage to habitats and overexploitation or direct impacts on species. The Drava and its main tributaries are significantly altered with a large number of hydraulic structures (ICPDR, 2009). The Drava is a river in southern Central Europe with a length of 749 km and with an average discharge of 560 m3/s and it is the fourth largest (41.238 km2) and fourth longest tributary of the Danube. The Drava begins in Toblach, Italy, (approximately 1,450 m above sea level), and flows eastwards through East Tirol and Carinthia in Austria, into Slovenia, and then southeast, passing through Croatia and discharges into the Danube near Osijek, Croatia (at approximately 90 m above sea level). The Drava downstream of the Mura River confluence constitutes, for the most part, the Croatian-Hungarian state border (a total length of 136 km). A part of the Mura River in Croatia also constitutes the state border with Slovenia and Hungary (total length of the 79 km). The total length of the Mura River is 465 km. In their paper on researching attitudes on the basis of simulating four scenarios, Tress and Tress (2003) compared the attitudes of the population differentiating them according to distance: local population - population in the observed zone; nearby population living in the distance <10 km; regional population living in the distance >10 km from the observed region. The scenario simulating industrial development was evaluated most positively by the local population (72,2%), and least positively by the experts (33,4%). The tourism and recreation scenario was evaluated as positive by the nearby population (72,6%), but to a lesser degree by the regional population (14,2%). The nature conservation scenario was most positively recognised by the regional (100%) and least positively by the local population (47,3%). The residential expansion scenario was recognised as positive by the nearby population (40,9%), and as the least positive by the regional population (14,3%). The results from Tress and Tress's (2003) research indicate that the reactions of the local population are guided by personal prosperity and values projected from an individual level. The development is assumed as positive, whereas the limitation of protection is a reaction by the local, but not by the directly affected population. The NIMBY effect appears in relation to environment protection and not in relation to its exploitation and pollution. Interest at the individual level represents the strongest motivation for the respondents. It is assumed that a different character of the three rivers in Ljubljana, Kaposvar and Osijek would influence the respondents' attitudes (see Figure 30), but we have not found any data on previous research which would help us in assuming the scope and intensity of the influence. The differences in the three examples are found in the differences in the water body (average flow, width and depth), the situation of the river in the body of the town and the purpose of the river area. According to the data, the Ljubljanica in Ljubljana and the Drava in Osijek have a similar water flow but different height and width of the watercourse. Kapos has a distinctively lower flow and the water flow depth. The Ljubljanica and Drava have a role in the public area of the town which is organised on the banks of the central area. During 2010 and 2011 in Ljubljana there was a trend in redesigning the river area, whereas Osijek has had an ongoing issue of planning an aqua park on the other bank of the Drava. In 2010 the Kapos flooded the area, endangering the residential and business facilities at the river bank. Since the connection of these experiences has not been researched, we shall not be able to establish the link in the interpretation of results but they will be interpreted in relation to the provided facts. The results are expected and in line with the paradox of the world ecological problem which lies in the fact that 22% of the developed countries consume 88% of the world's resources and spends 73% of the energy (Miller, 1994 cited in Pelletier, 2004). The data from the International Energy Outlook 2011 (US Energy Information Administration in Figure 25) reveal a trend of energy consumption for the developed and non-developed countries (OECD, non-OECD). There is a forecast that the developed countries would streamline the energy consumption by lowering its rate, whereas the undeveloped world would increase the consumption in a much quicker pace. 1590 20X1 2COB 2015 2B20 2025 2030 2035 Slika 25: Projekcija konzumacije energije za zemljo OECD-a in Non-OECD-a do leta 2035 http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/ieo/index.cfm (pridobljeno 20.10.2011) Figure 25: Projection of energy consumption for OECD and non-OECD countries by 2035 http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/ieo/index.cfm (accessed on 20.10.2011) It follows that responsibility should not be directed toward the current but toward the projected state where there is a clear objective of resource consumption in a sustainable way, and for future generations. The attitude of the young respondents will be interpreted in relation to the awareness about the common goal and the attitude on sustainable planning and managing of river resources. 2.13 Conclusion of the chapter on theoretical outset Ethics is an integral part of science and scientific research whose objective must be set in the direction of improving life and living conditions. In the ethical development of the man-nature relationship, the shift has been made in expanding the moral object and anthropocentrism-egoism moves to holism so that man as the subject of ethics becomes responsible for the ecosystem as a part of the ecosystem. Ethical principles have their performance in values. Values are shaped interactively on an individual, social and global level, and are expressed through judgment, preference and choice. Schwartz (2009) offers a definition that values are beliefs tied inextricably to emotion, not objective, cold ideas. Inglehart and Welzel (2005) conclude on the basis of empirical results that the feeling of existential security present in society is more important than cognitive factors and that cultural change is not determined simply by cognition and rational choice but the exposure to different existential conditions. The authors conclude that expressive values encourage perception of risk. Global society is divided by cultures which are structured by different value systems. Cultural borders overlap with national borders since values are shaped by "government, legal systems, educational systems, industrial relation systems, family structures, religious organisations, sports clubs, settlement patterns, literature, architecture, and even scientific theories" (Hofstede, 1983). Culture exists as reality in its material propositions but it also exists as an idea. One of its material indicators is a landscape shaped according to realistic propositions but also according to the idea of a landscape. A landscape is in action and interaction with human perception. Relationship variables can be found in the group of objective characteristics of a landscape and in the subjective-objective characteristics of the observer and his/her conditions. Water landscapes are preferred to all other landscapes due to their scenic beauty and, on the other hand, due to a large pressure on ecosystems. River basins are cross-cultural links as well as conflicting elements in different thematic discourses (energy use, agriculture, biotope protection, transportation flow, borer territory, upstream-downstream etc.). Water management and spatial planning should find a way to join cultural, global environmental, territorial and legislative discourses in order to respond to a global task of sustainability of natural resources. A long-term dimension of the strategic plan should satisfy global aspirations for resource sustainability whereas short-term actions should respond to potential conflicts of stakeholders (Figure 26) or to environmental shock events. River area planning comprises complex dynamic ecosystems and human cultural systems. Slika 26: Metafora morebitnih sporov na področju načrtovanja obrečnih krajin Figure 26: The metaphor of potential conflicts in the planning watershed area 3 FOUNDATION FOR THE STUDY Since the sample is not even close to being representative, it was treated as a set of individual respondents so that the answers have been processed on an individual level within groups. Inglehart and Welzel (2005) compared in their research the results at an individual and aggregate level for their two dimensions in four waves of research and reached a decision that the individual level shows somewhat lower factorial results but that there are still visible dimensions of similar structures at an individual and national level. The differences at those two levels are interpreted by the authors as indicators of minority effects, context effects, and a combination of effect thresholds and central tendencies. In the first stage of the present study, attitudes of all students were investigated, and in the second the stakeholder groups were compared (Butula, 2004). The research was conducted on a convenience sample which cannot be generalized to the level of culture but it tests the attitude of the young at all observed universities. The correlations of the set thematic frameworks and respondents' socio-demographic characteristics were researched. When selecting the survey sample the following frames were set up in order to define clusters (Figure 27) of interests in river landscapes: • Nationalities • Hard and soft studies • Gender • Students and experts Slika 27: Koncept načrtovanja vzorca treh kulturnih/nacionalnih skupin in disciplin Figure 27 The concept of planning the sample of three cultural/national groups and disciplines Thematic frames shown in Figure 28 are set according to the distribution of paradigms in researching landscape visual assessment by Zube et al.(1982) (the expert, psychophysical, cognitive and experiential paradigm). Slika 28: Koncept tematskih okvirov instrumenta po Zube et al. (1982). Figure 28: The concept of thematic frames of the instrument by Zube et al. (1982). According to Biglan's classification (1973), all academic disciplines are defined as applied, and divided into a hard and soft dimension. In this survey, the hard disciplines were represented by agriculture and civil engineering faculties and the soft ones by economics, education and art. It was assumed that the disciplines would follow the opposing attitudes that Becher (1994) defined as practical and functional, while the other would be more intrinsic. Characteristics of individual disciplines according to Becher (1994) are given in Table 18: Characteristics of individual disciplines (Becher, 1994:p 154). Preglednica 18: Značilnosti posameznih disciplin (Becher, 1994: str. 154) Table 18: Characteristics of individual disciplines (Becher, 1994:p 154). Disciplinary grouping Nature of knowledge Nature of disciplinary culture Pure sciences(e.g. physics): hard pure Humanities (e.g. history) and pure social sciences (e.g. anthropology): soft pure Technologies (e,g, mechanical engineering): hard-applied Applied social sciences (e.g. education): soft applied Cumulative; atomistic (crystalline/tree-like); concerned with universals,quantities, simplification; resulting in discovery/explanation. Reiterative; holistic (organic/river-like);concerned with particulars, qualities, complication; resulting in understanding/interpretation. Purposive; pragmatic (know-how via hard knowledge); concerned with mastery of physical environment; resulting in products/techniques. Functional; ulitarian (know-how via soft knowledge); concerned with enhancement of [semi-] professional practice; resulting in protocols/procedures_ Competitive, gregarious; politically well-organized; high publication rate; task-oriented. Individualistic, pluralistic; loosely structured; low publication rate; person-oriented. Entrepreneurial, cosmopolitan; dominated by professional values; patents substitutable for publications; role-oriented. Outward-looking; uncertain in status; dominated by intellectual fashions; publication rates reduced by consultancies; power-oriented._ 3.1 Data entry The visual part of the survey was analyzed by seven levels of data: • the best and the worst vista • rank • positive and negative elements • added elements • written comments All data were entered onto a Microsoft Excel sheet. The structure of circled and crossed out elements was coded according to the structures by which the altered vistas were entered on the Microsoft Excel sheet. The comments were translated and entered into the same sheet. The answers of the closed type were entered into the Microsoft Excel table, and two open type questions were coded and then entered according to the defined categories. 3.2 Data analysis Surveys are one of the most common forms of research to reach for collecting cross-cultural attitudes, so we included as many questions as possible that were quantitatively analyzed on a 5-point Likert scale. The methodology is basically quantitative (in sampling, data analysis, and data inference), but it also involves the qualitative data collection, like coding of respondents drawing interventions and open questions. 3.2.1 Quantitative analysis The purpose of this study was to measure environmental attitudes on the development of the common area of the Mura and Drava Rivers in the trans-border area of Slovenia, Hungary and Croatia. The research was undertaken with the hypothesis that a large number of respondents, in accordance with their age, would confirm the proecological position of the younger population as confirmed on a global (Dunlap et al. 2000) and regional level (Šundalic and Pavic, 2007; Butula 2003, 2009; Cifric 2008.; Kantar et al. 2009). The usual division into anthropocentrics and ecocentrics varies frequently in studies in the manner that the categories are added or divided, as shown in the following studies: Stern and Dietz (1994) and Thompson and Barton (1994) with an egoistic/altruistic division in the anthropocentric orientation, Kaltenborg and Bjerke (2002) with the notion of environmental apathy, van der Windt et al. (2007) with a strong and weak anthropocentric and Cifric (2008) with a technocentric orientation. The total sample was divided by a factor analysis into three clusters defined as ecocentric, anthropocentric-egoistic and anthropocentric-altruistic and was tested for eight items derived from the attitude research on the representative sample of Croatia by Cifric (2008) and the added items researched in the pilot study. It was supposed that the scenarios were the presenters of particular paradigms so that Restoration was paired with Biocentrism, Outdoor recreation and Tourism and Settlement with anthropocentric-egoistic and anthropocentric-altruistic components and Energy Production Scenario with Anthropocentric Egoistic Frame. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations, as well as gender, did not show any statistically relevant indicators so that the results were not interpreted. In the case of grouping the complete dataset in different paradigm clusters, a factor analysis was performed using the principal components analysis with varimax rotation. The Guttman-Kaiser criterion for stopping the extraction at the value one was applied. The value of 0,40 was taken as a criterion for the value of the saturation factor. SPSS 15.0 was used for descriptive statistics, %2 - testing and ANOVA. To determine the relationship between the indicated variables bivariate correlations were used. In the case of the ordinal scale, variables were calculated by Spearman's Rho Correlation Coefficient and the Pearson correlation coefficient interval. In order to identify the direction of the relationship for each indicator individually, a correlation analysis was conducted for the images and other scales measured by significant values (p<0.01, p<0.05). A %2 test was used for selecting the worst/best scenes because it is a dichotomous situation. For testing the differences in vista ranking, since it is a case of ordinal variables, two non-parametric tests were used. Since the samples are independent, the following tests were used: - for two groups (e.g. students/experts): Mann-Whitney U test - for three groups (e.g. Hard/Soft/Art): Kruskal-Wallis H test 3.2.2 Qualitative analysis Two questions from the framework Attachment to the river refer to the frequency of the respondent's visits to the river and to the identification of the manner of spending time at the river. The option was offered of entering an unlisted activity. The results were checked and analysed descriptively using the method of content analysis. Since the majority of the answers were compatible with the options suggested, and neither of the functions was significant, an overview of the activities was provided. The instrument posed an open type question which investigated the respondent's memory regarding his/her last visit to the river. After having checked the answers for the first time they were coded into four groups: nature, water, action and emotion. The answers were statistically analysed and presented in tables. 3.3Selection of river landscapes Thirty-seven points along the Mura and Drava River were photographed during three visits to the river streams during October 2010 when the river flow was closest to a year average flow (see Table 19) as the flow was not a planned variable (see Brown and Daniel, 1991). Preglednica 19: Podatki o Muri in Dravi v obdobju med letoma 1961-2005 in oktobra 2010 Table 19: Data on the Mura and Drava River flow for the period 1961-2005 and October 2010 October 2010. October 1961-2005. River Station Qaverage nQ average sQaverage vQ average Mura Mursko 154 65,8 151 346 Središče Drava Botovo 473 239 484 1075 Meteorological and hydrological bulletin 10/2010, Hydro-meteorological Institute Republic of Croatia Photo points were picked up on the criteria of accessibility (according to Purcell and Lamb, 1998). All locations are accessible from roads, unpaved roads, agricultural and fishermen's paths. There have been many studies of this issue (e.g.;Daniel and Boster, 1979) and the overall finding is that if the photographs meet certain criteria then the ratings gained from them will not differ significantly from ratings gained in a field situation. Lothian (2012) points out the following criteria for photographs: • Standardised horizontal format • 50 mm focal length to correspond with human vision • Colour photographs • Non-artistic composition • Sunny cloud-free conditions • Avoid strong side lighting of early morning or evening • Good lateral and foreground context to scenes • Single landscape unit per photograph • Typical representative scenes, not anomalies • Full landscape view, avoid close ups • Avoid distracting and transitory features including animals, homes, fences and people As it became evident that the size of a water body is a significant variable for perceived beauty, the amount of water surface in chosen photographs varies between 22 and 43 percent (see Ryan, 1998). The order of original vistas was selected to show an increasing human influence from none (a natural scene) to maximum (a pedestrian bridge in the scene). The vistas selected (Figure 29) represent a typical landscape of the Mura and Drava which does not stand out from other landscapes of lowland rivers. During selection, special attention was paid to balancing the display of the water body, lack of scenicity, presence of elements, visibility from both river banks, the possibility of implementation of modifying elements (residential, traffic infrastructure and hydro power plants) and the lack of presence of humans and animals in the picture. A rural character of the area immediately next to the river can be assumed, but it is not visually dominant since along its edge there is a stretch of high coppice. The first location is that of the Drava River near Podturen with a completely natural scene. The scene presents the river water body, high vegetation and wood deposit, all of which witnesses the lack of human intervention (a note on wood deposits can be found in Le Lay et al., 2005). This vista is the most typical river scene of the Mura and Drava which does not stand out from the scenes of other lowland rivers. The second location also represents the Drava in close vicinity of Podturen, but it contains a scene of a small ferry in the background. The docks on both sides are formed by raw wooden lumber. The river bank is natural, not fortified and presents a location where human influence is oriented to the water section of the river. What pervades is high vegetation, river plants and naturally formed water edge. The third location reperesents a scene of moderate human impact at the confluence of the Mura in the Drava near Legrad. The infrastructure indicates the function of leisure and recreation (beach, slide). There are some vessels in the backround (gravel transport) There is high vegetation and a pebbled beach in the scene. The vista with a mill on the Mura represents a scene with an element of cultural heritage .The meaning of a mill as a national symbol for Croats and Slovenes has not been studied, but this research proved that perception with a number of respondents. Besides the object on the water, there is a white access road, a designed access plateau and high Vegetation in the scene. The contact between the water and the bank is natural. The scene showing major human influence represents a ferry for transporting vehicles and passengers at Križnica on the Drava. There is a regulated and fortified contact zone of water and the bank in the scene, the access road infrastructure and evident removal of high vegetation in immediate vicinity. There is a boat and public illumination in the scene. The strongest human impact in the series is presented in the scene of the pedestrian bridge at Križnica. The picture shows a visible bridge construction and a concrete access to water with a ferry berth. The bridge element and the bank design represent the strongest human impact on the Mura and Drava locations situated outside of residential areas. Slika 29: Izbrane scene Mure in Drave Figure 29 Selected Vistas of the Mura and Drava Rivers The vistas were selected by the author after having discussed them with the advisor. 3.4 International sample 3.4.1 Student sample The aim of the survey was to involve a diversified sample, in order to include the international and interest affiliation variation. The study utilized a convenience sample of the undergraduate student population. Studying students' attitudes is important, as they are the population who will be affected by and will have to provide solutions to the environmental problems. Several studies found this sample adequate for environmental research (Herzog 1985, Kaplan, Herbert 1987, Chenovet, Gobster 1990; Kaur et.al 2004). By choosing young people for environmental research, we are asking future generations to participate in sustainability of solutions nowadays. Older persons in much of the world give higher priority to materialist vs. post-materialist values than younger people as a confirmation that in adolescence people form values which change little thereafter. (Inglehart, 1997, cited in Schwartz, 2006). Preglednica 20: Družbeno-demografske značilnosti anketirancev (študenti) del1 Table 20: Socio-demographic characteristics of the survey respondents (students) part1 Gender % Age(year) % Type Of Community Of Living % Male 36,1 16-19 12,3 a big city 26,7 20-25 82,1 the suburbs or outskirts of a big city 13,2 26-30 2,4 a town or a small city 25,2 Female 62,7 31-35 1,7 a country village 31,4 > 35 0,9 a farm or home in the country 1,9 NR 1,2 0,7 1,7 The participants represent the young population (Table 20), 82,1% of them from 20 to 25, 12,3% from 16 to 19, 2,4% from 16 to 30, 1,7% from 31 to 35 and just 0,9% are older than 35. The questionnaire gathered data on the respondent's place of birth, classified as a big town, a suburb, a small town, a village and a house in the countryside. The answers represent the population almost equally distributed in the main categories. This was shown as relavent for the attitudes to environmental protection (Tress and Tress, 2003; Buijs et al. 2009; Sevenant and Antrop 2010) but not relevant to restoration (Junker and Buchecker, 2008). According to the fact that sampled universities are situated in the cities that have a river, all respondents had equal everyday exposure to the river area (see Ryan 1998) although a different character and relation to the town. An anonymous questionnaire was administered to students chosen by the criteria of different ethnicity and enrolment in different academic disciplines. A total of 410 students (262 female and 148 male students) were involved, from three universities - the University on Ljubljana, Slovenia; Kaposvar University, Hungary, and the University of J.J. Strossmayer in Osijek, Croatia. All three university cities lie on the river, Ljubljana on the Ljubljanica River, Kaposvar on the Kapos River and Osijek on the Drava River. The number of students from different countries was balanced: 122 from Slovenia, 139 from Hungary and 149 Croatian students participated in the survey. Respondent groups were planned according to the disciplines. The distribution of respondents is given in Table 21. Preglednica 21: Družbeno-demografske značilnosti anketirancev (študenti) del2 Table 21: Socio-demographic characteristics of the survey respondents (students) part2 Nationality/Discipline HARD SOFT ART Slovenian 86 24 15 Hungarian 50 71 15 Croatian 70 41 12 Schwartz (2006) studied the different relations in values at the value level considering age, education, religiosity, major subject of study, political orientation, use of alcohol, use of mobile phones etc. Since the values we research belong content-wise to the value Universalism, Power and Tradition we followed the results used by Schwartz to confirm the correlation of those values with age and education for all three higher order values as well as for Religiosity. Studying the influence of the major subject of study dimension, Schwartz (2006) divided the major subject of study into Economics and Humanities. He established their correlation with the values of Tradition, Power and Achievement (2006). Those were the results used to guideline the forming of stakeholders and for disciplines or major subject of study for which it was assumed they would show the differences in evaluating the transformation of the river landscape (Table 21). Respondents' distribution for the data on nationality and religion is given in Table 22. Preglednica 22: Družbeno-demografske značilnosti anketirancev (študenti) del3 Table 22: Socio-demographic characteristics of the survey respondents (students) part3 Nationality % Ethnicity % Religion % Croatian 38,2 Albanian 0,2 Catholic 75,5 Croatian And 0,2 Bosnian 0,0 Orthodox 0,7 Hungarian Croatian And 0,2 Czech 0,2 Protestant 3,1 Slovenian Hungarian 32,3 Croatian 36,1 Islam 0,2 Slovenian 28,1 Hungarian 30,9 Atheist 14,6 Romanian 0,2 Croatian And 0,2 Something Else 3,4 Hungarian German 0,2 Slovenian 26,9 Serbian 0,7 NR 0,7 4,5 1,7 3.4.2 Expert sample The expert sample was observed as a unique group. There were forty-one experts participating in the survey. The national distribution of respondents is as follows: 27 experts from Croatia, 9 from Hungary and 15 from Slovenia. The experts connected to river area planning make up a multidisciplinary set of theoreticians and practitioners of an international scope. The disciplines included are: spatial planners, urban planners, architects, civil engineers of a hydro technical profile, landscape planners, biologists, urban sociologists and economy experts involved in spatial planning. As for their place of work, the experts participating in the survey work at higher education institutions, public institutions and private firms. 3.5. Frames of the survey The instrument is created as a visual and written part of the survey, with four out of five investigated frames of questions. Table 23 provides an overview of the questions for each frame. Preglednica 23: Število izjav v raziskavah glede na okvirje Table 23: Number of items in survey frames Frame No of items or questions in survey Environment value orientations 8 Resources for planning river landscape and flood risk management 26 Attachment to the river 10 Policy preferences and authorities 16 Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivational orientations 8 Health personal involvement 2 3.6 Resources for planning river landscape and flood risk management In the frame of environmental orientations an initial research was done on the respondent's attitudes related to the preference of elements in the river area which were construed according to the development and protection group of evaluation within the planning process (according to Marušič, 1991). The distribution of concepts for questions 11 and 12 is given in Table 24. Preglednica 24: Viri za načrtovanje rečne krajine (Marušič, 1991). Table 24: Resources for planning a river landscape (Marušič, 1991). Protection objective Common ground Development objective protection of birds' natural habitats scenic beauty intact nature scientific knowledge of the area flood protection protection of autochthonous architecture building of hydro power plants for the production of electric power greater accessibility of the river building holiday settlements development of tourist facilities development of agricultural activities fish farming_ In the written part of the survey we further researched the connection between the evaluation of the visual and the ecological value of a river landscape. We attempted to use the instrument in order to investigate the evaluation of concepts in the visual and the written part and we also researched the attitudes on the acceptability of the actors in the river area. We also studied the acceptability of the most frequent types of hydro technological activities with the objective of flood protection, which were also simulated as a variable in the visual part of the survey. 3.7 The connection of the ecological and the visual - structural simulations The research in the visual part of the survey was construed with the help of several research questions: Does the intensity of human impact in the initial vista influence the acceptability of a particular scenario? Which river development scenarios are acceptable? Why? Which elements in each vista are evaluated as positive and which as negative? What is the relation of vistas to environmental orientations? Initial vistas were ranked according to the intensity of human influence (Figure 30 and Figure 31): 1. A completely natural vista 2. A ferry for transporting people, natural, non-fortified bank 3. A wooden mill on the water, partially arranged access 4. Pebbled beach with a slide 5. A ferry for transporting people and cars, regulated bank 6. Pedestrian, suspension bridge, a concrete access to water The scenarios were also construed through an increase in human impact as (Figure 30 and Figure 31): 1. Restoration 2. Outdoor Recreation And Tourism 3. Settlement Scenario 4. Energy Production Scenario Original scenes of the Mura and Drava Rivers Scenario modification Slika 30: Shema vizualizacije človeškega vpliva Figure 30 Schema of visualizing human impact Slika 31: Začetne scene in scenariji Figure 31: Original Vistas and Scenarios The term scenario is used to describe a form that is a process of prediction through several steps, which results in the text of paragraph length or longer (Schnaars and Ziamou, 2001). Different types of scenario construction were studied in order to legitimise predictions such as historical and holistic (Emmelin 1996; Palang 2000; Stenseke 2009) and normative approaches (Van den Berg and Veenklaas 1995; Sheppard 2001; Palmer and Hoffman 2001; Nassauer and Corry 2004;Westhoek et al. 2006). Tress and Tress (2003) restrict the concept of scenario approach in their research by referring to the definition of Van den Berg and Veenklaas (1995) and interpret the scenario as a form that does not represent the most likely future condition or prognosis or prediction of the state. The same concept was applied in a survey on agricultural landscapes by Lindborg et al. (2009). In the present study, as well as in the former examples, the focus is put on "what would happen if," rather than "what will happen." The vistas describe a one-dimensional development, which is usually not a realistic case. For example, tourist facilities could also be combined with the development of housing but the views are mono functional in order to obtain clearer responses from the respondents. Preglednica 25: Seznam programov in projektov, vključenih v pisno obliko scenarija Table 25: List of programmes and projects included in scenario writing Programme Name Period Themes Documents Drava Declaration Ministerial Declaration on the preparation of the establishment of the "Mura-Drava-Danube Transboundary Biosphere Reserve" Upper Drava-River Valley River Management Of The Inner River Mura Murerleben II LIFE SEE CADSES Interreg IIIb IPA HU HR Lifeline Upper Drava NATREG DRA-MUR-CI Drava River Basin Measure 1.2 Sustainable Tourism and Mura-Drava-Danube River Area 2008 2011 1999 -2003 2003 -2007 20102015 2006 -2011 2011 201120032006 20072013 flood protection, river restoration, cross-border recreation area, ecological quality transnational cooperation conservation and restoration of natural and semi-natural ecosystem co-operation with local communities sustainable development natural flood protection river widening preservation or re-establishment of natural habitats restoration, improvement and long-term protection of the natural wetland forests and river landscape river widening development of local recreation and tourism monitoring development of tourist locations cross-border flood risk management re-evaluation of the nature water and waste management open call Slika 32: Donava-Drava-Mura Zemljevid UNESCO Rezerve Biosfere za zaščito narave in divjih živali vzdolž rek Mure, Drave in Donave (http://wwf.panda.org/, pridobljeno 20.03.2012.). Figure 32: Danube-Drava-Mura Map UNESCO Biosphere Reserve to protect their shared nature and wildlife along the Mura, Drava and Danube Rivers (http://wwf.panda.org/, accessed on 20.03.2012). According to the revised themes in regional projects with the focus on the Mura and Drava (see Table 25), four mono functional scenarios were developed. The photographs were altered with the help of four variables (Figure 33): the range of vegetation, the contact zone between the river and the bank (edge), the actors and infrastructure. The photographs were taken by a digital camera, 14-42mm objectives, 10MP and manipulated in Photoshop PS. Preglednica 26. Neodvisne spremenljivke v scenarijih Table 26 Independent variables in scenarios Scenario Restoration For Outdoor Recreation Settlement Energy Production Retention And Tourism Variables 1 Vegetation Contact Zone River Bank 3 Actors increased high trees, coppice widening river bed gravel and river stones wild animals 4. Infrastructure none slightly decreased in direction of cultivation high trees, semi-natural grassland existing edge tourists, sportsmen, children, senior, pets, wild animals pathway for cycling, horse riding, walking tourist label, bench decreased semi-natural grassland, gardens paved with brick or natural stone family, local residents, pets road, houses, bench decreased semi-natural grassland paved with concrete prefabricated elements Workers road, hydropower plant 2 Slika 33: Spremenljivke v scenarijih (1-vegetacija, 2 - kontakt območje reke, 3-igralci, 4-infrastruktura) Figure 33: Variables varied in scenarios (1-vegetation, 2- contact zone river bank, 3-actors, 4-infrastructure) Restoration scenario The restoration scenario illustrates a change of the river area in order to increase the range of natural elements (vegetation and animals) and also to provide an overflow of water in the nearby area. The photomontage involves removing the elements of human influence as well as decreasing the amount of high vegetation and appearance of shrub and coppice along the water edge. The presence of animals, swans and other river birds, were also included to increase the vividness of the scene. Widening of the river bed is manipulated according to a case study of the regulation of the Kocher River in Schwäbisch Hall (Schmid 1985) and also to the case studies of "Lifeline Upper Drava" (LIFE Drau Laymans Report 2011). The vistas did not include any presence of humans or human influence. Some vistas had to be radically changed, when compared to the original one, like removing the pedestrian bridge or the ferry port. Outdoor recreation and tourism scenario This scenario was the easiest to imagine and to collect the inputs for scenario content, since a long list of projects (Table 25) foresee this scenario for the lower stream of the Mura and Drava. The planned outdoor activities included walking, cycling, fishing, horse riding, all of which do not require a hard but a soft traffic infrastructure. The paths are visualized as unpaved, without a defined edge. The tourist facilities such as a children's playground, benches, informative labels and pontoons are designed as wooden and environmentally friendly. The scene contained dogs and horses, together with humans. Reflections on sustainability of the scenario also included social issues and the actors in the scenes were selected according to age equality (children, adults and older people). Settlement scenario This was the most questionable scenario because Slovenians and Hungarians do not have dense settlement locations along the Mura and Drava Rivers as opposed to the Croatian examples. Nonetheless, the scenario was chosen to investigate the attitudes on the increase of occasional housing. As the study area has lots of protected surfaces, there is a conflict between protection and the existing illegal cottages. The lack of information and statistics on the extent of this phenomenon is a major problem. Visualization presented a continuous line of medium sized family houses, which have been designed under the consideration of flood risk (on pillars) and linked to the infrastructure that aids housing, such as a road and a pedestrian path. Original vegetation was decreased to suit the building needs and gardens and lawn were visualized. The actors in the scene represent families in everyday situations. Energy production scenario Although it is not a subject of the cross-border projects and documents, the multiple cross-border conflict imposed the energy production scenario as relevant for studying attitudes. The design of the hydropower plant followed an existing design of the future plant on the Mura in Graz, as presented in the public media. The water's edge was constructed of prefabricated concrete blocks. The vegetation was decreased in line to enable retention of water and the actors posed as male observers. A small hydro electrical plant is accessible by road and there is a car in the scene. The evaluation of the best and the worst images was conceived in the manner that the students evaluated all images simultaneously and selected the best and the worst by inspecting all thirty images. The students saw all photos on two occasions, when they were projected on the wall at the beginning and at the end of the introduction to the survey. They were put six sheets of paper in the A4 format in order, one next to the other, for a total display of all images. They had to choose the three best and the three worst solutions for the observed areas. The next evaluation of the images was done by ranking the scenarios in the frame of the modification of the original vista. An A4 sheet displayed the scenarios in the following order: original vista, Scenario Restoration, Outdoor recreation and Tourism, Settlement Scenario and Energy production Scenario. The ranking instrument was chosen because of the expected small range of grades between the scenarios where the variables where altered to a smaller degree. The aim was to get the results which present more transparent attitudes. The next level of the instrument in processing images was a graphic intervention in the image. The respondents were asked to circle the elements they considered positive and to cross out those elements they considered negative and which influence their judgment. It was assumed that for the positive and the negative elements there would be a frame which would be a result of the variables of image alternations and that the graphic comments are identical with the variables. The respondents were asked to provide an additional element - to draw in the elements which would improve the situation in the vista. There was a low expectancy for the results with this element, but the added elements were also imported in the system of variables. It was an attempt to apply the critique by Arthur et al. (1977) in investigating why the image was evaluated as it was. The third level required a commentary which assumes the most distinct idea the respondent connects with the image. The comments were not processed according to the previous frame but were processed statistically and according to the content descriptively. It was assumed that the respondents would recognize the pre-ecological dimension in the Restoration Scenario and in line with that evaluate it as the most positive one. It is expected that there would be a reaction to the scene with the bridge as a necessary element, so a negative reaction is anticipated regarding its elimination, as well as in the case of the mill as cultural heritage. We assume that there would be a better ranking of minor human influence and evaluation of a natural landscape as more vulnerable. It is also expected that the already existing human influence would have impact on the greater acceptability of a higher human influence, so that the bridge scene would be more acceptable with a hydro power plant than a completely natural environment with a hydro power plant. It is expected that the respondents would evaluate the scenes according to their ecological transformation, rather than the aesthetic one. By analysing the parts of the instrument we shall compare the cognitive and the visual evaluation. It is hypothesized that at the level of expressing attitudes with the written instrument, the respondents would express less pronounced pro-ecological attitudes than with the visual questionnaire. The assumption is that the affective component of the attitude would be more enhanced by the visual materials and that the respondents would express their pro-ecological attitudes more strongly. 3.9 Policy preferences in river management and authorities Inglehart and Welzel (2005) consider that the cause of the total social change is in the cultural, economic and political change. There has also been evident improvement in the form of an inter-generational change from the materialistic to post materialistic values, which leads to the increased potential for mass participation in actions against the leading subjects. Their theory claims that the increasing rates in actions against the elites presents the component of a transition from the value of survival to expressive values. Due to the differences in the location of the observed three countries it is expected that in relation to Survival vs. Expressive values there would be a different level of confidence in different decision-making actors and in water body management. In three questions the frame researched confidence, the attitude to responsibility and the attitude to international agreements as forms of managing trans-border rivers. The influence of the respondents' attitudes toward the subjects of planning, toward non-conventional and participant forms of involvement in decision-making and management was the backbone of the frame Policy preferences. It is assumed that Hungary and Croatia, as countries with a lower GDP, would expect greater aid and responsibility from the countries with a higher GDP. The choice of the subjects in the instrument reflected the stakeholders identified by Orr et al. (2007) and Wostl (2002) provided in Table 27. Preglednica 27: Interesni akterji v procesu načrtovanja rečnega prostora (po Orr et al. (2007) in Wostl (2002) Table 27: Stakeholders in the process of planning the river area (according to Orr et al. (2007) and Wostl (2002) Author Stakeholders Wostl (2002) authorities, engineers, environmental protection groups, insurance companies, house owners, agriculture, shipping industry Orr et. al (2007) agencies and institutions, public and private sector organizations, NGOs, academics, industries, insurance, business, conservation organization, residents, landowners, visitors from outside area We also researched the support to international cooperation in planning and managing river areas. Due to the long-standing trans boundary cooperation, it was expected that positive attitudes already exist there. The cooperation between Austria and Slovenia on the Drava and Mura Rivers dates back to 1954 (Slovenia was then within the state of Yugoslavia) and covers all issues that might have a negative effect on the rivers. There is a permanent Austrian - Slovenian Commission dealing with all related issues. A Croatian - Hungarian Water Management Commission has been created under the "Agreement on Water Management Relations" signed by the two countries in 1994. Sub commissions have been set up among others for Drava and Danube water management. There is also an agreement between Slovenia and Hungary. The 1996 agreement between Slovenia and Croatia also covers water resources in the Drava and Mura basins (ECE/MP.WAT/2009/8). A project has been developed by Croatia for the preparation of an Integrated River Basin Management Plan for the Drava River. 3.10 Survey instrument and procedure This study aimed to collect as much information as possible on a cross-cultural level in order to detect correlations between respondents' basic environmental attitudes, scenic perception and attitudes toward future use of the riverbed area. In a pilot research questionnaire, the survey lasted one hour and the results pointed to a low amount of answers in the last part of the questionnaire. The lessons from the pilot research also showed that the sequence of the survey, consisting of two parts, should be changed so that the visualization precedes the written part. After the revision, the visualizations came first, as stimuli, and after that the respondents answered the second, written part of the questionnaire which ended with questions on demographic data. An introduction letter (Appendix 1) was attached to the questionnaire and was also read to the audience in advance. During the introduction, all images were displayed on the wall, each for 7-10 seconds, and one by one with an explanation of the protocol scenario. At the end of the introduction all images were displayed again, more quickly, for ten seconds each. The questionnaire consisted of two distinctive parts (see Figure 34). The first part consisted of six sets of original images plus four photo montages of the planned scenarios, a total of 30 scenes. Respondents ranked the images in the questionnaire. Five photographs were printed on an A4 sheet and then grouped as Original, Restoration Scenario Scene, Outdoor Recreation and Tourism Scenario Scene, Settlement Scenario Scene and Energy Production Scenario Scene. The filling in of the questionnaires lasted from 35 to 45 minutes. A six-page-long-second part of the questionnaire was developed in order to measure environmental attitudes, values, self-reported pro-environmental behaviours, and demographics. Environmental attitudes were assessed within three scales. The first was the ecocentric and the second was defined as the anthropocentric environmental attitude, subdivided into two subscales as anthropocentric-egoistic and anthropocentric-altruistic (Schultz and Zelezny 1999). The responses were made on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from strongly agrees to strongly disagree with an added don 't know, don 't want to answer opinion. There were also open questions on memories, the river last visited etc. that were coded into clusters and linked to the frame attachment. The dimension of printed images was 6,00 x 8,00 cm in 320 dpi resolution since it had proven adequate in prior studies (Junker and Buchecker, 2008). VISUAL - STIMULI (AFFECTIVE) WRITTEN- QUESTIONNER (COGNITIVE) Environmental orientations Q Environmental orientations Sum of Ranking of Scenarios ■ Relationship to the natnralness Best and Worst Scenes □ □ Attitudes on variables Graphic interventions Motivations Coniments 011 the scenes Slika 34: Koncept instrumenta Figure 34: Concept of the instrument Attitudes ♦ visual vs. ecology |~| • variables ♦ subj ects of p lanning of riverscap e Attachment 1 Mnemoiy ' •frequency •activity Sociodemograpliic •age l~l ♦genclei ♦place of Iiving 4 RESULTS AND RESULTS ANALYSIS 4.1 The attitude of the total student sample on the design of the Mura and Drava river bank area 4.1.1 Environment value orientations Spatial problems are perceived on the scale from being underestimated to being overrated. The research of attitudes in this study was not conducted with an aim of establishing the reality of attitudes in relation to the environmental problems, but to investigate opinions which shape the behaviour or influence the design of spatial solutions and spatial policies. It was assumed that the total sample of respondents would be distributed into three clusters defined as ecocentric, anthropocentric-egoistic and anthropocentric-altruistic. The distribution into anthropocentric-egoistic and anthropocentric-altruistic was an attempt at differentiating two groups within the anthropocentric population by taking into consideration the attitude of respondents in relation to the whole environment and to research the differences in the preference for the river landscape and the attitudes to river landscape management. In the case of grouping the complete dataset in different paradigm clusters, a factor analysis was performed using principal components analysis with varimax rotation. The Guttman-Kaiser criterion for stopping the extraction at the value one was applied. The value of 0,40 was taken as a criterion for the value of the saturation factor(see Table 30). From the questions on the relation between people, nature, culture and technology, as shown in Table 28, it is visible that there is a distribution of results into items, expressed in percentages, arithmetic means, standard deviation and number of respondents. In the analysis of the results two aspects were pointed out: general features of frequency distribution (Table 28) and the most and the least acceptable claims (Table 29). Since there are no inverse items, we can observe high values of disagreement (1+2) and low values of agreement (3+4) for the three items related to the anthropocentric character (q2.1, q2.5 and q2.6). The opposite tendency is observed in the result distribution where there are high values of disagreement and low values of agreement (q2.2, q2.3, q2.7 and q2.8). Both distribution types are extremely asymmetric. Also observed was a high percentage of the answer "neither agree nor disagree", chosen by insecure respondents who make up 20,8% on average for the set of questions on the basic attitude of man toward nature, culture and technology. The respondents express their uncertainty about the item which puts into the relation man and technology. An even greater percentage of uncertainty is shown by items relating man and landscape (q2.3 and q2.5). Certain answers are given by respondents to claims which define the relationship of man and nature in the domain of ecology and the visual (q2.1, q2.7 and q2.8). Cumulative results show that young respondents gave positive answers to items which originate in value frames of a higher order for Benevolence and Universalism, which according to Schwartz (1984) indicate the presumed ecocentric orientation. Results in Table 29 show that the best accepted items were those related to the concept of ecology and aesthetics. The highest acceptance of these items is in favour of the claim that in the value system they are on a higher hierarchical position, so it is assumed that they are motivationally most intensive. Preglednica 28: Porazdelitev odgovorov na vprašanje o odnosih med ljudmi, naravo, kulturo in tehnologijo Table 28: Distribution of answers on the question on the relation between nature, technology, man and culture. Q2. The following claims express your attitudes on the relation between nature, technology, man and culture. To which degree do you agree with the following claims? 3 4 5 M ŠD N 1 1. Man is the absolute master of nature in which he lives and he may treat it according to his free will 2. The development of technical solutions brings to the human kind some new advantages and pleasures 3. If the landscape is preserved and authentic, the culture of the inhabitants of the area is more advanced, too 4. Rivers connect both physically and culturally the areas they flow through 5. A river should serve man only for relaxation, recreation and enjoying the view 6. Today the man completely controls even the most advanced technology and thus prevents possible disasters 7. Nature preservation has precedence over all other tasks of the society 8. Towns through which a river flows are more beautiful than those towns which don't have a river 2,4 3,5 1,4% 23,1 30,9 0,2 7,1 2 23,8 9,9 12,3 13,2 31,6 32,5 5,9 5,7 13,0 6,6 2,1 1,79 1,043 420 27,8 47,2 28,5 3,57 0,913 422 20,0 3,56 1,060 416 17,5 40,8 25,2 3,77 1,025 416 22,6 16,3 5,4 2,49 1,173 420 22,4 11,6 1,2 2,18 1,042 418 16,0 40,8 35,6 4,07 0,884 418 18,6 30,0 37,0 3,86 1,194 417 1-do not agree at all; 2- do not agree; 3- neither agree nor disagree; 4- do agree; 5- totally agree; M-mean score, SD-standard deviation; N -number of respondents *The items are taken from the survey in the project "Modernisation and identity of Croatian society. Social and cultural integration and development" (130-1301180-0915) Schwartz (2002) claims that the higher a priority of a value, the more it is possible that people will undertake action which may lead to its expression in behaviour. The importance of a value increases the consistency in behaviour. The link between values and behaviour was studied by Nordlund (2002) whose results showed that general values transcend into environmental values which affect the personal norm and proecological behaviour. Further research put the answer results for question 2 into correlation with other attitudes in order to research their connection and and relation to items in other frameworks. . Preglednica 29: Najmanjše in največje sprejete izjave na vprašanje št.2 Table 29: The most and the least acceptable items for Question No2 Least acceptable Most acceptable Man is the absolute master of nature in which he Nature preservation has precedence to all other tasks lives and he may treat it according to his free will of the society Today technology is controlled completely by man Towns through which a river flows are more and thus possible accidents are prevented beautiful than those towns which don't have a river Since the claims originated in environmental orientation frames, the instrument was tested by factor loadings. Three factors were established which present the assumed orientations, as provided in Table 30. Preglednica 30: Faktorska analiza v povezavi z okoljskimi smernicami Table 30: Factor loadings of the varimax rotated factor analysis on environmental orientations Anthropocentric Ecocentric Anthropocentric Egoistic Altruistic Man is the absolute master of nature in which he lives and he .730 may treat it according to his free will * The development of technical solutions brings to the human .688 kind some new advantages and pleasures* If a landscape is preserved and authentic the culture of its .664 inhabitants is more advanced, too The river should serve the man only for relaxation, recreation .821 and enjoying a nice view Today the man completely controls even the most advanced .498 .524 technology and thus prevents possible disasters* Nature preservation has precedence over all other tasks of the .584 society * The distribution of respondents considering the defined orientations is provided in Table 31. It can be concluded that the group of young respondents is heterogeneous and leveled regarding environmental orientations. The majority of the respondents belong the the Anthropocentric-altruistic group (36,1%), and the least numerous are those in the Anthropocentric-egoistic group (28,8%). A large percentage of respondents expressed anthropocentric attitudes (64,9 %) as opposed to those who expressed ecocentric attitudes (35,1%). This can be explained by the character of the concept Anthropocentric-altruistic which covers the expansion of the moral subject from I to we and is in accordance with comprehending the scope of the moral subject, but not with the area of responsibility. ''Egoistic environmental attitudes are based on beliefs about the effect that environmental destruction may have on the individual. Thus, the environment should be protected because I don't want to breathe polluted air, or I don't want to drink dirty water'' (Schultz and Zelezny, 1999). It has been found that egoistic environmental concerns are positively correlated with self-enhancement (enhancing one's own personal interests) and negatively correlated with self-transcendence (transcending one's selfish concerns and contributing to the well-being of others) (Schultz and Zelezny, 1999). Social altruistic concerns are based on goals or benefits to humans. Altruistic environmental concerns are similar for those found for biospheric concerns. Altruistic concerns have been found to be negatively correlated with self-enhancement and positively correlated with self-transcendence (Schultz and Zelezny, 1999). Preglednica 31: Porazdelitev vzorca v skladu z usmeritvami glede na okolje Table 31: Distribution of the sample according to environmental orientations Cluster % N Ecocentric 35,1 138 Anthropocentric Egoistic 28,8 113 Anthropocentric Altruistic 36,1 142 Total 393 The distribution of environmental orientations according to gender is provided in Table 32 and points to the fact that female respondents have a higher tendency of ecocentric attitudes (40,2%) as well as of anthropocentric altruistic ones (35,3%), whereas they were represented the least in the anthropocentric egoistic cluster (24,5%). Male respondents are represented more in anthropocentric clusters in which they were equally distributed (36,1% anthropocentric egoistic and 37,5% anthropocentric altruistic). They were somewhat less represented in the ecocentric cluster (26,4%). Preglednica 32: Porazdelitev vzorca v okoljsko usmeritev glede na spol Table 32: Distribution of the sample of environmental orientations according to gender male female Total Ecocentric N % Cluster % Total Sample 38 27,5 26,4 100 72,5 40,2 138 100,0 35,1 Anthropocentric £ egoistic et st ul o N % Cluster % Total Sample 52 46.0 36.1 61 54,0 24,5 113 100,0 28,8 Anthropocentric altruistic N % Cluster % Total Sample 54 38,0 37,5 88 62,0 35,3 142 100,0 36,1 Total N % Cluster % Total Sample 144 36,6 100,0 249 63,4 100,0 393 100,0 100,0 4.1.2 Resources for planning the river landscape The following questions studied the respondents' attitudes on desired and acceptable users of areas along waters, on the allocation of the river landscape and on the attitude to predictors of their future allocation. The first dichotomy concerns the aesthetics and protection poles. The respondents evaluated the following attitudes: the river landscape is more beautiful than other landscapes (aesthetics): the river landscape should be protected more than other landscapes (ecology). The distribution of results is similar for both items. The respondents were dominantly undecided on these two claims, so that 42,5% of them express the attitude neither agree, nor disagree for the first one and 39,2% for the second item. The results show an increasing trend for both items, since the respondents show a higher level of agreement with the item which brings the river into a privileged position of protection when compared to other landscapes, whereas an undecided attitude is more dominant for the first item. The respondents show higher support to the river as an ecological than as an aesthetic phenomenon in the landscape. Standard deviation for q10.1 (visual dimension) is SD=0,895 for N=419, whereas for q10.5 (ecology dimension) it is SD=0,954 for N=417. 45,0% 40,0% es 'S 20,0% c 15,0% » <$» aesthetic ecology Slika 35: Splošni statistični podatki o reko kot ekološki in estetski videz pokrajine Figure 35: General statistical results for the river as an ecological and aesthetic phenomenon of the landscape The set of questions on actors in the river landscape tested the agreement level on the topic of the biosphere (birds, plants), sustainability and anthropocentricity. Result frequency displays asymmetric character in all three cases with a trend for positive values (4+5). The respondents judged the sustainability paradigm as the most positive, for which they display the smallest values on the negative pole, as well as in irresolution. The respondents are a group having strong beliefs that sustainability is the right paradigm for the river landscape. Following closely in the positive trend is the attitude that "the river landscape is needed the most by birds and river plants" (67,9%) and that it is too precious not to be used by man (53,3%). Preglednica 33: Splošni statistični rezultati za mnenja študentov o uporabnikih obrečnega prostora in trajnosti Table 33: General statistical results for the attitudes of students on actors along the river and sustainability Q10. The following claims study the position of rivers in the environment and your attitude on who should exploit them. To what extent do you agree with the following claims about the river landscape? 1 2 3 4 5 M SD N 1. Rivers and the space around them is needed the most by birds and river plants 1,4 8,5 21,0 46,9 21,0 3,79 0,924 419 2. The river landscape should be developed sustainably 0,2 4,7 11,1 47,6 33,7 4,13 0,813 413 3. Rivers are too precious not to be used by man 1,2 9,2 34,7 35,1 18,2 3,61 0,932 417 1-do not agree at all; 2- do not agree; 3- neither agree nor disagree; 4- do agree; 5- totally agree; M-mean score SD-standard deviation; N -number of respondents Preglednica 34: Splošni statistični rezultati za mnenja študentov o važnosti razvojnih pojavov v prostoru ob rekah Table 34: The general statistical results for the students' opinion on the degree of importance regarding the phenomenon of development in the area by the river Q11. In the space along the river different facilities could be provided. What do you consider important for the development of the area along a river, e.g. the Mura or the Drava?_ 1. 2. building of hydroelectric power plants for the production of electric power higher accessibility to the river 1 5,4 0,2 2 12,3 7,8 3 22,6 25,5 4 39,4 50,2 5 13,9 13,2 M 3,47 3,71 SD 1,077 0,811 N 397 411 3. protection of autochthonous architecture 1,2 5,0 21,0 44,8 21,2 3,86 0,873 395 4. building of cottage settlements 9,2 32,3 34,7 17,7 4,2 2,75 0,999 416 5. development of tourist facilities 3,5 11,1 26,4 40,3 17,0 3,57 1,017 417 6. protection of natural bird habitats 0,5 2,1 5,0 34,2 56,4 4,47 0,734 416 7. gravel excavation 10,8 24,3 35,1 19,8 3,1 2,78 1,013 395 8. fish breeding 2,4 8,7 19,3 43,9 23,3 3,79 0,985 414 9. flood protection 0,2 0,7 4,0 32,8 60,4 4,55 0,634 416 10 11 development of agricultural activities scientific knowledge about the area 0,7 1,9 6,8 5,2 22,2 20,3 46,9 45,0 20,8 24,1 3,87 0,870 0,915 413 409 1-do not agree at all; 2- do not agree; 3- neither agree nor disagree; 4- do agree; 5- totally agree; M-mean score, SD-standard deviation; N -number of respondents Respondents' attitude was further studied by evaluating phenomena in the context of developing the river landscape. The concepts were construed according to the developmental and protection discourse (Marušic, 1991). In the distribution of results provided in Table 34 there are two noticeable tendencies: disagreement about the attitude for q11.4 (cottage settlements) and q11.7 (gravel excavations) to be important for the development of the river landscape and strong agreement for all other items. The most transparent attitude was expressed for q11.9 (flood protection) which was chosen by 93,2% of respondents with positive evaluation. From the results for the answers to questions 11 and 12 it is visible that the protection discourse overrode the developmental one, i.e. that the road to development is through environment protection, which is supported by the results of the pilot study conducted on the sample of 103 Croatian students (Stober, 2011). The results for the answers showing highest and lowest support are provided in Table 35. They show that the respondents chose the exploitation of resources - spatial, material and energy resources as the least important for development, whereas they judged scientific findings about the area and protection of bird habitats as the most important. The strongest consensus of a group of students was presented in the result on flood protection as the most important element for the development of the river area. The results indicate that in the context of development the lowest ranking was given to cottage settlements and gravel excavations, whereas on the level of visual stimuli the respondents as a whole expressed a unique attitude specifically against the hydroelectric power plant. There is a discrepancy between the offered picture of the hydroelectric power plant on the river and the picture of the hydroelectric power plant at the level of an idea as well as the settlement image at the affective and cognitive level. Preglednica 35: Najmanjše in največje sprejete izjave na vprašanje št. 11 Table 35: The most and the least acceptable items for question No11 The highest mean grade The lowest mean grade Flood protection Building of cottage settlements Protection of birds' natural habitats Gravel excavations Scientific findings about the area Building hydroelectric power plants for the production of electric power Preglednica 36: Splošni statistični rezultati za mnenja študentov o važnosti pojavov za načrtovanje obrečnega prostora Table 36: The general statistical results for the students opinion on the extent of importance of planning in the area by the river Q12. Spatial planning determines the purpose of an area in a sense that it takes into consideration the characteristics of the area. According to your feeling, how important are the following concepts for planning the purpose of the land area along the river. 1 2 3 4 5 M SD N 1. accessibility by car 12,5 18,9 39,6 21,2 7,1 2,91 1,090 421 2. scenic beauty 0,9 2,1 5,4 29,2 61,8 4,50 0,776 422 3. already designed 1,9 4,2 16,0 32,8 43,6 4,14 0,966 418 environment 4. river navigability 3,5 10,1 34,0 36,1 15,6 3,50 0,992 421 5. intact nature 2,1 3,1 17,9 37,3 39,2 4,09 0,940 422 6. flood protection 2,1 3,3 9,9 28,1 56,1 4,33 0,937 422 1-do not agree at all; 2- do not agree; 3- neither agree nor disagree; 4- do agree; 5- totally agree; M-mean score, SD-standard deviation; N -number of respondents Question number 12 repeats the topics from the previous question, but in the discourse of planning the purpose. The results in Table 36 are the following: scenic beauty was judged to be the most important, then flood protection, designed environment and intact nature. The respondents were the most undecided on the importance of car accessibility and river buoyancy but with a negative trend for car accessibility and a positive trend for buoyancy. The visual domain of the river landscape was confirmed in this case as a highly positioned topic in evaluating different topics connected to the river landscape. 4.1.3 Flood risk management Since one of the variables for scene modification was also the method of flood protection (shaping of the water's edge, function), the same topic was questioned in question 13. The first three items are simultaneously variables of simulated scenarios. The respondents were to express their attitude about the measures they agree with. It was assumed that education would play in this case a decisive role in evaluation and it was judged that the knowledge of civil engineering and agriculture students about floods and consequences of floods would influence the result as well as the differences between the attitudes of students and experts, as will be presented and interpreted later in the text. Preglednica 37: Splošni statistični rezultati za mnenja študentov o ukrepih za varovanje pred poplavami Table 37: The general statistical results for the students' opinion on the flood protection measures Q13. In previous years floods were a frequent phenomenon. To what extent do you agree that we should prevent floods by the suggested measures? 1 2 3 4 5 M SD N 1. concrete embankments and 8,7 12,3 27,8 32,5 14,6 3,33 1,154 407 fortifications 2. bank extensions and 3,3 7,3 17,7 45,3 22,6 3,80 0,996 408 digging of river armlets 3. creating lakes and 7,5 12,7 25,9 30,4 18,2 3,41 1,172 402 hydroelectric power plants 4. nothing should be done 63,4 15,1 11,1 2,6 2,4 1,58 0,972 401 1-do not agree at all; 2- do not agree; 3- neither agree nor disagree; 4- do agree; 5- totally agree; M-mean score SD-standard deviation; N -number of respondents Distribution of results given in Table 37 is asymmetric for all items. It is positive for the first three (q13.1, q13.2, q13.3) and negative for the item q13.4 which expresses the attitude "nothing should be done". This is also the most intense attitude. The respondents find as the most acceptable the measure of flood protection which includes bank extensions and digging of river armlets (67,9%), as simulated in the Restoration Scenario. Hydro technical measures are acceptable, but with a high percentage of the undecided (approximately one fourth of the respondents). Creating lakes and hydroelectric power plants is equally acceptable as hydro technical measures which include concrete embankments and fortifications (Recreation and Tourism Scenario, Settlement Scenario, Energy Production Scenario). 4.2 Conclusions for Environmental orientations, Resources for planning the river landscape and Flood risk management Students from three regional universities represent a heterogeneous group regarding their environmental orientations and a homogenous distribution regarding gender. Female respondents show somewhat higher inclination toward ecocentric orientations, whereas male respondents appear to be more represented in the anthropocentric-egoistic cluster. Respondents prefer the river landscape in relationship to a general notion of a landscape and a majority thinks that the river landscape should be protected more than other natural landscapes. A higher percentage of respondents are insecure about the claim that river landscapes are more beautiful than other natural landscapes. The respondents are completely certain of the sustainability paradigm being the right way to manage landscapes and to a somewhat lower intensity judge the river landscape to be suitable for biocenosis only and even to an even lower degree for man. They group the elements according to their relevance for the development of the river landscape according to the development-protection conflict. At the top most part of the hierarchy scale are the notions connected to environment protection and at the bottom part of the scale the notions connected to development and exploitation of resources. The respondents as a group prefer flood protection by retention and expansion of armlets. Equal support is expressed for lakes and hydroelectric power plants and to concrete embankments and fortifications. A difference in attitudes was noted in the evaluation of the visual and written instrument in the scenes of the Settlement and Energy Production Scenario and in question No 11. The image which the respondents had of a hydroelectric power plant was more positive than the presented modification. There was also an evident difference in the visualized and cognitive image of living by the river. The link will be additionally researched by correlating environmental orientation and scenario simulations in the following chapter. 4.3. The connection between the ecological and the aesthetic - structural simulations 4.3.1 The connection between the naturalness of the initial and the invasion of the modified vista Simulated scenarios were altered by variables in order to represent a specific environmental dimension, so that the Restoration Scenario was paired with ecocentrism, the Outdoor Recreation and Tourism Scenario and Settlement Scenario with the anthropocentrism-egoistic and anthropocentrism-altruistic components and the Energy Production Scenario with the anthropocentrism egoistic environmental orientation. The simulations had not been previously tested in order to establish the connections. The results of the correlations between the values of average rank and the factors for a specific cluster are represented in Table 38. Preglednica 38: Spearmanov Rho povezava med okoljskimi usmeritvami in scenariji panoramami za izvirne in panoramami scenarija obnovitve Table 38: Spearman's Rho correlation between environmental orientations and scenario vistas for Origin Vistas and Restoration Scenario Vistas Environmental orientations Origin Vistas 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ecocentric ,135(*) ,114(*) 0,072 0,036 0,073 0,093 Anthropocentric Egoistic -0,061 -0,098 -0,101 -0,098 -0,075 -,156(**) Anthropocentric Altruistic 0,069 0,076 0,072 0,074 0,072 0,034 Environmental orientations Restoration Scenario Vistas 1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A Ecocentric 0,060 ,109(*) 0,062 0,060 ,156(**) ,139(**) Anthropocentric Egoistic -,120(*) -,175(**) -,125(*) -,137(**) -,106(*) -,157(**) Anthropocentric Altruistic 0,070 ,158(**) ,111 (*) ,148(**) ,132(*) ,203(**) ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). A-Restoration Scenario; B - Outdoor recreation and Tourism Scenario; C-Settlement Scenario; D - Energy Production Scenario The first part of Table 38 represents a group of original photos which have not been manipulated, and from 1 to 6 have an increasing trend of strengthening anthropocentric influences. The vistas "virgin nature" (1) and "the scene with a wooden ferry" (2) correlate positively with the factor of the Ecocentric cluster, as expected. What was not expected was that the scene with the greatest anthropocentric influence, the bridge (6), correlates negatively with the factor of the Anthropocentric-egoistic cluster. All other vistas correlate negatively with river landscape vistas. The assumption was that neither of the images contains a highly anthropocentric environment but only slight shifts in intensity from total nature to an anthropocentric element (bridge) so that neither of the original photographs represents an image of anthropocentric domination which would correspond to the anthropocentric environmental orientation. The correlation coefficient is positive and most stable for the Anthropocentric-altruistic cluster, whereas it is negative for the Anthropocentric-egoistic one and without significance except for the last scene. The Restoration of the River Scenario (the second part of Table 38) shows the highest number of correlations with the factors of environmental clusters. A positive correlation is expressed for three out of six scenes, whereas a negative correlation is expressed for all six scenes; three significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) and three significant at 0.05 level (2-tailed). Five scenes of the Restoration Scenario correlate with the Anthropocentric Altruistic cluster as well. A positive correlation for Ecocentric and Anthropocentric-altruistic is in favour of confirming the overlap of those environmental clusters in attitudes to the Restoration Scenario. Preglednica 39: Spearmanov Rho povezava med okoljskimi usmeritvami in scenariji panoramami za scenarij rekreacije na prostem in turizem ter scenarij stanovanja Table 39: Spearman's Rho correlation between environmental orientations and the Outdoor Recreation and Tourism Scenario and the Settlement Scenario Environmental orientations Outdoor Recreation and Tourism Scenario Vistas 1B 2B 3B 4B 5B 6B Ecocentric ,196(**) 0,042 -0,030 0,025 -0,038 0,012 Anthropocentric Egoistic 0,057 0,034 0,088 -0,005 0,024 ,146(**) AnthropocentricAltruistic -0,051 -0,078 -0,093 -0,103 -,134(*) -,220(**) Environmental orientations Settlement Scenario Vistas 1C 2C 3C 4C 5C 6C Ecocentric -,183(**) -0,103 -0,018 -0,089 -0,101 -,142(**) Anthropocentric Egoistic 0,052 ,155(**) 0,100 ,169(**) 0,057 0,074 Anthropocentric Altruistic -,110(*) -,143(**) -,117(*) -0,080 -0,007 -0,025 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). A-Restoration Scenario; B - Outdoor Recreation and Tourism Scenario; C-Settlement Scenario; D - Energy Production Scenario In the first part of Table 39 Outdoor recreation and Tourism Scenario correlates positively with Ecocentric orientation only in the first scene (nature, tall shrubbery, natural edge, earth pathway, bikers, anglers), but there is also positive correlation with Anthropocentric-egoistic in the last scene (bridge, arranged pathway, bikers, anglers, boats...). The negative correlation for the last two scenes in Outdoor recreation and Tourism and Anthropocentric-altruistic can be explained by the fact of disapproving of spreading human influence and by indirect care for man through being concerned about the consequences caused by human impact. The second part of Table 39 presents the results according to which Settlement Scenario in two scenes correlates negatively with the Ecocentric cluster, especially in the poles of original images for scene 1 and scene 6. The first three scenes correlate with Anthropocentric-altruistic orientation. Positive correlation of two scenes and the factor in the cluster of Anthropocentric-egoistic orientation speaks in favour of recognizing this scenario as human dominance. Preglednica 40: Spearmanov Rho povezava med okoljskimi usmeritvami in scenariji panoramami za scenarij proizvodnje energij Table 40: Spearman's Rho correlation between environmental orientations and Energy Production Scenario Environmental orientations Energy production Scenario Vistas 1D 2D 3D 4D 5D 6D Ecocentric -,215(**) -,155(**) -,123(*) -0,024 -,166(**) -,200(**) Anthropocentric Egoistic 0,016 0,065 0,070 0,035 ,108(*) 0,100 Anthropocentric Altruistic 0,070 0,037 0,025 -0,073 -0,021 0,062 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). A-Restoration Scenario; B - Outdoor Recreation and Tourism Scenario; C-Settlement Scenario; D - Energy Production Scenario The final scenario, the Energy Production Scenario, correlates negatively in five scenes with the factor of Ecocentric orientation, as expected. There is just one significant correlation of the Energy Production Scenario with the Anthropocentric Egoistic cluster. There was expectancy of a positive correlation between the last scenario and the hydroelectric power plant scene, the concrete embankment and decreasing plants in the scene, but the value is marginally significant. It can be concluded from the summarized overview of the positive and negative significance of correlations that the visual simulations presented a specific cluster in an inconsistent manner. The results exhibit partial confirmation of presenting the ideology of ecological orientation in the realized transformation of the river landscape through four variables (edge, greenery, users, built infrastructure). Six original photographs were manipulated for four scenarios. In 13 out of possible 30 times there was correlation of the Ecocentric cluster factor with a specific scene, in 11 for Anthropocentric-egoistic, and in 9 for Anthropocentric-altruistic. The following scenes exhibit the highest correlation factors for specific environmental orientations: 4.3.2 Correlation of visual simulations and intrinsic and extrinsic motivations The scale on seven motivational aspirations according to Kasser and Ryan (1996) was supplemented by the concept of awareness, which originates in intrinsic motivation, and was assumed as motivation specific for the researched young populaton. Aspiration health was in some studies assumed to be a neutral item, whereas in some others it was listed as intrinsic motivation. Respondents evaluated aspiration value on the scale from 1 - not important at all, 2 -mostly unimportant, 3 - neither improtant nor unimportant, 4 - mostly important, 5 - very important. The results of a general statistical analysis indicate that there is an assumed hyerarchy of intrinsic over extrinsic motivations, where results in Table 41 indicate that respondents value health as the most important, and wealth as the least important. Awareness is at the bottom of intrinsic motivation, but at the top of the extrinsic ones. At the top of extrinsic aspirations is career, and after that the respondents valued reputation, then looks and, finally, wealth. Preglednica 41: Splošni statistični rezultati za mnenja študentov o ukrepih za varstvoe pred poplavami Table 41: The general statistical results for the students'opinion on the flood protection measures Aspiration M SD N Wealth 3,25 0,982 419 appearance 3,56 0,484 419 Reputation 3,72 0,778 418 Career 3,99 0,688 419 Awareness 4,16 0,849 419 Knowledge 4,52 0,661 419 family relations 4,69 0,936 419 Health 4,85 0,892 419 M-mean score; SD-standard deviation; N -number of respondents In the second stage the correlation between aspirations and scene rankings was researched. The results shown in Table 42 indicate that extrinsic aspirations mostly correlate with visual stimuli. Accordingly, the highest numebr of correlations can be found, six times for the motif career (1, 1D, 2, 3, 3D i 5D), wheras reputation (1, 1C, 1D, 5D, 6D), and wealth (1B, 1C, 2, 3D i 6D) correlate with vistas five (5) times. Looks (1B, 1C, 1D) correlate on three occasions, awareness on two. Family relations correlates with Vista 2B. Health and knowledge do not correlate with either of the vistas. Positive correlation points to a higher evaluation of aspiration and lower evaluation of vistas. Thus the result indicates a positive link between extrinsic values and a better evaluation of the Energy Production Scenario as well as the negative relationships between the evaluation of the Origin Vistas and evaluation of extrinsic aspirations. Preglednica 42 Spearmanov Rho povezava med okoljskimi usmeritvami in scenariji panoramami za scenarij proizvodnje energij Table 42: Spearman's Rho correlation between environmental orientations and the Energy Production Scenario Intrinsic motivational orientations Extrinsic motivational orientations G« g« u S M S o "(Š .S