12th International Conference on Management of Innovative Technologies & 4th International Conference on Sustainable Life in Manufacturing 2013 General sponsors n m B Ml .. n n ii 22nd-24th of September 2013, Fiesa - Slovenia Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Management of Innovative Technologies & 4th International Conference on Sustainable Life in Manufacturing MIT&SLIM 2013 Fiesa, Slovenia 22th - 24th September 2013 Editors: Mihael Junkar Janez Kopač Paul R. Levy Oguz Colak Title: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Management of Innovative Technologies and 4th International Conference on Sustainable Life in Manufacturing, MIT&SLIM 2013 Editors: Mihael Junkar, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Janez Kopač, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Paul R. Levy, University of Brighton, UK Oguz Colak, Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey Programme committee: D. Kramar, J. Valentinčič, M. Jerman, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Organizers: TAVO, Slovene Society for Abrasive Water Jet Technology, Slovenia Laboratory for Alternative Technologies, Univ. of Ljubljana, Slovenia Laboratory for Cutting, Univ. of Ljubljana, Slovenia CAD/CAM Reseach and Application Center, Suleyman Demirel University (SUD), Turkey Centre for Research in Innovation Management, University of Brighton, UK General sponsors: BHDT, Austria SECO Tools, Slovenia Sponsors: BTS Company, Slovenia TEXIMP, Slovenia TITAN, Slovenia Design: D. Kramar, M. Jerman, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Publishers: TAVO - Slovene Society for Abrasive Water Jet Technology, Slovenia, LAT - Laboratory for Alternative Technologies, Univ. of Ljubljana, Slovenia. LABOD - Laboratory for Cutting, Univ. of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Note: This is an extended version of the conference proceedings published only in _digital form and distributed on USB keys._ CIP - Kataložni zapis o publikaciji Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Ljubljana 005:001.895(082) 621:502.131.1(082) INTERNATIONAL Conference on Management of Innovative Technologies (12 ; 2013 ; Piran) MIT & SLIM 2013 [Elektronski vir] : proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Management of Innovative Technologies & 4th International Conference on Sustainable Life in Manufacturing, Fiesa, Slovenia, 22th-24th September 2013 / [organizers TAVO Slovene Society for Abrasive Water Jet Technology ... et al.] ; editors Mihael Junkar ... [et al.]. - Ljubljana : TAVO - Slovene Society for Abrasive Water Jet Technology : LAT - Laboratory for Alternative Technologies, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering : LABOD - Laboratory for Cutting, 2013 ISBN 978-961-6536-67-7 (Fakulteta za strojništvo) 1. Gl. stv. nasl. 2. Junkar, Mihael 3. International Conference on Sustainable Life in Manufacturing (4 ; 2013 ; Piran) 4. TAVO, Društvo za tehnologije abrazivne in vodne obdelave (Ljubljana) 269878528 The Editors and the Conference Committee believe that the subject of the papers to be presented are in line with the objectives of the conference, but it is not responsible for any data or any other information dispensed in the Proceedings. All papers have been peer reviewed by the members of Scientific Committee. © TAVO & LAT, Slovenia. All rights reserved. No part of this issue may be reproduced in any form without written permission of the publishers. Preface Previous MIT (Management of Innovative Technologies) - SLIM (Sustainable Life in Manufacturing) have seen world economic boom and subsequent collapse. Our conferences have explored technological innovation and technology management from multi-disciplinary perspectives. That has been the unique contribution of our previous eleven conference -bringing together academics and practitioners from different fields to exchange ideas, knowledge and experience that can impact significantly on cross-disciplinary research and also stimulate innovation in practice. Human factors, "technosophy" (the wise application of technology) and sustainability have been key areas of interest for many of the conference's contributors and now, as we announce our call for contributions to the 12th MIT and 4th SLIM Conference in 2013, in a year of continuing global recession, financial and environmental challenges, our conference seems as relevant and important as ever. In the beautiful setting of Fiesa, Slovenia, bordering with Croatia and Italy and within driving distance of many other countries, we are glad our conference sits as the borderland of different cultures, just as our program sits at the border of different disciplines, interests and perspectives. This year we welcome contributions that address regeneration in times of recession. We welcome contributions that examine the role of technological innovation in the development of sustainable businesses, organisations, communities and economies. It is our hope that the conference will generate insights that will directly contribute to our emerge from economic crisis, in our respective sectors, industries, economies and as a world community. We welcome case studies and stories, as well as sessions which, may lead to inter-disciplinary research. Mihael Junkar Paul Levy Janez Kopač Oguz Colak ^f? International Scientific Committee: Chairmen: Mihael Junkar University of Ljubljana (Slovenia) Janez Kopač University of Ljubljana (Slovenia) Co-Chairmen: Oguz Colak Suleyman Demirel University (Turkey) Paul Levy University of Brighton (UK) Members: Samuel Bigot Cardiff University (UK) Giuliano Bissacco Technical University of Denmark (Denmark) Halil Caliskan University of Bartin (Turkey) Costel Emil Cotet University "Politehnica" of Bucharest (Romania) Franci Čuš University of Maribor (Slovenia) Stefan Dimov Universty of Birmingham (UK) Anselmo Diniz University of Campinas, Sao Paulo (Brazil) Davorin Kramar University of Ljubljana (Slovenia) G. Lakic-Globocki University of Banja Luka (Bosnia & Herzegovina) Gorazd Lampič University of Ljubljana (Slovenia) Andrej Lebar University of Ljubljana (Slovenia) Cedric Masclet University of Grenoble (France) Henri Orbanic University of Ljubljana (Slovenia) Frank Pude University of App. Sci. NW Switzerland (Switzerland) Franci Pušavec University of Ljubljana (Slovenia) Maria H. Robert University of Campinas (Brazil) Joel Rech University of Lyon (France) Alojz Sluga University of Ljubljana (Slovenia) Milenko Sekulic University of Novi Sad (Serbia) Mirko Sokovic University of Ljubljana (Slovenia) Franz Trieb BHDT GmbH (Austria) Joško Valentinčič University of Ljubljana (Slovenia) Sencer Yeralan University of Florida (USA) Organizing committee: Mihael Junkar (Slovenia) Janez Kopač (Slovenia) Oguz Colak (Turkey) Paul Levy (UK) Davorin Kramar (Slovenia) Marko Jerman (Slovenia) Joško Valentinčič (Slovenia) Content PREFACE PAPER SESSIONS KEYNOTE LECTURES An Exploration of the Dimensions of Conscious Business and Consideration of The Notion of Toxic Business Consciousness P. Levy, M. Junkar Improving the over-all efficiency of mold and dies by functionalizing surfaces F. Bleicher Alternative brand building and product development E. Halilovic, N. Matjaž Influence of MQL on friction coefficient and workmaterial adhesion during machining of cast aluminium with various cutting tool substrates made of PCD, HSS J. Rech, P. Faveijon SESSION 1 Sustainability Technology that 5 Billion People Need H. Fujii, N. Sase Environmental loading reduction by bio-ethanol application T. Mori, Y. Takasu Application of corundum based abrasives for abrasive waterjet cutting: disintegration properties and recycling potential F. Pude Life cycle assessment of abrasive ice jet cutting technology A. Zupančič, M. Jerman, A. Lebar, J.B. Jimenez, A .del Caso Range Extender in electric vehicles - a revival of (highly optimized) two stroke engines on a small scale A. Nagel, S. Thater, R. Steinhilper SESSION 2A Innovations and technologies Innovation management opportunities in Slovenian manufacturing: an empirical analysis within low- and hi-tech companies B. Likar, S. Sukič, J. Kopač, M. Ropret Technology, design and innovation relations M. Filiz The effect of systemic factors on the development of high-tech entrepreneurship in Slovenia S. Sukič, B. Likar Service Engineering for Prospective Vehicle Service-Processes A. Nagel, R. Steinhilper, S. Freiberger, S. Thater Upgrade of abrasive flow machining process for controllable creation of micro geometry and polishing of surface in tooling industries F. Pušavec, J. Kenda, J. Kopač The Challenges for Effective Management in the Realm of Digital Working - a Discussion Paper P. Levy, M. Junkar SESSION 2B Process modelling and measurements Method of measuring the water jet diameter J. Gil Cano, A. Lebar, M. Jerman Modelling of the main cutting force in high-pressure jet assisted turning process by genetic algorithm V. Pucovsky, D. Kramar, M. Sekulic A Novel Method for Material Machinability Evaluation B. Sredanovic, G. Globočki - Lakic, B. Čiča, S. Borojevic Further development of the spatial cutting tool wear measurement system L. Čerče, F. Pušavec, J. Dugar, J. Kopač 3D foot surface scanning for the purpose of foot orthotics production K. Obrovac, T. Udiljak, J. Vukovic Obrovac, J. Nižetic, A. Mutka An investigation into roller burnishing process B. Žabkar, J. Kopač SESSION 3 Industrial session Mass production of the Step Lock Bolt N. Sase, T. Takahashi, K. Tamura SESSION 4A Innovative technologies Electronic component cleaning by supercritical CO2 M. Bauer, S. Schweinstig, S. Thater, R. Steinhilper Radio Frequency Communication - A new (service-) interface for electronic control units R. Steinhilper, J. Kleylein-Feuerstein, A. Reger Numerical simulations: An Indispensable Tool in Piezoelectric Micropumps Research B. Pečar, D. Križaj, D. Vrtačnik, D. Resnik, M. Možek, U. Aljančič, T. Dolžan, S. Amon Process chain for microreactor monomere replication in polymer I. Sabotin, J. Valentinčič Design of vario-therm tempering systems for injection moulding of micro-parts D. Kobold, A. Glojek, A. Hančič SESSION 4B Advanced technologies Powerled Life Test System B. Uslu, i.S. Uncu Chip Formation Analysis of High Pressure Jet Assisted Machining of Ti6Al4V L. Yunlu, O. Colak, C. Kurbanoglu Experimental Study on Machinability of AISI H13 Tool Steel B. Yalcin, K. Kiran, E. Aykan, O. Colak Feeding the ultrasonic devices used in boats with solar energy by using logic switching method R. Abdulla, F.G.K. Abdulla Technologies for tube sampling in nuclear power plant heat exchangers J. Valentinčič, M. Resnik, M. Frankovič Application of Vortex tube for tool cooling M. Duspara, B. Kosec, M. Stoic, D. Kramar, A. Stoic Burr Formation after Face Milling of Compacted Graphite Iron used in Diesel Engine Blocks M.O. dos Santos, G. F. Batalha, M. Stipkovic Filho, E. C. Bordinassi Groove rolling of a round bar T. Pepelnjak, S. Štarkel Microcontroller enabled real time monitoring of energy efficiency in micro EDM milling process G. Tristo, A. Lebar, G. Bissacco, J. Valentinčič SESSION 5A Advanced technologies Linguistic model for estimation of surface roughness in milling F. Čuš, U. Župerl Robot milling of welded structures J. Tratar, J. Kopač Machine Vision Control of Industrial Robot Assembly via Serial Interface M. Pipan, E. Adrovic, N. Herakovič Ice jet: Environmental technology pilot plant for drastically reducing waste produced by abrasive water jet cutting techniques M. Jerman, A. Lebar, I. Etxeberria, A.Suarez SESSION 5B Advanced rapid technologies Cutting graded materials with milling T. Irgolič, F. Čuš Combining additive and subtractive technologies to get optimized tool inserts D. Homar, J. Kopač, K. Boivie, L. T. Gellein Experiences from small prototype workshop P. Drešar, M. Jerman, A. Lebar Conference Sponsors Keynote lectures An Exploration of the Dimensions of Conscious Business and Consideration of The Notion of Toxic Business Consciousness Paul Levy, Senior Lecturer, CENTRIM, University of Brighton UK and Professor Mihael Junkar, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Abstract This discussion paper draws upon two years' research into the field of Conscious Business. The paper attempts to elaborate the dimensions of a conscious business, describing the elements of a business that claims to be conscious. Conscious Business is a term that has increasingly developed out of the Conscious Capitalism movement and the sustainable business field. This paper takes a more neutral look at consciousness in business and also explores the more radical phenomenon of toxicity in business consciousness. Introduction There are a vast number of definitions of consciousness. In science, consciousness is a function of the brain. In metaphysics and the "New age" movement, the brain is an element or even a function of consciousness! Explanations abound, and it is easy to get lost in the mire of thought and application. The scientific establishment is disdainful of anyone who claims consciousness exists beyond the brain and there is even a growing view that consciousness itself is a kind of functional illusion created by chemical and electrical brain activity. The self, apparently, is an illusion. (See here. And here. And here). "Conscious" Business would suggest that a business can be more or less conscious, and can behave in more or less and different ways. So, the definition of what conscious means is rather important. In the currently established view of "conscious" in conscious business, the definition tends to suggest that a more conscious business takes into account social, ethical, and environmental issues that is was previously less conscious off. So a more "conscious" business is more aware of its social, ethical and environmental responsibilities. This then modifies its approach to the practice of capitalism rendering it into a more "consciously capitalist" organisation. So, in this definition, a conscious business is a better corporate citizen in a way that a more conscious neighbour is one who is more aware of the impact of the noise they make on neighbours, or in a way that a child is a more "conscious" child when he or she stands up for an elderly person on a crowded bus. In the mainstream of Conscious Business, consciousness is about waking up to one's social responsibility. Being aware only of the process of money making is a "Lower" or "lesser" form of consciousness. Being aware of issues beyond the process of pure money making is viewed and defined as being of 'higher' or 'greater' consciousness. As a result of this, conscious business tends to sit mostly in the fields of "green" behaviours, as well as corporate and social responsibility, and also in the field of more human-centred approaches to management, leadership and organisation. From a more "pure" conceptual view, this is a kind of benevolently intended misuse, or perhaps partial use of the term "conscious". Indeed, most of the philosophical, scientific and even esoteric definitions of consciousness do not top slice the definition of the word conscious and then claim it as the sole territory of the "good". In scientific definitions, consciousness is either value-free or beyond value. Consciousness is a state of awareness, awakeness, alertness. It is a state in which sensory data is optimised through a combination of accurate sense perception and clear cognition. In many new age philosophies, the natural state of the universe is "good" or benevolent, and when consciousness is raised it realises this in itself, and this self-realisation is a realisation of one's duty to do the good, as this harmonises with natural law. At the other, more socially Darwinistic extreme, doing the good is functionally useful to survival, and nothing more. There's huge diversity of view, much disagreement, and little or no proof one way or the other. The Narrow Focus on Conscious Business as Sustainability and Social Responsibility. It doesn't surprise us that "conscious business" has been defined in terms of social and ethical responsibility because: 1. This is a neat definition 2. This is a nice new badge for the ailing fields of "green" and corporate social responsibility 3. The recent global meltdown is being described as a failure of capitalism, pointing to a lack of consciousness of all factors, especially in the banking sector. What interests me, is that, whether one takes an esoteric/metaphysical view or a natural scientific/materialistic view of consciousness in business, a number of useful dimensions can be identified which fit well with a benevolent, "goodness"-based definition, and also something much broader where consciousness is simply a form of heightened awakeness and awareness. There are some of the dimensions I've identified so far. Most, if not all, a transpositions of consciousness in a human being. The main difference is that in a business, consciousness can vary in extent and quality in different parts of the business. Often the leaders are seen as the "head", but this metaphor only works partly, especially in highly networked and fluid business structures. Here, the head can move location, within and even outside of the main body! The Dimensions of consciousness in a business One can view consciousness in business along a number of dimensions. These dimensions can view business consciousness in terms of... 1. A state of being awake or asleep Positive: The business is fully aware of internal and external dynamics and is energised to proact and react Negative: The business remains in a state of unchange, cut off what either experience or decision-making 2. A state of awareness or ignorance Positive: The business is aware of all internal and external dynamics and may also be aware of its sleep state Negative: The business is ignorant of internal and external dynamics and isn't even aware it is in a state of unchange 3. A state of high or lower sense of alertness (hearing, seeing, touching etc) Positive: The business has high and clear visibility of its internal and external dynamics through clear and real time pictures and data Negative: The business lacks visibility with no clear vision, data on performance and in a way is working blind or blurred 4. A state of broad or narrow focus, deep or surface focus Positive: The business is aware of its broad context but is also able to reach root causes and focus and prioritise when necessary on what needs to be done Negative: The business either too generalist and superficial, or has become fixated on one market, one product or one strategy 5. A holistic or partial awareness Positive: The business has a clear awareness of the whole system, and how it fits into the "big picture", The business can take a helicopter view and adapt as necessary based on that view The business has a bias on its leadership team - for example an over-focus on marketing at the expense of product development and innovation. The business is "biased" in a way that distorts its ability to gain objective overview. 6. A clear or blurred view Positive: The business has a culture of truthfulness based on honesty and accurate information. Data is real time and logical thinking works in partnership with insight and intuition. Negative: The business has distorted information systems, out of date or not properly collected data and analysis. Subjectivity is often mistaken for fact. 7. A high to low degree of self-awareness Positive: The business is aware of its core motives and values. It knows that is motivating it and how its historical and present biases impact on it. It knows the difference between forecasting and wishful thinking. Negative: The business's motives are often hidden from it, sometimes by interest groups, sometimes because the business is simply superficially reactive or has confused "spin" with core values. 8. A state of primitive or childish versus evolved or adult consciousness Positive: The business is able to be patient, to give and take criticism, to make informed decisions, to learn from failure and to commit over the long term. The business has awareness of its place and impact around it in the social and environmental space around it. Negative: The business is naive, often reacts on emotion rather than knowledge and a contextualised need. It's view of profit and growth is short term and superficial. It sees business as war. The business can even sulk and block when criticised. The business is centred mostly on itself, ignorant of its impact socially and environmentally except it ways that benefit it narrowly These are tentatively written dimensions and I'll be developing them further over time. A conscious business can therefore be described differently based on the underpinning definition of the word 'conscious'. Personally, I feel the view of conscious as "green and good" is too narrow and limiting. It is possible to be conscious and to be neither green nor good. But if we do want to be green and good, it helps to be conscious along the above dimensions. Further exploration - Going Deeper and Darker One of the unique aspects to the definition of conscious business we presented earlier is that a business can be highly conscious and be hugely damaging, cynical and even corrupt. The mainstream definitions of conscious business take a view that being "conscious" means being benevolent, and it isn't surprising that the words "ethical" and "sustainable" are attached to many "conscious" businesses. So, a conscious business is one that is more socially and ethically aware and applies these into a more "conscious" approach to what they do. In essence, a conscious business is a "conscience business"! This is a very laudable approach because the use of the term conscious to signify social responsibility is a timely and needed antidote to much of the greed, socially and environmentally insensitive, win-lose-obsessed capitalism that has brought about the recent global economic collapse. Greed is seen as short-term, short-sighted, and ultimately narrow-minded. A conscious business improves its awareness by improving its behaviour! Essentially the organisation wakes up to itself and its social responsibility and impact. And yet it is quite possible to be very aware of one's actions that are harmful of others. In literature, in film, in religious and mythological traditions, the "devil" is a very conscious being - clever, sharp and aware of all the scenarios. True, some businesses lack consciousness when they behave unethically, but others are very sharply conscious, aware of all the variables, impacts, and even the laws they are breaking, and still they decide to act, cleverly managing and masking those actions. A conscious business can be good or evil. So, when a business reaches a high level of consciousness, it could be playing the law in ways that undermine the spirit of that law, manipulating customers, suppliers, employees and stakeholders in all kinds of damaging ways that maximise its own profits. It can be spinning the truth into a tissue of clever, within-the-law (or not) lies, it can be playing one group off against another, it can even be cheating, creating addiction and dependency, polluting and distorting, all by design, all as part of a set of highly self-aware conscious choices. A business can be highly conscious and using that consciousness to become a good citizen in the local or global economy. Or it could be deploying that consciousness in devilish ways that poison humanity, leaving it, as a corporate being, largely untouched and unharmed in at least the medium term. A conscious business can be nourishing or toxic for its stakeholders. It may even know that part of its toxic behaviour is also poisoning itself, but has developed clever and smart defences and ways of ensuring it remains largely able to continue. This is the key issue. The dominant view of conscious businesses sees consciously unethical behaviour as being ultimately a sign of lack of consciousness because, in the end, it was all come back on the corporation engaging in unethical activity. Not always so. The genius that come with high consciousness can allow corporate entities to develop that can become very resilient to their own partly self-inflicted toxic behaviour. They can bear court cases, customer backlashes in the short-term, employee rebellions, and still continue in the long-term. They know how to take the hit for a longer term self-beneficial game plan. So, in our model of conscious business, we do not see "goodness" or "sustainability" as in input to the model. It is a possible output - but not always. Increasing business consciousness can indeed raise awareness in a corporation of the impact of its actions on its communities in ways that make it modify its behaviour to be more benevolent. But, equally, it can wake up a business to its potential to become sharply and cleverly poisonous in ways that can maximise profit. Examples include creating entanglement and addiction in customers and employees, suppliers and collaborators. It can pollute environments in ways that leave it legally untouched at least for years) and can also pollute minds with half-truths, manipulative messages and processes which corrupt aspects of its value chain into helping it to maximise profit and minimal cost to itself. And it remains entirely and deeply self-aware of what it is doing. So, our model can begin to audit the level and quality of consciousness in a business. But a new dimension is also added that attempts to identify the toxicity of that consciousness in terms of its impact on its internal and external stakeholders. It isn't enough to sat a conscious business is a good business. Too many sharply toxic and very conscious businesses know very well how to dress up that toxicity as benevolence. There are already some emerging definitions of toxic business. See Forbes, for example, which focuses on a toxic business as one of weak culture, distortion and lacking in truth (I'd call that a particular form of poison that weakens and starves of truth). Fast Company view toxic business as one that is a poor employer and which has a cold philosophy. In both cases the toxicity arises out of a certain lack of consciousness. A more academic viewpoints to the self-poisoning that can happen at the top of the business: "Egocentric, or "narcissistic" managers can easily perpetuate a self-reinforcing pattern of behavior, one in which the conquered subordinate is transformed into an enabler, or an obsequious follower who willingly serves the boss." (Reference here.). The authors contrast toxicity with "collaboration". Collaboration tends to reduce toxicity. Of course, but only if that collaboration is genuine and not a smokescreen for skilled, conscious, underlying toxic behaviour such as hidden agendas and manipulation. There's a simple checklist for a toxic workplace here, which ranges across conflict, poor management and demotivated employees. Once again, the definition doesn't take in the possibility that the highest form of toxicity is the Monkshood of management and leadership - the poisonous behaviours that can't be detected. The issue here is that, in some very conscious businesses, toxic behaviours are designed, and are specifically designed to be undetectable. Here are a few of my own, admittedly anecdotal, examples of conscious toxic business behaviour (where consciousness here refers to being aware of both behaviour and motive in the actor, who still decides to proceed with the action): * the poisoning of minds through direct deception, distortion and economy with the truth * the poisoning of human bodies and physical environment through the distortion of product, service or process description and performance feedback * the starvation of people, environment, or process in ways detrimental, in ways that are undetectable- this can include greed with resources, but also starvation of choice or of information that can create a greater sense of freedom of thought, feeling of action * the manipulation of the behaviour of others in ways that harms their physical or mental well being - employees, customers, suppliers, stakeholders (for example, create fear in employees who work beyond their paid hours in order not to get fired or have their "card marked" - this is often dressed up as "ambitious leadership" * the exploitation of work forces or customer groups in ways that harm their physical, mental or social well being in ways that also "spin" legality * the creation of collusions of mediocrity where openness and honesty are framed always a dysfunctional behaviour and "troublemaking", thus starving people and situations of truthfulness * the creation of entanglement through contracting and pressured expectation that leaves employees feeling imprisoned at work, customers and suppliers tied in ways that make them feel "chained". Conscious businesses often frame this cleverly as "benevolent" entanglement. * the creation of technological, future shock, putting people into trance states where lack of understanding and lethargy create zombie-like compliance, and where they feel overwhelmed by technological change that leaves them feeling drained by apparent choice and information overload Just as physical poisoning involves the introduction of substances harmful to the human being into it, toxic business can involve the physical poisoning of people and environments. But it can also involve the creation and implementation of systems and business processes that starve people and groups of truthfulness, poison minds and understanding, manipulate truth, hide one process or substance as another, to pretend something is beneficial when it is harmful, to create lethargy, addiction and paralysis, to engender conflict via manipulation and distortion. And also to create stress and pressure that harms humans in ways that could have been avoided. Toxic business is a new variable in highly conscious businesses. Of course, a business can be very low in consciousness and be toxic. It can also be non-toxic! Here the focus is on the fact that with self-awareness comes responsibility, but also comes the possibility and potential to abuse that newly won consciousness and to become toxic - poisonous to the "other". So, our model tries to measure and assess consciousness, but it also adds the possibility of an extra dimension - the toxicity of the conscious business. And what then, if anything, can be done? The most conscious toxic businesses will be attempting to fly under the radar of detection. They will be skilled at lowering the consciousness of individuals, groups, even whole communities around them so that the poison remains undetected, ideally in perpetuity. Here detection becomes about legal investigation, of "smoking out", of "outing", of bringing that which is hidden out in the open - naming the devil with evidence. And, like Moriarty, the most conscious toxic businesses will be a match even for Sherlock Holmes himself. But here, detoxification has to come from confrontation. There will also be conscious and toxic businesses who, though highly conscious businesses, have started to self-poison. Here the toxicity turns in on the organisation. The business, for example, can start to believe its own lies, and public scandal or even physical disasters such as an oil spill or a train crash can then force the toxicity out into the gaze of public inquiry. Here detoxification comes from scrutiny and public exorcism. There will then also be highly conscious businesses who have elements within (shareholders, certain leaders and influencers) and also from outside who (consultants, the media and customer groups) who start to draw attention to the worst elements of the toxicity. The business may go into internal conflict as certain toxic behaviours are outed as unacceptable. Here the business needs to shift towards a wish to detoxify. This can arise from customer protest, from a public scandal or an accident that snaps the business out of its one form of sleep - the sleep in which it isn't entirely aware of its toxic impact. Here the moral conscience awakens in all or part of the leadership in a kind of Ebeneezer Scrooge-like awakening. It can still be that the really toxic conscious business pretends at moral awakening in order to minimise damage to profits over the longer term. Often apparent changes in behaviour simply revert and fade back to toxicity over the longer term game. But some companies will detoxify through moral purging and specific changes to values, policies and practices, with independent scrutiny or external and internal validation. The business transforms to become benevolently conscious rather than toxically conscious. It all boils down to whether the business is aware of its deepest motives for action. If these motives are based purely on profit at ANY cost, then the toxic business will simply attempt to continually enhance its consciousness in order to maintain its profits and growth, leveraging toxicity always to that end. It will only behave benevolently when this serves short term profitability, never from an authentically experienced sense of a wish to do the good without being toxic. It will even play the game of ethics, social responsibility and environmentalism, but purely as a calculating move in its game to maximise its own economic power and resource achievement. But where there is even a hint that the toxic behaviour isn't entirely intended, and that a critical mass of people inside the business are only behaving in toxic ways out of fear, trance or manipulation, then there are seeds for a possible shift to detoxification. But it might take massive intervention to achieve that. And sometimes it needs only a minimal intervention that sends the whole toxic tower of cards crashing down. Source Material http://consc.net/online http://consc.net/online/8.3b http://www.quantumconsciousness.org/documents/fnint-06-0009321.pdf http://sciwrite.org/glj/reviews .dennett.htm l http://rationalmadness.wordpress.com/treasures/conscious-business-realm/ Improving the over-all efficiency of mold and dies by functionalizing surfaces F. Bleicher1, C. Lechner1, M. Obermair1, C. Habersohn1 1 Vienna University of Technology, Institute ofProduction Engineering and Laser Technology, Vienna Abstract The process of machine hammer peening (MHP) is based on an actuator, which moves an axially guided carbide metal ball with an oscillating motion to a workpiece surface. This actuator could be attached to any kind of machine tool, even to a robot. Due to well-directed impacts it is possible to structure and modify the material and its surface in various ways. The surface treatment by machine hammer peening can be applied in order to functionalize surfaces made of different materials. Especially in mold and die making high potentials can be found by improved tribological properties. The main positive effects of machine hammer peening are the induction of compressive residual stresses, the hardness increase of the upper surface layer and a reduction of surface roughness up to mirror-like qualities. Furthermore an embedding of WC-particles into the near-surface zones of tool steel materials can be realized, which offers new possibilities to improve the tribological performance of components. Keywords: Cold forming, surface modification, machine hammer peening. 1 Introduction Modern tool and mold making comes along with an increasing cost and pricing pressure. Due to globalized markets it is necessary to reduce the manufacturing throughput time dramatically. Contrary the industry and its customers demand for higher geometric accuracy and surface quality of tools [1]. As a consequence toolmakers are forced to look for new innovative technologies. As illustrated in Fig. 1 (see [2, 3]) the conventional process chain of tool and mold making starts with rough milling, pre-finishing and finishing operations. Subsequently these milling operations are followed by a hardening process. Typically the tool surface gets a final finishing to achieve the requested surface quality (see Fig. 1c). The latter is mainly done by manual operation. Machine hammer peening (MHP) can be used to widely substitute the time-consuming and cost-intensive surface finishing operation [4]. By adjusting the MHP process parameters (see Fig. 2c and Tab. 1) appropriately it is possible to influence the surface quality and the functionality of tools and molds in order to achieve either polished-like surfaces or an enhanced wear resistance. The process itself is based on the oscillating motion of an axially guided plunger [3, 4, 5]. The actuator can be attached to a machine tool or even to a robot. Due to the NC-controlled positioning of the hammering tip it is possible to machine the surface by well-directed impacts (Fig. 2b). FORMING FUNCTIONALIZATION Technological optimized (MHP after hardening) E I MHPtosubsitute manual polishing Reduction Conventional process chain Hardening ^ Surface finishing (e.g. Polishing) t Manufacturing throughput time Figure 1 Optimization of the production process chain in the tool and mold making by the use of MHP of hardened materials Especially tool and mold makers have to deal with the machining of free-form surfaces. Processing complex surface topographies by MHP requires non-orthogonal hits. Thus the system behavior has to be investigated. Besides the surface burnishing effect, experimental results show a significant increase in hardness and the implementation of compressive residual stresses into the near surface areas. This will lead to an increase in wear resistance, particularly if MHP is performed after thermal hardening. Consequently higher tool life can be expected. This paper is based on experimental tests to show the influence of orthogonal and non-orthogonal MHP hits and their effect on the surface roughness as well as on the increase of the material's hardness in the surface near area. Further investigations presented in this paper show that MHP offers an additional new field of application. Tungsten carbide powder has been processed into the surface of a 1.2379 tool steel material. This functionalization can be used to enhance the abrasive wear resistance of tools. Figure 2 Technology of machine hammer peening: a) Design of the electro-magnetic actuator, b) Experimental set up at a Hermle 5-axis machining center, c) Illustration of important process parameters (described in Tab. 1). Table 1 Adjustab e process parameters. Parameter Unit Description Diameter D [mm] Diameter of the spherical plunger tip Distance t [mm] Distance between surface and plunger tip, equivalent to impact energy Side Step s [mm] Distance between two MHP tool paths Frequency F [Hz] frequency of the oscillating movement Feed Rate v [mm/ min] provided by the machine tool 2 Experimental Work In order to derive a comprehensive understanding of the mechanism for surface modification by MHP and to be able to verify the applicability of this technology various experiments have been carried out. The experimental results of these investigations will further be used to validate process models. The electro-magnetic actuator system is able to provide an operating frequency up to 500Hz. To perform the experiments the actuator was attached to a Hermle C20U five axis milling machine (see Fig. 2b). 2.1 Surface modification In order to determine the mechanism of surface modification single peening lines of different length have been machined with various side step values (0,1 mm, 0,3 mm and 0,5 mm) on a C45E (1.1191) specimen. The distance t used for accelerating the ram and therefore equivalent to impact energy has been varied in a range of 0,2 mm up to 1,2 mm using a sphere diameter of 8 mm. The surface topography of the specimen has been measured by the 3D-measurement device Infinite-Focus (Alicona). Based on these results profiles could be extracted (Fig. 5). Thus it was possible to calculate the differences in areas of material after each line and get an overview of the material displacement process. Figure 3 Evaluation of single peening lines: a) Measurement positions to extract the profiles of a single tool path (1), two (2), three (3) up to four tool paths, b) Extracted profile of four tool paths with given side step of 0,3mm (peening distance t is varied from t = 0,2 mm on the left up to t = 1,2 mm on the right), c) Arrangement of two profiles to calculate the difference in areas of material. Regarding the cross section view it is evident that the material displaced by the plunger tip is pushed in as well as against the process direction. The direct dependency of the peening distance t and the impact energy could be observed (Fig. 3b). The measurement of the difference in areas illustrates that the material distribution directly depends on the chosen side step 5. Because of the observed back flow displaced workpiece material partly fills up the previous tool path line. Figure 4 Measured surface topography and extracted profiles. Due to this effect it is possible to optimize the process parameters in order to get hardly any difference in height between a peened and an unpeened surface as can be presented in Fig. 4. These results could be obtained by using a sphere diameter of 8 mm and reduced impact energy. 2.2 Residual compressive stresses The physical state of high-duty workpieces has to be described precisely. This includes the knowledge of residual stresses in the component and especially in its surface layers [6]. However, the investigation of compressive residual stresses induced by the MHP process has been a main focus of the experimental tests. To answer the questions, whether the induction of residual stress shows work-direction dependency or multiple machining can increase the induced residual compressive stress, a milled C45E (1.1191) specimen was machined in different directions one and in parts two times (Fig. 5). Figure 5 Specimen with different machined fields and results of the residual stress measurement. The X-ray diffraction method was used to measure residual stresses at the surface of the investigated areas and the milled reference surface. Fig. 5 shows a significant induction of compressive residual stresses in each machined field. An increase of stresses induced by a second peening step could not be observed. Moreover the measured data indicate that the value of compressive stress induced in a specific direction depends on the peening feed direction. The residual compressive stress induction normal to the peening direction is higher than in peening feed direction. As the evaluation of field 3 in Fig. 5 shows, the peening direction of the last peening step determines the final distribution of induced residual stresses. 2.3 Surface burnishing Another focus is the investigation of the surface topography and roughness depending on the chosen process parameters. During a number of experiments the influence of the main process parameters could be identified. As an example Fig. 6 shows the influence of the feed rate. Figure 6 Surface topography depending on the feed rate v: a) Ra-value difference of the hammer peened surface expressed as a percentage of the initial Ra-value of the milled surface measured in the given direction, b) Measured surface topographies (10x magnification). In the presented experiment the feed rate has been varied in a range of 600 mm/min up to 10.800 mm/min to machine the surface of a C45E (1.1911) specimen with a preliminarily face milled surface. Based on the investigations of surface topography and using the presented hammering parameters it could be observed that the material is mainly pushed to the side of each tool path. In reference to the tests in Fig. 5 the resulting surface topography shows nearly the same characteristics as the surface illustrated on the left side of Fig. 6b (v = 600 mm/min). It can be assumed that a massive material displacement normal to the peening direction causes a higher induction of residual stresses. The surface roughness normal to and along the hammering tool path was evaluated by the use of the tactile roughness measurement device MahrSurf PS1. Later on the changes in surface roughness between each hammered and the milled reference surface have been calculated for both directions and are given in Fig. 6a. Furthermore different surface topographies have been observed by the use of the 3D surface measurement device Infinite-Focus (Alicona). Three investigated topographies are shown in Fig. 6b, where a significant direction depending difference of the Ra-values measured normal to and along the tool paths can be observed. Regarding the results of the surface measurements it has to be concluded that this phenomenon cannot be explained by a stiffness problem due to a bearing clearance of the hammering device as presented in [4]. The 3D surface measurements (Fig. 6b) show that the side step between the tool paths is constant and very accurate with reference to the obliged value of the side step parameter. The observed differences clearly depend on the chosen feed rate and consequently on the distance between the single impacts along the tool path. Figure 7 Evaluation of surface roughness in X3CrNiMo13-4: a) Ra-values of the surface before and after hammer peening (average value and deviation of six single measurements), b) Bearing ratio curve before and after machining measured with the measurement device Infinite-Focus (Alicona). Table 2 Process parameters applied in pre-machining and in MHP process steps, using a frequency F = 200 Hz and sphere diameter D = 10 mm Pre-machining 1st peening 2nd peening parameters step step End milling cutter: 016 mm side step: 0,2 mm side step: 0,05 mm Spindle speed: distance t: distance t: 1592 rpm 1,2 mm 0,2 mm Feed rate v: 509 v: 2400 v: 600 mm/min mm/min mm/min Further results reveal that apart from the feeding rate the sphere diameter of the plunger tip, the side step between the peening paths and the impact energy depending on the surface/hammer-tip distance t are significant parameters for surface refinement. As an example for the capabilities of MHP technology in surface refinement Fig. 7 shows the differences between a milled and a hammer peened surface of an X3CrNiMo13-4 (1.4313) specimen. After peening using a two steps process even a surface roughness value of Ra < 0,05 ^m for both directions (normal to and in direction of the previous milling step) could be determined. 2.4 Non-orthogonal alignment The investigations were performed on X155CrVMo12-1 (1.2379) tool steel samples. This type of highly alloyed tool steel is characterized by an increased strength and wear resistance and therefore used in a wide variety of tool making applications. Typical applications include punching and blanking dies for stainless steel sheet metals, brass, copper, zinc and hard abrasive materials in general. Other applications suitable for this tool steel include deep drawing dies, cupping and forming dies. As a reference material again plain carbon steel C45E (1.1191) was tested for the conducted force and acceleration measurements. Both materials were investigated in unhardened and hardened conditions. Tab. 3 and Tab. 4 show the chemical composition and the mechanical properties of the investigated materials. As part of previous investigations presented in [3, 5] a good agreement between a simplified unidirectional Matlab-Simulink model and the real system could be demonstrated for orthogonal hits. It can be anticipated that the impact direction of MHP as part of a tool-making procedure is restricted by the geometry of the workpiece. Thus the influence of various impact angles on the peening force and the mechanical behavior of the system have to be analyzed. In order to gain first insights an acceleration sensor as well as plungers equipped with strain gauge measuring devices were used to measure force and acceleration in different tilted directions, depending on varied impact angles and peening distances. Fig. 8 presents the forces measured in axial and radial directions of the peening tool for a peening distance of 0,5 mm and different impact angles. As it can be seen, a significant decrease of the axial force component occurs in an impact angle range from 10° up to 30°. Table 3 Chemical composition of the tested Table 4 Mechanical properties of X155CrVMo12-1 and C45E. angle of less than 10° the time between the kickback at the actuator housing and the workpiece impact is higher than half of a period. In this case the force of the plunger coil has to pull the tool away from the surface after each single impact. Within the range of angles showing a significant decrease of the axial force (10° to 30°) the impact time shifts to the moment of previous kickback. materials. % C Si Mn Cr Ni Mo W V 1.2379 1.55 0.3 0.3 12 0.18 0.7 0.18 0.8 1.1191 0.45 0.25 0.65 Mechanical property Unit X155CrV Mo12-1 (1.2379) C45E (1.1191) Young's modulus E N/mm2 210 210 Yield strength Rp0.2 N/mm2 420 430 Tensile strength Rm N/mm2 870 700 Hardness unhardened HV 250 230 Hardness hardened HV 650 570 For large angles like a > 30° the force components remained almost at a constant value. Moreover non-orthogonal hits lead to resulting radial force components. The radial forces raised in a non-proportional dimension in the range from 10° to 30°. Above all the radial force is nearly proportional to the impact angle. In addition the measurements proved that both force components are found to be increasing if a higher peening distance is used for machining. 900 800 700 600 £ 500 oi I 400 300 200 100 0 Radia —p ..... IS 20 25 30 impactangle a [°] 35 40 45 ■ 1.2379 hardened axial 1-2379 unhardened axial ■ 1.2379 hardened radial - C45E hardened axial -C45E unhardened axial - C4SE hardened radial -+- 1.2379 unhardened radial -»-C45E unhardened radial MHP parameters: I = 100% F = 200Hz t = 0,5mm D = Smm v= 2400m m/min Figure 8 Investigation of impact forces, measured in axial and radial direction of the plunger tool (illustration gives the positive measurement directions). The investigation of the acceleration measurement results, presented in Fig. 9a, shows a significant change in the dynamic behavior of the plunger depending on the impact angle. At an Figure 9 Investigation of dynamic system behavior: a) Acceleration measured in axial direction, b) Displacement in axial and radial direction. Hence, the plunger coil force presses the tool in direction of the surface during and after the impact moment, which may even lead to a second impact as seen in Fig. 9b (displacement in radial direction; impact angle 15°). At an impact angle of more than 25° the time of contact to the workpiece drifts again to an interval higher than half of the period. Fig. 9b shows that the radial displacement rises with increasing impact angle. This effect is based on the increased radial force, which induces a deviation of the hammering device and machine tool structure. 2.5 Investigation of non-orthogonal hits in terms of surface finishing Previous results show that the technology of MHP is suitable for inducing compressive residual stresses into the material [3, 5]. Moreover the treatment leads to an increase in surface hardness. However, it has to be expected that these positive effects disappear if thermal hardening takes place after MHP. Based on the results of experiments which were focused on the peening distance influence on surface hardening of 1.2379 tool steel with varying initial hardness, it can be pointed out that MHP leads to a significant increase in hardness in the order of ~5% up to ~14% for both unhardened and hardened samples (Fig. 10). Influence of peening distance t on surface hardening 700 600 § 500 >400 x 300 200 -528 548 561 554 i—i 605 + |max. 14,6%] 582 589 1—^ ♦ 1.2379 hardened • 1.2379 unhardened 266 f 287 283 290 287 287 • i---1 * • |max. 13,5% | * ♦ ♦ * Ref 0,3 0,5 0,7 0,9 1,1 1,3 Peening distance t [mm] Figure 10 Surface hardening by MHP for tool steel, mean value of nine measurements on the surface with standard deviation. Highest hardness increase is given in percentage. In order to derive a statement about the possibility of smoothing hardened steel surfaces with initial roughness in comparison with pre-finished forming tools two types of samples, hardened and unhardened ones, were used to determine the influence of impact angle and peening distance on the resulting surface topography. The samples' surfaces were prepared by milling and afterwards peened using the same feed direction as chosen for the milling process. The applied MHP parameter setting, given in Fig. 11, was chosen based on previous findings [3]. It was expected to generate a surface roughness of Ra < 0.3 ^m, which is generally required e.g. for sheet metal forming tools. Although the initial milling structures of the unhardened samples are rougher than those of the hardened ones it can be illustrated in Fig. 11 that a significant reduction of roughness in hardened and unhardened samples took place due to the MHP treatment. A higher impact force, which is significantly influenced by the peening distance value, is needed for optimized burnishing of the hardened material. In contrast the surface roughness of the unhardened samples is increasing when treated with an increased peening distance due to a higher depth of the single indentations. Impacts produced during the MHP process dominate the topography of this sample. The influence of the peening distance on the resulting surface roughness decreases, especially for the unhardened sample, with increasing impact angle. Thus it can be concluded that an increased impact angle leads to an optimized burnishing of soft materials regardless of the chosen peening distance value. For the smoothing of hard materials high orthogonal forces are needed to flatten the groves resulting from the previous milling operation. Figure 11 Surface roughness values for different impact angles and peening distances, each column represents the average of six measurements across the peening (milling) direction with standard deviation. However, based on the presented experimental results it can be deduced that a significant surface burnishing of the investigated hardened tool steel material is possible by fulfilling the above mentioned requirements. 3 Embedding of hard materials Another approach of experimental tests focuses on the investigation of mechanical alloying by the use of the MHP process. During a number of distinctive experiments the fundamental suitability of embedding coating and hard materials was proven for the aluminum alloy AlMgSi0,5 (3.3206) as well as for the brass material CuZn39Pb3 (2.0401). One of the main topics of the presented work is the investigation of the machinability to embed tungsten carbide (WC) particles into the near surface zone of 1.2379 tool steel. Two tungsten carbide powders consisting of different grain sizes were used (WC 2^m-4^m and WC/W2C 45^m-90^m). Each powder was mixed in a suspension using oil (46 [mm2/s]/40°C) applied to the face milled sample surface. Subsequently, the prepared surfaces were treated with MHP two times applying the peening parameter setting given in Tab. 5. In addition to these two types of mechanically alloyed samples a milled reference sample as well as a hammer peened reference surface were machined and investigated. Table 5 Parameter setting used for embedding of tungsten carbide. Parameter Unit Value Description Diameter D mm 8 Of the spherical plunger tip Distance t mm 0.8 between surface and plunger tip Line pitch 5 mm 0.2 between two MHP tool paths Frequ. F Hz 200 of the oscillating movement Feed rate v mm/ min 2400 provided by the machine tool Peening feed direction 1st peening step: longitudinal direction of the specimen 2nd peening step: transverse direction of the specimen As presented in Fig. 12a an almost homogeneous layer of embedded tungsten carbide could have been generated. Depending on the grain size of the used WC particles the surface roughness is significantly increasing as shown in Fig 12b. Figure 12 Embedding of WC particles: a) SEM images of the surface and the cross-section, b) Surface roughness measurements. The results show that the coefficient of friction (COF) for the samples with embedded WC particles is identical to and independent of the particle size. Compared to the MHP and unpeened sample the COF is slightly higher. After the test, the morphology and depth of the wear track was analyzed using white light confocal microscopy (Fig 13c). Figure 13 Tribological investigations: a) Wear volume of counterbody including two microscope images of the counterbody wear zone with given diameter of the wear mark, b) Used test setup. c) Wear marks on mechanically alloyed and milled reference samples. The wear scar of the not peened and the MHP samples was clearly visible and each had a similar width and depth. In contrast the samples with embedded WC particles showed an increased wear resistance. Irrespective of the particle size the wear scar was not measurable. Furthermore the removed wear volume of the counterbody was analyzed by means of microscopy techniques. A significantly higher removed wear volume was measured for the balls which faced the samples with embedded particles (Fig. 13a). 4 Conclusions To analyze the tribological performance of the generated surfaces the samples were tested with a SRV® tribometer under reciprocating sliding conditions using a ball-on-flat configuration. A standard 10 mm diameter 100Cr6 (1.3505) bearing steel ball with an applied normal load of 10 N was used as counterbody. The contact zone was lubricated using fully synthetic PAO-8 additive-free oil (see Fig. 13b). During the test, the friction force was measured and the performances of the 1.2379 samples with embedded WC were compared with those of conventional not peened and machine hammer peened samples. This paper presents the results of experimental tests of machine hammer peening technology. The electro-mechanically operating actuator can be attached to a machining center and a robot, respectively. Thus the intensity and allocation of the penetration on the workpiece surface can be discretely controlled by CNC and process parameters of the actuator control system. Correlations are made between the material flow of the micro-forming process, the process parameters and the surface modification. It was shown that previous tool path lines are partially or fully filled up with material displaced by the following tool path depending on the process parameters. The phenomenon could also be used to describe an observed dependency of the induced compressive residual stresses. By machining and testing specimen made of 100Cr6 material according to the extensive Round Robin Study in [7] associated residual stresses in a range of more than -1000 MPa and a depth of penetration of up to 1 mm were detected. By the application of the MHP process on multi-axis machining centers complex workpiece geometries like free-form surfaces can be machined. Hence, the technology of machine hammer peening offers various application opportunities in the fields of tool and die making industries [4]. Compared to the conventional process chain, the polishing process time can be significantly reduced by using MHP. Good surface finishing results of hardened tool steel were shown. An additional application of MHP as part of a mechanical alloying process was presented. The coated tool steel material showed a significant reduction in wear during tribometer tests. Thus the MHP process offers the opportunity to generate wear protection layers at defined areas of a component. Compared to thermal coating this technology can be performed at room temperature and under atmospheric pressure in the same setup as the previous milling operation. Experimental results show a high potential for wear-intensive manufacturing processes, for example in the production of core boxes where erosive wear damage is caused by blown silica sand [3,8]. The increase in productivity, the achieved surface hardness and the induction of compressive residual stresses lead to an enhanced tool and mold life cycle by expanding the life time of the tool, which entails a reduction in the average costs per piece as addressed in Fig. 14. Figure 14 Optimized utilization and life cycle of tools and molds by surface modification. The basic findings presented in this paper are currently being tested on real tools to investigate the application of the technological improvement to mold and die making. Further steps in research focus in process modelling using FEM or smoothed particle simulation. References [1] T. Altan, B.W. Lilly, Y.C. Yen: Manufacturing of dies and molds. In Annals of the 50th CIRP Conference on Manufacturing Technology, pp. 2/405-423, 2001. [2] P. Groche, M. Engels, M. Steitz, C. Muller, J. Scheil, M. Heilmeier: Potential of mechanical surface treatment for mold and die production. In Int. Journal of Materials Research, pp. 103/783-789. [3] F. Bleicher, C. Lechner, C. Habersohn, M. Obermair, F. Heindl, M. R. Ripoli: Improving the tribological characteristics of tool and mold surfaces by machine hammer peening. In Annals of the 62nd CIRP Conference on Manufacturing Technology, 1/239-242, 2013. [4] J. Wied: Oberflachenbehandlung von Umformwerkzeugen durch Festklopfen. In PhD Dissertation, Technical University of Darmstadt, 2011. [5] F. Bleicher, C. Lechner, C. Habersohn, E. Kozeschnik, B. Adjassoho, H. Kaminski: Mechanism of surface modification using machine hammer peening. In Annals of the 61st CIRP Conference on Manufacturing Technology, pp. 1/375-378, 2012. [6] E. Brinksmeier, J.T. Cammett, W. Konig, P. Leskovar, J. Peters, H.K. Tonshoff: Residual Stresses - Measurement and Causes in Machining Processes. In Annals of the 31st CIRP Conference on Manufacturing Technology 2/491-510, 1982. [7] I.S. Jawahir, E. Brinksmeier, R. MSaoubi, D.K. Aspinwall, J.C. Quteiro, D. Meyer, D. Umbrello, A.D. Jayal: Surface integrity in material removal processes: Recent advances. In Annals of the 60th CIRP Conference on Manufacturing Technology, 2/603-626, 2011. [8] J. Rodriguez, D. Martinez, A. Perez, R. Gonzalez, E. Rodriguez, S. Veltierra: Erosion wear in heat treated tool steels used in core boxes at automotive foundries. In Proc. of 16th Int. Conf. on Wear Materials, Vol. 263, pp. 1-6/301-308, 2007. Alternative brand building and product development E. Halilovič1, N. Matjaž2, 1 ONDUd.o.o.; elvis@ondu.si; www.ondu.si 2 Faculty of mechanical engineering, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Abstract In this era of the so called wikinomics where customer is no longer only the king but a co-creator and contributor too, a new perspective on creating brands is of great importance (if not already overdue). With the power of the Internet - probably one of the greatest tools ever invented - at our hands, there are new opportunities to tap into being created every day. How do we make the customer an important part of the creative process and how does his involvement benefit the brand awareness and the brand itself? New channels like social media and crowdfunding platforms are creating massive paradigm shifts by emphasizing the interconnected nature of the internet which gives new power to small and upcoming brands such as ours. Influence of MQL on friction coefficient and workmaterial adhesion during machining of cast aluminium with various cutting tool substrates made of PCD, HSS J. Rech1, P. Faverjon1, 1 ENISE, University of Lyon, Laboratoire de Tribologie et Dynamique des Systemes, France Abstract Due to the increasing account taken of environmental constraints, industry works on how to limit the massive use of lubricants by using the micro-pulverization of oil in machining processes. The success of a machining operation is dependent on a friction coefficient and weak adhesion with the tool-work material interface. This paper aims at identifying the influence of cutting tool substrates (High Speed Steel / HSS, PCD) and of Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL) on the friction coefficient and on adhesion in tribological conditions corresponding to the ones observed in the cutting of aluminium alloys (sliding velocity : 20 - 1500 m/min). An open tribometer, especially designed to simulate these tribological conditions, has been used. It has been shown that HSS and carbide substrates lead to large friction coefficients (0.8-1) and substantial adhesion in dry conditions, whereas PCD substrates lead to friction coefficient average values (0.4-0.5) and very limited adhesion, which proves the necessity to use PCD tools in the dry machining of aluminium. It has also been shown that the application of MQL leads to a large decrease of the friction coefficient (0.1-0.2) and eliminates almost all traces of adhesions on pins for any substrates, which shows that MQL is an interesting compromise between dry machining and flood cooling. Keywords: MQL, Sustainable machining, Aluminium, Friction, Adhesion, Tribology. 1 Introduction Production lines in the automotive industry today use conventional lubrication based on straight oil or emulsion. The role of cutting fluids is to provide cooling of both machine-tool and workpiece by minimizing the heat generated during cutting, to lubricate the tool-chip interface in order to limit the tool wear and also to enhance the chip removal [1]. In the case of aluminium machining, such as in the automotive industry, the lubricant plays one more important part: to prevent aluminium from sticking to cutting tools. Cutting fluids are crucial for machining but at the same time, they cause trouble in the sanitary field (allergies, work atmosphere...) and in the domain of maintenance [2]. Supply systems such as tanks, pipes, pumps, filters, centrifuges often break down which decrease the efficiency of production plants. One way of improvement is the Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL). This lubrication mode is often considered sustainable for machining [3] [4] [5]. However, the replacement of several hundred of litters per minute by some millilitres per hour induces many changes for both machine-tools and manufacturing processes. The process must be carefully designed to take into account the oil flow decreasing (thousands of times less in MQL than in conventional lubrication). Some functions of conventional lubrication are not provided anymore under MQL conditions: e.g. global cooling of the workpiece and machine tool. Some other functions may be uncertain e.g. cutting lubrication and aluminium sticking limitation. Several methods may be undertaken to analyse the influence of a cutting fluid on machining process. The most common way is to run cutting tests and to compare macroscopic measurements such as forces and torque. The most common are the tapping torque test (ASTMD-5619) and drilling tests (ASTMA830-85) [6]. These methods are based on comparative statements and do not permit to understand what happens at the tool / workmaterial interface. Additionally they are only convenient for tapping or drilling and extension on other cutting operations need punctual developments as it was done by Cakir et al. [7] and Jayal and Balaji [8] for turning and Vieira et al. [9] in milling. A lot of authors prefers running cutting wear tests and analysing the impact of lubrication on tool life time. Such tests are expensive, very sensitive to little variation of any parameter [10], and time consuming: especially in the case of MQL where tool life can be higher than in conventional lubrication [11] [12] [13]. Alternative methods such as the use of tribometer can be used since the analysis of friction coefficient remains an issue in tribology [10]. Several frictional set-ups already exist or have been developed. The most widely known set-up is the pin-on-disc system, which is unfortunately not able to simulate the contact conditions in cutting, since the conditions (temperature, pressure) are not relevant to those observed in reality [14]. Workmaterial slides on rake face (chip) and on the flank face (machined surface) but never comes back i.e. the tool always cuts virgin aluminium. This is commonly called an open tribo-system. So as to be able to analyse what is happening at the tool/chip/workmaterial interface in cutting, open tribometers should be used. Aluminium machinability and especially coolant strategy have been largely investigated [3][4][5][15][16]. As example, Braga et al. [3] studied the impact of MQL on aluminium by power monitoring and tool wear examination. Itoigawa et al. [4] analysed the impact of MQL on aluminium machinability through end milling tests but again does not investigate friction phenomenon at the tool/chip/workpiece interface. Bhowmick et al. [5] investigated the impact of MQL on cutting forces and torque. Kishawy et al. [15] and Lopez de Lacalle et al. [16] studied the impact of MQL providing on tool wear. Generally, a lack of tribo-investigations at the tool/chip/workpiece interface appears and leads to the need of fundamental understanding in tribology during machining of aluminium under MQL conditions. This paper aims at determining the influence of MQL on friction and aluminium sticking compared to dry conditions by using an open tribometer. 2 Methodology 2.1 The tribometer For being able to compare MQL and dry machining effects on both friction and aluminium sticking, an open tribometer was used. This basically consists in sliding a pin on a bar fixed onto a CNC lathe chuck, see Figure 1. The kinematic of the lathe allows to reach sliding speeds up to 1500 m/min and local pressures at the tube / pin interface of about 1 GPa. This pressure is generated by a constant piloted normal force FN of 200 N. AlSi7 aluminium (84 HB) was cast in tubes and longitudinally turned with cutting speed of 500 m/min, feed of 0,15 mm/rev and depth of cut of 0,5 mm. The pin is cylindrical 08 mm and has a Figure 1 Tribometer [14] and MQL providing. 034 mm spherical polished extremity. The substrate and eventual coating are fixed for being representative of cutting tools normally used for machining in the automotive industry. Four various pins were tested for this study. HSS pins were TiN or TiCN coated while PCD pins were uncoated. The granulometry of PCD was 2 and 10 ^m. A tridimensional dynamometer records forces and calculates the apparent coefficient of friction ^ as related in the following equation (1). This actually corresponds to the macroscopic friction coefficient which cannot be directly identified as interfacial friction coefficient meaning that post treatments would be necessary for being used in numerical simulations. On the contrary, the apparent friction coefficient ^ is convenient for determining experimentally the influence of MQL on friction and workmaterial adhesion on tools. Ft /u = -T (1) Fn Where FT is the tangential force and FN is the normal force as shown on figure 1. The sliding speeds have to be chosen in accordance with the normal cutting conditions of the tool. Every test was run under dry and MQL conditions, replicated three times each. 2.2 Mist generation The CNC lathe was equipped with a mist generator LubriLean referenced VarioSuper from the SKF-Vogel company. This device was supplied with air pressured at 6,5 bar. Different levels of lubrication are available, the lowest one was used which corresponds to a flow rate of approximately 50 l/min with a noozle 08 mm. MQL is provided at the pin/work material interface as shown on figure 1. The lubricant was the EcoCut Mikro Plus 20 from Fuchs. This is a straight oil fully biodegradable for which main characteristics are resumed in table 1. Table 1 Fuchs oil characteristics. Characteristic Temp. [°C] Unit Value density 15 kg / m3 0,842 viscosity 40 mm2 / s 27 flash point - °C > 188 3 Results and discussion 3.1 Friction The first output of this experimental setup is the apparent friction coefficient The mean value of friction coefficient is considered during the stable period of sliding. Then the friction coefficient is plotted for different pins, sliding conditions, and lubrication conditions. HSS pins are representative of tapping tools. Uncoated HSS is commonly used for cut tapping whereas TiCN coated HSS is used for form tapping. For these operations in aluminium alloy, thread machining speed is typically about 30 m/min with often higher speed in return. Figure 3 shows the coefficient of friction for HSS pins from 20 to 100 m/min under dry and MQL conditions. First of all, it has to be noticed that there was a lot of aluminium stuck on pins under dry conditions which led to extreme severe sliding (see Figure 4(b) and 4(c)) and coefficient of friction ^ > 1. Under dry conditions, TiCN HSS pin has a friction coefficient on average 10% lower than the uncoated one decreasing slowly when sliding speed rises. It appears clearly that MQL has a beneficial effect on friction, decreasing it by about 4. Under MQL conditions, TiCN HSS and uncoated HSS pins have exactly the same friction coefficient. It means that considering friction, TiCN coating has no beneficial effect. Impact of MQL on friction 0 - 0 20 40 60 SO 100 120 Sliding speed [m/min] HSS uncoated - dry HSS TEN-dry i HSS uncoated - MQL • HSS TEN -MOL Figure 2 Impact of MQL on friction vs. dry conditions with HSS pins. 2^m PCD pins represent boring tools while 10^m PCD pins characterize milling cutters. Here the sliding speeds are going from 20 to 1500 m/min which corresponds to the maximum on this lathe. Industrial cutting conditions can go four times higher: up to 6000 m/min. The figure 3 shows that even under dry conditions, the friction coefficient is lower with PCD than with HSS pins. Moreover, the faster the sliding speed, the lower the friction coefficient. At 1500 m/min, ^=0,22 with both kinds of pins and it can be expected that it would be the same at higher sliding speeds i.e. industrial cutting conditions. It means that MQL has no effect over 1500 m/min because of non-penetration of oil mist at the pin/work material interface. These results have been highlight by Claudin et al. [10]. Impact of MQL on friction 0.6 0 - 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Sliding speed [m/min] PCD 2^im - dry UPCD 10pm - dry a PCD 2kim - MQL »PCDIOpm-MQL Figure 3 Impact of MQL on friction vs. dry conditions with PCD pins. On the contrary, when the interface is properly lubricated, the coefficient of friction is of about 0,2. PCD tools are often used at high cutting speed; it means that MQL has only a beneficial impact for central cutters e.g. reaming operations (where cutting speeds approach 0) and not for peripheral cutters (where high cutting speeds appear). In reaming, speed along cutting edge is going from 0 up to 6000 m/min so MQL would reduce friction around the center but such machining operations are continuous and Claudin et al. [10] have shown that lubrication is only effective the first tenths of seconds at slow sliding speeds and is immediately evacuated at high sliding speeds. So, considering that industrial cutting speeds are between 1500 and 6000 m/min, MQL is not appropriate for PCD tools. Finally, there is no difference between both 2^m- and 10^m-PCD from friction point of view. To sum up, it has been shown that considering friction, MQL is of great interest with HSS tools and at slow sliding speeds with PCD tools. 3.2 Aluminium sticking In the case of aluminium machining, the most difficult task is to prevent tools from aluminium sticking especially under MQL condition. So as to be able to match the impact of MQL compared to dry condition, pins have been analysed after tribotests. This consists in measuring the quantity of aluminium stuck on pins on photographs taken with a binocular microscope as shown in Fig. 5. This extreme case of adhered aluminium occurs with HSS tools only and can be limited by MQL employment. There is absolutely no sticking on PCD pins under both dry and MQL conditions. Figure 4 Aluminium sticking on a pin. The figures 5 and 6 sum up the amount of adhered workmaterial SA and SR as shown on Fig 5 (c). It appears clearly on Figure 5 that the quantity of aluminium stuck on HSS pins after tribotests is almost the same whatever the sliding speed under dry conditions. On the contrary, the amount of workmaterial adhered on pins is seriously reduced by using MQL. Figure 5 Impact of MQL on adhered workmaterial vs. dry conditions with HSS pins. Contrary to HSS, PCD does not get stuck under dry conditions and employment of MQL is not helpful from adhesion point of view, see Fig 6. There is no sticking even at slow sliding speed. Figure 6 Impact of MQL on adhered workmaterial vs. dry conditions with HSS pins 4 Conclusion, perspectives 4.1 Conclusion This study analyses the influence of MQL on friction and workmaterial adhesion on cutting tools. It has been shown that: • The friction phenomena is highly decreased by using of MQL for HSS tools and for PCD tools when sliding speed is lower than 1500 m/min. • HSS tools do need to be lubricated for limiting aluminium adhesion. On the contrary, PCD tools never get stuck. MQL is convenient for HSS and is not needed for PCD. • There is no difference in friction and adhesion between 2 and 10 ^m grain size PCD. 4.2 Further work Some effects of MQL were investigated in this study. It would be attractive to complete this work by: • Running tribotests at higher sliding speeds and extend investigations on tap quality. • Identifying wear mechanisms for optimizing tool life. • Testing other pin materials: firstly uncoated cemented carbides representative of drills. • Using an atmosphere controlled tribometer so as to catch the influence of temperature on friction and workmaterial adhesion. References [1] Trent, E.M., 1991 Metal Cutting, Butter worth Heinemann, ISBN 0-7506-1068-9. [2] Boyer, H.F., Waremme, J., Bourdiol, J.L., Delaunay, D., 2011, A study about energy consumption and cutting fluid used to clutch case machining, Mecanique & Industries 12:389-393. [3] Braga, D.U., Diniz, A.E., Miranda, G.W.A., Coppini, N.L., 2002, Using a minimum quantity of lubricant (MQL) and a diamond coated tool in the drilling of aluminium-silicon alloys, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 122:127-138. [4] Itoigawa, F., Childs, T.H.C., Nakamura, T., Belluco, W., 2006, Effects and mechanisms in minimal quantity lubrication machining of an aluminium alloy, Wear 260:339-344. [5] Bhowmick, S., Alpas, A., 2008, Minimum quantity lubrication drilling of aluminium-silicon alloys in water using diamond-like carbon coated drills, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 48:14291443. [6] Pawlak, Z., Klamecki, B.E., Rauckyte, T., Shpenkov, G.P., Kopkowski, A., 2005, The tribo-chemical and micellar espects of cutting fluids, Tribology International, 38:1-4. [7] Cakir, O., Kiyak, M., Altan, E., 2004, Comparison of gases applications to wet and dry cuttings in turning, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 153-154:35-41. [8] Jayal,A.D., Balaji, A.K., 2009, Effects of cutting fluid application on tool wear in machining: interaction with tool-coatings and tool surface features, Wear 267:17231730. [9] Vieira, J.M., Machado, A.R., Ezugwu, E.O., 2001, Performance of cutting fluids during face milling of steels, Journal for Materials Processing and Technology, 116(2-3):244-251. [10] Claudin, C., Mondelin, A., Rech, J., Fromentin, G., 2010, Effects of a straight oil on friction at the tool-work material interface in machining, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 50:681688. [11] Dhar, N.R., Kamruzzaman, M., Ahmed, M., 2006, Effect of minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) on tool wear and surface roughness in turning AISI-4340 steel, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 172:299-304. [12] Kamata, Y., Obikawa., T, 2007, High speed MQL finish-turning of Inconel 718 with different coated tools, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 192-193:281-286. [13] Khan, M.M.A., Mithu, M.A.H., Dhar, N.R., 2009, Effects of minimum quantity lubrication on turning AISI 9310 alloy steel using vegetable oil-based cutting fluid, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 209:5573-5583. [14] Bonnet, C., Valiorgue, F., Rech, J, Claudin, C., Hamdi, H., Bergheau, J.M., Gilles, P., 2008, Identification of a friction model— Application to the context of dry cutting of an AISI 316L austenitic stainless steel with a TiN coated carbide tool, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 48:1211-1223. [15] Kishawy, H.A., Dumitrescu, M., Ng, E.G., Elbestawi, M.A., 2005, Effect of coolant strategy on tool performance, chip morphology and surface quality during highspeed machining of A356 aluminium alloy, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 45: 219-227. [16] Lopez de Lacalle, L.N., Angulo, C., Lamikiz, A., Sanchez, J.A., 2006, Experimental and numerical investigation of the effect of spray cutting fluids in high speed milling, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 172: 11-15. Sustainability Technology that 5 Billion People Need What can engineers do for sustaining our sphere? Hiroshi Fujii1 and Naoki Sase2 1 Gifu University, Japan 2 Toyama National College of Technology, Japan Abstract One of the most serious threatening to the future of the world is an increase in the population of human beings. The population of 6.8 billion in 2010 will become 9.3 billion in 2050. The people who have no land, no job and no house are flowing into big cities with the last glimmer of hope. According to the prospect by United Nations, about 5 billion of people will be living under critical condition forty years later. Unless we improve the quality of life of those people, we will not be able to sustain the environment of the world. Electric power plants, road constructions, mobile phone systems, tunnels and bridges are all necessary. On top of those, much simpler machines which work every day beside the people are badly and urgently needed. Some of mechanical engineers have to work for them. The authors intend to draw engineers' attention to this problem in this paper. Those will include; Incinerator: In many countries, people are living buried with litters. We need a small incinerator to burn waists from several families every day at site. Cooking stove: Collecting fuels as like as branches of trees and animal droppings has been getting harder. An efficient cooking stove will be a great help especially in the arid regions. Parabolic disk with a reflection surface can also be applied in many parts of the world. Hydraulic Turbines which can generate electricity with the least amount of water; Even traditional Water Wheel should be reevaluated, redesigned and supplied to the rural areas. Simple method to obtain the safe water to drink: Solar water disinfection and an equipment for distilling water are discussed. Regeneration of forest: A lack of water for drinking and irrigation is already a serious issue. There is no simple way to solve it. The authors like to show a project of the recovery of forest lead by Dr. Yasuo Abe, in Nepal. Mini-excavator: Small and trouble-free excavator should also be produced. Keywords: population explosion of the world, 50 billion people living in slums, machines and equipment for everyday life, to sustain present environment 1 Introduction The word "population explosion" started appearing often in media in 1960s. The appeal was supposed to be seriously received and be responded immediately. However, the United Nations is still giving us the same warning, more and more seriously. The 2012 Revision of World Population Prospects [1] is presented by the Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat. It is available both on the web-site and PDF. It says as follows in its conclusion: "In late 2011, the world's population surpassed the 7 billion mark and it is currently growing by an additional 78 million persons every year. By 2050, the world's population is likely to reach an unprecedented size between 8.1 billion and 10.6 billion people. Most of the future population growth will occur in developing countries, particularly in least developed countries. Presently, many developing countries still have population growth rates that, if sustained, would undermine their development and put pressure on future generations." The other report [2] says that, in 2050 - only 40 years later from now - a half of population on the earth will be living in slum condition. This acute increase in world population results in all sorts of problems in the world. Shortages of energy resources, global warming, insufficient food for children, deficiency of drinking water etc. will be caused, obviously or inherently, by the excessive number of ourselves. Every country is working out with numerous counter measures in order to deal with the problems. Those include: developments of new energy resources, efforts to reach a worldwide agreement for global warming, changes in taxation law of agricultural products between countries, improvements of riverbanks and beaches and constructions of irrigation system, economical assistances to less developed countries and so on and on. The United Nations is also carrying out many projects to lower the fertility. Politicians, experts of development and university professors have kept on discussing about what we should do. These are all necessary. There is no doubt about it. But, we know that those big projects cannot necessarily directly contribute to extremely poor people for improving their everyday life. Some of us, as engineers, certainly could do some more to them. The authors would like to show some simple ideas of machines and equipment that can work every day beside the people. Our society has developed so many types of machines during the past centuries and left them behind. New technologies are always attractive and exciting for us. But, if we look back at some fundamental technology again, we will be able to find many things that can improve the life of the people. 2 Incinerator and cooking stove for the people The report [1] quoted above provides the population of every country and area. Figure 1 shows the reproduction of the data of 1950 and 2010 and the projected population to 2050. It is clear that the most increase of 2.6 billion from now will occur in Asia and Africa. So, the next question is where the increased people will live. Mark R. Montgomery's analysis is shown in Figure 2. During the 3rd quarter and the 4th quarter of the last century, the population of the rural area in developing countries was increased by about 750 billion. But, during the term from 2000 to 2030, the population in the rural area will not increase [1] any more. Instead, the population in the urban area will mark an unprecedented increase. The urban population in developing countries will increase by 2 billion. Which means that all cultivatable lands have been fully utilized already. In the rural areas, mostly farming areas, there are no more room for the increased population or not enough food to support any extra family. The people, who have no land, no house, no job and no money, can do nothing but flow into big cities with the last glimmer of hope. What kind of environment is waiting for them? An analysis to answer the question has been published as a United Nations Report. In the report titled "Seven Billion and Growing: The Role of Population Policy in Achieving Sustainability" [4], the author of the report tries to estimate the number of people who live in slums presently. We must admit that it is not easy to define the "slum". Regardless the difficulty and arguments, the figure helps us obtain a rough idea of how many people are living in great difficulty. Figure 3 shows the present slum population, classified according to the area. There are about 900 million people living in slums. On top of this number, extra 2 billion people will join within only 3 decades, as we just saw in Figure 2, and another 2 billion or little more within 2030-'50. As a whole, the population who live in slums will be 5 billion all together in 2050. This is the threatening to the world. Regardless if we could reach the reasonable fertility level by then or not, about 5 billion people will be living in the slum condition soon or later. Figure 1 Prospect of population of the world 1950-75 1975-2000 2000-'30 Time Span [year] Figure 2 Growth of urban population Figure 3 Estimated population living in slums 2.1 Incinerator Even now already, the people in slums are living among litters and garbage in many countries. If you live being buried by wastes and garbage, you will lose your pride and, soon or later, your moral code will be collapsed. This is the problem. Poverty itself is not a big matter. Many people in many countries have experienced it. But, in the present slums, there is no hope because it is made so as a part of the social structure. That is why the problem becomes serious. In most developing countries, cities and towns have no budget for having the garage collectors or no budget to operate them. Even if the collection is done somehow, they often throw the garbage to a big throwing area and pile them up. There is no technical and social solution to deal with those mountains of garbage. One of what people need under this condition is a simple incinerator. If each family could burn out flammable items and garbage together, they can keep their surrounding tidy. A sophisticated electric incinerator is not needed. The authors like to propose to produce two parts shown in Figure 4 and deliver them to the people. The ones who receive them are requested to construct a square wall of 80cm both in width and depth and 1.2m in height. A grid to hold the material to be burnt is placed inside the structure and the structure is covered with a lid with chimney on it. The structure may be made by rocks, concrete blocks, clay or anything else inflammable. People can dig a hole with a big opening at the bottom, too. Figure 4 Parts for constructing a simple incinerator Before the people use this kind of incinerators, they have to learn to separate rubbish into burnable and non-burnable items. Glasses and metals should be separated first. These can be recycled, if some collection system is introduced. Garbage can be turned into compost in many ways. The rest can be burned out by any simple incinerator as like as the one shown above as an example. Environment enthusiasts might say that this causes air pollution when every family in a country starts using personal incinerators at the same time. Of course it may happen. But, it is more important for the society that the people wish to live in better surroundings. It will give the governments a good chance to invest to cleaning facilities. 2.2 Cooking stove In the world today, at least 3 billion people have no gas nor electricity for cooking. This number will be doubled in coming 40 years. The people are collecting dropped branches of trees, dried grasses, dungs of animals, woods from broken houses and all kinds of burnable materials. They make fire with them to cook meals and make tea. If they run out of those fuels, they will cut leaves, branches or even trees at the end. Nobody has a right to stop them. It is sad to know that in many parts of the world vast areas of forests are being lost. This is a process continuing for the last thousands of years. King Solomon built a beautiful palace using hundreds of huge Lebanon cedars. Now this area is almost a desert. Deserts in Africa are expanding. In the arid region in Central Asia, the pasture land is shrinking every year. That is why we need to develop an efficient cooking stove from which the people can get the thermal energy from grasses and trees. Such a stove will help adults and children use their time and labour for more creative purposes. In addition to that, we can expect to be able to save a considerable area of forests. In these days, many manufacturers of outdoor gears are producing such cooking stoves. A company in Japan sells a stove with which you can get 1 litter of boiling water from a few sheet of A4 papers. Unfortunately, however, these products are either too expensive or too big. They sometimes requires electricity. These are no use for poor people. Technologies required for an efficient combustion have been well established. Theoretical approaches to the efficient combustion are well discussed and checked by experiments and practices. The key to high efficiency is considered to be the design of the second combustion chamber in a limited space. Only obstacle to be overcome is to make them simple and cheap. If it is not possible, governments can buy those efficient cooking stoves and deliver the stoves to the people. In the arid regions, plants is not and will not be collectable in future. Instead, plenty of solar energy is available there. For solar voltaic, solar panels, controllers, inverters and batteries are needed. But, in many countries, the government cannot deliver them to the people in free of charge. And, people cannot buy them. Under this situation, a parabolic thermal collector is a promising equipment. Figure 5 shows an example which is actually used at Mukhtinat (3,900m above the sea level, west of Mount Annapulna,) in Nepal. Considerable amount of water can be kept hot while the sun shines. This type of concentrating solar cooker was first invented by a retired surveyor, John wilfrid Wright [5]. He made it with rattan and Aluminium foil in his kitchen. When an engineer see this, he/she will start thinking what kind of sensor is useful to distinguish Figure 5 A parabolic solar cooker with segmented reflectors used in Nepal the direction of the sun and what kind of mechanism is the best to rotate the collector in order to follow the sun accurately. Don't think it in that way here, but think how to make it cheaper without lowering the fundamental features. 3 To secure safe water 3.1 Solar water disinfection It is a matter of life or death whether safe water is available or not. It is becoming more and more difficult to obtain safe water in many countries. This situation will be accelerated in near future. WHO (World Health Organization) of the United Nations is responsible for providing leadership on global health matters. WHO recommends a simple, cheap and effective method for solar water disinfection. The method is just to put water in PET bottles and to expose them to the sunlight (ultraviolet). This method is very efficient and has been already applied in numerous developing countries. However, disinfection may not make all kinds of water safe to drink due to non-biological agents such as toxic chemicals or heavy metals. Consequently, additional steps beyond disinfection may be necessary to make water clean enough to drink, in many parts of the world. 3.2 Distillation of water There are numerous places where only muddy water, sea water or water contaminated by harmful substances is accessible in the world. Poor people cannot afford the water in PET bottle. For those people, distillation of unhealthy water is only possible solution to survive. Figure 6 shows a proposal of home appliance to distil unhealthy water. A container © in the figure holds bad water. It is heated by fire or whatever means available. Vapour goes up through the holes of the strainer ©. On the other hand, CD is simply a basket with wood chips, straws, dried leaves, etc. in it. The whole basket is made wet by water and dried. The water kept in the bottle © is cooled down by the latent heat of evaporation from the basket Part 1and becomes much cooler than the water in the pot ©. Consequently, the vapour touched with © is condensed and accumulated in the container ©. The authors wish any company to produce a great number of this set as like as one million sets or more. It will make it possible to sell the set in really cheap price. There are many people who are drinking toxic water. They can drink safe water in this way. There are many fishermen who are dehydrated so often and suffer from kidney disease because of the shortage of safe water. They can drink distilled sea water. A lot of children will be saved by such a simple device. An American man, Mr. Garth Johnson, made a distillation equipment [5]. It is called Bailey's "Photon Bottle Distillation Apparatus." He made it being inspired by Alchemist's vessels, as well as the drawings of Leonardo da Vinci. This is a good try and certainly will work for larger demand of water. 3.3 Regeneration of forest Disinfection and distillation of water as mentioned above are useless unless water is obtainable. One of the causes of shortage of water is deforestation. About 70,000km2 of forest is being lost from the world. The area of Slovenia is 20,273km2. There is no simple way to solve this problem. We must plant trees and raise them for 20 years or longer. Then a forest will start recovering. Politicians and governmental officers in many countries know this. Some of them have tried very hard. A successful result, however, is scarcely reported. The authors like to introduce a successful project [6] carried out by a Japanese medical doctor, Dr. Yasuo Abe. He created an excellent system to raise trees and started planting 25 years ago. His system has been working so well that it is worth hotwater to generale steam ^ J) (T) Basket with chips of wood, straws of plants or anything else which can get wet and dried easily (?) Container for cooling water (3) Container for distiled water @ Strainer © Pot for hot water Figure 6 Distillation equipment explaining the method in this paper, because it is applicable to any part of the world. He is a pediatrician and used to be a dedicated mountain climber. Since 1974, he had worked as a volunteer doctor visiting Nepal several times a year for ten years. He saw so many children dying. They drink contaminated water, suffer from diarrhea and severe dehydration and are infected by all sorts of germs, and consequently die. He was convinced that he could not help those children unless forests are regenerated and fresh water becomes obtainable. He started his project first by studying forestry in Shinshu University in Japan for 2 years. On the other hand, he did an extensive survey and talked with local people in order to decide the types of the trees to be planted. He chose a village, Tupche, which had completely lost their forest many years ago. He began from an activity to make villagers understand how important the forest is, and made a planting plan together with them. The trees chosen are all domestic trees including fruit trees. On May 22nd in 1990, he went to the village with 5,000 nursery trees that he had ordered in advance and bought from Nepali Institute of Forestry. He and villagers worked together and planted 5000 trees. Everybody knew that a half of the trees just planted would be eaten by their goats, cows and wild animals and that another half would be dried out and die during the dry season of five months period. A Nepali scholar told Dr. Abe that in Nepal only 0.5% of planted tree can survive till the next year. In order to overcome this difficulty, he created a brilliant system. The system was simply a card. The card was named Plantation Card (called Green Card by villagers because the colour of the card was green). On the front side of the card, Name of Card Holder Name of Village Date of Planting Figure 7 A typical village that lost their forest No Name of Tree 1 St Year 2 nd Year 3rd Year 4 th Year 6 th Year Total / Pift .C M % 2. I WW, ft*e,1t> 3 '■Ft.V t J sr /4 nib hfiet.ffis m -W > Checked by Figure 8 The plantation Card handed to villagers Name of Dr. Abe and his address were printed. On the back side, a table shown in Figure 8 was printed. When a person is given a plant/plants, he receives this card. His tree is numbered and the name of tree is written in the second column. Dr. Abe confirms the planting and writes the date of plantation in the column of the first year and signs his name under the date. Everyone receives this card for every five trees. If the tree could survive one year later, Dr. Abe will write the date of confirmation and signs. This method was proved to be an excellent idea. Dr. Abe found the next year, for his surprise, that 93% of 5,000 trees survived. Each villager had his/her own trees. Some groups built walls surrounding their areas. A girl who planted the nursery around her house built a small hedge using branches with thorns. In the dry season, everybody worked hard to water the trees every day. Many of them had to spend one hour to carry up buckets filled with water. Everybody took care of trees with love and pride. This is the beauty of this system. This project has been going on for the last 24 years. Some of the trees grew really big as shown in Figure 9. Area of forest is being extended year by year covering 6 villages. The numbers of trees planted exceeded 500,000. In the forest thus re-born a spring has appeared. In the forest a little far from a village, even a tiger was eye witnessed. Forest Center, a bridge, water tanks and even a Gompa (a temple) were built for people. Two persons were sent to Japan, trained there and have been appointed as full time workers for the forest. Nursery trees are being grown by the Forest Center. All trees are self-supplied now Dr. Abe has spent all of his earnings to this project. Volunteers in Nagano prefecture are helping him through an NGO. Their activity involves school children who collect used paper packs of milk from their homes and sell them for Figure 9 Trees planted 24 years ago recycling. "Milk packs turn into forests in Nepal" is their slogan. 4 Shelter home As we discussed in the former sections, many people are losing their houses. At present, about 1.5 billion people including 2 million refugees have no house. This number will increase to at least 3.5 billion in few decade. We have to supply them with shelters and toilets. Specification for shelter is not so severe. 1) not too heavy 2) occupies a little volume when folded 3) cheap 4) good heat insulation ability 5) good anti-ultraviolet performance 6) easy to assemble and reassemble 7) recyclable or burnable after use The authors like to propose one of the simplest shelter homes as like as shown in Figure 10. A sphere has the biggest rate of the volume to the surface area. Since the house with the shape of sphere is difficult to make and transport, the shape of a soccer ball is employed. A soccer ball consists of 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons. If we make 10 panels of 1 pentagon connected to 2 hexagons, and 2 panels of a pentagon, as shown in Figure 11, we can assemble a shape of soccer ball. Connection is made by rubber bars that have two grooves on both sides. The gap coincides with the thickness of the panels. Suppose the length of every side of pentagons and hexagons is made 400mm, we can build a shelter with the height of 3m. For the material of the panels, a hard plastics with air babbles in it is probably the best. That is because it is light and it has the high heat insulation characteristics. If we make this shelter using the panels with 10mm thick, we will have a quite strong and durable shelter with good heat insulation. When it is folded, we can pack all parts, 12 panels and 40 bars, in 2m in length, 800mm in width and 120mm in thickness. The net weight is about 95kgf. Three men can deal with it without lifting machine. 5 Electricity and power assist 5.1 Mini-hydraulic power station We need electricity. Some countries cannot have enough number of power stations. Some others have the stations but cannot deliver the electricity, because they have not enough money to Figure 10 Soccer ball shelter build a wire network or the wires are stolen. It is ideal that each village has its own power station. Solar voltaic is ideal in that sense. But it costs too much. Therefore, it is a rational idea that each village has its own small hydraulic power station. In ordinary hydraulic power station, Pelton turbine and Francis turbine are employed. These turbines have been used for a long time. But, they require at least 10m of head, which in turn a good size of dam is required. Here, let us see the diagram shown in Figure 12. This is found in any textbook of hydraulic machines in university level. This shows that the water wheels of old days are exactly what we want. If we pour water of 4 m3/sec on top of a water wheel with 4m in diameter, we can obtain 30kW. It is enough to supply the electricity to 200 houses at night and to operate a pomp to supply water for drinking or irrigation in day time. In fact, the centre of Tsurumi city in Japan, a water wheel power station was built. It is called Kachuugawa Mini-hydraulic Power Station and is supplying 20kW to the city hall [7]. Companies specialized in the water wheel power generation have also been established. 5.2 Mini-excavator for farming Farming is a hard job. Turning over the soil, particularly, requires farmers a great effort. The places where big cultivating machines are applicable is really limited in the world. It is not an exaggeration to say that farming is being carried out at small fields on slopes in most part of the world. In such areas, a small but powerful excavator is a practical answer. An excavator shown in Figure 11 Parts needed for one shelter Figure 12 Characteristics of various turbines for generating electricity Figure 13 A typical mini-excavator Figure 13 is an example. It can be easily manoeuvred by one person, and transported on a small cart. But, again, it is too expensive. We do not need a sophisticated machine like this. All what we need is a simple, tough and light machine. It seems that there is also a subject which some engineers have to tackle. 6 Conclusion The population of the world is expected to become 10 billion in 2050, which is only 36 years from now. In many developing countries the growth of population overwhelms their economic growth. People will become poorer and poorer, and consequently about a half of total population will be living their hard lives. Whether you like it or not, it will come. If we want to sustain or improve the present level of air pollution, food and energy supply, clean water or social factors as like as crime rate, what can we do? Some engineers have to assist those who live in slum-like environment. Several ideas were listed in this paper. 1) The first thing we have to do is to supply those people with simple incinerators. It is very important for them and for the whole society that they have tidy environment and pride. 2) Efficient cooking stoves, which can generate heat from wooden chips, papers and dungs of animals, are necessary. The people in the arid regions can use parabolic thermal collectors. 3) Resources of safe water will become less and less. An example of distillation equipment is proposed. 4) We are losing the forest of about 70,000km2 every year. The area of Slovenia is 20,273km2. A project carried out by a doctor in Nepal is introduced. The very successful result proves that we can regenerate forests. 5) At the moment, about 1.5 billion people have no hose. An idea of shelter house is proposed. 6) Needs for mini-hydraulic power station and mini-excavator for farming are also pointed out. The readers' comments, suggestions and new ideas from engineers' view point are truly welcome, which in turn can save the world. References [1] World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision. In the Report issued by Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, http://esa.un.org/wpp/ [2] Mark R. Montgomery: The Place of the Urban Poor in the Cairo Programme of Action and the Millennium Development Goals, Panel on Urban Population Dynamics (2003), pXXIV-1. [3] Mark R. Montgomery: The Place of the Urban Poor in the Cairo Programme of Action and the Millennium Development Goals, UN-Habitat (2003), pXXIV-2. [4] UN Report: "Seven Billion and Growing", United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, Technical Paper No. 2011/3, p.26 [5] John Wilfrid Wright, "simple concentrating solar cooker for poor semi-desert countries", Spirit of Enterprise The 1993 Rolex Awards, BURI Buri Druck AG, Bern, 1994, pp.139-141. [6] Garth Johnson, in his homepage: http://www.flickr.com/photos/extremecraft/57 56879763/ [7] Yasuo Abe: "Pray for turning Nepali mountains into green" (written in Japanese), Shunju-sha, April 30th, 2002. [8] The City Hall of Tsuru, Kachugawa Mini-hydraulic Power Station, http://www.city.tsuru.yamanashi.jp/forms /info.aspx?info_id=2681 Environmental loading reduction by bio-ethanol application to vehicle engine T. Mori1, and Y. Takasu1 1 Nagoya University, Japan Abstract In addition to environmental problems such as global warming, it has been saying that fossil fuels of vehicle engines are limited. In this research bio-ethanol was paid attention and its usefulness was discussed, comparing with gasoline from the standpoint of energy balance. Furthermore in the case of applying bio-ethanol to car engine fossil energy consumption, carbon dioxide reduction and so on were discussed by simulations. Keywords: environmental problem, bio-ethanol. 1 Introduction Recently, environmental problems such as global warming become serious. Because much of transportation energy of cars, airplane and ships depends on fossil fuels, discharge of carbon dioxide cannot be restrained and aim of Kyoto Protocol on Climate change cannot be attained. Oil production in the world is uncertain based on the political unrest and oil price increases at all times. Therefore decrease of dependency of transportation energy on oil is recognized an urgent issue. Besides research development of bio fuel has an aim of an effective application of waste, it is expected as a recycle probable energy and means to decrease greenhouse gas. In this research bio-ethanol which is one of bio fuels was paid attention and its usefulness was discussed, comparing with gasoline from the standpoint of energy balance. Furthermore in the case of applying bio-ethanol to car engine fossil energy consumption, carbon dioxide reduction were discussed by simulation. 2 Present condition and possibility of bio fuels as transportation energy 2.1 Background concerning about bio fuel Figure 1 shows the present state of carbon dioxide circulation on the earth in 2008. Carbon contained in biomasses originates from carbon dioxide in the atmosphere in the growth process of plants by using solar energy. Even if biomasses burn, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere does not presume to increase and then biomasses are carbon-neutral energy. Therefore if biomasses are used as [50 billion t-C] [60 billion t-C] [6 billion t-C] Solar energy [20 trillion t of oil] [110 billion t-C] Gasoline car Diesel car Fossil fuel J [60 billion t-C] Constant carbon dioxide Increase of carbon dioxide Figure 1 Circulation of carbon dioxide in the earth alternative energy of fossil fuel, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere keeps constant, and it is an effective tool for provision against global warming. Especially if bio fuel is liquid and can be mixed easily in a liquid fossil fuel, existing internal combustion engines and existing commercial fuel distribution system can be utilized, they are expected as transportation energy among recyclable energies. 2.2 Worldwide tendency concerning about bio fuel Figure 2 shows proceed of bio ethanol production in the world. After the annual production from 1980 to 2000 kept almost 15 billion l, it increased abruptly after 2000. This increased production 35 § 30 §2 I O § I W 25 20 15 10 5 0 ■ill 1980 85 90 95 2000 year Figure 2 Bio ethanol productions in the world responded the global environmental problem which connected to Kyoto Protocol on Climate change. Figure 3 shows share of bio- ethanol production. Many nations attempted actively to introduce utility of bio fuels. In USA and EU promotion of agriculture and forestry, energy security and global warming control are attached importance. Furthermore in China bio fuel must be developed owing to increasing energy consumption with economic growth. In Brazil and ASEAN export of bio fuel and promotion of related industries are taken importance. On the other hand in Japan it has started only recently that significances and objects of introducing bio fuel are arranged and policies for promoting utilization of bio fuel are discussed. When bio fuel is introduced as substitution of fossil fuel, the competition with utilization as food must be taken into consideration. The world population goes on increasing and is estimated to reach the peak of 9.2 billion persons. The present farmland is 14.5 billion ha which is 10 % of 145 billion ha of the land area all over the world. Expandable farming area in future is estimated 0.5 billion ha by the United Nations. Most of this area is necessary to satisfy increasing food demand, even if agricultural technologies are developed. Therefore a new production technology of bio fuel must be established. It is called as the technology of second generation bio fuel including cellulose bio ethanol. Bio masse materials until now are sugar cane, sugar beet and grains which are also food and can be transformed easily to bio ethanol. In future the second generation bio ethanol is potential for environmental protection material. In Japan, of course the research of bio ethanol is considered to be important, bio ethanol is predicted about 6 billion l/year shown as in Table 1. In order to evade the competition to food, application of grass biomass and woody biomass are supposed. However import of bio ethanol is advantageous to production economically even taking transport cost. Figure England 1% S. Africa 1 % \ Others 11 % Russia 2%, Fiance 2% India 4.3°/b China 9% Table 1 Predicted production of bio ethanol in 2030 /billion l material 1. Saccharide, starch 0.05 2. Grass (rice, wheat straw) 1.8~2.0 3. Energy crop (rice, sugar beet) 2.0~2.2 4. Wood 2.0~2.2 5. Bio diesel 0.1~0.2 sum 6.0 3 Reduction effect of environmental load by bio ethanol 3.1 Recyclable energy and non-recyclable energy Recyclable energies which are electric generations utilizing natural energies such as water power, solar power and wind power, bio ethanol and bio diesel are energies to be permanently supplied. On the other hand fossil fuel energies which are gasoline, light oil and kerosene made from crude oil, coal and natural gas, are generated in a long time of several hundred millions years and cannot be reproduced. 3.2 Comparison of environmental loading of bio ethanol and gasoline under consideration of LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) 3.2.1 Comparison of energy budget bio ethanol and gasoline in producing district such as Brazil Although bio ethanol is recyclable natural energy, fossil energies are committed in the production process shown as Figure 4. Therefore it must be counted in consideration of an environmental loading. Energy budget Es are given by the following expressions. Eb=B/F, EQ=G/F Where B and G are energy amounts of ethanol produced and gasoline produced, F is the energy amount of fossil energy charged to produce. Commitment of fossil energy Cultivation of sugar cane Transport \ Production of ethanol Figure 4 commitment of fossil energy in the production of bio ethanol In cultivation of sugar cane 202 MJ/t of fossil energy is used, including indirect cost of fertilizer, weed killer and maintenance of equipment and machine and direct cost of farming and transparent machine. In production of bio ethanol from sugar cane 49 MJ/t of fossil energy is used, including indirect cost of chemical products and lubricants and maintenance of equipment and machines. Therefore commitment F of fossil energy is 251 MJ/t for creation of ethanol. Energy amount B obtained from produced ethanol is 1921 MJ/t. Consequently an energy budget of bio ethanol is given by, Eb= 7.6 An energy budget of gasoline is given in many investigations, Eg=6.7 An energy budget of bio ethanol is better than that of gasoline, but a creation of bio ethanol must be taken a long time. 3.2.2 Comparison of energy budgets of bio ethanol and gasoline in Japan In the case of the country which must import bio ethanol from other producing country, in the cost generating bio ethanol transport cost by a tanker between both countries must be counted. The transport cost between Brazil and Japan is 73 MJ/t and then total cost F' obtaining bio ethanol in Japan is 324 MJ/t. The modified energy budget is given by EB'=B/F'=5.9 This value is a little worse than the ethanol budget in Brazil and gasoline budget. Use of bio ethanol for alternative energy even in Japan is considered to be effective for solving environmental problem. 3.2.3 Comparison of fossil energy consumptions in utilizing as car fuel When the same energy L is consumed, bio ethanol and gasoline use fossil energy of 0.17L (=L/EB-L/5.9) and 1.15L (=L+L/EG =L+L/6.7). When utilization of car fuel is examined, environmental loading must be considered for not only fossil fuel but also bio fuel. The problem of fuel must be discussed not only at use, but also in production. Namely LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) must be considered. 4 Simulation of substitution from gasoline to bio ethanol 4.1 Contents of simulation Under consideration of the forgoing discussion, simulations were conducted in order to evaluate the possibility of using bio ethanol as alternative fuel of gasoline. Two items are evaluated. 1. Possible ratio substituting gasoline to bio ethanol 2. Possible reduction of carbon dioxide by using bio ethanol On 2008 in the world oil reserves are 1,138 billion bbl and oil is consumed by 85 million bbl/day and then oil should exhaust after 36 years. 4.2 Results of simulation 4.2.1 The case of Japan Based on predicted production of domestic bio ethanol in Japan [1], shown in Figure 5, possible substituting ratio of bio ethanol will be 12.3 % until 2043 and it is energy of 4.4x109 GJ equivalent to 2 years consumption of gasoline. Next if bio ethanol amounts to be imported is 3 times domestic produced amount, 49.0 % amount of gasoline can be substituted in 2043 and 8.6 years of gasoline consumption can be substituted until that year. 2.0E+09 1.5E+09 h 1.0E+09 S? g 5.0E+08 0.0E+00 ethanol gasoline oooooooooooo (N(N(N(N(N(N(N(N(N(N(N(N Figure 5 Possible substituting ratio of bio ethanol In the second place possible carbon dioxide reduction is discussed in the case of E10 where 10 vol% bio ethanol is mixed to gasoline. Parameters of general gasoline car shown in Table 2 are used in order to calculate this problem. The mileage of E10 is estimated as follows, :; z 61 km/l Both cases using gasoline and E10 are compared with when the car is driven 100 km. used amount of each fuel is calculated by Amount of gasoline = 100/10 = 10 l Amount of E10 = 100/9.6 In both cases amount of gasoline used are 10 l in 100% gasoline 100/9.6X0.9 = 9.375 l in E10 Consequently amounts of emitted carbon dioxide are given by, 2.4 X 10 = 24 kg in case of 100% gasoline, 2.4 X 100/9.6 X 0.9 = 22.5 kg in case of E10. Reduction of emitted carbon dioxide per 100 km drive becomes 24-22.5=1.5 kg and reduction rate is 1.5/24=0.0625 by applying E10. Table 2 Parameters of general gasoline car Mileage of gasoline Mileage of ethanol Coefficient of CO2 10 km/l 6 km/l 2.4 kgCO2/l All mileage in Japan reaches 445 billion km based on statics [2], and then all reduction of emitted carbon is 4.45 X 1011 X 1.5 X 10 6.675 X 109 kg=6.675 Mt. Another estimation of reduction of emitted carbon dioxide can be conducted based on the calories of gasoline and E10 shown in Table 3. Amount of E10 for energies of 1,820 PJ is 1,820 X 1015/(33.3 X 106) =5.47 trillion /. Amount of gasoline in E10 of 5.47 trillion / is 5.47 X 0.9 = 4.92 trillion /. Therefore reducing gasoline consumption is 5.27-4.92 =0.35 trillion l. Corresponding reduction of carbon dioxide is given 8.3 trillion t which is near to the previous value. Table 3 Energy consumed in a year and calories of fuels Gasoline consumption by car 5.27 trillion l 1,820 PJ Calorie of gasoline 34.6 MJ/l Calorie of E10 33.3 KJ/l For using mixed fuel of gasoline and ethanol as car fuel, under consideration of combustion process of car engine and engine efficiency, E10 has been developed. However if a new car engine is developed, emission of carbon dioxide can be decrease. Therefore the following is discussed. Mixed ratio of gasoline and bio ethanol is assumed as (1 - m):m As bio ethanol is mixed by 100m %, the name of this mixed fuel is called by E100m. The mileage of this fuel is calculated by 10 X (1 - m) + 6m = 10 - m When the car is driven 100 km, consumed gasoline is Consequently amount of emitted carbon dioxide is given by The derivation of f(m) with respect m is As 0 < m < 1, -2(1 - m) (4-m) < 0 and denominator>0. Consequently, ratio of bio ethanol must increase as far as possible for decrease of carbon dioxide. The development of 100% ethanol engine car which has sufficient performance is expected. Based on the discussion of heat energy and Figure 5 reduction of carbon dioxide in 36 years can be estimated, and the estimated value is shown in Table 4. As mentioned above, fossil fuel is used in the production of bio ethanol and then emission of carbon dioxide must be considered in use of ethanol. Table 5 shows reduction of carbon dioxide under consideration of LCA. The demand of Kyoto Protocol on Climate change can be resolved based on the forgoing Table 4 Reduction of emitted carbon dioxide in 36 years Domestic production Amount of ethanol 207 trillion l Reduction of CO2 304 trillion kg Domestic production and import Amount of ethanol 828 trillion l Reduction of CO2 1220 trillion kg discussion. However from now costs should be examined and infrastructures, facilities and production technologies of bio ethanol should be developed. Table 5 Reduction of emitted carbon dioxide under LCA consideration Domestic production Amount of ethanol 207 trillion l Reduction of CO2 249 trillion kg Domestic production and import Amount of ethanol 828 trillion l Reduction of CO2 996 trillion kg 4.2.2 The case of the world Figure 6 shows consumed calorie of gasoline which is assumed 85 million bbl/day and ethanol production calculated in calorie, in the world. In 2043, 34.62 % of energy consumed in the world can be substituted by ethanol. Amount of ethanol produced in 36 years is PJ which is energy in 6.26 years. Table 6 shows possible reduction of carbon technology dioxide in 36 years. Possible reduction of carbon dioxide of 29.6 billion t in 36 years is a little more than emitting carbon dioxide of 27.1 billon t in 1 year. x10' 8 7 6 5 ej 4 Š3 3 0 a 2 1 0 ethanol gasoline 10 2008 20 year 30 40 Figure 6 Possible substituting ratio of bio ethanol in the world Table 6 Reduction of emitted carbon dioxide in 36 years in the world 4 Ethanol production 20.16 trillion l Possible reduction of CO2 29.6 billion t 5 Conclusions Reduction effect of environmental loading by applying bio ethanol to car engine was discussed and the following was appointed. (1) Biomass is an effective tool for provision against global warming. (2) In production of even bio ethanol fossil energy is used and then carbon dioxide must be considered to be emitted in use of bio fuel. (3) Energy budget of bio ethanol of 7.6 is larger than that of gasoline of 6.7. References [1] homepage of ministry of agriculture and forestry of Japan, http:/ /www.maff.gojp /j /biomass/ [2] homepage of ministry of environment of Japan, http://www.env.go.jp/ [3] http://www.nedo.go.jp/index.html Application of corundum based abrasives for abrasive waterjet cutting: disintegration properties and recycling potential Pude, F.1; Grigoryev, A.1; Perec, A.1; Stirnmann, J.1; Wegener, K. 1,2 1 Inspire AG, Corporation for Mechatronic Systems and Production Technology, Zurich, Switzerland; perec@inspire. ethz. ch 2 Institute for Machine Tools and Manufacturing, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), Zurich, Switzerland; info@iwf.mavt.ethz.ch Abstract It is known from numerous publications that corundum based abrasives are used for cutting of extremely hard materials like e.g. ceramics by means of abrasive waterjets. Due to a reduced lifetime of the used focusing tubes this type of abrasive is only applied under special consideration of economic aspects. Caused be the limited application of this grain type the available amount of used abrasive is small at the involved cutting centers. For that reason a recycling process was never thought to be suitable. Nevertheless it is of scientific interest to observe the disintegration of these particles which have been interactive with mostly advanced materials. Garnet based abrasives are commonly classified in different grain size classes after sieving to evaluate their recycling potential. Based on a feasibility study this paper will present some results on achieved cutting data and shows also the geometrical change of the used focusing tubes. This was realized by non-destructive examination. The disintegration properties of the corundum based abrasive were monitored by sieving and optical test methods. Finally the obtained results were used to make a rough calculation for comparing the possible recycling process (cleaning, sieving, and drying) for corundum and garnet based abrasives. Keywords: abrasive, waterjet, corundum, grain size, recycling, disintegration Life cycle assessment of ice abrasive water jet cutting technology 111 2 2 Andrej Zupančič , Marko Jerman , Andrej Lebar , Jon Baranda Jimenez , Ainhoa del Caso 1 University of Ljubljana, Slovenia 2 PRYSMA, Spain Abstract The main water jetting technologies used by industry are pure Water Jet (WJ) and Abrasive Water Jet (AWJ). AWJ uses water with abrasive particles. The cutting power is obtained by transforming the hydrostatic energy of the water in a jet with sufficient kinetic energy as to disintegrate the material. The energy required to cut materials is obtained by pressuring the water to ultra-high pressures and focusing the water into high speeds through a sapphire orifice of small diameter. The AWJ cutting technology is one of the WJ technologies that is more widely used in industry. It has been well proven that AWJ technology have energetic and economic efficiency for rough cutting as well as for the precise cutting of thin metallic sheet parts. However, the use of abrasives is not always possible, for example in applications such as the processing of hygroscopic and chemically reactive materials, as well as when working near high voltage, toxic or radioactive sources. Because of all this reasons a new technology of water jet cutting was developed. After upgrading water jet technology with some components, it was possible to generate ice particles in order to increase the cutting capacity. Developed technology is called Ice Abrasive Water Jet Technology (IAWJ) in IceJet (IJ) project. This project is a feasibility study funded by the European LIFE program within the thematic area of Environment Policy & Governance. The main objective of the IAWJ project is to demonstrate the technical feasibility of IAWJ cutting technology, to cut different types of materials with different characteristics, through the development of a pilot plant. It is known that manufactures are trying to achieve sustainability through changes in products, processes and systems. Sustainable technology researches provide techniques to balance the economic, social, and environmental needs of today with the prospects for the same - or better - quality of life for tomorrow's generations. One of the techniques to assess environment impacts associated with all the stages of product's lifetime is Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). It can help to avoid a narrow outlook on environment concerns. In this paper it will be described how the IAWJ technology effects the environment and compared with other water jet technologies with LCA analysis. Keywords: Water jet, abrasive water jet, ice jet, sustainability and Life Cycle Analysis. 1 Introduction There are several different techniques of cutting with a water jet. This are water jet, abrasive water jet and ice abrasive water jet technology. Water jet is widely used in industry for cutting, graving and removing metal or non-metal materials especially in airplane and nautical industry. Water jet technology is usually used for cutting soft materials or cleaning materials. To improve cutting efficiency are used mineral abrasive. It is added in mixture chamber. But in this technology 90% of waste is presented by abrasive. After all we have abrasive stacked in cutting surface. This is for example not acceptable in turbine paddle. Because of all this reasons a new technology of water jet cutting was developed, called ice abrasive water jet. The principal difference is that Ice Abrasive Water Jet (IAWJ) works with water ice particles while in AWJ technology the abrasive is mineral garnet. Therefore, the waste generated during the IAWJ cutting process will be drastically reduced. In the LIFE+ project has been first time carried out sustainability analysis in this area. LIFE + is program of the European Union to subsidize projects based on the development of environmentally friendly technologies. The purpose of the analysis is to compare three technologies together and analyze their environmental performance. The main goal of IAWJ technology is to improve the existing technologies in terms of environmental compatibility. Technologies are usually compared by criteria such as price, material recovery, energy efficiency but Life Cycle Analysis method offers a general framework for evaluation. The analysis presents a systematic approach to evaluating the impact on the environment, resources and human health using the life cycle. 2 Water jet technologies The cutting power is obtained by transforming the hydrostatic energy of water in a jet with sufficient kinetic energy to cut the material. The energy required to cut the materials is obtained by pressurizing the water to ultra-high pressures and conducting the water through a small diameter orifice made in sapphire in order to reach high speeds. Currently, the main water jet technologies used in industry are Pure Water Jet Technology (PWJ), Abrasive Water Jet Technology (AWJ) and developed technology. This is Ice Abrasive Water Jet Technology (IAWJ) [1, 5]. 2.1 Pure water jet technology PWJ technology (Figure 1) has lower cutting capacity than abrasive water jet technology, therefor material for cutting must be softer. The first applications of this technology were carried out in the early seventies to cut corrugated cardboard. Currently it is used for other applications such as cutting foams, rubbers and in food industry. Basically it is used in industrial processes where cutting with abrasive is not acceptable due to the possible contamination of the resulting material after the cut. Therefore, the application scope of PWJ is much smaller than the AWJ technology [1, 5], Water under high pressure 2.2 Abrasive water jet technology AWJ cutting technology presented in figure 2 is a non-conventional machining process in which abrasive grains entrained in a high speed water jet collide with the work piece and erode it. A water jet is used to accelerate the abrasive grains and to assist the material removal process [1, 5], Water under high pressure Water nozzle L-'fr xv Abrasive Mixing chamber Focusing nozzle j Cutting water jet Figure 2 Abrasive water jet [7]. AWJ is currently used in cutting, engraving and milling of both metallic and non-metallic materials up to 120 mm thickness. In recent times this technology has become very important in naval and aerospace industries, where materials with different types of alloys and composites are widely used. These materials are difficult to manufacture by using conventional technologies. This technology is also used for cleaning and surface treatment of materials [1, 5]. 2.3 Ice abrasive water jet technology IAWJ technology is based on AWJ technology. Instead of abrasive grains in the mixture chamber the liquid N2 is used to freeze the high speed water jet (figure 3) [1, 5]. Water nozzle — ^^ Cutting water jet Figure 1 Pure water jet [7]. Water under high pressure (precooled) Three phase jet: water (solid), water (liquid), nitrogen (gas) Figure 3 Ice abrasive water jet technology [5]. In cutting head temperature of water rises. To get good conditions for water to freeze, it needs to be cooled down to -20 °C (Figure 4). This gives us a good mixture of ice grains and water. Therefore a high pressure heat exchanger was designed and built [1, 5]. Water under high pressure (not precooled) + Water - glycol solution (-15 °C) Figure 4 Pre-cooling of pressurized water in IAWJ [5]. 3 Sustainability As the environmental awareness increases, industries and businesses are assessing how their activities affect on the environment. Society has become concerned about the issues of natural resource depletion and environmental degradation. Many businesses have responded to this awareness by providing "greener" products and using "greener" processes. The environmental performance of products and processes has become a key issue, which is why some companies are investigating ways to minimize their effects on the environment. Many companies have found it advantageous to explore ways of moving beyond compliance using pollution prevention strategies and environmental management systems to improve their environmental performance. One such tool is Life Cycle Assessment. This concept considers the entire life cycle of a product (Curran 1996) [1, 5 and 6]. 4 Life cycle assessment Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a "cradle-to-grave" approach for assessing industrial systems. Approach begins with the gathering of raw materials from the earth to create the product and ends at the point when all materials are returned to the earth. LCA is unique because it evaluates all stages of a product's life from the perspective that they are interdependent, meaning that one operation leads to the next. LCA enables the estimation of the cumulative environmental impacts resulting from all stages in the product life cycle, often including impacts not considered in more traditional analyses (e.g., raw material extraction, material transportation, ultimate product disposal, etc.). By including the impacts throughout the product life cycle, LCA provides a comprehensive view of the environmental aspects of the product or process and a more accurate picture of the true environmental trade-offs in product and process selection. When deciding between two or more alternatives, LCA can help decision-makers compare all major environmental impacts caused by products, processes, or services [1, 2, and 6]. Raw Materials Energy Materials Acquisition 1 Manufacturing i Use Reuse Maintenance | Recyc e Waste Management | Oil Iputs „ Atmospheric Emissions ^ Waterborne Wiisie, h Solid Was ies *■ C oprod nets h Qrlier Releases System Boundary Figure 4 Life cycle Stages [2]. Figure 4 illustrates life cycle phases that can be considered in an LCA and measuring inputs/outputs. The LCA process is a systematic, phased approach and consists of four components: goal definition and scoping, inventory analysis, impact assessment, and interpretation as illustrated in figure 5 [1, 2, and 6]. Life cycle assessment framework Goal and scope definition IE Inventory analysis IX Impact assessment Direct applications: - Product development and Improvement -Strategic planning -Public policy making -Marketing -Other Figure 5 Phases of an LCA [2]. In the case of ICEJET, the LCA will be used as a tool for assessing the impact of water jet technology (PWJ, AWJ and IAWJ), to know and compare the environmental impacts of the three technologies from cradle to grave approach. The final objective is to have more environmentally relevant information, especially in the niches in which the different technologies may overlap [1, 2, and 6]. 4.1 Goal Definition and Scoping Define and describe the product, process or activity. Establish the context in which the assessment is to be made and identify the boundaries and environmental effects to be reviewed for the assessment [1, 2, 6]. In this chapter also defined that the Ecoindicator 99 methodology in its hierarchic perspective has been followed. Ecoindicator is database of numbers that express the total environmental load of a product or process. With appropriate LCA software it is possible to calculate additional indicators. Hierarchy perspective is used because is widely accepted by scientific community and it is considered by default in Ecoindicator 99 in the data base Ecoinvent © v2.01 (2009). It means that test measure three types of environmental damages. These are human health, ecosystem quality and resources. All types are then divided into several sub-sections [2]. 4.2 Life Cycle Inventory A Life Cycle Inventory Analysis (LCI) means building a flow model of a technical system. The model is an incomplete mass and energy balance of the system, which only takes into account the flows with environmental relevance. LCI activities include [1, 3, 6]: 1. Construction of the flowchart according to the "System boundaries" decided in the object and scope section. 2. Data collection for all the activities of the product system together with its associated documentation. Results of data collection for all technologies are presented on figures 6, 7 and 8. Initial unit process # BBDD Input/output Quantity Unit 6 8310 ■vtfel product in.inuf.icl uri rig, .iver.jge metal working 1385 kg STAGE OF TRANSPORTATION 9 1943 transport, lorry >16t fteet average 1574,745 t km 11 1968 transport, transoceanic freight ship 8fi03,9 tkm 13 8311 chromium steel product manufacturing, average metal working 10,582 kg 16 1840 polyvinykhloride, at regional storage 39,360 kg 18 1847 synthetic rubber, at plant 51,304 kg 20 478 sand, at mine 1478476,8 kg 21 2526 EUR-flat pallet 1478,4768 unit 22 1943 transport, lorry >16t, fleet average 1118763,395, tkm 24 1968 transport, transoceanic height ship 14597001,450 tkm 25 7207 electricity, tow voltage, production RER, at grid 2974016 kwh 29 2288 tap water, at user 723168 kg 30 208$ process-specific burdens, inert material landfill 1995943,68 kg 37 208? disposal, steel, 0% water, to inert material landfill 1385 ke 4t) 1943 transport, lorry >l6t, fleet average 85,870 tkm Figure 6 Collected data for AWJ in each stage of LCA analysis [3]. Initial unit process NS BBDD Input/output Quantity Unit GE OF OBTAINING RAW MATERIALS, MANUFACTURING, AND ASSEMBLY 1 8311 chromium steel product manufacturing, average metal working 0,292 kg STAGE OF TRANSPORTATION 3 1943 transport, lorry >16t, fleet average 0,332004 tkm 5 1968 transport, transoceanic freight ship 1,79288 tkm STAGE OF USE 6 8311 chromium steel product manufacturing, average metal working 0,584 kg 3 7207 electricity, low voltage, production RER, at grid 669600 kWh 9 2288 tap water, at user 910656 kg STAGE OF DISPOSAL 10 2082 disposal, steel, 0% water, to inert material landfill 0,292 kg 12 1943 transport, lorry >16t, fleet average 0,018104 tkm Figure 7 Collected data for PWJ in each stage of LCA analysis [3]. Initial unit process N2 BBDD Input/output Quantity Unit STAGE OF OBTAINING RAW MATERIALS, MANUFACTURING, AND ASSEMBLY 1 8339 copper product manufacturing, average metal working 90,2019919 kg 3 8310 steel product manufacturing, average metal working 128,758365 kg 4 8311 chromium steel product manufacturing, average metal working 143,64687 kg STAGE OF TRANSPORTATION 11 1943 transport, lorry >16t, fleet average 412,284417 tkm 13 1968 transport, transoceanic freight ship 2226,408373 tkm STAGE OF USE 17 8311 chromium steel product manufacturing, average metal working 1,064 kg 24 300 nitrogen, liquid, at plant 80352 kg 25 402 ethylene glycol, at plant 555 kg 26 7207 electricity, low voltage, production RER, at grid 716204,16 kWh 27 2288 tap water, at user 1795028 kg STAGE OF DISPOSAL 28 2082 disposal, steel, 0% water, to inert material landfill 362,6072269 kg 38 1943 transport, lorry >16t, fleet average 22,48164807 tkm Figure 8 Co lected data for IAWJ in each stage of LCA analysis [3]. 3. Calculation of the inputs and outputs (environmental loads) such as use of natural resources and pollutant emissions of the system in relation to the functional unit. This is an accumulative process, often iterative. While collecting the data, the knowledge on the systems itself increases. Thus, sometimes the decisions taken while defining the goal and scope need to be reviewed. The results of the inventory is an LCI which provides information about all inputs and outputs shown as elementary flows to and from the environment, for all the unit processes involved in this study. Calculations are presented on figure 9 and 10. Selected LCI Result AWJ PWJ IJ corrected Category Subcategory air IMMVOC (kg) 5817672816 270526973 283174047,4 resource land occupation (m2a) 786639,1676 41432,1391 44916,53261 air C02, fossll(kg) 8194219,201 1687523,85 1845250,648 air nitrogen oxides(kg) 18844,31792 2959,75756 3245,534336 air sulphur dioxide(kg) 26952,40499 5195,14619 5728,631859 air particulates, < 2.5 Hm(kg) 2145,098048 419,141506 460,4030818 water BOD 9336,456685 755,588053 838,6434965 soil cadmium 1,595423247 0,00232746 0,175178326 Figure 9 Summary of selected LCI results of all technologies [3]. Selected LCI results Additional Category Subcategory air Methane (kg) 16868,53957 3281,29341 3596,971749 total oils, unspecified (kg) 5559,973141 433,186042 483,2315685 air N20 (kg) 223,8219876 46,2310819 50,7208012 air particulates, >2.5 um and <10 (kg) 672,4111194 108,502177 121,3833943 air particulates >10 um (kg) 5345,866883 1132,71645 1242,158886 air Lead (kg) 3,249612395 0,65254132 0,722267892 air Zinc (kg) 13072,79785 9,07046226 1664,432096 total heat, waste (MJ) 117663830,7 23896505,7 26197520,91 air, radioactive radon (+ radium) (kBq) 3291289663 728312686 802239277,9 air, radioactive noble gas (kBq) 1723343859 381578467 421565401,1 air, radioactive Aerosole (kBq) 12401,13249 2752,31583 3045,684442 air, radioactive Actinides (kBq) 2440,609747 531,711799 589,3444482 water, radioactive Radium (kBq) 308464,6546 63954,1 71477,3018 water, radioactive Tritium (kBq) 76911756,65 17030146,6 18808419,86 water, radioactive Nuclides (kBq) 286494,676 63554,8887 70421,83765 water, radioactive Actinides (kBq) 103935,7976 21280,6272 23454,41355 resource Water (m3) 72169,03888 15060,0535 16560,85705 air carbon monoxide (kg) 4644,791646 584,985895 645,8288981 air Particulates (kg) 8162,813353 1660,35403 1823,88955 resource carbon, biogenic, fixed (kg) 90982,9927 895,54247 977,0422003 F figure 10 Summary of additional LCI results of all technologies [3]. 4.3 Life Cycle Impact Assessment The stage of an LCA called life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) aims at describing the environmental consequences of the environmental loads quantified in the inventory analysis. The impact assessment is achieved by "translating" the environmental loads form the inventory results into environmental impacts such as acidification, ozone depletion, effect on biodiversity, etc. ISO 14040 determines a mandatory structure for this LCA stage [1, 4, 6]: • Selection of impact categories, category indicators and characterization models, • classification and • characterization. Values are in LCIA re-calculated from the results of selected LCI data with Ecoinvent database v 2.1 2009. A mass or energy balance is developed, including the relationship of each process with the processes "upstream". By addition of all the values associated to each process, the total final value is obtained for the entire unit process that is being evaluated. The value obtained from the database is multiplied by the functional unit value obtained for each stage in the process of the corresponding cutting technology. But before describing results it is important to understand established system boundaries stated in analysis. The cutting tests for AWJ technology have been performed in company IAMCUT using FLOW WMC-02 machine. For PWJ technology tests have been performed in IAMCUT using OMAX 2652A machine. IAWJ technology tests have been done in University of Ljubljana using prototype developed in Laboratory for alternative technologies. Because tests have been done in different location and machines, it means that comparison of the data obtained for three technologies need to be done. All technologies are based on PWJ technology. Machines have done tests of PWJ technology. Results of tests have been compared and conversion factor is 0,934. When calculating results is important to take into account this factor to make result correct [1, 4, 6]. For treatment of data obtained in the LCI, and the classification and characterization of the impacts produced for the LCIA, the following treatment procedure is followed: first the total values obtained for all the functional units of each of the unit processes are taken [1, 4, 6]. That value is multiplied by the value of the Ecoindicator 99 (H, A) found on the Ecoinvent v2.1 2009 database for that process in each of the corresponding cutting stages. "Points" are the reference unit for the calculation of impacts using this methodology, a single unit of measurement that allows comparisons between the various indicators and assessment of the main impacts of the three technologies. Table 1 present results for all technologies. All three technologies present summary of the environmental impacts according to Ecoindicator 99 expressed in points and categorizations. On table 1 AWJ technology has 5.75 times higher environment impact than IAWJ and 6.29 times higher than PWJ [1, 4, 6]. Table 1 Summary of impact of three technologies according to Ecoindicator 99 [4]. TOTAL ECOINDICATOR 99-(H,A) [points] AWJ PWJ IAWJ ecosyst em quality acidificatio n & eutrophicati on 10764,69 1774,97 1948,6 ecosyst em quality Eco toxicity 8294,98 1512,231 1662,35 ecosyst em quality land occupation 10634,08 847,35 928,45 ecosyst em quality total 29693,29 4134,51 4539,37 human health carcinogeni c 13346,26 2859,35 3180,83 human health climate change 47109,13 9679,06 10583,83 human health ionizing radiation 3018,378 667,79 736,26 human health ozone layer depletion 18,36 2,2261 2,45 human health respiratory effects 127562,21 22967,27 25230,36 human health total 191050,720 36174,82 39732,89 resourc es resourc es fossil fuels 264378,48 36721,58 39980,75 mineral extraction 2586,66 492,03 581,16 resourc es total 266964,51 37212,69 40561,04 total total 487714,99 77524,27 84835,45 4.4 Life cycle interpretation Life Cycle Interpretation is a systematic technique to identify, quantify, check, and evaluate information from the results of the life cycle inventory and/or the life cycle impact assessment. The results from the inventory analysis and impact assessment are summarized during the interpretation phase. The outcome of the interpretation phase is a set of conclusions and recommendations for the study. According to ISO 14040:2006, the interpretation should include [4]: 1. Identification of significant issues based on the results of the LCI and LCIA phases of an LCA, 2. evaluation of the study considering completeness, sensitivity and consistency checks and 3. conclusions, limitations and recommend. A key purpose of performing life cycle interpretation is to determine the level of confidence in the final results and communicate them in a fair, complete, and accurate manner. The key points of the LCA analysis in LIFE+ project are summarized in the following aspects [4]: 1. The stage of use is the most pollutant step in any of the 3 cutting technologies studied. 2. In the stage of use, the main environmental impacts result from electricity consumption in the 3 cutting technologies studied. 3. In AWJ technology, the transportation of abrasive causes significant environmental impacts too, both due to highway and sea transportation and the need to use pallets to transport the bags with abrasive. 4. In IAWJ technology, the liquid nitrogen consumption also results in important environmental impacts. On the other side, the impacts resulting from the obtaining and manufacturing of stainless steel and copper are significant. These materials are required for the manufacturing of the accessory equipment for IAWJ technology. 5 Conclusion In this paper three technologies were presented. Pure water jet, abrasive water jet and ice abrasive water jet. Pure water jet was developed for cutting soft materials. With upgrading PWJ to AWJ, cutting head was changed. Mixture chamber was added to mix high speed water with abrasive. This upgrade improves cutting capacity. But in the other hand AWJ cannot always be used, for example processing of meat products, the cleaning of sensitive surfaces as well as biomedical applications and etc. The principal difference is that IAWJ works with water ice particles while in AWJ technology the abrasive is mineral garnet. Therefore, the waste generated during the IAWJ cutting process will be drastically reduced. In the LIFE+ project the sustainability analysis in this area has been carried out for first time. For sustainability analysis LCA method was used. LCA method is a "cradle-to-grave" approach for assessing industrial systems. "Cradle-to-grave" begins with the gathering of raw materials from the earth to create the product and ends at the point when all materials are returned to the earth. With analysis we obtained a complete review of the environment impact throughout its entire life cycle of technologies. Three technologies and their environmental performance were analyzed. The goals of this Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), established in the document "Objectives and scope", are to compare the three water jet cutting technologies and analyze their environmental performance. The aim of the study is [4]: 1. To perform an inventory of all components in the three different cutting technologies (according to system boundaries established) 2. To compare the three different technologies with respect to environmental impact 3. To identify the stages in the life cycle which make the largest contributions to the total environmental impact. Results of analysis show that from all phases, phase of use has biggest impact on environment at all three technologies. The biggest proportion of use presents the electrical consumption. In IAWJ, high environment impact has extraction, production and assembly phase of raw liquid nitrogen, copper and stainless steel. In AWJ technology big environment impact also presents transport of abrasive and the use of pallets. At the end the biggest environment impact has AWJ technology. In comparison with the results of cutting it can be said that the IAWJ technology is good enough in cutting ability of rubber and very organic oriented technology [1, 2, 3, 4]. References [1] Zupančič A., Life cycle assessment of abrasive ice jet cutting technology, Slovenia, May 2013 [2] Ice Jet project consortium, LCA comparing three cutting technologies: Abrasive Water Jet (AWJ), Pure Water Jet (PWJ) and Ice Jet (IJ). OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE, Spain, December 2012 [3] Ice Jet project consortium, LCA comparing three cutting technologies: Abrasive Water Jet (AWJ), Pure Water Jet (PWJ) ad Ice Jet (IJ). LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY (LCI), Spain, December 2012 [4] Ice Jet project consortium, LCA comparing three cutting technologies: Abrasive Water Jet (AWJ), Pure Water Jet (PWJ) and Ice Jet (IJ). LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT (LCIA), Spain, December 2012 [5] Jerman M., Pregled literature in zasnova merilnega mesta za obdelavo s kriogenim vodnim curkom, Ljubljana, 2011 [6] SAIC, Life cycle assessment: Principles and practice, Ohio, May 2006 [7] http ://www. drustvo -tavo.si, retrieved on 03.07.2013 Range-Extender in electric vehicles - a revival of (highly optimized) two-stroke engines on a small scale A. Nagel1, S. Thater2, and R. Steinhilper2 1 Fraunhofer IPA, Germany 2 Bayreuth University, Germany Abstract The limited accumulator capacity of modern electric vehicles, which are driven by accumulator powered electric motors, is one reason why these systems do not prevail. To increase the range and the attractiveness of electric powered vehicles, the research project "MIHY - Miniatur Hybrid" is handling the development of a modern range extender by using two-stroke engines (mechanical power: ~ 3 kW) on a small scale. To increase the over-all efficiency, thermal energy in the exhaust system has to be converted into kinetic energy. Therefore a laval nozzle accelerates the exhaust gas to supersonic speed, which is driving a subsequent, for the exhaust conditions specialized, turbine generator. Furthermore the whole exhaust system, including the turbine and the laval nozzle, is optimized for the resonance of sound waves in order to minimize the loss of fresh gas during the gas exchange in the two-stroke engine. So the sound waves, which are caused by the combustion, must reflect at the nozzle to a certain time to assure an optimal charge of the combustion chamber. Therefore the length of the exhaust system and the propagation delay are synchronized. At the piston outlet they provoke a local pressure increase, which forces unburned gases back to the piston. All relevant conditions like pressures and temperatures at different points, the crankshaft speed and angle, the flow speed, the generated electrical power are recorded by using high speed analyzing equipment and simulated by using CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics). In this paper relevant calculations and the dimensioning of a revolutionary exhaust system for increasing the efficiency of a light weight two-stroke range extender are presented for the first time. Keywords: MIT&SLIM2013, e-mobility, two-stroke engine, range-extender, hybrid vehicle, exhaust turbine, waste heat, CFD, simulation, high efficiency. 1 Introduction E-mobility is deemed to be a big challenge of the automotive industry in the next few years. Advantages like the CO2-savings and the noiseless driving emerge obviously. Based on the high acquisition costs und the limited range of those cars the potential customers are not willing to buy them. Because of the limited range of e-cars with an average range of 100-150 km only few customers are disposed to pay an additional price compared to the price of a conventional car. The technology of the lithium-ion-accumulators shows great potential according to the store capacity and a thereby related increased range of e-cars. The price of those accumulators will certainly fall over time to a competitive level [1]. Up till then Range-Extender will be a method of choice to configure e-mobility more competitive. For that reason the Bayreuth University develops a high efficient Range-Extender in the context of the research project "Miniatur Hybrid" (MIHY). 2 Initial situation To realize the research intense tasks within two and a half year (project duration of MIHY) an experienced partner is needed. The industrial partner in this project is "Webra Feinmechanik GmbH" (in the following WEBRA). WEBRA produces high performance model combustion engines for a reasonable price since 50 years. For this reason amongst others, it was decided that the following developments will be realized in a small scale. Advantages of this proceeding are the fast and cost effective development as well as the less difficult technology of model engines compared to the large scaled engines in modern vehicles. Afterwards the achieved results can be transferred to the big scaled engines and Range-Extender. 2.1 State of the art Range-Extender are available in many different variants on the market. Especially, according to the mode of use, the classification of the operation mode (serial or parallel hybrid) of electric driven cars is relevant (cf. Figure 1). The parallel hybrid operation mode provides the possibility to drive by electric motor and/or by combustion engine. Whereas the serial operation solely uses the combustions engine to charge the connected accumulator. • modification of the engine to gas-fuelled operation • utilization of the thermal and kinetic energy in the exhaust gas • utilization of the energy losses of the cooling system Serial Hybrid Parallel Hybrid Generator Combustion engine Electric traction motor M for power Generator m Combustion engine Drive battery Drive battery Figure 1 Hybrid drive modes [2] This allows the use of significant smaller, lighter and load point optimised combustion engines. The Range-Extender of the MIHY-project is applied for this purpose. Furthermore the Range-Extender of this project is supposed to be more efficient than comparable systems by efficiency increasing developments. Usually combustion engines are deployed for this purpose and are indicated by an average efficiency of approximately 40%. This value characterizes the available mechanical drive power. The remaining 60% of the deployed chemical energy of the fuel get lost by the cooling of the engine and by thermal energy of the exhaust gas [3]. The previous approach of the development of load point optimised combustion engines was limited to the improvement of the efficiency of the mechanical drive power. The concept of the MIHY Range-Extender however allows the partly usage of the remaining 60% energy losses, additionally. 2.2 Procedure Starting point of the development is the two-stroke engine "Speed 150i" from the company and project partner WEBRA. The model combustion engine has a cylinder capacity of 25 ccm3 and a performance of 2.8 kW with 11,000 rpm. The engine runs with a fuel-oil-mixture. The engine modification to propane/butane gas operation is optional to ensure a flexible and comprehensive supply with fuel. An additional advantage of the gas-fuelled operation mode is the improvement of the emission levels (pollutant emissions and noise level) as well as the increase of the efficiency. This is the way to increase the efficiency of 40 % beside other arrangements e.g. the use of the energy losses in the cooling system and of the exhaust system. Consequently the following tasks have to be completed: Figure 2 shows the schema of the above described concept of the MIHY Range-Extender to maximize the range of an e-car. The mechanical energy converted out of the combustion engine is used to drive a first generator which is connected to the crank shaft. To use the energy contained in the exhaust gas it is necessary to lead the exhausts primarily through a so called exhaust-power turbine which is linked to a second generator. The energy losses of the cooling system are processed in another way, but also those ones will finally be converted by a third generator into electric energy. With the help of an electronic control system the electric energy of the three mentioned generators are used to charge the drive accumulator of an e-car. Exhaust gas Exhaust turbine Generator 2 Air + Gas fuel Figure 2 MIHY-concept To accomplish the aimed targets, a step by step realization is intended. Initially the gas turbine and all necessary attachment parts will be dimensioned and constructed. These will replace the previous commonly used exhaust system (normally a silencer resp. tuned pipe). The utilization of the wasted energy of the cooling system and the conversion from petrol to gas operation will be implemented in a later state. 3 Overview of selected results To use the exhaust energy, a range of preliminaries and calculations are necessary. Those are described in the following sections. 3.1 Range-Extender combustion engine As already mentioned all developments are based on a 25 cm3 two-stroke engine of the company WEBRA. The reason is the extreme simple construction, modifiability high power-to-weight ratio and the low price. The achieved results during the MIHY-project can be accessed at later point in time and used to build a more powerful Range-Extender. This allows the support of the drive-accumulators of a four-person hybrid e-car with electric energy. Instead of using one large scaled Range-Extender, it is also possible to link four smaller MIHY Range-Extender to provide the needed performance. The operation method of the MIHY Range-Extender will be static at a constant rotational speed. Hereby the first thoughts about realization began. By the use of performance diagrams the possible engine power at a constant rotational speed of 5,000 rpm is determined. With an assumed efficiency of 40% the engine power is 1.3 kW [3]. Exact measurements and calculations of the efficiency take place during the project MIHY at a later point. Important for further steps is the determination of operating parameters like volume flow, pressure and temperature. By the chemical reaction equation the amount of primary energy (fuel), which is needed to achieve a performance of 1.3 kW at an engine efficiency (hengine) of 40%, can be calculated (cf. Equation 3.1.1 and 3.1.2). 2 CHm + 25 O2 ® 16 CO2 + 18 H2O Pchern = = 3.25 kW '/engine (3.1.1) (3.1.2) 3 kJ With a lower heating value of Hu = 40 • 10 — and an air ratio of 14.7:1 the total air mass flow results to 1.27 g/s. Under normal conditions and an kg assumed exhaust gas density of rgas =1.4 — this corresponds to a volume flow of approximately 0.9 l/s. Depending on the exhaust gas temperature and furthermore operating factors a volume flow of 2 l/s is achievable. Important parameters of the exhaust gas are calculated by the help of the Otto-cycle (cf. Figure 3). Interesting are especially the conditions at point 4, which represent the pressure and temperature of the exhaust gas at this certain point. Taking the cooling losses as well as the gas-exchange cycle by the flush of fresh gas, as it occurs in two-stroke combustion engines, into consideration the conditions approx. 20mm behind the exhaust port results to: • temperature: T = 191° C • pressure: p = 2.8 bar A comparison of those values with the literature shows a classification at the bottom edge of the possible. The literature refers values up to an exhaust gas temperature of 400° C and a pressure of 10 bar [3] [4]. d £ 3 s I Specific Volume, v Figure 3 Otto-cycle Important findings are the losses contained in the exhaust gas in form of thermal energy. For the considered model those are approximately 1 kW. This energy normally gets exhausted unused into the environment. In future those losses are supposed to be reduced by developing an exhaust-power turbine. Thereby the over-all efficiency of the MIHY Range-Extender is raised clearly. 3.2 Measurements at the exhaust system The considerations and calculated values made in chapter 3.1, are verified by measurements. The used engine therefore is not the WEBRA "Speed 150i" but a related high-performance engine (product name: Chung Yang R236). Temperature measurement The temperature measurement at the exhaust port of the engine provides a maximum exhaust gas temperature of approx. 160° C (cf. Figure 4). Figure 4 Temperature measurement The undulated moving of the temperature profile is caused by rotational speed regulations during the experiment (Figure 4). From the moment t > 0 s the engine was running in idle speed. The rotational speed was raised continuously, held for 50 s and then raised stage-by-stage. The maximum rotational speed of 11,000 rpm was reached after t = 230 s with a consistent load. Therefore, it is possible to achieve the temperature of T = 190° C from the calculations of chapter 3.1. The temperature measurement at the exhaust port and the tuned pipe outlet shows a DT of approx. 40° C. On the one hand this can be explained by the geometry of the tuned pipe which affects the pressure and temperature change; on the other hand, by heat losses to the immediate surroundings. For this reason a thermal insulation is applied to the resonance tube. Low pressure measurement When measuring the pressure ratio in the tuned pipe by a high sample rate (50 kHz) of the pressure sensor, it is possible to perform more precisely measurements compared to the slower temperature sensors. Consequently even procedures within an operating cycle can be detected by the pressure sensor. At 5,000 rpm one cycle takes 12 ms in time. With a sample rate of 50 kHz, ten measurements per cycle (every 1.2 ms) are made. Figure 5 Pressure measurement The relative pressure, which is measured with the pressure sensor, "DRTR-AL- 10V-R10B" from HYGROSENS, shows periodic oscillations. An analysis of the length of the single peaks as well as a correlation by the help of the velocity of sound in the exhaust gas shows the resonance behaviour in the tuned pipe clearly. Hereby the relative pressure at the end of one stroke gets negative. This represents the exhaust back-pressure and therefore a decrease in pressure at the end of the tuned pipe (cf. Figure 5). The application of a tuned pipe at current state is essential. The maximum absolute pressure in Figure 5 is approx. 1.4 bar. The pressure measurements, the measured temperatures and the to be determined flow speed are the basis for the following laval nozzle. 3.3 Laval nozzle By the given area of the exhaust port at the "Speed 150i" of 346 mm2 and the adjusted rotational speed during first test runs, the exhaust gas velocity results to 2.7 m/s. For an effective use of the turbine this value is way too low. For this reason the flow velocity is raised by the help of a laval nozzle (cf. Figure 6). Due to their specific geometry it is possible to accelerate the exhaust far into the supersonic range. This happens by the transformation of thermal into kinetic energy. The geometry dimensioning is achieved by the calculations of impulse and flow speed respectively, by values out of data sheets. Very relevant parameters are the area ratios inside the nozzle and at the outlet. This is ascertained by the existing pressure ratio, directly in front of the narrowest point of the laval nozzle and the external pressure [5]. M < 1 j M > 1 Figure 6 Principle of the laval nozzle [5] By the temperature and pressure values from chapter 3.1 two limit cases of the nozzle geometry are picked. According to those the diameter of the tightest spot of the laval nozzle has to be between 5 and 15 mm. With those two inner diameters, (also called critical diameter) the scope for following more accurate determinations of the nozzle geometry is arranged. In this regard, exhaust gas is accelerated to Mach > 2 (approx. 700 m/s) at the nozzle outlet. This provides a very good basis for the efficient drive of the following exhaust-power turbine. 3.4 Construction On the basis of up till now made considerations, calculations and measurements a construction of the tuned pipe, the laval nozzle and the exhaust-power turbine can be realized. Tuned pipe The tuned pipe for the „Speed 150i" has to be adjusted to the present engine and its optimal operating conditions. By calculating the resonance times, most relevant dimensions of the tuned pipe are defined. In this case, the rotational speed is important. Caused by the low rotational speed of 5,000 rpm, the tuned pipe has a length of lr k 700 mm. Further needed dimensions in Figure 7 can be calculated by formula or by empiric determined values. By dimensioning of those values the geometry of the resonance body is certain. The formula and the cone shaped geometry 12 and 14 (cf. Figure 7) apply for a range of various rotational speeds. With a fixed rotational speed as it is preset, the cone shaped courses could be omitted and a staged passage could be chosen. lr al dl V 7 d2 11 12 13 14 Figure 7 Dimensioning of the tuned pipe From the previous measured values of pressure and temperature as well as the calculated values of the flow speed, exhaust pressure and exhaust temperature in front of the laval nozzle a first prototype was modelled by the help of the CAD-software SolidWorks2013®. Laval nozzle Directly to the tuned pipe, the laval nozzle is connected and represents the pre-stage of the turbine casing. The nozzle outlet is directed on the downstream located turbine wheel. As the critical inner diameter cannot be calculated exactly up till now, it is necessary to determine the value experimentally (Figure 8). Figure 8 Laval nozzle with critical diameter of 5 and 15 mm This process is important as the laval nozzle (a laval nozzle has six operating modes) is only working exactly with the right dimensioning. The dimensioning is dependent of the pressure ratio in front and behind of the nozzle and this, in turn, is dependent of the engine rotational speed, exhaust temperature and the pressure course of the downstream power turbine [8]. Exhaust-power turbine The exhaust-power turbine is located directly behind the laval nozzle and is developed in several steps. After developing different possible designs, three most promising variants with the greatest potential are built in CAD-software, suitable for production and printed by the rapid prototyping method. Those can be analysed concerning their operating performance. Figure 9 shows the chosen version. The different variants are not named here. Figure 9 Exhaust-power turbine Besides a simple and robust building technique the integration of pressure and temperature sensors as well as a flow speed sensor was also considered here. The whole construction is produced according to ISO-standards. Especially relating to screws and necessary tools, the variety of options was considered to be kept at a low level. 3.5 Simulations Flow Speed (m/s) Figure 11 Flow speed in the laval nozzle Figure 10 and 11 show the results of the simulation of the flow speed of the exhaust gas. In the area of the laval nozzle a yellow-red-coloring shows the intense sped-up. The maximum velocity of approx. 700 m/s is reached right after the narrowest section. At the narrowest section the velocity is Mach = 1. The velocity of sound cL in the exhaust gas depends on the square root of the absolute gas temperature (cf. Equation 3.5.1) [6]. Cl = fk-R- Tknt (3.5.1) Downstream the velocity decreases a little bit, but it stays above 400 m/s (cf. Figure 11, green area) and consequently in the supersonic range. This is the velocity the exhaust gas hits the wheel of the exhaust-power turbine. The high flow velocity is reached by the transformation of the thermal into kinetic energy. Figure 12 shows this relation. In front of the laval nozzle the temperature is around 500 Kelvin. Downstream temperatures drop about approx. 200 Kelvin. The critical temperature is around 400 Kelvin. According to the theoretical calculations of the laval nozzle the exhaust gas velocity should now result to 700 m/s in front of the exhaust-power turbine. To confirm the results, practical experiments and flow simulations with the help of CFD-software are executed. By different scenarios the estimation of the ideal dimensioning as well as about the actual flow velocities are possible. Figure 10 Flow speed in the exhaust system Temperature (K) Figure 12 Temperature profile in the laval nozzle [7] 4 Current prototype The realization of the present work from a first prototype to a complete system can be implemented in the next steps. 4.1 Complete System over-all efficiency of the turbine under load of 50 % All in chapter 3 specified components are shown in Figure 13. These include: • motor flange, • tuned pipe, • laval nozzle, • turbine case with turbine. f 4 "KT Figure 13 CAD model of the complete system The construction is kept modular und guarantees a simple change of the components. Consequently different variants of the laval nozzle can be tested. The continuous development of single components is simplified. The whole system, including the engine, has a maximum dimensioning of 800x100x150 mm. Later a more compact installation is planed, wich combines exhaust system, cooling circuit and engine bearer on a common square plate. The prototype is made out of steel and aluminum and is manufactured at the Chair Manufacturing and Remanufacturing Technology of Bayreuth University. Original pictures of the up-to-date prototype will not be published, because of patent protecting reasons. 4.2 Performance and efficiency The most important point in dimensioning the exhaust-power turbine is the performance calculating. The determined parameters can be used to conclude on the improved over-all efficiency. The current calculating of the performance is done under following assumptions: • lowest expected temperature before the laval nozzle (cf. Chapter 3.1) • lowest expected pressure before the laval nozzle (cf. Chapter 3.1) • flow speed behind the laval nozzle 400 m/s • usage of the kinetic energy of the exhaust gas behind the laval nozzle by the exhaust-power turbine up to 60 % The last two headwords are assumptions to calculate the expected losses. Those decrease the value of the performance accordingly. Despite those assumptions an idling speed of the turbine wheel of nidle = 88.000 rpm with a flow speed of uexhaust_gas_in = 400 m/s and a flow speed at the outlet of uexhaust_gas_out = 50 m/s of the exhaust gas could be determined (cf. Equation 4.2.1) [7]. Widle _ 60f •exhaust_gas_in u exhaust_gas_out ) 360° a (4.2.1) nidle: u exhaust_gas_in • u exhaust_gas_out • hflow: l, a: idling speed speed of exhaust gas flowing to turbine blades speed of exhaust gas flowing out from turbine efficiency of the turbine flow length, angle of dip of exhaust gas over turbine blades Thereby a theoretical performance of Pturbine_max = 922 W could be achieved. The difference between idling cycle and operation with load is defined with above named over-all efficiency of 50 %. At load i.e. linking the turbine to the electric generator the performance is added up to Pelectric = 411W. The efficiency of the exhaust-power turbine in relation to the whole deployed (cf. Chapter 3.1) chemical energy arises to nturbine=14% [7]. The efficiency of the whole system can be calculated by summing up the single efficiencies of the engine and the exhaust turbine (cf. Equation 4.2.2). tftotal _ °crankshaft + Pturbine _ 54% (4.2.2) chem chem The over-all efficiency of the system is increased by the exhaust turbine from initially nengine = 40% to ntotal = 54%. This efficiency exceeds commercial available Range-Extender powered with diesel fuel. 5 Summary and forecast The given tasks and aimed goals of the research project MIHY are very extensive. i A methodical and strict procedure is necessary to achieve them. The results published in this paper are consequently only the first step to an optimized Range-Extender. 5.1 Summary of the previous results The up to now achieved results during the project MIHY have a high potential for future developments. A disadvantage that hasn't been handled till now is the bad emission level (pollutant emissions and noise level) of two-stroke engines. Advantageously in contrast is the usage option of the thermal energy included in the exhaust gas. By the thermodynamic calculations and the flow conditions at the outlet of the engine, as well as the necessary transformation of thermal into kinetic energy, the usage of a laval nozzle got required. With an ideal adjusted geometry the exhaust gas is accelerated into the supersonic range (currently approx. 400 m/s). The accelerated exhaust drives the exhaust-power turbine which supplies an electric generator that dispenses an electric performance of 411 W. The over-all efficiency of the system is raised to ntotal = 54%. This exceeds occasionally the Range-Extender which are commercially available. The fuel resistance of the power turbine, additional efficiency improvements, practical experiments and the compliancy of the exhaust standards are to accomplish. 5.2 Forecast and further approach The further steps which are to accomplish during the research project MIHY are related to the gas modification of the engine "Speed 150i". The results achieved here, shall help to improve the emission levels as well as a rise of the temperature of the exhaust gas. This influences the performance of the turbine positively. Furthermore as a part of the gas modification a direct fuel injection can be tested. This would decrease the losses by the flush of fresh fuel-air-mixture during the two-stroke cycle. The replacement would also affect the geometry of the tuned pipe, which could get simplified. The laval nozzle has to be adjusted, too. In the case of an ideal adjusted laval nozzle it could approximate to the proved principle of a radial turbine. As an additional task to increase the overall efficiency it could be tried to use the losses of the cooling and to convert it into electric energy. Finally the produced electric performances of the crankshaft, the exhaust-power turbine and the cooling cycle are linked together and used to charge the drive accumulators. The realization of the given tasks and aimed goals should lead to a high efficient Range-Extender in a compact configuration, which can be tested in a radio-controlled car in the scale 1:5. 6 Acknowledgments The project "Miniatur-Hybrid" („MIHY") is supported by the "Bundesministerium fur Wirtschaft und Technologie", by decision of the German Bundestag as well as the „Zentrales Innovationsprogramm Mittelstand". 7 References [1] Kolke, R. Dr.-Ing.; Gartner, A.: Alternative Antriebe im StraBentest - Eine ADAC Studie, accessed 11.05.2013, online www.adac.de, 2012. [2] MTB-Tech Group: Hybrid-Konzepte, accessed 11.05.2013, online https://www.mbtech-group.com/eu-de/spotlights/mbtech_hybrid/hybridkonzepte .html, 2009. [3] Demuth, P..: Modell-motoren, Neckar-Verlag, Villingen, 1994. [4] Merker, G. und Schwarz, C.: Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren, Vieweg+Teubner Verlag, Wiesbaden, 2012. [5] Kalide, W.: Energieumwandlung in Kraft-und Arbeitsmaschinen, Carl Hanser Verlag, Munchen Wien, 2005. [6] Kalide, W.: Energieumwandlung in Kraft-und Arbeitsmaschinen, Carl Hanser Verlag, Munchen, 1982. [7] Will, F.: Entwicklung einer Abgasturbine fur Zweitaktmotoren, Diplomarbeit, Universitat Bayreuth, 2013. [8] Settles, G.: High-Speed Flow Through a Laval-Nozzle, Penn State Gas Dynamics Lab, 2000. Innovations and technologies Innovation management opportunities in Slovenian manufacturing: an empirical analysis within low- and hi-tech companies Borut Likar1, Sašo Sukič2, Janez Kopač3, Marko Ropret4 1University of Primorska, Slovenia 2University of Ljubljana, Slovenia University of Ljubljana, Slovenia 4University of Primorska, Slovenia Abstract The aim of the paper is to identify the innovation factors and consequently possibilities for improvement the innovation management of Slovenian manufacturing companies. We analysed both the low- (henceforth referred to as: LMT) and hi-tech manufacturing companies (henceforth referred to as: HMT). The methods of data analysis consisted mainly of regression analysis (influential factor determination) and descriptive statistics within three identified groups of companies (Non-innovators, Innovation followers and Innovation leaders) so as to enable concrete guidelines for companies. The research results showed positive correlations between innovation inputs, innovation results and economic performance - this was largely confirmed both for LMT and HMT companies. More precisely, two groups of innovation factors mainly influencing innovation results (and consequently business performance) were identified: first, the financial innovation inputs, considering both the height and structure of innovation expenditure. Both within LMT and HMT companies, we noticed, that Non-Innovators and Innovation followers were spending mostly on machinery and equipment, but too little on R&D expenditure (compared to Innovation leaders). The second group of influential innovation factors, consists of the non-financial innovation factors, where considerable potential for improvement exists as well. As regards the LMT Non-innovators, in order to become innovation active - i.e. an Innovation Follower, one of the prerequisite factors is providing sufficient managers' support for innovation (innovating the management). The "shift" from Innovation Follower to Innovation Leader; however, requires ensuring a proper management of innovation within a broader LMT company context. As regards the HMT companies it was shown the Non-Innovators generally received sufficient management support for innovation, but a prerequisite for their improvements lies mainly in improving their opportunity identification activities. But to move from HMT Follower to HMT Leader, several additional non-financial factors must be improved. It must also be stressed that achieving Innovation leader status is much more difficult in case of HMT companies compared to their LMT counterparts (i.e. bigger adjustments needed by the Non-innovators and Innovation Followers). Therefore, in the short-term it may be most productive for national policy makers to support innovation within LMT companies, while in the long-term improving the situation within HMT companies must also be addressed. Keywords: innovation, management, low-tech, hi-tech, opportunities, manufacturing, Slovenia 1 Introduction According to the words of management guru Peter Drucker [1], every organization needs the following key competence: innovation. Research confirms the significant positive correlation between innovation and the economic results [2]. Despite the importance of this fact, Europe is consistently behind USA and Japan regarding reached innovative results [3, 4, 5]. A continuous progress is noticeable compared to USA, lately also compared to Japan, but a great gap between EU and these two developed regions still remains [5]. Furthermore, China, India and Brazil are becoming important global players in the field of research and development (R&R). Slovenia belongs (according the Summary innovation index (which shows the innovativeness of EU members and some other countries based on 29 indicators) to the group of countries that even falls behind the European average - so-called »Innovation followers« [5]. In order to achieve progress, research has to be made with emphasis on the study of systemic and systematic approach for the improvement of the existing state [6]. Until recently, in the manufacturing sector, a great part of research from the field of innovation management was directed towards the high technology companies [7]. The latter represented a synonym for the high value added and economic growth. Only recently researchers are starting to identify the meaning of technologically less intense branches for the innovativeness and the international successfulness of countries. Moreover, high and medium-high tech companies (hereinafter: HMT) as opposed to low and medium-low tech (hereinafter: LMT) in most of the developed economies include only a trivial share of GDP - even in the USA, that is a member of OECD with the highest share of high-tech production, they contribute less than 3% to the GDP [8]. In accordance with that, LMT represent an extremely important group of companies whose innovation and economic successfulness is essential for the economic prosperity in the country. At the same time, innovation potential of LMT and HMT in Slovenia is obviously not enough exploited. Frequent statistical indicators, such as the share of innovative active companies, show that the both branch groups are relatively close to the average of the countries EU-27, but actual innovative and economic results are distinctively below the EU average. A majority of the companies are Innovation followers, their innovation incomes from market novelties representing barely a half of EU-27 average [2]. Similarly, unfortunately applies for the reached economic results, which is seen in the much lower added value per employee. Economic subjects are trying to increase the level of innovation results with different, often partial approaches which are not effective. The purpose of this paper is a holistic identification of factors that affect innovation and economic results in the manufacturing sector. Results in the low and medium-low technology firms and the high and medium-high technology firms, based on the scientific data, will represent the foundation for the rise of innovation and consequently economic successfulness. The structure of the paper is as follows: firstly we introduce the research methodology; then we present the specific findings which apply separately for LMT and HMT while the last part consists of the conclusions where we connect the research results and define the guidelines for a more successful innovation management in companies. 2 Research methodology The research is based on the national data about the innovative activities of CIS (Community Innovation Survey). This data are particulary suitable for scientific analysis because of the participation of the majority of Slovenian companies and the application of the international standardised research methodology. Primary data (2004-2006 period) in the Slovenian medium and large manufacturing companies (624 units) was obtained by the Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia (SURS). Aforementioned data gathers primarily (regarding influential factors) the financial inputs of companies (costs of the internal RR, costs of the external RR, costs for the acquisition of machines, equipment and programming equipment, costs for the acquisition of other external knowledge, training costs, costs for the introduction of innovations to the market and other. We have also conducted an additional survey from the non-financial inputs point of view (62 questions on a 7-level scale; year 2008). These represent the potentially influential factors as regards the management innovation process (the vision and the strategic views of the encouragement of innovativeness, the organizational culture and climate, the role of management support, the innovation cooperation within a company and with the environment, the system of material and non-material rewards, the role of the protection of intellectual property, the training and the development of staff competencies, the identification of the opportunities and generation of ideas). To this data we have added financial information from the balance sheet gained from the AJPES base, information about the structure of employees from the SRDAP base. All companies from the manufacturing sector were included in the case of SURS data and in the case of our research, we have included a sample of 86 manufacturing companies. For the conduction of the statistical analysis we have used (beside the basic statistics) the factor analysis, regression analysis, classification into groups and the Mann-Whitney statistical test (the latter was used only for the 2008 data, since it does not include the entire population). Financially measurable innovation results were used as fundamental measure as regards innovation results: RII - Turnover from product innovations as a share of total turnover and RMI - Turnover from product innovations new to the market as a share of total turnover from product innovations. Also, we have used the subjective evaluation of the total (financial and non-financial) benefit from innovations - Average total benefit of the company from innovations (Likert scale 1-7) (Likar and others 2011). 3 Results We have come to the conclusion that different groups of companies (low and medium-low tech manufacturers and high and medium-high tech manufacturers) show different patterns as regards managing innovation. This means a different direction of the innovation policy is needed - on the company level as much as on the country level. Innovation levers that lead to the successfulness in the group of high tech manufacturers are not so optimal for the low tech manufacturers. Innovation policy has to be more adapted to the branch. Only branch-specific innovation policy can lead to success. In the following text we will show the results of the separate analyses for both company groups (LMT, HMT): an identification of key innovation factors, based upon which it is possible to improve the innovation results in companies, later followed by the correlations of the innovation and the economic results of the company (basis: regression analysis and statistical tests/comparisons of factor average values). 3.1 The analysis in low and medium-low tech companies (LMT) The group of low tech manufacturing companies is the largest among the branch groups in Slovenia, it gathers more than a half of all medium and large manufacturing companies included in the research (N = 422). The LMT branches are categorised on basis of Eurostat/OECD methodology [9], while thorough analyses follow in the forthcoming subchapters (3.1.1 - 3.1.3). 3.1.1 The relation between the financial inputs and innovation results First let's take a look at how a company can financially influence the share of innovative in total incomes (RII). Interestingly, we have not identified a statistically significant influence of the innovation total investments on RII (Sig. > 0,1). But we have identified a statistically significant influence of the level of innovative investments on the variable that measures the successfulness of market novelties/RMI (stand. P =0,24). Consequently, there is a possibility that sufficient investments are prerequisite for the achievement of market novelties. With the further analysis of differently innovative companies we have confirmed that the level of financial innovative investments is of great importance, as is also the structure of these investments. Figure 1 The height and structure of financial investments (branch group LMT). The comparison of Innovation Followers and the Innovation Leaders within LMT shows that both groups of companies invest comparable amounts into innovation, approximately 3% of total turnover (Figure 1). But the Non-innovators invest a lot less - less than 1%. Clearly, only in the case of non-innovative companies (but not the Followers), a rise of financial investments is needed, which proves very interesting. Differences regarding the relative structure of these costs are also important. Non-innovative companies direct their low innovative investments into the purchase of machines and equipment (84 %). The investments made by medium innovative companies (followers) into tech equipment are higher than those made by innovative leaders -they take up 69 % of all investments. But the leading companies do invest more intensively than both other groups into R&D (internal and external) (27 %), into training (5 %) and into marketing of innovations (9 %). Investments into machines and equipment take up 52% of all investments made by the innovative leaders; so fundamentally less than with the followers. The amount (EUR) of turnover created with 1 EUR invested into innovation clearly confirms the adequacy of investments made by the Innovation Leaders: the Leader companies generate 14,3 EUR which is 8,9x more than the Innovation Followers (1,6 EUR)! In other words, every EUR that was invested by the Laders is returned than 14x! This fact is especially interesting, as it does not demand raising the overall financial innovation investments! 3.1.2 The relation between the non-financial inputs and innovation results First, let's take a look at how a company can improve the share of innovative revenues in total revenues (RII). A medium strong effect of the role of intellectual property (stand. P = 0,45) and the role of support of managers (stand. P = 0,36) prevails regarding the effect on RII. Among other process factors that statistically significantly and weakly affect the RII are (sorted by the strength of the influence): the organizational culture and climate (stand. P = 0,30), the vision and strategic aspects of encouraging innovation (stand. P = 0,29) and the training and the development of staff competencies (stand. P = 0,25). Opportunity identification and idea generation Training and development of staff competences « s Organizational culture and ----climate Vision and strategic aspects / of encouraging innovation \ L \ System of material and T T intangible rewards Innovation collaboration inside the company & with company's environment The role of IP The role of managers -•-Non-Innovators —a—Innovation followers -♦-Innovation leaders Figure 2 Non-financial investments of non-innovative companies, innovation followers and innovation leading companies (branch group LMT). In order for a company to be innovation leading, it also has to be successful when it comes to commercialization of market novelties (and not just of innovations that are new for the company itself). The medium strong significant effect of organizational culture and climate (stand. P = 0,36) is the most important for the increase of the revenue share from market novelties (RMI). The effect of the role of protection regarding intellectual property (stand. P = 0,28) is somewhat weaker but still significant. But other innovation process factors are also not unimportant. All 8 factors turned out to have a positive and a significant effect on the total (material and non-material) benefit from innovation. The role of support of managers (stand. P = 0,57) once again stands out among the most important influential factors (strong effect), followed by the vision and the strategic views of the encouraging innovation (stand. P = 0,53) and the innovation cooperation within a company and with the environment (stand. P = 0,52). The following factors have a medium strong positive effect: the training and the development of staff competencies (stand. P = 0,49), the identification of the opportunities and genereation of inventions (stand. P = 0,41), the role of the protection of intellectual property (stand. P = 0,38), the system of material and non-material rewards (stand. P = 0,36). The factor of organizational culture and climate has a significant weak effect (stand. P = 0,27). With applying the suitable systematics -upwards movement on the innovative chart - we can get to the clear guidelines for the transition from the non-innovative to the innovation leading company (Figure 2). Innovation followers (in comparison with the non-innovative companies) provide the support of managers for innovation (4,1 vs. 3,4) to a significantly greater extent (Sig. < 0,10). At the same, we have also showed with the regression analysis that the factor significantly affects the ability to reach innovative results. One of the fundamental steps for the crossing from the non-innovative company to the innovative follower can therefore be seen in the »innovation of management« [10] before we can even talk about the management of innovation. But, an adequate management of additional factors, that does not just treat managers aspects, is needed for the crossing from the innovation follower to the innovation leading company. Significant differences (Sig. < 0,10) show the need for the provision of more suitable organizational culture and climate (5,0 vs. 4,0); the results of the regression analysis confirm the importance of this factor. Innovation leaders (compared to the Followers) also have a better control of the factor of the identification of the opportunities and creation of inventions (4,8 vs. 3,8) and of the factor of the innovation cooperation within the company and with the company's environment (4,5 vs. 3,7), but those are less important factors (from the view of average value based on the leading companies and the results of regressive analysis). Some other factors are also potentially important (especially regarding the stand out of the value of leaders), but that can not be statistically confirmed. 3.1.3 The relation between the innovation results and economic successfulness It is obvious that the innovativeness in the LMT group pays off. Innovation leading LMT are economically more successful than the Non-Innovators and the Followers. They are the most profitable: ROE adds up to 0,08 %, that is 33% more than Followers and Non-innovators. We also have to emphasize that the ROE of the Leaders is rising most quickly. If we take a look at the return on assets (ROA), we can notice, that the leaders (0,03) have a higher ROA than both other groups (even 50% higher). At the same time, the innovation leading companies reach a gross added value (27.199 EUR per employee) that is one third higher from the innovation inactive one. Innovation leaders have the fastest growth of net incomes: it adds to 1,78%, that is 18% more than the non-innovative and 45% more than the followers. The number of employees at the innovation leading companies is growing during the observing period (3%), meanwhile it decreases in case of the Followers (-3,60 %) and Non-innovators (-4,40 %). At the same time, even the Innovation leaders show unused potential - for example, the added value per employee in case of the Innovation leaders reaches only 60% of EU average. 3.2 The analysis in high and medium-high tech companies (HMT) The group of high tech manufacturing companies includes 182 medium-large and large companies in Slovenia. The HMT categorization is in accordance with the methodology of Eurostat/OECD [9], while thorough analyses follow in the forthcoming subchapters (3.2.1 -3.2.3). 3.2.1 The relation between the financial inputs and the innovation results We have not identified a statistically significant influence of the level and structure of financial innovation investments on the share of innovation revenues in total revenues (RII). Yet, we have identified a significant influence of the costs of the acquisition of other external knowledge / total turnover (stand. P = 0,27), namely on the revenue share from market novelties (RMI). This finding shows the importance of the external knowledge and innovation cooperation in HMT companies for the achievement of market novelties. With the aforementioned factor one can explain 6,1 % the RMI variance (Adjusted R Square = 0,06). Considering that the most of effects were not significant, it is worth to remind of the relatively small number of HMT in our analysis (especially in comparison with the LMT) which can be one of possible reasons. At the same time, actual innovation patterns of companies clearly indicate that the financial investments are a factor connected with the innovation results, since the innovation leading companies differ from the Followers and Non-innovators regarding the level and the structure of these investments. Namely, the group of Innovation leaders invest altogether the greatest financial inputs into innovation, almost 7 % of revenues, the group of medium innovative Innovation followers approx. 4,5 %, and the group of Non-innovators slightly over 1 % of revenues (Figure 3). Therefore the achievement of innovation leadership in HMT obviously also demands relatively high total financial investments! Besides the height of total investments, the optimization of the mere structure is an additional challenge. In addition to the important role of external knowledge, it is very important that the most innovative companies invest relatively less into machines and equipment, while at the same time more into training and into marketing of innovations. To be more precise, the Non-innovators spend 93 % of all expenditures for the acquisition of machines and equipment, Followers 40 % and the Leaders just 25 %. When it comes to the Non-innovators, investments into (internal and external) RR add up to barely 8% and regarding Followers and Leaders approx. 40 % of all innovation investments. 8,00% - 7,00% J- 6,00% — 5,00% -- ,0,her ■ Market 4,00% -H-H- 'Train,ne ■ ExtraKnow ■ Machinery 5'00% -H- -H- .MD ■ InlraR&D 2,00% — 1,00% — 0,00% -^-^-^-,-^- 0 12 Entire h m pie Figure 3 The height and structure of financial investments (branch group HMT). The productivity (and the justification) of financial investments of the innovation leaders is clearly shown by the amount of revenues that the company makes with one EUR of innovation costs: that adds to 7,7 EUR when it comes to the Leaders, which is 4,1* more than the Followers achieve (1,9 EUR)! That means that every invested EUR of the Leaders is returned almost 8x! Let's not forget; however, that this rise of productivity demands relatively high financial innovation investments with appropriate structure. 3.2.2 The relation between the non-financial inputs and innovation results Based on the limitations of the sample that treats the process (non-financial) innovation factors of HMT (limited size and non-normality of distribution), the execution of regression analysis would not be justified. With the application of statistical tests, comapring the means we can establish (Figure 4); however, that the Leaders stand out when it comes to high attention to the innovation process factors (except the factor of the tole of managers), which indicates a positive correlation of these factors with the innovation results. Because of the low number of included HMT, the differences somewhat exceed the limit of statistical significancy (Sig. > 0,10), yet a thorough look reveals, they clearly make sense. In the continuing text, we sistematically show where the differences in management of the non-financial inputs appear between the differently innovative groups of companies. Non-innovative HMT in comparison with the Followers do not pay enough attention to the identification of the opportunity and the creation of inventions (5,0 vs. 3,9). Interestingly, Non-innovators pay more attention than Followers to the system of material and non-material rewards (3,7 vs. 4,0), the role of IP (4,2 vs. 3,1) and the support of managers (4,2 vs. 5,6), while at the asame time also being more dependent on the innovation cooperation (that it is a less suprising finding) (4,1 vs. 4,4). Despite the formal support of managers and the established formal system of material and non-material rewards, the Non-innovators realize only smaller, from the financial effects point of view negligible innovations (since in the case of Non-innovators, following applies: RII = 0, RMI = 0!). If we move higher on the »innovation ladder« - from a Follower to an Innovation leader -we can see that the Followers need a fundamentally larger attention especially regarding the three non-financial innovation factors: innovation cooperation within the company and with the environment (5,5 vs. 4,1), protection of intelectual property (6,0 vs. 3,1) and the provision of the system of material and non-material rewards (5,0 vs. 3,7). Figure 4 Non-financial investments of non-innovative companies, innovation followers and innovation leading companies (branch group HMT). 3.2.3 The relation between the innovation results and the economic successfulness HMT indicate quite the contrary results, compared to the LMT: the most innovative companies are economically the least successful. The growth index of net revenues is the lowest in the group of Leaders - it adds up to 8,37 %, which is approx. 35 % less than in case of the Non-innovators and 42 % less than in case of the Innovation followers; similar results can be seen when it comes to the capital growth index. According to the revenues per employee, innovation leading companies (92.283 EUR) are 10 % above the Non-innovative and rank on the same level as Innovation Followers. At the same time, Innovation leaders, as the only among the three groups, record a negative average growth of revenues per employee (-2,54 %). All HMT record a decrease of ROE in the observed period, wherein the Innovation leaders have the biggest decrease - 34,81 %, which is 4x more than Non-innovative and 13x more than Innovation followers. At the same time, ROA of the innovation leaders (0,03) is the lowest - it adds to 70 % less than in the case of Non-innovators and 50 % less than in the case of Followers. Some indicators (capital, assets, pays) of the Innovation leaders have (in the period 06/07) grown above average, but in the entire observed period (06/08) the growth was below average. Of course there can be several reasons for the weak economic results of the Leaders. Based on the results of the research, it is possible that the HMT in Slovenia need such high financial investments for the achievement of Innovation leadership that the profitability of a company is consequently low. Let's recall that the HMT Innovation leaders invest on average considerably more than innovation leaders, so low profitability of a company may be an obvious consequence. Certainly, the question of mass production appears and the Slovenian high tech companies do not reach it yet. High investments would without a doubt pay off, if they were accompanied by sales on a larger scale. 4 Conclusion The crisis has hit Slovenia more than several other countries [11, 12]. If we take international findings into account, which say that the non-innovative countries are more subjected to crisis than innovative countries [13], we can look for important causes for the crisis in those findings facts. Our research also indicates large structural differences regarding the innovation factors and results among companies from different branches. That is why, a separate treatment is needed for a more detailed analysis, not just on manufacturing and services level, but also within manufacturing (and services). From a company's innovation management policy point of view, we can find an obvious correlation between the innovation inputs (financial and manufacturing) and the innovation results. The latter are statistically significantly correlated with the economic results. In other words; who correctly invests into innovation, is economically more successful. In order to achieve optimum results, two groups of influential factors are key and comparably important regarding influence on innovation results. On one hand, there are financial investments that have to be adequate not just regarding total amount, but also regarding structure. Therefore, it is not just important how much you invest but also where you invest in. Interestingly, Leaders invest less into machinery and equipment than followers and Non-innovators, but much more into R&D activities. The second group of influential innovation factors, consists of the non-financial inputs, concerning management of the innovation process. Here, in the low and medium-low technology companies for the crossing from the non-innovative company to an innovation active company (a Follower that generates innovation revenues, yet not optimum ones) the process factor of main importance is the support from the company's management. For the further improvements towards the innovation leading companies (those that have great innovation reveneus, especially from market novelties), the vision and support of managers have to begin to live in practice of the entire LMT business - a rise of following factors proves essential: training and the development of staff competencies, organizational culture and climate, innovation cooperation within the company and with the company's environment (the so-called concept of »open innovation«). High and medium-high tech manufacturers demand a different approach as regards the innovation process. Here, the non-innovative companies (compared with the Followers) first and foremost lack a systematic approach regarding the identification of innovation opportunities and the rise of the innovation cooperation level (not just within the company but also with the environment!). Also, the protection of intellectual property is extremely important for the transition from the Innovation follower to the Innovation leader. As regards national innovation policy, an extremely important finding is, that more financial and non-financial investments into innovation are needed for successful innovation in the high and medium-high tech companies than in the low and medium-low tech companies. Therefore, additional encouragement of innovation in low-(and medium low) tech companies is urgent for the country. Especially as due to the many LMT companies, the improvement of innovativeness would positively impact the GDP. Productivity of innovation investments (regarding the achieved innovation revenues) of the low and medium-low tech manufacturers is considerably higher than in the case of high and medium-high tech companies. Of course the proposition does not mean, that it is not reasonable to invest into high-tech branches in Slovenia - they are absolutely important for the development of society, but fundamentally better management of many factors is needed for that. References [1] P.F. Drucker: The essential Drucker: selections from the management works of Peter F. Drucker, Elsevier, 2007. [2] Likar, B., Fatur, P., Ropret, M., Trček, D., Markič, M., Bavec, C., Škafar, M., Rodman, K. Referenčni model inoviranja: zaključno poročilo o rezultatih raziskovalnega projekta. Koper: Fakulteta za management, 2011. [3] Archibugi D, Coco A: Is Europe Becoming the Most Dynamic Knowledge Based Economy in the World?, Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol. 43, No. 3, str. 433-459, 2005. [4] Likar, B. The influence of innovation, technological and research processes on the performance of Slovenia's woodworking industry. Wood research 53 (4): 115-20, 2008. [5] UNU-MERIT. Innovation Union Scoreboard 2011. http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/innovati on/files/ius-2011_en.pdf, 2012. [6] Mulej, M. and Ženko, Z. Dialektična Teorija Sistemov in Invencijsko-Inovacijski Management, University of Maribor, Faculty of Economics and Business, Maribor, 2002. [7] Heidenreich, M. Innovation patterns and location of European low- and medium technology industries. Research Policy 28, 483-494, 2009. [8] Smith, K. 2002. What is the Knowledge Economy? Knowledge intensity and distributed knowledge bases. Maastricht: United Nations University. [9] Felix, B. Statistics in focus. Science and technology. High tech industries and knowledge based services. European Communities, Luxembourg, 2006. [10] Mulej M., Fatur P., Knez-Riedl J., Kokol A., Mulj N., Potočan V., Prosenak D., Škafar B., Ženko Z. Invencijsko-inovacijski management z uporabo dialektične teorije sistemov (podlaga za uresničitev ciljev Evropske unije glede inoviranja), Likar B (Ur.), Ljubljana: Korona plus d.o.o. - Inštitut za inovativnost in tehnologijo, 2008. [11] Likar, B. Inovativnost se ne bo "zgodila". V: Vehovar, U. (Ur.), Dragoš, S., Hribernik, A., Ignjatovic, M., Jaklič, M., Likar, B., Stanojevic, M., Vehovar, U. Neosocialna Slovenija : smo lahko socialna, obenem pa gospodarsko uspešna družba?, (Knjižnica Annales Ludus). Koper: Univerza na Primorskem, Znanstveno-raziskovalno središče, 2010. [12] Ložar, B. Sistematizacija inkrementalnih in prebojnih inovacij v Sloveniji, Analiza inovativnosti v slovenskem gospodarstvu, Gospodarska zbornica Slovenije, Tehnološka agencija Slovenije, 2009. [13] Filippetti, A., Archibugi, D. Innovation in times of crisis: National Systems of Innovation, 2011. Technology, design and innovation relations M. Filiz1 1 University of Suleyman Demirel, TURKEY Abstract In this study, design take place in which areas of our lives, in relationship with innovation and tecnology are discussed. In Tecnology, the emergence of creative ideas, how ideas can be applied in this respect, the way to show us how to design and innovation, explained. Countries can continue with increased production without stopping; continuous employment achieve, increase of export capacity, the manufacturer and the state is of great importance for ensuring earnings. Which is quite a lot of variety of products and services in the countries and companies to make a difference today, and in this race put out new work in order to pass one step ahead. The smallest value provided by the manufacturer should provide positive gains grew like a snowball. Keywords: MIT&SLIM2013, Industry, design, technology, innovation 1 Introduction Industry, the production of goods and services, technology, art, architecture, inventions, discoveries, inventions or in the production every goods and services tecnology used, design, innovation is everywhere that it is possible to talk about. What is design? It can be briefly described as follows. What is available or when required to create a new goods and services of rendering its preferred embodiment is the creation of a suitable usage form. Mankind is a designer in every period of life. What is technology? For the delivery of products to the user a number of criteria for the design and the use of techniques that rational and economic purpose and a design tool. Design without the technology, the technology is not without design. So we say Where in technology and design innovation, innovative side of it. Innovation new ideas, new ideas, new by taking steps new products, new services, new business formats and has a new outlook on life. Part of the design of a product innovation by innovation include operational. 2 Innovation-Technology Relationship Creativity with a new perspective by looking at existing problems, taking into account the opportunities to use emerging technologies and market dynamics to generate new ideas detecting. That means creativity, design and innovation, when taken together, practical and attractive offers for customers who use the goods and services in a given format. Design, for the purpose of mobilizing the creativity. This is the creativity of the user conveys the vehicle technology. More simple words, all creative and new idea, it serves the development of a new design technology [1]. Design, the center of the innovation process. So, envisioned a new product, developed and transformed into a prototype moment. With the design, a new thinking and ideas within the framework of the meaning and value of creativity involved. To examine the relationship between technology and innovation, innovation-driven innovation processes in different design (design-driven inovation) [2] described as follows (Figure 1). IDENTIFY BUSINESS OPPORTUNITY PRODUCT/SERVICE CREATE CONCEPT USER /CUSTOMER ADJUSTMENT ENHANCE TECHNOLOGY PRODUCT/SERVICE CREATE CONCEPT USER/CUSTOMER ADJUSTMENT USER AGREEMENT PRODUCT/SERVICE CREATE CONCEPT USER/CUSTOMER ADJUSTMENT Figure 1 The relationship between technology and innovation Principles of design-driven innovation, user-oriented approach as a principle of the system, grouped in four headings: 1) Innovation, people's lives and experiences on the construct: physical, cognitive, social, cultural and emotional interactions based on the experiences 2) Innovation is not just a product, the system as a construct 3) Organisational culture of design and innovation support level: cross-disciplinary team work, experimentation, etc. 4) apply a systematic design methods and processes [1]. 3 Design-Technology Relationship Design, science, technology, and provides a link between use. Products and services based on new technologies, enables the acceptance by the user. Technological innovation, the marginal benefit for low-tech sectors or industries, design, innovation itself is an effective trigger. Design always comes first from engineering. Innovative firms, and design, both R & D spending is noteworthy. R & D, design and innovation activities of firms that invest in all, innovation is higher than the odds of making it. Using appropriate technology, an innovative idea or production of goods, can be a good R & D activities [3]. 3.1 Place of Industrial Production Process of Innovation Innovation in today's globalizing economy, is considered one of the most important factors determining competitiveness. I. The Industrial Revolution, ie, since the 18th century, the technology to produce a large extent the competitiveness of nations, effectively utilize and develop new technology-based solutions is related competencies [2]. Time needed to convert it to a marketable product, an invention of 3-5 years. Only 5% of patented inventions into marketable products to turn into-8, and only half of them can provide a significant benefit. Innovation, requires understanding and a different culture. This understanding of different cultures and a broad vision, open to change and development occurs in individuals [3]. Culture and understanding required for innovation a) Large vision (different visual) b) to take the risk c) Creativity d) to be open to change and evolve e) the ability to query f) Failure to tolerate g) the value of the customer to know h) Good communication skills i) co-operation j) Learning and knowledge management Factors Affecting the Development of Innovation Culture a) Education b) The free flow of information c) intellectual property system d) The awarding of inventions and inventors e) Supportive government policies f) Supporting regulations g) Adequate industrial, technological and R & D infrastructure h) the culture of business innovation i) Supporting efforts to Entrepreneurship j) a positive approach despite failures k) funding for innovation projects and easy access to financial resources [4]. 3.2. Technological Innovation Managemen A new or improved product, service, and manufacturing process development and as a result, the whole process of obtaining an income from commercial innovation. Innovation, innovation, and / or convenience, and continuity to bring an idea was born. Developed this idea into practice pouring the company to increase the competitiveness of the market and to ensure continuity, the results need to be evaluated. Arising from the results of innovation again and again in order to ensure the continuity and the creation of a new examining returns, new thoughts arise, a new innovation process is activated [4]. Technological innovation management, labor and physical resources: • the production of new knowledge • New and improved products, production methods and ideas for the production of services • Translation of ideas, prototypes work • They are produced and distributed for use (removal of the market), and is directed to the organization. 4 Conclusion Design is a critical innovation, actor and category. The role and importance is not sufficiently understood. The process of innovation technology, R & D complements. An innovation in its own right (design-driven innovation) source. Innovation leader countries and companies are aware of this. Innovation brings advantages to businesses, increased efficiency, and competitive advantage, ensuring payments imbalance, raising awareness of social responsibility, loyal customer base, the acquisition, institutionalization and provide branding businesses with R & D as a sort of orientation is possible. Design innovation, technological development with innovation, R & D activities, to the development of the market provides the technological progress in size and are integral parts of a whole. References [1] Aksoy, M. (2005) "Continuous Innovation (Innovation), the Technological Capabilities Assessment", Technological Capability Degerlendirmesi.doc December 2005-1 - [2] Er, A. (2009) "Design Technology and Innovation" Department of Industrial Design, Istanbul Technical University, 8 Technology Awards and Congress, TUBITAK-TTGV-Bulletins on June 25, 2009, Istanbul [3] Gokce, S. (2010) "Innovation Concept and Importance of Innovation" Euphrates Development Agency, 16 July 2010 [4] Uzkurt, C. (2010) "Innovation Management: Innovation What, How, and How marketed?", Journal of Ankara Chamber of Industry, July / August 2010 The effect of systemic factors on the development of high-tech entrepreneurship in Slovenia 1 2 Sašo Sukič , Borut Likar 1University of Ljubljana, Slovenia University of Primorska, Slovenia Abstract The paper presents an overview of financial and nonfinancial systemic factors in the field of high-tech entrepreneurship in Silicon Valley (USA) and in the area of Bangalore (India) in comparison to the Republic of Slovenia. Silicon Valley and the area of Bangalore are a synonym of a successful model for the development of high-tech entrepreneurship. Based on an empirical research, the paper compares the financial and nonfinancial systemic factors in these areas with the state in Slovenia and defines the most important factors which slow down the innovative and high-tech entrepreneurship in Slovenia. Said factors are: entrepreneurial spirit and culture, competitiveness, knowledge, development and innovation, finance, taxes, administration and infrastructure. The systemic factors analysis has shown that the majority of these factors hinder business operations of Slovenian companies, while the analysis has revealed some of systemic problems in the field of encouraging entrepreneurship. Limited access to finances and excessive bureaucracy acknowledge the already recognised problems of the Slovenian entrepreneurship. However, a special attention should be paid to the basic nonfinancial factor. Entrepreneurial spirit and culture represent a serious obstacle in the development of high-tech entrepreneurship by way of which the country's planners of the economic and innovation strategy are faced with an important warning since the said strategy is the basic term for the development of high-tech entrepreneurship which requires a change in the mindset and values. Based on the research results, it may be concluded that in the short term Slovenia cannot (yet) become Silicon Valley. Keywords: innovativeness, entrepreneurship, systemic factors, Silicon Valley, Bangalore 1 Presentation of the problem The area of high-tech entrepreneurship, such as Silicon Valley, is a synonym for innovation and development. It is characterized by certain key systemic factors for the development of such area. Similar is the area of Bangalore, which is currently one of the fastest growing business areas in the world. Sukič, Gider and Likar [1] stress that the path from an idea to concrete development of areas such as Silicon Valley and Bangalore, is not easy, since it proves important to consider both key systemic factors as well as the economic, social and cultural differences between the countries. Slovenia also endeavors to transfer the Silicon Valley ideas into its own environment. A representative high-tech enterprise in Slovenia is, save for notable exceptions, relatively underdeveloped. The state's strategic documents provide the thinking in the right direction; however, there is a long way to the actual of a country with developed high-tech entrepreneurship. Among the factors contributing to successful knowledge transfer, some recent findings may be identified, such as: superior RR on the "useful" areas, preparedness for interdisciplinary RR, networks among public institutions, industry and academia, as well as physical vicinity, which enables informal yet frequently very constructive networking. Innovation management at the strategic and operational level, organizational structures, such as offices for licensing technologies, focus on finding the values of RR, supported by clear policies, access to venture capital, and last, but not least, the tradition and history of successful commercialization of RR and geographic location [2] are also important. These are the factors that make a successful Silicon Valley and distinguish it from many less successful global followers. The scope of required potential in Slovenia is presented in more detail hereunder. 2 Systemic factors of high-tech entrepreneurship This section presents the key factors of the development in Silicon Valley, area of Bangalore and Slovenia, followed by a comparison of systemic factors. 2.1 Key development factors 2.2 Comparison of systemic factors Over the past decades, the Silicon Valley has become the model for the development of hightech companies around the world, irrespective of its relatively short 50-year history [3]. Likewise [3] indicate as the typical characteristics of the model of the Silicon Valley: - confidence in entrepreneurship, - key role of venture capital, - critical role of research universities, - large supply of highly-qualified researchers, - benefits arising from company location, - extensive role on free market with limited government interference. Stremlau [4] summarizes Edward Yourdan, the software industry analyst, who claims that India has the opportunity to become an important factor in the global software market, which is not the greatest added value of Bangalore. The greatest added value is its people, i.e. highly-educated engineers and programmers, who are usually paid less than equally qualified professionals in most developed economies. Highlighted as major systemic factors that facilitated the development and growth of Bangalore, may be in particular: - highly-educated engineers and professionals, - relatively cheap and English-speaking personnel, - large investments of foreign multinationals in technology industries, - support from research centers, - technology parks with adequate infrastructure and attractive tax relieves. In his study Sukič [5] notes that both areas are connected by many key factors that are essential for the growth and development of economic environment, although there are some differences in their development. While the growth of Silicon Valley began independently in harmony with the University of Stanford and the support of innovative ideas with venture capital, the growth of Bangalore caused liberalization of India, which led to the planned construction of high-tech area with direct foreign investments and investments of domestic private banks. The biggest difference between them is by all means the culture, since Silicon Valley developed in a spirit of free and egalitarian culture of the United States of America, while India represents the culture of different religions and disproportionate development of the country, which is, due to its size and development, becoming an increasingly important area of the world. In relation to the key systemic factors, Table 1 shows a comparison of the said factors in Silicon Valley (USA), the area of Bangalore (India) and in Slovenia. The data are based on reports from the Innovation Union Scoreboard 2010, Global Competitiveness Report 2010-2011 and Doing Business 2011. The data reveal that there is a substantial difference between Slovenia and Silicon Valley, while most factors in Slovenia are comparable to the area of Bangalore, Slovenian proves more developed in terms of infrastructure. The largest difference is noticeable in finances where Slovenia is lagging behind both the aforementioned areas. The fiercest comparison factor is tax system, as the systems differ among the countries. Table 1: Comparison of systemic factors for the development of high-tech entrepreneurship in Silicon Valley, area of Bangalore and Slovenia (* Data for the United States, ** Data for India) Systemic factor Silicon Valley* Bangalore** Slovenia Entrepreneurial spirit and culture High Medium Medium Competitiveness High Medium Medium Knowledge High Medium Medium Development and Innovation High Medium Medium Finance High High Low Taxes High High Medium Administration Medium Medium Medium Infrastructure High Poor Medium Source: [6], [7], [8]. The comparison of critical system factors, which are the most important for the growth and development of Silicon Valley and area of Bangalore, represent the starting point for the study of systemic factors among Slovenian hightech companies. 3 Research Methodology 3.1 Presentation of research Data analysis was conducted applying the quantitative research method. Data analysis represents the findings of the research on systemic factors that contribute to/or hinder the development of innovative works of Slovenian high-tech entrepreneurship and the assesment of their impact on the development and innovation in Slovenia. The data were collected by means of electronic questionnaires on a sample of eighty innovative and potential companies in Slovenia, which were selected based on three criteria, namely, financial data obtained from the Agency of the Republic of Slovenia for Public Legal Records and Related Services (AJPES), international awards for innovation and preservation of successful business performance of the Slovenian gazelles in the last three years. Some small and medium-sized enterprises were also added to the sample so as to complete the sample representation of potential companies. Out of 80 Slovenian companies, 27 companies responded to the questionnaire, i.e. the response was just over 33%. Six companies were excluded from the sample due to the lack in completed questionnaires. So the final total sample comprised of 21 companies. 3.2 Description of Research The questionnaire was divided into the following three parts: (1) information on a company, (2) impediments in company's business operations, and (3) systemic factors affecting the development of entrepreneurship. In the first phase, the companies' respondents were to enter their basic data: firm's age, number of employees, net sales revenues, which industry branch a company is engaged in and which markets a company operates on. In the second phase, the companies made their own assessment of the obstacles posed in Slovenia from 1 (disagree) to 5 (completely agree). Listed obstacles were as follows. : excessive bureaucracy, low purchasing power of the population, shortage of skilled labour force, expensive labour force, poor infrastructure (roads, communications,...), lack of quality management, limited access to financial resources, introduction of new technologies, and introduction of new organizational forms. The responses of the companies were statistically processed by way of calculating the mean value of estimates. In the third phase of the questionnaire, the companies assessed - from 1 (unimportant) to 5 (very important) - the systemic factors that significantly influence the development of entrepreneurship: payment defaults, high taxes, lack of entrepreneurial and innovation culture, slow restructuring of productive and technologically advanced operations, lack of venture capital, excessive administration and bureaucracy, inefficient and sluggish judicial system, difficulty in dismissing employees, non-availability of adequately skilled labour force, inadequate competition protection. The survey continued by the companies responding to more detailed questions regarding the systemic factors that affect the development of entrepreneurship. 4 Results The data on the companies show that the share of companies as per their entry into business operations was distributed pro rata from 1 year to more than 50 years, while the number of companies' employees was dominated by the companies with up to 10 employees (37%), and the company revenues with revenues amounting to up to EUR 2 million (52%). Most companies appertained to information and communications (33%), manufacturing (22%) and expert, scientific and technical activities (19%). 4.1 Obstacles in business operations The following section shows the average evaluation given by the companies as regards the obstacles in business operations (Figure 1). The results highlight excessive bureaucracy (average score 3.91), followed by limited access to financial resources (3.82) and expensive labour (3.55) as the major obstacles. Figure 1: Average scores as per obstacle posed to the Slovenian companies' business operations 4.2 Systemic factors associated with the development of entrepreneurship Deriving from the data analysis of systemic factors in Figure 2, it derives that companies indicate high taxes (average score 4.35), slow restructuring of productive and technologically advanced operations (4.19), excessive administration and bureaucracy (4.14), and inefficient and sluggish judicial system (4.14) as the most critical factor in the development and innovation of the Slovenian economy. Figure 2: Average values of systemic factors influencing the development of Slovenia's entrepreneurship 4.3 Detailed analysis of systemic factors associated with the development of entrepreneurship The most important findings of the research are given below. • In Slovenia, being an entrepreneur is not a value (this is highlighted by 76% of respondents). These data stress the state of the entrepreneurial spirit and culture in Slovenia, indicating the reluctance of the environment to the entrepreneurship and the lack of creative and innovative ideas for development of companies with higher value added. • The competitiveness of the Slovenia's economy on the world rankings is falling; according to the surveyed companies, the main reasons of said decrease are inefficiency of labour market (33% answers), market size (24%) and lack of innovation (19%). • Slovenia ranks below the EU average in the number of patents [9]. The surveyed companies provide the following reasons for the aforementioned: high cost of patents, trademarks and models (29%), general opinion that companies do not need the protection of intellectual property rights (29%), non-innovative companies (24%) and administrative obstacles (18%). • The share of population in Slovenia, which is involved in tertiary education, is at the top of the EU average. Irrespective of this, it is faced with inadequate structure of enrolment in tertiary education pursuant to the market needs [9]. The surveyed companies assessed the quality and competence of knowledge and skills of Slovenian graduates with marks from 1 (inadequate) to 5 (excellent). The average score was 3.68. • Slovenian companies co-operate relatively poorly with educational and research institutions. In the last five years, 43% of the surveyed companies have regularly co-operated with educational and research institutions, once to five times 24% of the surveyed companies, occasionally 19% of the surveyed companies and never 14% of the surveyed companies. • Beside the companies, an important role should be given to the research sphere; however, in Slovenia, there is a substantial problem of transfer of knowledge from research-development sphere into companies [10]. Hence, the lack of interest in participation in the research sector (43%) and inadequacy of ideas and transfer of the latter (38%) is highlighted by the surveyed companies as the main factors, which make this transfer impossible. • Slovenian companies have a relatively large number of highly-qualified staff. Prevailing among the surveyed companies are the companies (62%) that have a workforce of more than 50% of the highly-qualified staff. Followed are by companies (19%), which have a workforce of only 11 - 20% of such staff. • Slovenian companies invest relatively intensively in their development. Data from the survey show that 43% of the surveyed companies invest more than 30% of annual assets in research and development, 19% of the companies invest up to 3% of annual assets 14% of the companies invest 20-30% of annual assets 14% of the companies invest 11-19 % of annual assets and 10% of the companies invest 4-10% of annual assets. The survey showed that the most important sources of financing the development of companies are company's own sources of financing (57%), short-term bank loans (14%) and venture capital (14%). Such data are certainly not encouraging for the creation of new high-tech companies, as most of the corporate financing is associated with their own financial resources. The reason for this is the relatively underdeveloped financial sector. The surveyed companies assessed the development of the financial sector from 1 (very poor) to 5 (very good). The average score was 2.33. • Considering the difficulties of the Slovenian banking system and the data on the increase of companies with financial resources coming from abroad, 62% of surveyed companies responded that they were not financed from abroad, 19% of the surveyed companies are financed with foreign capital in the amount of more than 40% and 19% of the surveyed companies are financed by foreign sources in the amount between 1-10%. • Data on above-average work load reveal that 35% of the surveyed companies estimates that this impacts (negative) their business to a great extent, 35% of the surveyed companies recognized the medium impact, 20% of the surveyed companies indicated a great impact, while 10% of the surveyed companies do not recognize the effect. • Companies that mentioned the problems with the administration are faced with it especially in the area of electronic commerce, tax, environmental and customs affairs, public procurement tenders, employment of foreigners and poor quality and support of e-government services. • As a part of the construction of infrastructure Slovenia has started to invest intensively in infrastructure and technology parks that have facilitated the creation and growth of companies in the recent years. The surveyed companies assessed the level of development of the supporting infrastructure and technology parks in Slovenia, with scores ranging from 1 (unsatisfactory) to 5 (very good). The average score was 2.95. 5 Conclusion and discussion The described research shows that Slovenia fails to have serious potential to become the next Silicon Valley in the near future, since the results of the survey clearly stress the need to change the key system factors in high-tech entrepreneurship in Slovenia, at both the enterprise level as well as the state level. Measures and changes in practice are required in Slovenia so as to allow the development and promotion of business environment, i.e. business environment which would be based on the integration of all key systematic factors and which would be accepted by entrepreneur entities [5]. It is necessary to commence eliminating the obstacles in practice at the most basic systemic factors, such as the development of entrepreneurial spirit and culture. Finally, the surveyed company assessed that entrepreneurship in Slovenia is not a value and that the entrepreneurship out of necessity dominates. Additionally, there are also problems of bureaucracy and administration, difficulties in obtaining finances and high taxes. Irrespective of the fact that companies are faced with the problem of a lack of research and the transfer of ideas from the research sphere to companies and inadequate quality and adequacy of knowledge and skills of Slovenian students, they are aware of the importance of co-operation with research sphere and they employ a high proportion of highly-educated staff and allocate a large proportion of their annual profit for the development. Creating the conditions for a successful transfer model of the Silicon Valley and the development of key systemic factors puts Slovenia before a big decision closely linked to its ability to instigate the change of systemic factors, which are essential for the restructuring of the economy and creation of high-tech and innovative companies. Otherwise, Slovenia shall merely witness, on one hand, the demise of companies, or, on the other hand, the success of Slovenian companies, which are considering withdrawing from Slovenia [1]. The findings are consistent with the results of nation-wide research [2], which found that Slovenian high- (and medium-high) technology sector is - according to innovation as well as economic performance - less effective than low-(and medium-low) technology sector. Furthermore, the most innovative companies in the high tech sector are less successful than the low technology. Therefore, the state should strive to intensively promote innovation in the low-tech industries, since the improvement of innovation in these industries shall contribute significantly to the Slovenia's GDP. This proposal does not entail that investing into high-tech industries in Slovenia is not sensible. On contrary, such investments are absolutely essential for the development of the society; however, it is primarily necessary to have better control of many factors. In the aforementioned research [1] certain factors are shown, predominately all those that are in the domain of the companies; the systemic factors at the state level are considered in the article of this research. We believe that it important to manage both for the comprehensive management of the innovation in the high-tech sector. References [1] S. Sukič, F. Gider, B. Likar: Ali Slovenija lahko postane evropska Silicijeva dolina?. Ventil 18 (1), pp. 72-78, 2012. [2] B. Likar in sodelavci: Referenčni model inoviranja - model celovitega obvladovanja inovacijskih procesov v podjetju, Temeljni project. ARRS šifra: J5-0425-7097-08, http://www1.fm- kp.si/visintapl/datoteke/REFERENČNI%20 MODEL%20INOVIRANJA_FINAL_HiRes. pdf, 2011. [3] I. Cook, R. Joseph: Rethinking Silicon Valley: New Perspectives on Regional Development. Prometheus 19 (4), pp. 377-393, 2001. [4] J. Stremlau: Dateline Bangalore: Third World Technopolis, Foreign Policy 102, pp. 152168, 1996. [5] S. Sukič: Možnosti za nastanek Silicijeve doline v Sloveniji. Diplomsko delo, Univerza na Primorskem, Fakulteta za management Koper, 2011. [6] PRO INNO Europe: Innovation Union Scoreboard 2010. Http://ec.europa.eu/ research/innovation-union/pdf/iu-scoreboard-2010_en.pdf, 2011. [7] World Economic Forum: The Global Competitiveness Report 2010-2011. Http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Globa lCompetitivenessReport_2010-11.pdf, 2010. [8] The World Bank: Doing Business 2011. Http: //www.doingbusiness.org/~/media/FPD KM/Doing%20Business/Documents/Profiles/ Country/DB 11/SVN.pdf, 2011. [9] UMAR: Poročilo o razvoju 2011. Http: //www .umar.gov.si/fileadmin/user_uplo ad/publikacije/pr/2011/POR_2011s.pdf, 2011. [10] Government of RS: Konkurenčnost slovenskega gospodarstva - pregled stanja in ukrepi za izboljšanje. Http: //data.si/userfiles/data. si/dokumenti/Pdf %20dokumenti%20za%20objavo%20%28list ine,%20zakoni,%20uredbe%20ipd%29/Konk uren%C4%8Dnost%20slovenskega%20gosp odarstva%20- %20pregled%20stanja%20in%20ukrepi%20z a%20izbolj%C5%A1anje.pdf, 2011. Service Engineering for Prospective Vehicle Service Processes 1 2 2 2 A. Nagel , R. Steinhilper , S. Freiberger and S. Thater 1 Fraunhofer-IPA, Germany 2 University of Bayreuth, Germany Abstract Garages are - concerning the vehicle service - faced with growing complexity in automotive mechatronics and on-board bus communication technology. Because of the necessity of profound technical knowledge and smart as well as cost efficient diagnostic tools for garages, Bayreuth University and Fraunhofer-IPA pick up the challenge and develop innovative service-processes for future requirements by the project "Kfz-Service Engineering 2020". In order to improve established service-processes and develop new service processes a wide variety of service cases had been inspected in garages. The ten most relevant service cases are selected by using an analytical hierarchy process. Future service cases of vehicles amongst others are in the context of electronic diagnostics, control units, electro mobility and automotive lightweight construction. To be able to find and analyze electronic faults, for example, new diagnostic tools have to be developed. New and innovative service processes have been developed for those purposes, which will be published for the first time in this paper. They include the development of test benches, diagnostic and repair tools as well as the installation of highly specialized service centres and remanufacturing companies, to ensure cost efficient vehicle services. The overall aim of the project "Kfz-Service Engineering 2020" is to enable garages to repair and to service modern vehicles as well as to remanufacture expensive automotive subsystems. Keywords: MIT&SLIM2013, service engineering, remanufacturing, service case, service process, vehicle, e-mobility, garages, diagnosis tools 1 Introduction Service is the nowadays common term for after sales service or maintenance. The definition of service engineering includes the systematic new development for all technical service processes. The products for which the technical service is provided and developed, is affected by several laws and goals of the service for consumer and capital goods. The service engineering, described in this paper is for prospective vehicle service processes which are developed in the research project "Kfz-Service Engineering 2020" (in the following: SE2020) 1.1 Background The project SE2020 focusses on the requirements and tasks that have radically and significantly changed during one generation of automotive service engineering (Figure 1). This trend hasn't been even noticed to its full extent until now. Vehicles belong to those consumer goods which generate the greatest amount of service for predominant private customers. Figure 1 Past and present service requirements A typical example is the replacement of faulty automotive components as engines, generators or control units. Due to the tough competition in innovation and the battle of for customers of new vehicles, the product development times and product lifecycles are getting shorter and shorter in the automotive industry. The increasing requirement of customers, concerning safety and comfort, raises the complexity of today's vehicles. By the way in modern vehicles are up to 80 electronic modules integrated, which are mostly in charge of data collection, automotive control or regulation of mechatronic systems [1]. In consequence of the mentioned developments, the reliability of the automotives declines, which is proved by numerous vehicle recalls and documented in breakdown statistics [2]. Even with the latest available diagnostic methods, nowadays garages are barely able to localize the exact failure and to repair it. For the most parts it is merely possible to exchange the whole system, which increases the diagnostic effort as well as the spare part costs. Additionally the original equipment manufacturers became an information monopole of cars respectively parts. This jeopardises the so far healthy competition on the vehicle market, e.g. by excluding independent garages. Europe does not hold a top position relating to a dynamic market and competition structure between the so called Original Equipment Service (OES) and Independent Aftermarket (IAM) [3]. Also in regard to sustainability the enhancement of technical services, as a part of vehicle attendance, implies extensive challenges but also high potential in two different ways. On the one hand technical components in many cases do not achieve their technical age anymore, because of their shortened innovation cycle nowadays. Already many components are completely replaced by the next generation, before their possible mechanical service life has been reached, but the electronic does not represent the actual state of technology anymore. Only seldom cases succeed by modularity to continue using mechanical systems by upgrading with modern electronic units. A negative example indeed is the automotive: The average life cycle is up to 15 years compared with the innovation cycle of the electronics, which is 1 - 3 years [4]. Consequently that means to service a 6 year old vehicle, it is required to have the maybe third generation antiquated electronic available. Spare parts therefor are expensive, rare or not available. A replacement of old electronic components by a new one is in most cases not possible. New service processes must be achieved for such systems by original equipment manufacturer, service centres and garages as a new value added service. On the other hand - besides the depict repair of the defect component - another category of new service processes offers special potential: Addressed is the remote diagnosis. Until now automotive garages handle with damages which are already existent or service a car to avoid defects (e.g. exchange of gear belt). According to the case of service the appropriate service application takes place. The remote diagnosis however enables the design of all new service processes. In this process at the vehicle e.g. the process parameters at the CAN-Bus-interface (Controller Area Network) can be controlled and if they exceed a critical value a warning message can be send to a service-garage or to the mobile phone of the user. The service- garage is able to setup a wireless remote diagnosis with the car. Requirement for this purpose is of course the previous agreement of the customer. After the remote diagnosis an expert is able to evaluate, if there is a defect and if subsequent service process steps will avoid it. The customer in the future will not go to the garage after the defect is caused; instead the garage would request the customer in first instance to come for the service. The necessary hardware and software is currently developed by Fraunhofer. Its function is related to the so called "Emergency Call" systems [5]. 1.2 Targets The target of the project SE2020 (cf. Figure 2) is the (further) development of technologies and organizational form to: 1. 2. 3. 4. identify and analyze new service cases (especially failure diagnoses and elimination plus efficiency deficits) as well as the development of associated new solutions, manage the necessary knowledge, which means to provide the knowledge for the service provider and service recipient and to increase it by synergetic effects, structure and design the service process systematically and to generate the economic advantage for the provider and recipient of the service by developing terms of references and indicator systems as well as, generate new dimensions / new profiles of the vehicle services. Figure 2 Objectives of SE2020 2 The project SE 2020 choice of ten service cases with the greatest demands for new service processes. Chapter 2 gives a brief overview of the project consortium, the proceeding and the work packages of the project SE2020. 2.1 Project consortium In order to achieve the targets for prospective vehicle service processes mentioned in chapter 1.2, a consortium of representatives from research as well as the chamber of crafts has been formed and assigned tasks according to their competence and experience. The consortium consists of the chamber of crafts Bayreuth and two German research organizations (Fraunhofer and Bayreuth University) with a profound background in the remanufacturing industry as well as in the field of service engineering. Additionally, the consortium is supported by numerous independent and authorized garages. 2.2 Proceeding and work packages The project SE2020 is divided in a seven month phase I (pre phase) and a four year phase II (main phase). In phase I data of garages were collected through a technical questionnaire. The feedback reflects the current situation in the vehicle service sector. The results influence the focused systems of the project in phase II. Furthermore, in order to achieve optimal results, the SE2020 project is splitted into four different work packages and milestones (cf. Figure 3). Manage the know-how transfer Project management Figure 3 Work packages and milestones of the project SE2020 The current project status is the completion of phase I and milestone 1, which contains the analysis of 50 service processes of phase II in 50 different service cases in 25 garages, as well as the 3 Project results The results achieved in the project SE2020 are subjects of chapter 3. It has to be differentiated between results of phase I and phase II of the project SE2020. 3.1 Questionnaire regarding service cases According to work package 1 (cf. Figure 2) 50 service cases have been recorded in 25 garages in detail. Therefor independent and authorised garages have been inspected. In phase I questions concerning the frequency of ten in advance picked automotive systems have been arranged. The determined results were extrapolated for whole Germany (cf. Figure 4). Figure 4 Service cases in Germany For a qualitative collection of information to service cases a questionnaire with 20 questions has been developed. In this questionnaire questions relating to the garage, the kind of service case, the diagnosis tools and other questions have been included. The service cases have been determined quantitatively by the record of the following data: • measure of working hours • appraisal of the material costs • collection of technical data • picture and video recording • description of service process. Figure 5 shows a comparison of labour costs with the material costs of the picked service cases. Figure 5 Comparison of working time and cost of materials The established technical data contain information about the vehicle itself as well as detailed data of the defect systems plus diagnosis data. The description of the service process in a service case contains the procedure starting with the vehicle reception to the customer satisfaction with the service (cf. Figure 6). Figure 6 Example of a service process 3.2 Choice of ten service cases The choice of the ten most promising automotive service cases is based on the economic collection of data in phase I, the detailed recording of 25 garages with the 50 service processes, the numerous expert discussions at the workshops, the technical / economical analysis of the service processes and of course the longtime experience of the project executing engineers and technicians of the crafts, the Bayreuth University and Fraunhofer. A simple choice of the ten service cases on the basis of its occurrence does not include different influencing factors like the price, the amount of work or the sustainability. That's why for example the service case window lifter is playing no further part in this project as there is no need for a new service process. One kind of solution for the choice of adequate representatives offers the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) as well as the Cost-utility Analysis. The Analytical Hierarchy Process is a basic approach of the decision theory. The mathematical method was developed in the 1970s from Thomas L. Saaty. The intent and purpose of this method is to include rational as well as intuitive alternatives in the process of decision [6]. In the process the person making the decision enforces paired comparisons which are used to define a priority of the ranking. For that reason initially the costs of the repair of single assemblies as well as the costs of the installation of remanufactured systems are compared with the costs of new systems. The analysis shows for which systems a repair promises a high saving and for which the complete exchange has to be favoured. Besides the occurrence of service cases the listing of the relevant influencing factors illustrates only an extract. As a part of the AHP not only absolute factors also intuitive factors can be considered. For the evaluation of the service cases the following factors are taken into consideration as well: • complexity • eligibility of the process for independent and authorised garages • needed tools / machines • qualification of the employee • sustainability • relevance in the year 2020 • conservation of material and energy • demand • current sold numbers of products • acceptance of customer In the first instance pair-wise comparison between the different criteria and a relative evaluation to each other took place. The pair-wise comparison is used to determine the relative importance of criteria in comparison to the others. If two criteria are equal to each other the pair-wise comparison generates a 1. Is one criterion much more important than the other criteria the value shall be 9. The ranking between those factors is shown in Figure 7. Additionally it describes the savings, to figure their importance once more. ■ complexity ■ sustainability ■ demand ■ savings development of the Wiki-CAN forum are added. By the scientific evaluation of the 50 cases, taking the experience of the specialists into consideration are now the ten promising service cases available for the project service engineering 2020. Those are finally: • direct-shift gearbox, • remote diagnosis, • electro-mechanical power steering, • turbocharger actuating element, • headlight, • diagnosis Wiki-CAN, • light weight construction, • electro mobility, • sporadic failures, • engine control unit (ECU). Figure 7 Ranking of the AHP-criteria To finally dissolve the decision problem matrix a multiplication as well as a creation of eigenvectors is provided. Consequently the service cases can be compared by the criteria saving, complexity, sustainability and demand. After applying of the AHP on all service cases the most promising cases are defined to: direct-shift gearbox, camshaft sensor, generator, turbocharger actuating element, headlight, control unit (immobilizer), injector, wheel alignment, sporadic failures, engine control unit. Numerous expert interviews in garages in phase II lead to a non relevance of some service cases for the project service engineering chosen by the AHP. These involve the camshaft sensor, generator, control unit (immobilizer), injector as well as the wheel alignment. On the other hand new service cases relating the "CAN bus" and the electro mobility have been added. Due to the high need considered by the automotive experts. In particular at independent workshops the necessary OBD-remote (On Board Diagnostics) diagnosis represents the third promising service-case which is supposed to be developed during the project service engineering 2020. Furthermore the service cases in the field of EPS-steering, light weight construction and 3.3 Service Process ElectroMechanical Power Steering (EPS) A service process that was chosen according to chapter 3.2 was the electro-mechanical power steering (EPS). If a defect at the EPS of a vehicle occurs, it gets signalized by a yellow or red warning light in the instrument cluster. In the case of a red light the garage has to be visited immediately. Up to now the process (shown in Figure 8) starts with the customer driving his car to the garage resp. getting his car towed to the garage. The diagnosis is made and the failure on the EPS is determined. So far the process is designed to change the complete EPS. Figure 8 Service process: Electro-mechanical power steering (EPS) The record of the existing service process results in an exchange of the overall system instead of a repair. As an exchange system a new system is generally used, because there are no remanufactured EPS available. Occasionally some pre used EPS are available. For this reason the financial savings between new systems and exchange systems was considered with 0 €. With material costs that add up to 75% of the repair costs there are no savings possible. So one possible proceeding could be to change the service process towards a feasible repair of the EPS. Another possibility to economize the material cost would be to use a used or remanufactured steering. Under the assumption of reparability and the ability to remanufacture the new developed service process is shown in Figure 9. Customer claim - faulty EPS Detect failure Mechanical cause Control Unit faulty i Steering angle sensor faulty Servo control r faulty Repairable? . i'T Figure 9 New developed service process for EPS Currently nobody remanufactures the EPS, because of safety considerations - except of some manufacturers like "ZF Lenksysteme" which just started remanufacturing their own electrical steering. In the context of the project SE2020 the possibilities to repair the EPS immediately in the garage and which arrangements for the remanufacturing in special service centres are needed is the next task within the project. For the remanufacturing of EPS six steps of refabrication are necessary (cf. Figure 10). The entrance diagnosis of the mechatronic systems (to which the EPS belongs) is the first step in remanufacturing like Figure 10 shows. Figure 10 Remanufacturing process steps An EPS has to comply with the technical safety demands after the remanufacturing has been accomplished. Relevant for this purpose is the guideline 701 156 / EWG article 3. The guide line 2005/64/EG of the European Parliament and Council from 26 October 2005 about the type-approval of motor vehicles with regard to their ability for reuse, recycling and recovery and the change of the guideline 70/156/EWG of the council includes additional provisions which are important related to the remanufacturing. Upon request the TUV South Garching gave us in June 2012 following statement: "Representative legal regulation: 70/311 EWG, 2007/46/EG. Reference to §38 of the German road traffic registration (StVZO); in practice the German Association for Technical Inspection (TUV) is verifying the common way / time synchronization (wheel angle has to follow the steering angle directly) and the tendency of the wheels to reset". The guarantee and liability of the remanufactured systems have to be given by the company that is remanufacturing the EPS. The remanufactured steering system has to be marked. In order that those requirements of the relevant named guide lines are achieved and especially that they can be approved a final test of EPS steering by the help of an EPS test bench is necessary. Figure 11 shows the developed test bench for EPS. Figure 11 Test bench for the EPS The test bench achieves the initial functional tests as well as the final functional test and diagnosis. For this reason the EPS is installed in testing position 1 of the test bench and is connected to an air cylinder (position 2) mechanically. The air cylinder simulates the performance of the wheels in relation to the vehicle speed, cross wind and other parameters. In position 3 steering thrust as well as steering motions at the steering shaft can be simulated. The torque sensor (position 4) and the force senor (position 5) are used to determine the torque and force. Additional parameters, like steering angle, steering angle speed, etc. can be recorded as well. The EPS-ECU (position 6) provides information about the CAN-Bus, which allows reliable conclusions about operating parameters (e.g. rotation speed, operation mode, steering assistance torque) of the EPS asynchronous motor. The test bench is regulated by the help of the individual customizable software LabVIEW® and hardware modules of "National Instruments". The test bench was developed during the project SE2020 and can be applied for the following duties: • initial test • final functional test • communication with EPS steering module • calculation of steering gear tightening • measuring of torque, supporting torque and steering moment, angle and speed • simulations of loads • characteristic diagrams measurement • verification of the used parameter set The measured data can be visualized and saved in a data bank as well as compared with each other for I/O-tests. The test bench was developed for the second and third type of EPS steering generation of the VW Passat B5 and B6. 3.4 Service Process Wiki-CAN Wiki-CAN was developed within the project SE2020. The purpose of it was to enhance the diagnostic process of service-processes, which are in the context with the CAN-Bus of vehicles. Of course many, but not anyone, of the authorized repair garages have the necessary garage tester for such tasks. Independent repair garages have the problem not to own a garage tester for each vehicle model. For those one it would be helpful to have one analyzing "CAN bus" tool for all vehicle models. With the help of Wiki-CAN it is now possible to use a very cost-efficient "CAN bus" interface, which is connected between the OBD-plug of the vehicle and the notebook [7]. The in-house developed public domain software, which is running on a notebook, can be used to upload or download CAN-messages. The uploaded messages can be transferred to the so called Wiki-CAN forum and shared with other users, which are working on the same problem, control unit or vehicle. In this forum it is possible to find information about the meaning of the uploaded CAN-messages. It is also possible to download CAN-messages from other users from the forum and to playback these messages to a connected control unit, independent of the vehicle. In this way the Wiki-CAN helps to improve the diagnosis service processes. It has to be mentioned, that the Wiki-CAN service process is getting better the more people take part of it and its related forum. Wiki-CAN, as well as the forum can be accessed online at this address: http://www.kfz-service-engineering-2020.de/wikican-forum/. A "wiki" with detailed instructions is also available (cf. Figure 12). VftkiC AN 'FORUM FAO Peg'Sl'ieien Anmetden Q. Suche ~ WiktCAN-Wifti Foren-Uber&icht Fahrzeuge Opal Opel Adam . . Heine Beltrage Aflila 0 j K«'n« B«ltr»g« Ampeia 0 „ Heine Bmtrage Figure 12 Service process: Wiki-CAN 4 Conclusion This paper publishes for the first time the results of the first half of the project "Kfz-Service Engineering 2020". The results of a survey of 50 service cases in garages are shown first. On the basis of this data the ten most relevant service cases are selected. According to the experts, those ten cases represent the most eminent potential in the field of service in the automotive service sector. Especially in the field of electro-mechanical steering and turbocharger actuators new service processes have been developed. This includes the construction of test benches which have met a brisk demand among different companies from the automotive remanufacturing industry. But also in the sector of the remote diagnosis, the diagnose service process Wiki-CAN, light weight construction and e-mobility interesting new solutions have been achieved. The development of a repair kit for LED headlights is about to be finished and different knowledge, training and instruction guides have been created for example for the Toyota Prius® or the Mitsubishi i-MiEV®. The actual project progress for the residual service processes can be seen at the German web page www.se2020.de (cf. Figure 13). [4] U. Raubold: Lebenszyklusmanagement in der Automobilindustrie, Gabler Verlag / Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, Wiesbaden, 2011. [5] G. Meyer, J. Valldorf: Advanced Microsysems for Automotive Applications 2010, Springer Verlag, Berlin, 2010. [6] T. Saaty, L. Vargas: Models, Methods, Concepts & Applications of the Analytic Hierarchy Process, Springer Verlag, New York, 2012. [7] S. Freiberger, A. Nagel, R. Steinhilper: WebCAN for Remanufacturers - A New Automotive CAN-Bus Tool - Analyzing and File Sharing Application. 9th Global Conference on Sustainable Manufacturing, St. Petersburg, Sep 2011. Figure 13 German project web page for SE2020 5 Acknowledgments The project "Kfz-Service Engineering 2020" is supported by a funding from the Bavarian Federal Ministry of Economics, Infrastructure, Transport and Technology. 6 References [1] S. Freiberger: Pruf- und Diagnose-technologien zur Refabrikation von mechatronischen Systemen aus Fahrzeugen, Shaker Verlag, Aachen, 2007. [2] R. Brauch, C. Zach: Autoelektronik und Zuverlassigkeit - Erfahrungen aus Fehlerstatistiken. In: Elektrotech. Inftech. 123(10), pp.451-453, 2006. [3] A. Kampker: Elektromobilitat, Springer Vieweg, Berlin, 2013. Upgrade of abrasive flow machining process for controllable creation of micro geometry and polishing of surface in tooling industries F. Pušavec, J. Kenda, and J. Kopač University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Abstract In the field of polishing, hand polishing has the largest comprehension. On account of nowadays different requirements such as: reducing of finishing time, process control and the ability to predict the effect, etc. hand polishing has to be replaced with superior process. An alternative is two way abrasive flow machining (AFM). In comparison with hand polishing, AFM is very efficient process, suitable for finishing external as well as internal surfaces, which are often complex and out of reach. In this paper, the influence of the process on surface roughness and micro geometry of injection mold, for manufacturing of plastic convex gears, are investigated. The hardened tool steel AISI H11 injection mold parts, before being processed with AFM, have been pre-machined by wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM). Due to AFM drawbacks, the novel two way abrasive flow machining with movable mandrel has been proposed and used. Results of the work show that the application of AFM is capable to remove WEDM damaged surface and produce polishing surface. Moreover, the novel upgrade of AFM process can control also the micro geometry of the finished surface. In this way an injection mold has been made with surface roughness bellow Ra = 0.1 um, and the convex shape in the range of 5 um. The convex shape of final product - plastic gear is offering significant improvement of gear performance, energy efficiency in operation as well as its fatigue life, prolonged for more than two times. As a contribution, a novel AFMmm has been presented with the capability to synergistically shape and polish the geometry of the final product on a micro level. Keywords: abrasive flow machining, finishing, surface integrity. 1 Introduction The current industry is facing accelerated demands for higher quality of surfaces and higher added-value products. High-performance materials with specific property requirements (in terms of better functional properties, decreased cost and sustainability) and the ability to process them efficiently are crucial for new product development in many relevant industrial sectors such as aeronautics, automotive, railway, machine-tool and others. The idea is well defined and implemented in the other fields (architecture, civil engineering, etc.), but there is a huge lack of those principles implemented into the manufacturing/finishing systems and technologies [1]. Concerning finishing processes, they constitute important manufacturing activity that contributes to the growth of EU as well as global economy, especially by the highly growing automotive and aerospace industry. Manufacturing process demands approximately 15% of the total manufacturing cost for finishing operations. When the surface roughness value is less than one micron the cost of surface finishing operation again increases sharply. In the manufacturing/finishing industry, still the ordinary hand polishing procedure is used, and presents one of the most time-consuming, expensive, health problematic and environment polluting solutions. The solvents and cleaners applied to metal parts and solutions used in polishing generate significant amounts of waste as well as small particles that enter the workers respiratory organs. Polishing solutions also often contain heavy metals. Cleaners often appear in process wastewater, while solvents containing hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) can be emitted into the air, released in wastewater, or disposed of in solid form. Additionally, in many cases, hand polishing is also an unsuitable procedure due to high inability to assure constant roughness, constant thickness of removed material, adequate geometry after finishing, etc. Although these drawbacks trigger both cost and regulatory requirements, they can be addressed successfully through sound pollution prevention and manufacturing best practices, such as those provided with innovative abrasive flow machining (AFM). Therefore, the goal of the research is to develop a sustainable & innovative AFM finishing system and technology, based on new concepts of clean and dry polishing with innovative combination of AFM flowing abrasive polymer and movable/rotatable mandrel simultaneously (AFMmm) that show high potential in improvement of their a) environmental impact, b) energy consumption, c) operational safety, d) personal health, e) waste management, and f) manufacturing costs [2]. In the last few decades, ultrafine-grained and high surface integrity materials have attracted considerable interest, since these high performances surface materials have higher mechanical and fatigue properties in comparison to conventional hand polished or ground counterparts. The ordinary hand polishing procedure, is actually one of the most time-consuming and expensive solutions. In many cases, hand polishing is an unsuitable procedure due to high demands for constant roughness, constant thickness of removed material, adequate geometry after finishing, etc. Additionally, for many applications entire components are not necessary to have high integrity specification, and the mere optimization of the material surfaces through improved integrity (roughness, texture, residual stresses, etc.) greatly enhances the properties of the materials for such applications. This is due to the fact that the majority of failures such as fatigue fracture, fretting fatigue, wear and corrosion, etc., are very sensitive to the structure and properties of the material surface, and in most cases material failures originate from the surface. However, some research works on AFM of a range of materials have shown encouraging possibilities for producing (1) much thicker layers with nanostructures on the surface, lower heat affection on the material on the surface, and (2) more compressive residual stresses on the surface (which are favorable), combined with this kind of processes. Thus, the capability of product enhancement thanks to the use of AFM process, to obtain products that withstand longer fatigue life, better corrosion resistance, etc., stands as a challenge with real possibilities. 1.1 AFM The abrasive flow machining (AFM) is actually a polishing technique (finishing method) that uses the flow of a pressurized abrasive polymer media for removing workpiece material (figure 1) [3, 4]. AFM represents performance enhanced process and can be used for polishing, deburring, removing recast layers, etc. [5]. It is suitable for finishing external as well as internal surfaces, which are often complex and inaccessible. It is specifically appropriate for parts with complex geometry and high demands for surface integrity. Despite of the advantages, the AFM process is still not widely and generally used in the real industrial finishing applications. Therefore, further development is inevitable. The reason for this is in the current state of development, which is still on a low level and on the other side high complexity of this process. Because of this, the project goal is to develop the system to such a stage that it will be reliable, economical and ready for use in real EU manufacturing industry applications. The paper so shows some possibilities for raising the AFM on wide area of industrial levels and sectors. Upper Hydraulic Cylinder Piston Rod Upper Medium Cylinder Workpiece Lower Hydraulic Cylinder Figure 1 Scheme of the abrasive flow machining process (AFM). 2 AFM and gear manufacturing The research presented in this paper was carried out on workpiece made of heat treated steel grade that is used in injection molds that could be coated with TiN, TiCN, TiAlN, CrN, etc. coatings enable longer injection mold life. The purpose of the research was to investigate the influence of AFM process parameters on surface roughness and important micro geometry of the injection mold, to results in desired surface integrity of the final plastic products (convex shaped gears). In the manufacturing of tools for injection molding, in general, the finishing process is destroying the geometrical characteristics. And with this also the tolerances of final product are affected. The problems with geometrical tolerances can lead even to non-functionality of the final product. This can be to some extend solved with development of performance predictive models of AFM that assure the possibility for optimizing the process setup, parameters, geometry as output, roughness, etc. The aim of this work is to apply this methodology on gear injection mold, for reduced roughness, prolongation of tool life, and decrease of noise in gear operation (enhanced product performances). Plastic gears have been used for more than 50 years, while there usage is exponentially increasing. The advantage of plastic material in such applications goes on account of novel plastic materials with improved technical properties: hardness, wear, stiffness, damping of vibration and no need of lubrication, in parallel with lower manufacturing costs, what put them ahead from metal gearing. Plastic gears are nowadays used in variety of applications, like: domestic appliances, modules for automotive industry, mechatronic components, etc. (figure 2). Anyway, performing the search of standards from the field, there are in minority covering the plastic gearing. There is a German standard VDI 2545 that covers strength of the plastic gearings, while the general specifications are analog to metal ones and are listed in VDI 2545, ISO 6336 and DIN 3990 [6]. Regarding the plastic materials for these applications, there is a huge lack of coverage. Standards like AGMA 909-A06, ANSI/AGMA 1006-A97 and ANSI/AGMA 1106-A97 cover specifications of gear injection molding process, however just related to the geometry. Figure 2 Example of plastic gearing. In general plastic materials are sensitive to high temperatures and significant heat expansion. This can contradict the tolerances in the process of injection molding. To contradict these issues, the molds have to be manufactured with high quality, focused to surface integrity. To assure this high quality, the standard procedure of WEDM (wire electrical discharge machining) is in most cases not sufficient any more and further finishing process has to be performed [7]. Additionally, if take under the consideration that new high performance gears, that are coming into the usage in high tech product, which are not any more 2D geometry, but have convex shape teeth, the alternative finishing process are desired. One of solutions to assure such geometry of gearing is AFM, used as finishing process after WEDM rough manufacturing technique. 3 Novel AFM upgrade - AFMmm One of the major problems with the AFM process, concerning finishing performances, is to get uniform finished surface roughness, uniform material removal rate on entire finished surface, required workpiece geometry/micro geometry, residual stress profiles, etc. [8]. That problems rise when the workpieces have relatively large cross-section of the shape. In this case the undesired variation of velocity, through the cross section, will appear. In the current state-of-the-art the problem is to some extend solved with the adjustment of abrasive fluid viscosity, but then this polishing media has limited performances (cannot then be used universally also for small cross sections). The consequences of this problem are two: - With increased cross-section of the workpiece, the speed of polishing media decreases and this results in lower abrasive flow machining process efficiency. - Friction between the workpiece surface and the polishing media may lead to nonuniform distribution of polishing media velocity on polishing workpiece cross-section (the lowest velocity in the contact zone of abrasive media and workpiece surface. This again results in lower process efficiency. Figure 3 AFM with moving mandrel (AFMmm). The problem of nonuniform polished surface and nonuniform material removal can be solved by using a movable/rotatable mandrel (patent pending, [9]). AFM with movable/rotatable mandrel (AFMmm) is achieved higher polishing media speed at the site of polishing and therefore higher efficiency of the process. At the same time is achieved drastically smaller pressure difference between the inflow and outflow of the polishing media on the workpiece as a result of the relatively small height of the attached part on the movable mandrel. Small pressure difference has negligible influence on the abrasive flow machining process. The AFMmm principle is shown on figure 3, presenting system of abrasive flow machining on the principle of movable mandrel, where is to the piston 1 attached rigid movable mandrel 4 that guides the part 6 through the workpiece. As a feasibility study, numerical model has been testly composed by finite element modeling of the abrasive fluid flow (AFM). Additionally, the FEM analysis of AFMmm and its variants have been performed. The results of undesired pressure drop and velocities are shown on the following figures 4-6. In all the cases it can be seen that the pressure drop is with AFMmm principle drastically reduces, what is an advantage. Additionally, from the velocity results it can be seen that the velocity can be controlled on the desired positions with the mandrel. Normally the mandrel is set so that the velocity is increased and so efficiency and quality of the process are increased. 1.6.56e+06 L 6.22e+06 L 5.88e+06 L 5.54e+06 [ 15.28+06 . 4.86e+06 4.52e+06 4.18e+06 3.84e+06 H 3.58+06 Pressure [Pa] 0.022 50 .0.0176 .0.0154 .0.0132 .0.011 .0.0088 .0.0066 .0.0044 . 0.0022 .0 Velocity [m/s] Figure 4 Abrasive flow machining: Ap = 0.17 MPa, v = 0.0105 m/s. Figure 5 Abrasive flow machining with a constant diameter mandrel: Ap = 3.40 MPa, v = 0.022 m/s. Figure 6 Abrasive flow machining with moving mandrel: Ap = 0.49 MPa, v = 0.022 m/s. 4 Simulation of AFM in finishing of gear injection molds Most of the research performed on AFM has focused on the analysis of the process on the surface roughness and productivity (quantity of removed material vs. time). The analyses are focused on the tool cavity for plastic gear injection process, while the aim is to reduce cycle time of finishing, further reduce roughness, assure constant effect of polishing along the profile as well as assure desired geometry/micro geometry of the cavity. In general, the AFM process has been used only for polishing and along the polishing media flow, due to the pressure drop, the efficiency of the process is reducing. With novel upgraded methodology of AFM, the micro geometry can be also controlled. This can offer production of finished convex/concave micro geometries. In concrete case, the purpose is to manufacture polished mold for convex gear tooth (figure 9 and 11). For simulation of the velocity and pressure profiles along the flow of the polishing fluid through the cavity, the FEM (Finite Element Model) can be used [10, 11]. Therefore, the FEM model of AFM has been created. As on the AFM machine tool, the volume flow rate and inlet pressure can be set, they have been set as constants qv = 0.00001693 m3/s and pressure pm = 3.5 MPa. The factors that directly relates to the productivity (removal of material per time) are the local pressure (normal force on the machined surface) and the velocity of the polishing media on the machined surface. In up to now AFM process, those two factors have not been controllable. With innovative idea of using fix/moving mandrels that can provide desired aperture for the polishing fluid flow, this can be controlled. In this way, while the specifications are to made convex gears with the 5 um size of convexity (the mold have to have concave shape), two different mandrels have been defined and simulated: - constant diameter mandrel - convex mandrel Both mandrels, compared to the polishing process without it, are shown in figure 7. Polishing fluid Gear cavity b) Polishing fluid ^^ tube/cylinder ..-ml Figure 7 Polishing set-up: a) no mandrel, b) constant diameter mandrel, c) convex shaped mandrel. The FEM results for all three cases are shown in figure 8. Results show that with adding the constant diameter mandrel to the injection mold, the velocity is increased for a factor of 7. While, there is still a huge pressure drop. However, for this specific case, we want non constant polishing efficiency along the polishing media flow. The efficiency has to be maximized in the middle of the gear width. With convex mandrel, the velocity profile can be obtained. Based on the FEM, it can be seen that at the inlet and outlet, the velocity is approximately 0.008 m/s, while in the middle, the mandrel is significantly increasing the velocity to 0.05 m/s. From this, higher volume of removed material is expected in this middle portion of the mold. With the optimization procedure, where the convex shaped mandrel has been defined, it can be seen that polishing is expected to be more efficient in the middle (high velocity), while the pressure drop between inlet and outlet can be neglected, Apm = 0.0768 MPa. Nevertheless, comparing polishing with and without mandrel (what will be discussed in next section), the cycle time to obtain polished surface can also be expected to be reduced for nearly 7 times (from 1650 s to 240 s). Figure 8 Distribution of polishing fluid velocities a) no mandrel, b) constant diameter mandrel, c) convex shaped mandrel. 5 Experimental procedure Rough workpieces (shown in figure 9), have been prepared by wire EDM. The properties of workpiece, polishing machine tool and polishing fluid are listed in table 1. Figure 9 Gear injection mold for gears as final product. Table 1 System parameters for AFMmm experiments. been used. And the profile, shown on figure 11, has been constructed from 55 measuring points. Parameter Value Workpiece Material AISI H11 Hardness 53 HRc Roughness Ra = 0.68 um Rough process WEDM Polishing Pressure 3.5 MPa parameters Volume flow rate 1.693e-5 m3/s Nr. of cycler Cycle time 1 240 Polishing fluid Abrasive Boron carbide Abrasive size 133-172 um Mass portion 57 % Temperature Dynamic viscosity 40 °C 2650 Pas 5.1 Surface roughness results The surface roughness measurements have been performed on eight different positions and two different heights of the cavity (mold) for injection of gears. Results are shown in figure 10. From the results it can be seen that the process of AFMmm is very efficient. In first 120 s, the majority of polishing process is done. From Ra = 0.68 um we can obtain fine finishing surface with Ra = 0.07 um. •Ra Ry 5 4,5 4 3,5 - 3 2,5 2 1,5 1 0,5 0 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 AFMmm time (s) Figure 10 AFMmm influence on roughness vs. time. 5.2 Geometry results One of the main objectives of this case study, besides roughness, is to obtain concave shape of mold (to assure convex shape of gear). To quantify result, the profiles of gear teeth have been measured. The coordinate measuring system has WEDM Figure 11 Shape of profile on tooth face after WEDM and AFMmm. From those micro-geometry results, it can be seen that WEDM treated surface has straight line of gear tooth and on it superimposed high surface roughness. Adding AFMmm finishing process to WEDM as post operation, in first line significantly reduce roughness and assures desired concavity. The concavity of cavity is so satisfactory assured with appropriate regulation of polishing fluid velocity and pressure on the way through the mold. The size of convexity is approximately 5 um. 5.3 Durability tests To test the efficiency of such gears, durability tests have been performed. With polished convex shaped injection mold, the plastic gear have been injected and tested. Durability test set up is shown on figure 12. For transparent evaluation the durability has been compared for WEDM and WEDM+AFMmm prepared mandrels and corresponding gear as products. According to standard VDI 2545 and preliminary tests [12], the mechanical load and rotational speed of gears have been set in all cases to 0.33 Nm at 1100 rev/min respectively. It has been observed, that plastic gears with polished and convex surface can resist double the life of unpolished (conventional) gears. The conventional gears have resisted 1.5 million cycles, while carefully prepared convex shaped and polished gears, went up to 3.4 million cycles. Also the temperature during testing has been measured. At smooth convex gears the temperature was on average 7 deg Celsius lower than in case of conventional ones. Therefore, it can be claimed that polished and convex gears can reach longer fatigue life on account of lower thermal loads, smother running. Material: PA6, ULTRAMID B3S (Basf) Gear geometry: modul = 1 mm, 20 teeth, width 6 mm load: moment = 0.33 Nm, rpm = 1100 1/min Tool geometry: evolvent, No lubrication Figure 12 Couple of gears in durability tests. 6 Conclusion The term finishing in this work refers to the application of Abrasive Flow Machining/Polishing process (AFM) with novelty - movable/rotating mandrels (AFMmm), to improve functionality of the final product and its performances. It is going for a new type of sustainable polishing process that is performed dry and clean, and is capable to replace conventional polishing processes, as well as is capable to be used in advance material and geometry processing technologies. So far, there are no systems/products available on the market integrating flowing of an abrasive laden viscoelastic polymer and moving/rotating of mandrel simultaneously and so enhance overall process and product performances. In this work, the preliminary case-study has been carried out, to quantify an impact of AFMmm technology (improved innovative abrasive flow machining process) on improvement of treated workpiece surface and the workpiece micro geometry. The objective is to make convex gear tooth polished geometry with the convexity height of 5 um, with the aim of gear transfer efficiency. In case-study roughness and micro geometry of the plastic gear injection mold matrix before and after finishing operation, was analyzed. It has been shown that finishing time in the case of AFMmm technology, compared with conventional AFM, is reduced more seven times. Moreover, alternative AFMmm can significantly decreases roughness (for approx. nine times) and provides the improved cambered shape of gear tooth which is equable all over the finished surface. The cambered shape is the result of AFMmm media flow orientation and so beneficially influence plastic gears life time. Plastic gears life time is longer for approx. 125 %. From a quantitative point of view, it appears that AFMmm generates cambered shape with a maximum distance between points (convexity) of 5 ^m. The work shows that AFM finishing system and technology that actually presents clean and dry polishing, with innovative combination of AFM flowing abrasive polymer and movable/rotatable mandrel simultaneously and controlled, has high potential in improvement of a) environmental impact, b) energy consumption, c) operational safety, d) personal health, e) waste management, and f) manufacturing costs and g) final product performances. References [1] F. Pusavec, P. Krajnik, J. Kopac: Transitioning to sustainable production - Part I: application on machining technologies. Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 174-184, 2010. [2] J. Kenda: Karakterizacija in napovedovanje učinka poliranja orodnega jekla z dvosmernim abrazivnim tokom. PhD disertation, University of Ljubljana, 2013. [3] J. Kenda, J. Kopac: Abrasive flow machining as a sustainable polishing process. 1st International Conference of Sustainable Life in Manufacturing, Turkey, pp. 110-131, 2010. [4] W.B. Perry: Abrasive flow machining -principles and practices. Non-traditional conference proceedings, pp. 121-127, 1989. [5] J. Kenda, F. Pusavec, G. Kermouche, J. Kopac: Surface Integrity in Abrasive Flow Machining of Hardened Tool Steel AISI D2. Procedia Engineering Procedia Engineering, vol. 19, pp. 172-177, 2011. [6] S. Beermann: Estimation of lifetime for plastic gears. AGMA Conference, vol. 1, pp. 1-17, 2007. [7] M.T. Antar, S.L. Soo, D.K. Aspinwall, D. Jones, R. Perez: Productivity and Workpiece Surface Integrity When WEDM Aerospace Alloys Using Coated Wires. Procedia Engineering Procedia Engineering, vol. 19, pp. 3-8, 2011. [8] M.R. Sankar, J. Ramkumar, V.K. Jain: Experimental investigation and mechanism of material removal in nano finishing of MMCs using abrasive flow finishing (AFF) process. Wear, vol. 266, no. 7-8, pp. 688-698, 2009. [9] J. Kenda, F. Pusavec, J. Kopac: Arrangements and methods for abrasive flow machining. Patent pending, Slovenian Patent Office, 2013. [10] Y.A. Cengel, J.M. Cimbala: Fluid mechanics : fundamentals and applications. McGraw-HillHigher Education, Boston, 2006. [11] A.J. Fletcher, J.B. Hull, J. Mackie, S.A. Trengove: Computer modeling of the Abrasive Flow Machining process,. Proceeding of International Conference on Surface Engineering, pp. 592-601, 1990. [12] A. Pogačnik, M. Kalin: Parameters influencing the running-in and long-term tribological behaviour of polyamide (PA) against polyacetal (POM) and steel. Wear, vol. 290291, no. 0, pp. 140-148, 2012. The Challenges for Effective Management in the Realm of Digital Working - a Discussion Paper Paul Levy, Senior Lecturer, CENTRIM, University of Brighton UK and Professor Mihael Junkar, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Abstract The paper explores the critical issues for sustainable working in the digital realm. Largely a discussion paper, we draw on informal interviews with digital workplace and intranet managers and explore specific challenges for intranet and HR (Human Resource) managers in the realm of digital working. Opening Remarks - Digital Working Metaphors The notion of "place" has become easily ported into the realm of digital working. The Digital workplace" continues the tradition of borrowing metaphors from the physical world to make practical sense of digital working. This tradition is based on the notion that we, as humans, are beings in time and space, and therefore the use of physical metaphors will help us to navigate our way in the non-physical or "virtual" realm. In the early days of business and personal computers, we therefore had the "desktop", the "inbox" and the "folder". Ironically, the use of these particular metaphors largely resulted in the transposition of already existing bad office practice and bureaucracy to computer experience and we soon had the black comedy of cluttered desktops on PCs, over-full inboxes and folders that were full of chaos! That legacy still lasts to today and even the "cloud" is really just an online metaphorical physical space for clutter. The evolution of work based systems also drew upon the worlds of communication science and robotics and words such as "intranets" sat alongside words such as "portal". Science fiction, space, cybernetics, biology and art have all been blundered along with attempts to make up new mashed up words, often laced with humour and a certain kind of open disrespect for the more formal language our parents use. So we have "Twitter" and "Yammer" and "Facebook". Human beings have always been able to create language for "things" in physical space-time. It is a phenomenon worthy of further study that the "digital" realm borrows so heavily and often clumsily from the physical and that we are unwilling or unable to create genuinely new language to capture what goes on in digital working. Is this because the digital "world" is so much like our physical that physical labels apply well and easily; or could it be that the true nature of digital experience of human beings is that it is a fundamentally alien realm and that we are unable to grasp it? Is it more a state or set of states of more or less dimmed or alert consciousness and that physical language can't easily lay hold of it? There might actually be no up and down, no in no in or out in the essential digital and we may need to find new words and sounds that are not drawn from physical imagery if we are to engage with it in conscious and ever more useful ways. The digital might be an expression of consciousness, not of human physical action. Our computers may be to the digital realm, as a hammer is to a pool of water. Pragmatism can lay hold of aspects of the digital, label it physically and even control aspects of it. Physical metaphors can render the digital more understandable to the layperson. Yet the nature of human clumsiness and our inability to retain more than a few thoughts at any one time will always mean that digital processing can "perform" in all kinds of more effective and unique ways without our direct participation. Currently the digital realm is being thoroughly limited by the limitations of human beings in physical space-time. The imposition of physical metaphors are likely to severely limit what the digital realm can offer physical beings in terms of our economic and social activity. Simply put, the use of physical metaphors to shape and "capture" digital potential and possibility will engender mediocrity of the most profound kind. In fact this is happening already the the development of the digital into productised prosthetic "gadgets" strikes me as repetitive, uncreative and disappointing. The digital realm is a thing of itself and it has many alien qualities. Humanising it will limit it in both benevolent and disappointing ways. It may chain the waking monster or it may create an emergent will for it to break free and turn on its "masters". Science fiction has much to say here. In the corporation the concept of the "digital workplace" is taking hold - a mostly physical transposition of the digital. And now everyone is wondering how you control what your employees are doing if you can't see them physically in an office? Do you real time observe their digital work, or do you watch them through Big Brother cameras? Will your boss be able to see what you are seeing at will through your Google Glasses? I'd like to suggest that the digital has a role to play that is entirely different, and most of what it can offer, is not in terms of a "place" at all. The digital can become a realm of processing. Here human interaction with it is based on conscious needs and also is often inspired by the processes themselves as they demonstrate and involve new forms of (possibly wonderful, possible insidious) alien intelligence. They may just rewrite the rules of physical working and living. Process engaging with process, not in a "place" but in a flow, or set of flows. The digital work process will start to evolve its own laws of nature that might be closer to music and eloquence, to evolution and involution. The digital realm may throw up new senses, both for itself and its processes but also for human beings. New diseases may arise - new states of sleep and stupor, new forms of hypnosis and nervous conditions. The spectrum of colour that lies beyond the human eye will come into play more and more, and quantum computing may begin to redefine space and time itself. The digital work "place" will only be a place in terms of human beings' attempts to make full sense of what is happening. And of course, some humans may attempt to "go in", linking up their nerve endings and brains with the digital, creating new hybrid forms of human and digital life and consciousness - the cyborg. The notion of the "digital workplace" is essentially a failure of imagination. Such failures have often served the corporation well for decades, especially during times of paradigm shift. Often we try to impose understanding and control of the new by naming it in terms of the old. It creates both functionality and a kind of blindness and deafness. What's unique about the digital world is that, even as it is being humanly created, its potential is regularly stretching the bonds we create for it. We are making an egregore - a thing that has beingness that lies beyond or tired and limited metaphors. Most digital processes are still control through human input and clumsy functional mastery. But that isn't going to last much longer. And when the ghost in the machine wakes up - it is unlikely to respect our version of time and space. The Implications for Human Resources Management We recently undertook informal interviews with HR (Human Resources) directors in large corporations in the UK. They collectively identified the following areas for development of HR in digital working: - extending induction of new employees to include the realm of digital working -this includes the "culture" as well as induction into the portal and the virtual working processes -integrating intranet governance more explicitly into disciplinary procedures - identifying much more explicitly the skills and competencies needed to work excellently in the realm of digital working -this includes a trading and development agenda as well as clearer criteria for promotion - much more Conscious job description and specification - there's an unhelpful and unclear line between 'comms' and intranet/DW - developing governance and clearer people management skills concerning virtual meeting, BYOD (bring your own device) and working off premises - an emerging skill set around confidentiality management and professionalism in the use of social media and public platforms - developing an agenda for leadership in the realm of digital working Challenges for HR in the digital working realm The challenges for HR are specific in places and vague in others... Specific: - does HR need to develop procedures to embody specific behaviours that represent professional practice, over and above what previously existed. For example: - in the upholding of confidentiality, the right in certain cases to anonymity, in clearer guidelines on acceptable and unacceptable "behaviour" in forums, in Yammer and also externally in terms of interaction digitally with customers and suppliers (cross-cultural etiquette also comes into play here) - is an employee responsible for the behaviour or outcome of an automated program ? Facebook are currently under fire for auto placing adverts from companies such as Marks and Spencer into inappropriate pages. Apparently internally heads have rolled. In terms of your second question. What is the role of comms? Is it to manage the intranet as a communications device? What is the role of the intranet team? Is it to deliver the key communications platform for the business? If so, why does comms sit sometimes under HR in the organogram? - especially if a big part of the comms function is also externally focused on sits under a marketing role? When intranets evolve into fundamental and business critical working processes, they move beyond both IT and HR into business operations. When the realm of digital working begins to digitalise physical working on fundamental business and operational processes, then newer functions emerge. I remember when HR was called "Personnel" and was largely about hiring and firing, contracts and promotion etc. Then it was renamed as HR - actually HRM - Human Resources Management. This then included issues such as induction as well as training and development. Then HRM became HRD - Human Resources Development and started to focus on multi skilling, leadership and management development, and helping to create the "learning organisation. HR has morphed and shown itself able to. Now, when the intranet clearly sat within IT and a "comms" function, HR was about putting policies and some HR processes onto the intranet. But that was really a transposition of "Personnel" practice. As elements such as learning became digitized into distance learning, then HRM began to be bound up with the intranet. I'd suggest that the "D" in HRD remains largely outside of the intranet realm at present - at least according to the directors I spoke to. But what about when the intranet evolves into an entirely new beast - a realm of digital working where some core processes aren't even carried out by humans? Then the H in HR starts to become a partial representation of process reality in the business. Does HR need to morph once more to capture the true essence of human and non human activity within the business? It will at least need to further get to grips with the human risks, skills and learning opportunities at the human-digital borderland. The senior managers I spoke to saw the intranet as increasingly coming under the banner of a newer process management/leadership function. There might by HRM and DPM (Digital process management) - they might be under HR - they might not. Conclusion The role of HR is evolving, just as the role of the intranet manager is, and needs to, evolve. HR is no longer only about employees but also about how human beings behave. Human behaviour models in digital working are at an early stage of development. Governance has largely been about policing and control, largely because human behaviour models in the realm of digital work are fairly unknown and unpredictable. As HR evolves it will need to understand digital collaboration better along with the human to gadget/platform interface. Concepts such as work stretching and different employment relationships based around freelancing and emergent, temporary working will need to be further developed and implemented. HR's role in change management and in creating digital work cultures also need attention. Finally, more negative aspects such as digital work burnout and distraction and future shock will become more relevant. HR is going to have to change ahead of the date of digital working evolution. Reference Further information and source material can be found on our digital blog, Digital Inferno, at http://digitalinferno.wordpress.com Process modelling and measurements METHOD OF MEASURING THE WATER JET DIAMETER Jesus Gil Cano1, Andrej Lebar2, Mihael Junkar2 and Marko Jerman2 1 University of Cartagena, Spain. 2 University ofLjubljana, Laboratory for Alternative Technologies, Slovenia. Abstract In this paper we present a new method of measuring the water jet (WJ) diameter using the digital image acquisition and processing with digital manipulation of the photography. The experimental setup was built on the machine for ice jet experiments, in order to evaluate new measurement method and to compare the novel photographic method with the method which makes use of the load cell to measure the WJ diameter. The images were processed by fitting a custom Gaussian function to the specific rows of image. Function was fitted to five image rows which correspond to five different distances from the water nozzle. At the precisely same distances also radial dependence of WJ force was measured. It was found, that the method using digital camera and computer evaluation of image can yield good results which are in good correspondence with measurements of WJ diameter obtained by the load cell. It also showed that due to possible implementation in industry applications, it would be useful as a quick, easy and affordable technique. The main advantages of such method are that the equipment can be cheap and, as the method is contactless, it doesn't get destroyed over time. Keywords: Water Jet (WJ), Ice Jet (IJ), Jet Diameter, Imaging processing, Macro photography. 1 Introduction Abrasive water jet (AWJ) technology was first commercialized in the late 1980's as a pioneering breakthrough in the area of non-traditional processing technologies. AWJ machining is a rapidly developing technology used in industry for a number of applications, such as cutting, shaping and milling [1]. Abrasive water jet (AWJ) is non-conventional machining processes, where material is removed from a work-piece using a multitude of small abrasive particles [2]. One of the drawbacks of the AWJ technology is that the use of abrasives in the industrial environment is not always possible, because there are kind of applications such as the machining of hygroscopic and chemically reactive materials, as well as when working near high voltage, toxic and radioactive sources; even in process of meat products, the cleaning of sensitive surfaces and biomedical applications [2]. Another disadvantage of the AWJ technology is that it produces a lot of waste product that consists mainly of the mineral abrasive. The latter is being added to the high speed water jet in order to increase its efficiency. These particles also get stuck inside the work piece, thus contaminating it [3]. One of possible solutions is to substitute abrasive particles in AWJ with ice crystals and thus get rid of the majority of material in the waste sludge. The effectiveness of the use of ice particles as a substitute for abrasives was demonstrated [4], it was also demonstrated that the measured water droplet diameters and consequently the diameters of the created ice particles are comparable to the ones used in mineral abrasive [5]. Previous experiments in the field of quality of the jet and measurement of the jet diameter have been done by different research groups. Researches [6] have been researching cost efficient methods for measuring the jet diameter using two different component one being a non-contact led micrometer and the other a class 2 lasers. Both methods were effective. Another researches [7] also successfully used a high speed camera for jet analysis in their research. In this research, we want to study phenomenological analysis of the water jet, combining digital image processing with digital manipulation of the photography, and modifying process parameters such as pressure, water temperature and diameter of the water nozzle. In order to verify the effectiveness of this new measurement method, the results were compared with results from the method that has already been established. The main advantage is that low cost equipment is required, and that the jet shape can be easily and quickly acquired. 2 Experimental setup The measurement system used to perform the experiments is presented in the block diagram in Figure 1. High pressure Cuttin: uttmg head" Water jet Validation and comparion Camera Force Cell N7 * Dr * PC r Figure 1: Block diagram of the measurement system for jet measurements. To carry out this research we used the Ice Jet prototype machine, several modifications in the work ambient have been done, and several additional tools had to be created to get the maximal quality of the photos and consequently more accurate analysis results. Figure 2 shows the layout of the measurement equipment for both researches. WATER PIOZZIE FOKCE CEL! iOOmm RUBHLR5 PANLL I-- PHCHtCEIGN AGAINS1 SPLASHING Figure 2: Experimental setup of the working area. The force method uses a load cell to measure forces. This method has already been verified and was used as reference for the verification of the imaging method. On the left side of Figure 2 is the imaging method equipment. It is composed of photographic equipment with a lighting system and a digital camera. Components were protected against water. In order to minimize the reflection of the light some rubber panels were used. Positioning of lights and camera was achieved with a mechanical system that was able to get the focus of the light and the camera in the water jet. In order to get homogenous illumination of the measured area with as less volume as possible, a couple of high power (10.5W each) LED were used. The brightness of the LED was 1100 lumen, which it is the total amount of visible light emitted by the LED source, and the cool white correlated color temperature (CCT) was 5600K. These values are enough to lighten the entire length of the water jet and to get an adequately sharpphotos. In the other hand, a camera with a resolution of 8.2 megapixel and with maximum resolution of 2336 x 3504 pixels was used. 2.1 Positioning and Calibration The LED lights have to be positioned symmetrically and the camera has to be set on their axis of symmetry to insure proper image quality. The center of the focus of the light has to coincide with half of the length of the jet and the distance between LED lights has to be long enough not to bother the field of camera view. In Figure 3 the final position of the lighting equipment is shown. Figure 3: Positioning of the illumination equipment. Image calibration was done using a ruler with the surface positioned along the center plane of the water nozzle from which it was possible to determine the pixel to millimetres ratio on each picture. The ruler was also used to prevent the distortion of the photo and to have the reference of the jet position, since it was easier to focus the camera. Figure 4 shows this system. Figure 4: Image calibration system. The graph in Figure 5 shows the absolute value of derivative of brightness from y axis. Non-equal height is causet by the non-uniform illumination of the ruler. Also the markers on the ruler are not equally black. The calibration was performed once, because the distance between the jet and the camera was kept constant. Number of pixels Figure 5: Calibration performed with the ruler. (a) It was placed along the center of the water nozzle. This allowed us to determine the pixel to millimeters ratio on each picture during the experiment (c). 2.2 Model function selection False color representation reveals the internal structure of jet. A Gaussian funtion was used to describe this structure [8], a b 21 OO Figure 6: Different representation of internal structure of the jet. An observation of the jet shape in the Figure 7 implies that a good correlation with Gaussian curve is expected. In each image of the jet the parameters of the Gaussian function were calculated by mean value of the non-linear function fitting. In the equation of the figure 7, the parameter ^ is the mean value or the position of the center of the pear and o is its standard deviation or the width of the shape. The influence of these parameters on the shape of the Gaussian curve is shown in Figure 7. , 0.6 * # O.J 0,2 i I I J IT s/2i -e r fl=0 f<=9, fl=0, f«"2. 0*= 0 2.- -■-■- 0 1 £ ro b X v + 0.066 0.15 Diameters from both methods Calibration curve 0.J 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 16 1.6 2 Diameter from Load cell method [mm] (x) Figure 9: Calibration curve where the parameter "x" is the diameter from the load cell method and "y" is the diameter from the photographic method but uncalibrated. 2.4 Verification of the results To validate this calibration curve several examples were done. The same parameters of the camera were used such as shutter speed and exposure value (ISO) while modifying process parameters such as pressure, water temperature and diameter of the water nozzle. The graphics shown in the figure 10 represent one of the experiments done and it can see how both curves follow the same linear tendency. Verification of the results —Diameter from force 22 32 42 Distant from the nozzle (mm) At- 0.066 V 0.15 Distance from the nozzle (mm) Average of mcalibrated diameter measurement [Uncalihrated| (y) Diameter from force method (mm) CalibralioD curve (mm) 00 2 /om\ 0.56 0.54 12 1 0.048 I 0.82 0.76 22 I 0.083 1 1.13 0.99 32 1 0 .106 I 1.14 1.15 42 \ 0.242 / 1.30 2.05 Figure 10: Calibration curve and average force measures, with 200 MPa of pressure, 0.20 mm of the diameter of the water nozzle and with 23°C of water temperature. 3 Conclusion A method and instrument capable of measuring the water jet diameters was developed. Measurement experiments show the validity of the proposed method. We have shown that there is a linear relation between the jet diameter and the width of radial dependence of image brightness and that it is possible to define the jet diameter using the new method. The photographic method is much faster than the force method. Using the newly developed method, the geometry along the whole length of the jet can be obtained at once, while using the force method only the measurement at a discrete distance from the water nozzle in can be measured at once. The developed method is noncontact which means that there is no wear of the instruments. Acknowledgment This work is supported from the University of Ljubljana, Laboratory for alternative technologies. References [1] Marko Jerman; State of the art report on Ice Jet Technology, Life. [2] Version 2 ME, IIT Kharagpur. Module 9 (Non-conventional Machining). [3] Marko Jerman and Henri Orbanic; Ice Jet Machining technology for the greener tomorrow. [4] E. Geskin, L. Tismenetskiy, F. Li, "Development of Ice Jet Machining Technology", NJIT, 8th American Water Jet Conference, 1995, pp. 671-680. [5] E. Geskin, L. Tismenetskiy, F. Li, "Development of Ice Jet Machining Technology", NJIT, 8th American Water Jet Conference, 1995, pp. 671-680. [6] E. Geskin, L. Tismenetskiy, F. Li, "Development of Ice Jet Machining Technology", NJIT, 8th American Water Jet Conference, 1995, pp. 671-680. [7] E. Geskin, L. Tismenetskiy, F. Li, "Development of Ice Jet Machining Technology", NJIT, 8th American Water Jet Conference, 1995, pp. 671-680. [8] M. Jerman, A.Lebar, M. Junkar; Measurement and modeling of the water jet shape. Modeling of the main cutting force in high-pressure jet assisted turning process by genetic algorithm 19 1 V. Pucovsky1, D. Kramar2, M. Sekulič1 1 University of Novi Sad, Serbia University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Abstract Genetic algorithms present an efficient way of machining processes modelling. They have proven this on numerous occasions so it was assumed that they can be used in this advanced machining system. Inconel 718 was machined with high-pressure jet assisted turning process and the main cutting force Fv was measured. Model for calculating the cutting force Fv depending on process parameters was used to, with genetic algorithms adapt constants figuring in this function so that modelled results were as much as possible closer to experimental values. Keywords: high-pressure jet assisted turning process, main cutting force, genetic algorithm, modeling. 1 Introduction With everyday increasing demand of the market, each branch of the industry is trying to meet those demands in order to gain profit. Meeting this goal is not always easy. Sometimes it's not all about working hard but rather working smart. Machining industry, as one of the main driving forces in modern world, has to keep up with contemporary technical and technological trends. Many times, just to be in line with market demands, it has to set up new trends. This radical type of influence has to be supported with adequate knowledge base and scientific guidance. Content of this paper has, although in small dose, injected that much needed scientific contribution to the practical realization of machining industry. Combining two highly potential tools from engineering branch, authors managed to improve existing machining process and thus hopefully save both financial funds and resources. On the one side there is a machining technology that already showed its ability and had secured its place in modern machining shops. Turning process with assisted high-pressure jet coolant is a modern way to improve classical machining technology. With added feature of high pressure coolant it expanded the use of classical machining range and now can be also used on hard to machine materials. On the other side lies a powerful artificial brain with its algorithms being improved almost on a daily basis. Genetic algorithms, as a subgroup of evolutionary algorithms, had already shown their potential in machining industry and new usage is still being discovered. This paper presents a modelling of the main cutting force values during high-pressure jet assisted turning process. Modelling is done with genetic algorithms, as a type of artificial intelligence. Comparison is than made between experimentally obtained data and modeled results [1]. 2 Experiment and Modeling The experimental work was carried out at the Laboratory for Machining, the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Ljubljana. The experiments were conducted in longitudinal turning process on conventional lathe, fitted with a Hammelmann high-pressure plunger pump of 150 MPa pressure and 8 l/min capacity. The fluid used was the Vasco 5000 cooling lubricant from Blaser Swisslube Inc., a 5,5% emulsion without chlorine on the basis of vegetable oil mixed with water (pH 8,5-9,2). The jet was directed normal to the cutting edge at a low angle (about 5-6°) with tool rake face. As an input data five process parameters were varied: diameter of the nozzle Dn (mm), diststance between the impact point of the jet and the cutting edge d (mm), pressure of the jet P (MPa), cutting speed vc (m/mm) and feed rate f (mm/rev). All experiments were carried out using the nickel-based alloy Inconel 718 supplied as bars (145 mm diameter x 300 mm long) with hardness between 36 and 38 HRC by orthogonal arrays with three levels (coded by: 1, 2 and 3), Table 1. A PVD TiAlN-coated carbide tool (grade P25) SNMG 12 04 08-23 has been chosen. The cutting tool was mounted on the static dynamometer (Kistler® 9259A). The measurement chain also included ® a charge amplifier (Kistler 5001), a data acquisition hardware (NI® USB-6218 BNC) and a graphical programming environment ® (NI® LabVIEW) for data analysis and visualization. Subject of this study is to modeling dependence of the main cutting force Fv on the input data five process parameters by genetic algorithms. individuals are randomly created. These individuals are actually possible solution for the problem and contain constants Ci, C2, ... C6. Next step is to incorporate all those constants to Equation 1 and send every result to the fitness function for evaluation. Fitness function is a measure of success for each individual and is directly involved in direction of further population development. Fitness function is actually an average of percent errors (Eq 2) for all instances with one solution of constants: Table 1 M achining parameters and their levels Symbol Parameters Levels 1 2 3 Diameter of A the nozzle, Dn (mm) 0,25 0,3 0,4 Dist. between B the impact point of the jet and the cutting edge, d (mm) 0 1,5 3,0 C Pressure of the 50 90 130 jet, P (MPa) D Cutting speed, Vc (m/min) 46 57 74 E Feed rate, f 0,2 0,224 0,25 (mm/rev) 20 For modelling purposes only 20 instances were used (Table 2) and remaining 7 (Table 2) were used for evaluation of model. As a modeled function, linear regression model (Equation 1) will be used. Fv = Ci + C2 • Dn + C3 • P + CA • v + C5 • f + C6 • P • v (1) E - M, E: 100[%] (2) where E is an experimentally obtained value of the main cutting force and Mt is its modeled value. After an evaluation, 40 of the top ranked are automatically transferred to the next generation. This step is called elitism and is necessary in order to preserve the best genetic material. Next, potential parents for the next generation of individuals are created. This is done by putting into effect so called tournament selection. 80 individuals are randomly selected from current generation and the best one is placed into the mating pool. This step is repeated until enough parents are selected to form 80% of the next generation which are created by crossover of individuals from mating pool. Remaining individuals are created with direct mutation of their predecessors. Mutation is employed in order to insert fresh genetic material in population and prevent an algorithm to get stuck in local minimum. After 1000 generations the best solution contained constants which implemented into Equation 1 creates an Equation 3. i=1 Within this paper genetic algorithms will be employed to search for an optimal values of constants C1, C2, ... C6 for which modeled equation will give the smallest deviation from experimentally obtained data. Genetic algorithms are, as mentioned above, a part of evolutionary algorithms which means that their main principle is based on theory of evolution resp. survival of the fittest. On the beginning of the process 1000 3 Results Values of process parameters, used to model the resulting function, implemented into Equation 3 will make the following results (Table 2). Mentioned resulting equation will be: Fv = 37,758+ 8,015- Dn +11,757-P +19,936- v + 41,232- f - 0,185- P • v (3) Table 2 Data used for experiments and results of the main cutting force obtained both experimentally and modeled by Equation 3 (modelling data). No Dn (mm) d (mm) P (MPa) v (m/min) s (mm/o) Fv, exper. (N) Fv, model (N) Error (%) 1 0,25 0 50 46 0,2 1280 1128 11,9 2 0,25 0 90 57 0,224 1508 1295 14,1 3 0,25 0 130 74 0,25 1400 1274 9 4 0,25 1,5 50 46 0,25 1350 1128 16,4 5 0,25 1,5 90 57 0,2 1150 1293 12,4 6 0,25 1,5 130 74 0,224 1370 1273 7,1 7 0,25 3 50 46 0,224 1150 1127 2 8 0,25 3 90 57 0,25 1295 1295 0 9 0,25 3 130 74 0,2 1235 1272 3 10 0,3 0 50 57 0,2 1245 1245 0 11 0,3 0 90 74 0,224 1265 1350 6,3 12 0,3 0 130 46 0,25 1320 1390 5,3 13 0,3 1,5 50 57 0,25 1385 1248 9,9 14 0,3 1,5 90 74 0,2 1145 1349 17,8 15 0,3 1,5 130 46 0,224 1190 1388 16,6 16 0,3 3 50 57 0,224 1055 1246 18,1 17 0,3 3 90 74 0,25 1460 1352 7,4 18 0,3 3 130 46 0,2 1390 1388 0,1 19 0,4 0 50 74 0,2 1375 1427 3,8 20 0,4 0 90 46 0,224 1305 1260 3,4 A^ 8,23 Figure 1 Graphical comparison between modelled and experimental data, used for modelling of the main cutting force Fv Table 3 Data used for experiments and results of the main cutting force obtained both experimentally and modeled by Equation 3 (only verification data). No Dn (mm) d (mm) P (MPa) v (m/min) s (mm/o) Fv, exper. (N) Fv, model (N) Error (%) 1 0,4 0 130 57 0,25 1320 1345 1,9 2 0,4 1,5 50 74 0,25 1250 1429 14,3 3 0,4 1,5 90 46 0,2 1275 1221 4,2 4 0,4 1,5 130 57 0,224 1465 1345 8,2 5 0,4 3 50 74 0,224 1187 1428 20,3 6 0,4 3 90 46 0,25 1160 1260 8,6 7 0,4 3 130 57 0,2 1450 1344 7,3 A^ 8,87 Figure 2 Graphical comparison between modelled and experimental data, used only for verification of the model, of the main cutting force Fv As can be seen the average percent error is 8,23% which is, taking in consideration an amount of data used for modelling, acceptable value. Graphical representation of these values, and direct comparison between experimental and modeled data, is shown in Figure 1. Remaining 7 instances, which were not used for modelling purposes, are now employed to judge the quality of yielded model. As presented in Table 3 the average percent error in this case was 8,87% which is near to that in Table 2. This indicates that the model is adequate and valid. Figure 2 presents a graphical representation of results from Table 3. 4 Discussion Yielded results generated average percent error of 8,23 resp 8,87%. These results, by authors opinion, are acceptable because of couple of factors; data used for modelling is scarce and the model of the function (Eq 1) is simple linear type which offers very little flexibility. Despite of these limiting factors obtained results are independent and can be used without the use of computer. 5 Conclusions quantity of experimental instances. Also various types of equations for modelling of cutting force can be tried and hopefully find some model which will suite this purpose better. References [1] V. Pucovsky, P. Kovac, M. Tolnay, B. Savkovic, D. Rodic: The Adequate Type of Function for Modeling Tool Life Selction by the Use of Genetic Algorithms. Journal of Production Engineering, pp. 25-28, Vol. 15, (1), 2012. [2] D. Kramar, M. Sekulic, P. Kovac, M. Gostimirovic, J. Kopac: The Implementation of Taguchi Method for Quality Improvement in High-pressure Jet Assisted Turning Process. Journal of Production Engineering, pp. 23-26, Vol. 15 (2), 2012. [3] D. Kramar, M. Sekulic, Z. Jurkovic, J. Kopac: The Machinability of Nickel-based Alloys in High-pressure Jet Assisted (HPJA) Turning. Metalurgija, pp. 512-514, Vol 52 (4), 2013. [4] D. Kramar, J. Kopac: High Pressure Cooling in the Machining of Hard-to-Machine Materials. Strojniski vestnik - Journal of Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 55 (11), 2009. Generated results, as mentioned in previous chapter, are in acceptable range. Further improvement can be done by increasing the A novel method for material machinability evaluation B. Sredanovič1, G. Globočki - Lakič1, D. Čiča1 and S. Borojevič1 1University of Banjaluka, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, RS, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Corr. author address: sredanovic@gmail.com Abstract Definitions of machinability have an important role in material machining. Material machinability is most often defined by different criterion. Criterion is based on the output cutting parameters: cutting forces, tool wear, machined surface quality, chip shape, vibration and etc. Some material may have a good machinability according to one criterion, but very low when the other criteria is considered. The goal of developing a novel method is to take into account several criteria simultaneously. Experimental researches are performed, and material machinability in metal cutting is analyzed. Keywords: machinability, evaluation, method. 1 Introduction Managing with production technologies requires a lot of knowledge about several elements, such as: workpiece materials, tool materials, geometry, machine tool, machining conditions and etc. This managing is more complicated because relations between mentioned elements [1]. In metal cutting technology knowledge about machining of different material has an important role [2]. Based on this knowledge, it can be concluded about process economy, process sustainable and etc. Figure 1 Material machinability definition [3] Behaviour of materials during machining with different process and conditions can be explained with material machinability [4]. Material machinability is complex technological category. It is relative category because analyse of machinability of different materials requires minimum two materials or two combinations (same material but different cutting conditions). Material machinability is defined as easiness of material machinability with different tools and conditions in economical frames. Machinability depends on the workpiece material, tool material, cutting geometry, process conditions, etc. The goal of machinability testing is finding the optimal conditions of material processing and effective management of cutting process (Figure 1). 2 Material machinability evaluation Material machinability is defined over the main criteria - the output parameters of cutting process which depend on the input cutting parameters [1]: • tool wear, • surface roughness, • cutting forces, • energy consumption, • cutting temperature, • tribological parameters, • chip shape, • material removal rate and etc. Machinability is usually defined over machinability indexes, without units, as the relative estimate of machinability [2, 3, 4]. These calculated indexes are used as coefficients for cutting speed and feed. It can be concluded that machinability is defined by one criterion only. Main problem in machinability estimating is that some material may have a good machinability according to one criterion, but very low to other criterion. Complete definition of machinability or "absolute" or "universal" machinability is based on the consideration of many criteria simultaneously [1 - 4]. On example, Boulger proposed that the machinability is expressed through economy of the process with use of special machinability test [5]. Lee and Shaffer have suggested that it can be defined by the thermodynamic number [5]. Enache has developed the global model of machinability which containing more criteria [6]. Rao and Gandhi used the principles of the matrix and graph theory for defining the absolute materials machinability, named "matrix model" [7]. The real criterion values must be normalized because differences of units of machinability criterion and different orders of magnitude of machinability criteria values. On example, there are differences in value of cutting forces and surface roughness. Results of real criterion normalisation there are named criterion values (K). Real criterion value normalization is performed in order from 0 to 1. For criterion which increasing of values decrease the machinability, normalization is performed by: K = r — r. (2) For criterion which decreasing of values increase the machinability, normalization is performed by: r — r K _ 1 max_i_ (3) 2.1 Novel method for machinability definition In this paper, a novel method of machinability definition, which is based on vector analysis, is introduced. It considers several machinability criteria. Proposed method requires three axes rectangular coordinate system. Each axis in system represents some of mentioned criterion (Figure 2). Figure 2 Machinability vector definition As real criterion value can be take values calculated by model or measured values in experiment [8]. For analyzed group of material or material/conditions combination, there are different real criteria values (j), from minimum to maximum value: r _ (r i vi m r ... r (1) In previous equations rimax is maximum value of criterion, rimin is minimum value of criterion and ri is observe value of criterion. In mentioned coordinate system, criterion values (Ki) are set on the corresponding axis. Each axis has a corresponding unit vector (kk°) which length corresponds to minimum criterion value (infinite length). Sum of unit vectors gives control vector (C), which direction determines the best uniformity of machinability criteria or the best machinability (Figures 2). Based on the criterion values and the corresponding unit vectors, the criterion vector which lies in the appropriate coordinate axis is formed as scalar product of unit vector and criterion vector: KKO _ kk° ■ K ko (4) Machinability vector is sum of all individual criteria vectors, and can be calculated and formed for each material in group or each combination material/condition: _zK (5) i=1 In general, material which machinability vector has less intensity and closing smaller angle with a control vector has better machinability. The size of the parallelogram area formed by the machinability vector and its control vector is related to machinability of materials (Figure 3). r — r i max i min r — r i max i min n ) Figure 3 Area of the parallelogram related to machinability of materials j and j+1 On other hand, material with a smaller area defined by the parallelogram has better machinability in compare to material with a larger parallelogram surface area. Size of parallelogram area can be expressed through the value of vector product between machinability vector and control vector: P = C x M, C M, ■ sin z(C, M j ) (6) It can be concluded that universal machinability (Mu) is inversely proportional to the area of parallelogram formed by machinability vector and control vector. Based on established relationships, on equations (5) and (6) and equation for sinus value [9], it can be written in final form: Mu = P = 4 K + k2 + K32 ■ . (K + K2 + K3 )2 K + K 2 + K2 (7) Previous equation has two parts: first part represents the influence of criteria values on machinability and the second part shows the influence of criteria values uniformity on machinability [10, 11, 12]. 3 Case studies on material machinability evaluation Case studies were performed for materials in different machining conditions, cutting tool, process, lubrication technique and etc. Experimental studies were performed, data results were modelled and material machinability was analysed [13, 14]. Material machinability was compared on different developed models [5, 6, 7]. 3.1 Case study one In this case, experimental procedure and machinability evaluation was performed on group hard-to-machine steels. During experimental measurement same turning condition was used. Figure 4 Experimental measurements in case study 1 Process output parameters were monitored: main cutting force (Fc), feed cutting force (Ff) and passive cutting force (Fp); flank tool wear (VB) and intensity of tool wear (IVB); and arithmetic average height (Ra) as the surface roughness parameters. Experiment was performed on universal lathe with good stiffness and geometry accuracy (Figure 4). For machining of group of hard-to-machine steels was used HM carbide cutting tool, with the following cutting conditions: cutting depth ap = 1 mm, feed rate f = 0.18 mm/rev and cutting speed vc = 130 m/min. All experiments were carried out using cutting fluid with 3% emulsion of vegetable oil. Table 1 Results and calculations Material DIN Z 0 |Jh ]ni £ J ~ S S aR Matrix method Vector method 55NiCrMo 725 21 6.8 232 372 S6-5-2 726 19 6.6 344 433 90MnCrV8 654 15 5.9 1050 1327 36CrNiMo4 516 14 6.2 1516 2274 X210Cr12 659 16 6.3 709 707 or case study 1 V y In this case, crucial process output parameters that describe cutting processes were monitored. For calculation of machinability evaluation values by different models, cutting force, intensity of flank tool wear and surface roughness were used (Table 1). Materials Figure 5 Evaluation values by novel vector model and Rao-Ghandi's matrix model for case 1 Materials Figure 6 Evaluation values by novel vector model and Enache's global model for case 1 On Figure 5 and 6 were shown calculated machinability evaluation values, obtained by novel matrix model and early developed models, Rao-Ghandi's matrix model and Enache's global model. Order tendency of outputs for newly model corresponds to previously developed models. It can be concluded that new model outputs have good matching with matrix and the global model outputs [15]. From diagraph can be concluded that hard-to-machine steel 36CrNiMo4 has the best machinability in comparison with other steel from group. The worst machinability has steel 55NiCrMo. 3.2 Case study two In this case, experimental procedure and machinability evaluation was performed on one material but different cutting condition. During experimental measurement different lubrication techniques in turning, standard (flooding) and high pressure jet assisted machining (HPJAM), was used [16, 17]. Process output parameters were monitored: main cutting force (Fc), feed cutting force (Ff) and passive cutting force (Fp); flank tool wear (VB) and intensity of tool wear (IVB); arithmetic average height (Ra) as the surface roughness parameters and chip shape. Workpiece material used in experimental research was the construction carbon steel C45E. Tensile straight of this material is o = 820 N/mm2, module of elasticy E = 2103 MPa, and hardness of steel is 45 HRc. Experimental research was performed on conventional lathe with maximum spindle speed nmax = 2240 rev/min, and feed fmax = 1.6 mm/rev. Carbide cutting tool SNMG 1204 08 NMX for semi-turning was recommended cutting tool by manufactures. Tool holder was PSDN 2525 M12, with inclination angle 45°. All experiments were carried out using cutting fluid with 3% emulsion of vegetable oil also. Figure 7 Initial jet in HPJAM turning of C45E In HPJAM conventional lathe was fitted with high pressure plunger pump. Pressure was set atpHP = 50 MPa and flow rate at QHP = 2.0 l min-1. Standard sapphire nozzle with diameter dHp = 0.4 mm commonly used in water jet cutting applications was installed on the distance of Hn = 30 mm from tool cutting edge in order to assure its use in the core zone of the jet and avoid variations in the diameter of the jet and radial distribution of the pressure. The jet was directed normal to the cutting edge and hp = 30° from clearance face at a low angle (about 5° - 6°) with the tool rake face. In this case was performed a great number of experiments, with flooding and HPJAM cooling and lubrication techniques. There are analyse a few results which obtained with the following parameters: depth of cut ap = 2.0 mm; feeds f = 0.28 and 0.40 mmrev1 and cutting speed vc = 320 m-min1. For calculation of machinability evaluation values, cutting force, intensity of flank tool wear and surface roughness were used (Table 2). Figure 8 Flank tool wear for different cooling and lubrication techniques In this case, experimental studies have shown that the use of HPJAM has a positive effect on the cutting process [17, 18, 19]. In using of HPJAM tool life is increased for 4 times (Figure 8). Also, feed cutting forces and passive cutting forces decreased by 8%. Table 2 Results and calculations for case study 2 Combinations of input parameters g o PH m > a ^ cs Ph Matrix method Vector method Flooding f=0.28 1137 27 3.55 940 1629 Flooding f=0.40 1599 32 4.23 255 384 HPJAM f=0.28 1142 8 3.82 1480 2161 HPJAM f=0.40 1569 9 4.26 483 589 Figure 9 Evaluation values by novel vector model and Rao-Ghandi's matrix model for case 2 On Figure 9 and 10 calculated machinability evaluation values for same material and different condition (cutting parameters and cooling and lubrication techniques). From diagraph can be concluded that turning with smallest feed and HPJAM technique gives better machinability in any case. This conclusion are available in other experimental research which performed by other authors. Also, order of novel developed model outputs model has a good matching with different model outputs. Figure 10 Evaluation values by novel vector model and Enache's global model for case 2 Conclusions about the machinability of materials and processing can be archived in using the various machinability criteria [20]. As machinability criteria there was used cutting energy, material removal rate (MMR) and level of chip shape acceptable. Figure 10 Flank tool wear and chip shape for flooding (above) and HPJAM (below) Parameterisation and normalisation of some machinability criteria in metal cutting is specific problem. The biggest problem is occurs in non-measurable parameters, as a chip shape. Chip shape is very significant indirect parameter of metal cutting process. In this paper the standard classification and acceptable estimating for chip shape was used. Figure 11 Machinability evaluation values for different criteria and calculation of machinability evaluation value was done. On Figure 11 machinability evaluation values for criteria different types was calculated. From graph can be concluded that estimation of machinability can be performed with indirect parameters of cutting process as a chip shape, MMR and etc. In this case, turning of C45E with combination HPJAM technique with f = 0.28 mm/rev gives the best machinability, as it was concluded in previous analysis of this experimental results. 4 Conclusion The novel developed method for machinability evaluation was shown a good matching with early developed models. At least, in vector model, number of criteria was not limited, because as the number of criteria can take more than tree. Machinability criteria can be of different type (direct and indirect) and obtained different cutting operation and processes. As input in model can be used different tool-workpiece-condition combination. Developed method can help in selecting of the best mentioned combination and in successful managing in metal cutting technology. If there are large number of different mentioned combinations, machinability assessment will be more accurate. In both cases which presented in this paper, calculation of machinability evaluation values was given similar results to results in studies of different researchers. Calculation and analysis shows that some processes, as turning with HPJAM technique, provide the better "universal machinability". In the future research developed model in terms of using greater number of machinability criteria will be investigated. Also, special software with data bases, for managing in real metal cutting processes, will be developed. 5 Acknowledgments This research is the result of a bilateral project BI-BA/12-13-001 between Slovenia and Bosnia and Herzegovina with collaboration between Laboratory for Cutting from Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Ljubljana and Laboratory for cutting technologies and machining systems from Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Banja Luka. After parameterisation by assessment of chip shape (Figure 10), real criteria normalisation References [1] W. Grzesik: Advanced machining processes of metallic materials: theory, modelling and application, Elsevier B. V., Netherland, 2008. [2] G. Globočki - Lakic: Obrada rezanjem -teorija, modeliranje, simulacija, Mašinski fakultet Banja Luka, BIH, 2010. [3] J. Kopač: Cutting forces and their influence on the economics of machining. Journal of Mechanical Engineering, vol. 48, no. 3, pp. 121-132, 2002. [4] E. Kuljanic, M. Sortino, G. Totis: Machinability of difficult machining materials, 14th International Research -Expert Conference "Trends in the Development of Machinery and Associated Technology" TMT 2010, pp. 1-14, Mediterranean Cruise, September 2010. [5] E. W. Theile, K. J. Kuding, and et.: Comparative machinability of brasses, steel and aluminum alloy: CDA's universal machinability index, Publication of CDA, New York, USA, 1990. [6] S. Enache et al.: Mathematical model for the establishment of material machinability, Annals of CIRP, vol. 44, pp. 79-82, 1995. [7] R. V. Rao, O. P Gandhi: Diagraph and matrix methods for machinability evaluation of works material, Int. J. of Machine Tools & Manufacture, vol. 42, pp. 321-330, 2002. [8] S. K. Ong, L. C. Chew: Evaluating the machinability of machined parts and their setup plans, International Journal of Production Research, vol. 38, pp. 23972415, 2000. [9] E. Krayzig: Advanced Engineering Mathematiscs, John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey, USA, 2006. [10] B. Sredanovic, G. Globocki - Lakic: Quality monitoring of production systems and processes in form of vector of power, Proc. of 9th Int. Scientific and Practical Conference - Research, Development and Application High Technologies in Industry, Saint Petersburg, Russia, pp. 418-420, April 2010. [11] B. Sredanovic, G. Globočki - Lakic, B. Nedic, B. Čiča: New approach in deffining of universal macinability in cutting, 37th JUPITER conferenence with international participation, Belgrad, Serbia, May 2011. [12] G. Globocki - Lakic, B. Sredanovic, B. Nedic, Dj. Cica, D. Catic: Development of mathematical model of universal material machinability, Journal of the Balkan Tribological Association, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 501-511, 2011. [13] G. Globocki - Lakic, S. Borojevic, Dj. Cica, B. Sredanovic: Development of Application for Analysis of Machinability Index, Journal Tribology in Industry, Volume 31, No.1&2, pp. 57-60, 2009. [14] G. Globocki - Lakic, B. Nedic, B. Ivkovic, V. Golubovic - Bugarski, Dj. Cica: Possibility of Determination of Material Machinability Over Tribological Parameters by Use of Tribometer Block on Disk, Proc. of 9th CIRP International Workshop on Modelling of Machining Operations, pp. 307-312, Bled, Slovenia, May 2006. [15] D. Kramar, B. Sredanovic, G. Globočki -Lakic, J. Kopač: Contribution to material machinability definition, Journal of Production Engineering, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 27-32, 2012. [16] V. Sahma, M. Dogra, N. Suri: Cooling techniques for improved productivity in turning, Int. J. of Machine Tool & Manufacturing, Vol. 49, pp. 435-453, 2010. [17] D. Kramar: High-pressure cooling assistance in machining of hard-to-machine materials (in Slovene), PhD thesis, University of Ljubljana, 2009. [18] C. Courbon, D. Kramar, P. Krajnik, F. Pusavec, J. Rech, J. Kopac: Investigation of machining performance in high-pressure jet assisted turning of Inconel 718: an experimental study, Inter. J. of Machine Tools & Manufacture, vol. 49, pp. 1114-1125, 2009. [19] D. Kramar, J. Kopac: High pressure cooling in the machining of hard-to-machine materials, Journal of Mechanical Engineering, vol. 55, no. 11, pp. 685-694, 2009. [20] B. Sredanovic: Development of universal machinability model based on cutting procees parameters, (in Serbian), MSc thesis, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2012. Further development of the spatial cutting tool wear measurement system L. Čerče1, F. Pušavec1, J. Dugar, and J. Kopač1 1 University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Abstract The tool wear evaluation has a very strong impact on the product quality as well as efficiency of the manufacturing process. This paper presents the further development of an innovative and reliable direct measuring procedure for measuring spatial cutting tool wear. The influence of the orientation of measurement head according to the measurand was examined. Based on the analysis of measurements accuracy and the amount of captured reliable data, the optimal setup of the measuring system was defined. Further a special clamping system was designed to mount the measurement device on the machine tool. To test the measurement system tool life experiment were performed, where cutting tool wear was measured directly on machine tool. The results showed that novel tool wear diagnostic represent objective estimation, performed on a machine tool that provides higher productivity and quality of the machining process. Keywords: Spatial cutting tool wear, Wear diagnostic on machine tool, Optical triangulation.. 1 Introduction Machining performance of material is very important in terms of material processing and quality of final product. Based on the machining performance optimal machining parameters are usually determinate. The term machining performance refers to the ease with which a metal can be machined to an acceptable surface finish, and is hardly measured/evaluated. It is defined by the following criteria: cutting tool wear, cutting tool life, cutting forces, power consumption, chip formation, machined surface integrity and geometrical accuracy of the machined surface. Criteria, such as cutting force, roughness, energy consumption, integrity and geometrical accuracy of the machined surface can be objectively determined by exact measurements, while cutting tool wear is in practice measured manually and on a subjective level [1]. Most frequently, cutting tool wear is measured with the use of toolmakers microscopes to help determine the range of wear (flank face). In addition to poor precision of this method, the problem is in three-dimensional nature of wear, which cannot be fully analyzed with 2D based measurements/measurement principles. It can be concluded that research on defining and analyzing tool wear in three dimensions is still of great significance. A survey of the literature indicates that many different approaches have been applied for tool wear prediction [2-5], contrary direct measuring techniques make an assessment of tool wear by either evaluating the worn surface by optical methods (microscope), or measuring the tool material loss by radiometric techniques. Direct methods require to periodically interrupting the cutting process. Optical methods use optical equipment like the toolmaker's microscope, optical microscope, scanning electrical microscope, charged coupled devices (CCD cameras), white light interferometry etc. [7-11]. The main disadvantages of mentioned methods is the inability of measuring crater depth KT (spatial geometry) and/or needs to preform them off line of the machining process. In one of our previous works [12] spatial tool wear measurement system has been presented which is able to measure crater depth KT on-line on the machine tool. In next chapters, optimisation of this measurement system and test on a case study will be presented. 2 Measuring system The measuring system consists of a high-accuracy 2D profile laser displacement sensor Keyence LJ-G015 with proper controller Keyence LJ-G5001 [13] and motorized linear translation stage Standa 8MT173-DCE2, as is seen on figure 1 and 2. With movement of the profile sensor across the cutting tool and the support of developed software (LabVIEW application), the profile data are grabbed and prepared in a matrix form for further evaluation/analyses. Figure 1: Measuring system Laser displacement sensor measure the distance from measurement head to the points projected on the measured object. In this way Z-coordinate of point cloud are measured. X-coordinate is defined by the specification of the laser displacement sensor [13], while Y-coordinate represents linear stage feed direction. Figure 2: Measuring interface and controller 3 Experimental work In experimental work the influence of the orientation of measurement head according to the measurand was examined. The aim of the optimization is to find the optimal orientation of measurement head that capture as large amount of data from the rake face, cutting edge, and primary and secondary flank face. For this proposes a special clamping system has been designed. Cutting insert is fixed on a prismatic holder and can be rotated about it axis for angle a. The prismatic holder can be rotated for angle y. The measuring head was fixed on a tilt stage, which rotates for angle P (Figure 3). The extreme positions of the measuring system were experimentally defined on base of needed data quality. Cutting insert was rotated from 12° to 30° while prismatic holder from -25° to 15°. The measuring head was rotated from -5° to 5°. Figure 3: Special clamping system The general full factorial design consisted of 75 experimental runs, taken at 5 levels for angles a, y and 3 levels for angle p. For each captured point cloud the surface was reconstructed, trimmed to the volume of 2.4 x 2.4 x 1mm. The number of triangles in a single measurement presents an estimator of the quality of the measurements. Figure 4: Comparison of two measurement meshes Figure 4 shows a comparison between two measurements. The first measurement was done under the conditions a= 12 P= -5° and y= -15 ° while the second a= 12°, p = -5° and Y= -5°. From the results we can assume that changing the angle y for 10° drastically deteriorated measured surface on the secondary cutting edge. There are actually no measured points. Because of the smaller incident angle there is scattering of laser beam, so the amount of captured data in this area is smaller. All measurements were individually compared with the reference measurement, measured on a professional measuring device Alicona IF-Edge Master with 5^m lateral resolution. From the obtained deviation results following estimators were calculated (table 1): • number of triangles • maximal / minimal deviation, • mean value of the deviation, • mean value of the of negative deviations, • mean value of the positive deviations and • number of segments for which deviations are in the range of ± 0.008 mm in %. In put Output # a n P n y n Number of triangles Maximum deviation [mm] Minimal deviation [mm] Mean value of the deviation [mm] Mean value of the positive deviations [mm] Mean value of the of negative deviations [mm] Part of deviations which are in the range of ± 0.008 mm [%] 1 12 -5 -25 42122 0,046 -0,309 -0,001 0,006 -0,007 74,57 2 12 -5 -15 38842 0,119 -0,194 0,000 0,004 -0,004 83,19 3 12 -5 -5 37385 0,089 -0,025 0,001 0,005 -0,004 82,10 4 12 -5 5 36966 0,249 -0,162 0,002 0,010 -0,006 74,02 Table 1 is presenting just 4 of 75 results. Based on input and output parameters the empirical regression models were developed. To analyse the quality of those models ANOVA has been performed and found out that significant correlation can be made only for prediction of "Number of triangles" and "Part of deviations which are in the range of ± 0.008 mm". Booth models have been used for optimization of the measurement head position. The optimization was based on overall desirability function [14], were each solution is valuated from 0 to 1, higher it is, better it is. The optimal combinations scored 0.638, with angles a=16°, P= -5° and y= -21. In Figure 5, result of geometrical comparison with referential measurement is shown. With the use of this setup 91.11% of measurements results are in the range of ± 0.008 mm, while the number of triangles is 45310. Figure 5: 3D deviation results of the optimal setup (a=16°, p= -5° and y= -21°, D=0.638) 4 Case study The optimization procedure of the key parameters was tested in machining environment. For this purpose a special clamping system has been designed that simulate the previously obtained optimal setup and can be mounted on the machine tool. The measurement system is mounted on MORI SEIKI SL-153 CNC lathe as can be seen on Figure 6. This provided a quick measurement of tool wear on the machine tool. It is ensured that the measuring device is placed in such a way, so that it is accessible and ready to implement measurements at any time (without removing cutting insert). At the same time the measuring device does not interfere with other processes, executed by the machine tool during its operation. In this way, we can implement the measurement that includes far more information about tool wear without having to take out the cutting tools, as it is necessary when it comes to the measurement with a toolmaker's microscope. Figure 6: Measurement system mounted on Mori Seiki machine tool The presented measurement system has been tested by determining the machining performances of bearing steal material 100Cr6, which has been heat treated to a hardness of 63 HRc in the longitudinal turning. The initial workpiece diameter was 40 mm and length 310 mm. Machining tests were conducted on a Mori Seiki SL-153 turning center. Commercially available Walter CNMA120412-T02020 cutting inserts with grade WAK20 were used with PCLNR 2020K 12 tool-holder. The experiment was performed with no cooling/lubrication fluids. The cutting parameters have been defined according to the producer recommendations and were ap=0.7 mm, vc=50 m/min and fn=0.15 mm/rev. These parameters were defined based on maximizing the material removal rate with an industry acceptable tool life of 10-15 min. The workpiece was machined longitudinally at intervals over a length of 20 mm. Resaults of correspodning tool wear is presented in figure 7. Figure 7: 3D deviation results After each operation, the measurement procedure is carried out in the following order: 1. Machine tool moves the cutting insert to the measuring area. 2. Machine tool operator starts the measurement on PC measuring interface. 3. Laser displacement sensor captures the first profile. 4. Motorized linear stage Standa 8MT173-DCE2 move the measurement head for predefined AY. 5. By repeating steps 3 and 4 gradually the system captured a large number of 2D profiles and stores theme in internal memory of Keyence LJ-G5001 controller. 6. When the last profile is measured, the 7. system transfer data from the Keyence LJ-G5001 controller to PC and move the translation stage to zero position. Machine tool moves the cutting insert to the working area. The measurement itself is executed in approximately 20 seconds (at 3 mm length measurement and AY = 0.005mm). A total of 15 repeated measurements were performed. Figure 7 is showing the progression of wear on flank and rake face, BUE and chipping of cutting edge. The increase of crater wear depth is evident with growing darker blue color. The maximum crater wear depth KT after the last experiment was in a range between 0.021 mm and 0.086 mm (figure 8). From the results it is also clearly visible the progression of chipping on cutting edge. 0.150 0.134 0.118 0.102 I I I Figure 8: Measurement of crater wear and chipping with spatial tool wear measurement system Additionally, presented measurement of crater wear, obtained with spatial measurement system, was compared to the conventional measurement made with toolmakers microscope (figure 9). Figure 9: Measurement of crater wear made with toolmakers microscope •0.150 Figure 10: Chipping, crater wear and cross sections parallel to secondary flank face From these measurements carried out with spatial tool wear measurement system (Figure 8), it is evident that the length of crater wear is 0.922 mm, the crater wear width is 0.395 mm. With the use of toolmakers microscope the length of crater wear is 1.023 mm, the crater wear width is 0.391 mm. The results show a good correlation between the measurements carried out with spatial tool wear measurement system and toolmakers microscope. Some minor variations in measurements may be attributed to the subjective nature of measuring with toolmakers microscope. This error may also occur due to the precision of determining the lower limit of the wear formation, since the microscope image does not reveal the depth of wear. Whit the use of spatial measurement system, the limit of the wear formation can be accurately determined. Depth of flank wear can be seen from the comparison of cutting inserts cross-sections (Figure 10). From cross-sections becomes clear that the depth of flank wear (VB) where chipping occurs is in the area from 0 to 0.150 mm, and the width of wear goes from approximately 0.3 mm to 0.1 mm. Such critical tools wear negatively effect on roughness and tolerances of produced parts. 5 Conclusions In this work further development of spatial tool wear evaluation system is presented. The influence of incident angles of the scanning process was examined. Based on the analysis of measurements accuracy and the amount of captured data, the optimal setup of the measuring system was defined. Further a special clamping system was designed to mount the measurement device on the machine tool. To test the measurement system, machining experiment was done, where cutting tool was measured directly on the machine tool. The results had been compared with the result obtained with conventional measurement method, with the use of toolmakers microscope. From the results of the measurements we can say that the proposed spatial tool wear measurement system offers high resolution and accuracy 3D dimensional deviation measurement. It outperforms traditional 2D deviation methods both in accuracy, efficiency and reliability. Another huge benefit of this method is the fact that the measurement can be performed very quickly, without removing the cutting tool from the machine tool. Obtained measurement data are realistic 3D models of the cutting tool, where we can clearly see what the existing conditions of the cutting tool are. Future work will be focused on developing computational procedures for the analysis of 3D deviation data provided. The objective is automatic diagnostics and early alert pointing to possible tool damage, excessive local tool wear, tool misalignment and other possible causes for tool breakage and stop of the process. References [1] W. Grzesik, Advanced Machining Processes of Metallic Materials, Elsevier B.V., 2008. [2] J. Kopač: Odrezavanje; Teoretične osnove in tehnološki napotki, 2008. [3] K.C. Ee, A.K. Balaji, IS. Jawahir, Progressive tool-wear mechanisms and their effects on chip-curl~chip-form in machining with grooved tools: an extended application of the equivalent toolface (ET) model, Wear, vol. 255, 2003, p. 1404-1413. [4] G. Byrne, D. Dornfeld, I. Inasaki, G. Ketteler, W. Konig, R. Teti, Tool Condition Monitoring (TCM) - The Status of Research and Industrial Application, CIRP Annals -Manufacturing Technology, vol. 44, Issue 2, 1995, p. 541-567. [5] E. Govekar, J. Gradišek, I. Grabec, Analysis of acoustic emission signals and monitoring of machining processes, Ultrasonics 38, vol. 1-8, 2000,p.598-603. [6] E. Dimla, Sensor signals for tool-wear monitoring in metal cutting operations-- a review of methods, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, vol. 40, Issue 8, 2000, p. 1073-1098. [7] S. Kurada, C. Bradley, A review of machine vision sensor for tool condition monitoring, Comput. Ind., vol 34, 1997, p. 52-72. [8] J. Jurkovič, M. Korošec, J. Kopač, New approach in tool wear measuring technique using CCD vision system, International journal of machine tools & manufacture, vol. 45, 2005, p. 1023-1030. [9] T. G. Dawson, Thomas R. Kurfess, Quantification of tool wear using white light interferometry and three-dimensional computational metrology, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, vol. 45, Issues 4-5, April 2005, p. 591-596. [10] W.H. Wang, Y.S. Wong, G.S. Hong, 3D measurement of crater wear by phase shifting method, Wear, vol. 261, Issue 2, 31 Julij 2006, p. 164-171. [11] A. Weckenmann, K. Nalbantic, Precision Measurement of Cutting Tools with two Matched Optical 3D-Sensors, CIRP Annals -Manufacturing Technology, vol. 52, Issue 1, 2003, p. 443-446. [12] L. Čerče, F. Pušavec, J. Kopač, Spatial cutting tool wear evaluation, Journal of Production Engineering, Vol. 15, no. 2, p. 10 - 14, 2012. [13] High-accuracy 2D Laser Displacement Sensor, LJ-G Series, User's manual 2010 [14] Raymond H. Myers, Douglas C. Montgomery, Christine M. Anderson-Cook, Response Surface Methodology: Process and Product Optimization Using Designed Experiments, 3rd Edition, 2009 3D foot surface scanning for the purpose of foot orthotics production 12 3 4 2 Karlo Obrovac , Toma Udiljak , Jadranka Vukovič Obrovac , Josip Nižetič , Alan Mutka 1 University of Osijek, Croatia University of Zagreb, Croatia 3Ortogen d.o.o, Croatia 4Cognitus d.o.o, Croatia Abstract Orthopedic and generally individual insoles are often used for the treatment of deformities, and other pathological conditions that manifest themselves in the foot, or to improve the performance of people who spend a lot of time standing or walking. Insoles are intended to reduce the burden resulting from the ground reaction, to improve propulsion and stability of walking, and to compensate the deficit due to static deformity or present pathology. [1] Numerous studies have shown the benefits of individual approach to making insoles towards application of over the counter ones. Among the most important parameters on which to base the development of insoles or molds is implementation of volumetric measurements. Volumetric measurements in the classical approach are based on taking footprints in wet sand or clay. Over time, these methods have been upgraded and now are in use polyurethane foam boxes in which foot is immersed, and later poured gypsum solidification gives grounds for mold. In addition, the classical approach often encounters using plaster bandages wrapping around the foot to form "slipper cast." By pouring plaster into this structure and its solidification we also get mold. These methods are still often found in use in orthotic practice. With the development of digital technology, this practice have begun to introduce new solutions that improve the practice by saving time of making insoles and reducing the discomfort which the patient may have during the measurement process. The application of digital measuring technology enabled CAD/CAM manufacture of orthopedic insoles (or molds). Although there are numerous solutions present in the market, there is still a great need for more accessible devices that enable wider application in practice. Keywords: CAD/CAM, foot orthotic, 3D scanner 1 Introduction First digitizers were used to create the most challenging orthotics, and to create socket for the prosthesis, and were based on the contact principle. However, the measurement process is extremely long lasting, and its result was often infused with artifacts. Therefore the results have not been used as a surface over which were implemented corrective procedures. Instead, they were used for topographical measurements which were the base for modifications of templates in CAD program. This methodology is even today frequently encountered in practice. After the initial enthusiasm by applying three-dimensional digitization, in practice, because of aforementioned, occurred skepticism about the use of these devices. The cost and time were only slightly lower, and there were no major shifts in other aspects of the application of these systems, which would justify the high price of initial investment. Over time, there has been progress in sensor technology, as well as their prices fall, and as a breakthrough laser technology through the application of LED laser module. This enables broader use non-contact digitization devices in the industry and in many other areas such as the protection of cultural heritage [2]. The first of such devices in orthotic practices were based on the use of ultrasonic probes, and were mostly used for the digitization of plaster casts of body parts. Further advancement of technology has opened the possibility to define easily available devices. By applying these non-contact systems, it is possible to carry out measurements of the existing mold or impression of the body in the proper material or the measurement is carried out by direct imaging of the body part of interest. Advantages of this contactless acquisition regards of the contact principle are numerous; in terms of digitizing the plantar aspect of the foot, these methods allow for quick and easy shooting with the ability to record the surface of the foot in the corrected position, with semi- or fully weight bearing position. Further progress of optics and digital cameras, have emerged more compact devices which give satisfactory results, concerning the accuracy, recording speed, and convenience of use. These devices are usually based on the triangulation principle. Digitizing devices used in orthotic practice in most cases are the devices for general purpose although there are those that are specifically designed for particular use. Here it is worth noting device from Amfit company [3] based on the contact principle and devices from companies Vorum research [4], and Polhemus [5]. Figure 1. Foot plantar surface directly scanned with Gray code projection based system The leading problem why the use of this approach has not yet surpassed the classic approach lies in the fact that these devices are high-priced and not available for a wider range of users, and because of the questionable viability of applying such technology. Therefore, they are most often found in use within major orthotic laboratories, where in addition to scanning surface of the foot, figure 1, they are used to scan other body parts. Defining easily available digitization devices represents a large area of research and opens the door for the introduction of digital technology in orthotic practice [6]. ^ u i »i m .i m mm*\ mm* w 80 60 40- Evaluation factor Deviation 20 25 20 a o 15 'I T3 T3 10 s T3 J -10 12 Traveling die position x mm Figure 8 Change in evaluation factor 7 Anti-loosening ability with the helix shape In order to investigate the relation between the quality of the helix shape and its anti-loosening ability, SLBs with various shapes of helix were produced, and evaluated by the system developed in the former section. The anti-loosening abilities are examined by the displacement-based loosening device [3] given in Figure 9. This device rocks (or vibrate in other words) a testing screw fastener in the direction perpendicular to the bolt axis at the constant amplitude throughout a test. The amplitude is 0.4mm and the frequency 5Hz in this study. The initial clamping force of the testing fastener is constant at 12.79kN that is 80% of the maximum clamping force. The grip length is 27mm. The nut material is structural steel of the tensile strength 400-510MPa. The screw thread and the bearing surfaces are lubricated with molybdenum disulphide MoS2. When the number of oscillations has exceeded 5,000 and the fastener is confirmed not to be loosened yet, the test is discontinued. Some examples of the results of the loosening tests are shown in Figure 10. It is found from the figure the SLBs with the evaluation factor of 84 and 73 keep their clamping forces high even after 5,000 oscillations. (Initial loosening is observed in the beginning of every test. This is a common phenomenon to every sort of screw fastener and unavoidable.) Even the SLB with the factor of 50 can keep a high clamping force until 2,000 oscillations and 40% of the initial clamping force at 5,000. These results show that the higher the evaluation factor of an SLB is, the higher anti-loosening ability is provided. It is also clear that the SLBs with the evaluation factor of 70 or higher have an exceptional ability to prevent loosening. Figure 9 Displacement-based loosening device Loosening of screw fasteners are, in many cases, caused by a deficiency of the initial 5 0 clamping force. On the assumption that the initial clamping force is not applied adequately, a series of loosening tests was carried out in smaller clamping forces to the SLBs. The average evaluation factor of the tested SLBs is 78. As shown in Figure 11 the SLBs don't loosen in the smaller initial clamping forces, even in 2.9kN that is 20% of the maximum clamping force. As mentioned above the SLBs produced properly have extremely high anti-loosening ability. Most troubles caused by loosening of screw fasteners would be prevented by the SLBs. 15 Amplitude 0.4mm § 10 Jr^r-Jr--l Figure 14 The colour histogram of the phosphor layer of the powerled that worked for 50 hours Figure 15 The colour histogram of the phosphor layer of the powerled that worked for 100 hours Figure 16 The colour histogram of the phosphor layer of the powerled that worked for 150 hours When the tables above examined carefully some changes in the rates among the colours are seen in Figure 17. luminance ratings of the powerled by 12,5%, when it is powering on for 150 hours in accelerated aging conditions. Moreover, there has been a decrease in the blue colour of the phosphor layer by 40% and this causes a whiteness or darkness in the phosphor layer. According to first 150 hours of operation no remarkable change in powerLED's current, voltage and power values are observed. By the help of this study, it is indicated that powering on and lifetime of powerleds can be redefined by using developing image processing techniques. Moreover, chemical changes occuring in phosphor layer should be considered. So, it will be better for reliability and evaluation of data. References [1] Cai, M., Yang, D.G., Koh, S., Yuan, C.A., Chen,W.B., Wu,B.Y., Zhang, G.Q., 2012. Accelerated Testing Method of LED Luminaries. Thermal, Mechanical and Multi-Physics Simulation and Experiments in Microelectronics and Microsystems (EuroSimE), 13th International Conference on, , 1-6, 16-18 April 2012 [2] Technical Datasheet PHILPS, 2008. DS56, Luxeon, Figure 17 The change rate among the phosphor layer colours 4 Results and Discussion When the images compared, it seen that the phosphor layer has had local chromatic changes. In addition to general chromatic changes, it has been found out that there are much more chromatic changes around the die. This situation has been evaluated and the amount of chromatic changes in the phosphor layer has been found out comparing the colour rates of the phosphor layer in the first image to the ones in the other images. [3] Mottier, P., 2009,LEDs for Lighting Applications. ISTE Ltd, pp. 14-16, London [4] Cree, 2011, "Hot binning", Droop, TM-21 and other 'Fum' LED Topics, pp. 13-18 [5] Jinsuk, L., Ryan, E., Changwon, S., Wesley, J., 2010. Stes-Stress Accelerated Degradation Testing (SSADT) For Photovoltaic (PV) Devices and Cells, Workshop on Accelerated Stress Testing & Reliability (ASTR), IEEE 2010, Denver, CO 6-8 October, 2010. According to the result of this study it has been found out that there has been a decrease in the Chip Formation Analysis of High Pressure Jet Assisted Machining of Ti-6Al-4V L.Yunlu1, O. golak1, C. Kurbanoglu2 1Suleyman Demirel University, Department of Manufacturing Engineering Isparta, Turkey 2Medeniyet University, Department of Mechanical Engineering Istanbul, Turkey Abstract Titanium alloys find wide application in many industries, due to their unrivalled and unique combination of high strength-to-weight ratio and high resistance to corrosion. The machinability of titanium alloys is impaired by their high temperature chemical reactivity, low thermal conductivity and low modulus of elasticity. In this paper, we have focused on the effect of chip formation in high pressure jet assisted turning of Ti-6Al-4V. Experiments were performed under conventional (0,6 MPa) and high pressure cooling (15MPa and 30MPa) conditions using CNMG coated carbide tool insert. In this study, we have investigated the effect of chip formation in machining of Ti-6Al-4V. The experiments were carried out using a Computer Numerically Controlled machine (CNC lathe). Different value of cutting speeds and feed rates have been selected in order to study and observe the kind of chip formed. The cutting speeds selected in the experiment are 50, 70 and 90 m/min, while the feed rates range as 0.15, 0.1 and 0.2 mm/rev. The depth of cut is kept constant at 2 mm. The chips collected from all these machining parameters were taken to several chip preparation processes and then examined using scanning electron microscope. Discontinuous, chips were generated when machining with high pressure coolant, while continuous chips were generated when machining with conventional coolant. Keywords: High Pressure Jet Assisted Machining (HPJAM), Chip Formation, Titanium Machining 1. Introduction Titanium alloys have been widely used in the aerospace, biomedical, automotive and petroleum industries because of their good strength-to-weight ratio and superior corrosion resistance. However, it is very difficult to machine them due to their poor machinability [1]. Advanced material such as Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy has been increasingly used for high performance application for oil and gas, aerospace and medical industries etc. However, machining of such alloy presents a great challenge due to the high temperature generation at the tool-chip interface, which lead to rapid tool wear within a short time [2]. Therefore, cutting performance of Ti-6Al-4V alloy can be improved enormously by controlling the tool-chip and tool-workpiece interfacial temperature rise and frictional effects through the use of a coolant [3, 4]. The use of a high-pressure coolant supply during machining is one of the many ways to dissipate extensive heat generation in the cutting zone [5]. Machining with high pressure coolant supply enables the coolant flow to traverse the machined surface faster, significantly increasing heat transfer of the coolant, penetrating deep into the cutting area and achieving high chip breakability through increased chip curl [6]. The formation of serrated chips (or shear-localized chips) is a typical characteristic of the machining of titanium alloys [7, 8]. These kinds of chips are favored for machined components as continuous chip get tangled and are not appropriate for automated processes. However, segmentation is also believed to be a critical aspect due to periodic variations in the cutting forces that increase tool wear rates and degradation of the machined surface finish. However, the causes and effects of chip segmentation in titanium alloys have received important attention in the aim of selecting the optimal cutting conditions to improve the production and increase both the tool life and surface quality [9,10]. 2. Chip Formation Model The study of chip formation was began in the 1930s and 1940s, based on the work of Taylor and Mallock [10]. Since then, various Scientifics research worldwide of the industrial production, (companies aeronautic, automotive, orthopedic...) have made different chip classifications, depending microstructure, cutting speed, feed rate, depth of cut, angle of the cut, etc. [11]. Segmented chip formation is a two stage process in which workpiece material is plastically deformed ahead of the tool causing it to bulge [12]. When a critical strain level is reached catastrophic failure occurs and a shear band is formed extending from the tool tip to the workpiece surface. The resulting chips consist of moderately deformed chip segments separated by narrow bands of intensely sheared material [13]. Such a chip formation model is shown in Figure 1, 2. The direction of localized shear jseg can be obtained from measurements on micrographs of chip cross-sections. The instantaneous value of the shear angle j may vary during the upsetting phase but reaches a value of jseg for the catastrophic shear phase. At higher cutting speeds this variation reduces so it can be assumed that j ~ jseg and hence the segment thickness dch = d remains constant during the upsetting phase. The shear within each segment thus occurs along planes parallel to the adjacent shear bands [14]. Figure 2. Serrated chip shape from experiments showing the measured parameters. 3. Analysis of segmentation the chip Chip formation and its morphology are important features of metal machining and yield important information on the cutting process itself [9]. In order to analyze the chip morphology completely, the chips are examined under a microscope SEM. The chips were collected and polished to measure the thicknesses hmax, hmin and dch the distance between each segments and jseg the inclination angle, as seen in Figure 1 from the values of hmax and hmin, the degree of segmentation G was evaluated by: h - h ■ q _ "max "mm (1) The classical model of continuous chip formation in orthogonal cutting envisages a thin shear zone inclined at an angle j to the direction of cut. The chip compression ratio Ah is defined as: a: depth of cut, hc: average chip thickness, h + h ^ _ hmax + ''mm (2) Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the serrated chip during the high pressure assisted machining. Ah = - (3) h 2 h c a As As described in the introduction part, the shear angle j and the inclination angle of a segment jseg are differentiated as shown in Figure 1 and 2. The angle pseg is actually measured on the collected chips while the shear angle p cannot be. The angle p represents the initial shear similar to the one that describes the formation of a continuous chip in the primary shear zone. Nevertheless, it may be possible to have an order of magnitude for p by a geometric analysis as suggested for example by Genteand Hoffmeister [7]. Considering that an element of volume, characterized by the angle p, the length p and the width d (cf. Figure 1 and 2), is the source of a segment with the inclination pseg and the width dch, by applying the condition of incompressibility in plastic deformation, we obtain the balance equation: ad aP =—7 = dch sin p h„ cos p - dch tanp. seg seg (4) Finally, with the assumption that the values of d and dch are close (dch = d), the initial shear angle p may be estimated by the following equation: p = arcsin v v cos p seg - dch tan p seg (5) The frequency of serration f can be defined, as being the number of segments produced per unit time [9,13]. This frequency was obtained for a continuous chip as follows: f = number of segments time of cutting (6) 4. Experimental Procedure The experiments were conducted on ALEX ANL-75 CNC lathe machine that is equipped with variable spindle speed from 50 to 4000 rpm and a 15 kW motor drive that is equipped with the high-pressure plunger pump of maximum 35 MPa pressure and 21 l/min volumetric flow rate capacity (Figure 3) [14]. The cooling/ lubrication fluid (CLF) used in the experiments was the chemical-based 5% concentration water soluble oil (Swisslube Blaser BCool 650). The high pressure CLF was injected between the cutting tool and formed chip back surface, at a low angle (about 5 to 6° with the cutting tool rake angle), as is shown in Figure. 3 Figure 3. Experimental set-up, and the detailed view of high-pressure injection system [12] The experiments designed based on Taguchi L9 orthogonal array at three different cutting speed, feed rate and pressure levels with a constant depth of cut. The cutting parameters used in this work and experiment results are given in Table 3. A (Ti,Al)N+TiN coated carbide cutting tool CNMG0812 has been chosen for the experiments. The tool has re = 0.8 mm nose radius. It was mounted on a SECO Jet stream PCLNR tool holder, which results in cutting rake angle, ya =-6°, back rake angle, yb = -6°, approach angle, Kr = 95°, and d = 0.8 mm nozzle diameter. All experiments were performed on machining Titanium alloy (63.5 mm diameter and 300 mm long). The standard chemical composition and mechanical properties of the workpiece are given in Table 1 and Table 2. Table 1. Chemical composition of Ti-6Al-4V / Wt.% Al Fe O Ti V 6 Max 0.25 Max 0.2 90 4 Table 2. Mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-4V Hardness [HRC] Yield strength [MPa] Tensile strength [MPa] Elongation [%] Thermal conductivity [W/m-K] Specific heat capacity [J/kgK] Density [g/cm3] 36 950 850 14 6.7 526.3 4.43 a h Tab e 3. Ti-6Al-4V Cutting parameters and experiment results. Exp. Vc [m/min] f [mm/rev] P [MPa] hmax [um] hmin [um] dch [um] ^seg [degree] 1 50 0,1 0,6 278,11 75,12 85,87 25,94 2 50 0,15 15 280,88 49,66 103,56 24,25 3 50 0,2 30 311,2 48,78 121,48 21,84 4 70 0,2 0,6 217,79 89,07 156,76 31,23 5 70 0,1 15 206,94 111,14 137,56 28,7 6 70 0,15 30 213,11 98,43 141,61 26,23 7 90 0,15 0,6 121,51 120,87 213,11 37,18 8 90 0,2 15 143,31 113,4 241,7 35,09 9 90 0,1 30 104,63 159,44 193,4 32,79 5. Result and Discussions The different machining parameters produced different chip morphologies, as shown in Figure. 7. The effects of feed rate and cutting speed on minimum and maximum chip thickness are summariesed in Figure 4. The maximum chip thickness (hmax) increases as the feed rate increases and the cutting speed decreases. The rate of increase in maximum chip thickness associated with feed rate is much smaller compared to that associated with cutting speed (Figure 4a). The minimum chip thickness (hmin) increases as the feed rate decreases and the cutting speed increases. The rate of decrease in minimum chip thickness associated with feed rate increase is much smaller compared to that associated with cutting speed decrease (Figure 4b). The change of the distance between of chip segments (dch) according to cutting speed and feed rate is given in Figure 5. The mean distance between chip segments increases with increasing feed rate and cutting speed. (a) Figure 4. The change of the (a) maximum and (b) minimum chip thickness according to cutting speed and feed rate. Feed Rate [mm/rev] Figure 5. The change of the distance between of chip segments (dch) according to cutting speed and feed rate. Figure 6. The variation in chip segmentation angle ($seg) with cooling pressure and cutting speed. Figure 7. SEM photos of cross-section of chips The change of the chip segmentation angle according to cooling pressure and feed rate is given in Figure 6. The chip segmentation angle increases with decreasing cooling pressure and increasing cutting speed. The Chip formation, which has been obtained as the result of the cutting experiments applied in all cutting speeds, has been appeared same as the Merchant's model [9]. Serrated chip formation occurred at all tested feed rate and cutting speed. With increasing cutting speed, hmin ,0seg, dch increases and hmaxdecreases. However, with the increase of high pressure coolant majority of heat formed during the machining is thrown away by the chip. This situation causes the formation of long sawteeth and the curling of the chip with smaller diameter. As expected, the chip segmentation angle increases with increasing cutting speed and decreases with coolant pressure. 5. Conclusion In this study, machinability of Ti-6Al-4V alloy was experimentally investigated, comparing conventional with high pressure cooling conditions on CNC lathe. During the experiments, maximum and minimum chip thickness (hmax, hmin), chip segments distance (dch) and chip segmentation angle ($seg) were recorded. The results were showed in 3d surface plots. The following conclusions can be drawn from this work: • When high-pressure coolant is employed, the high-pressure jet provoked the chip to bend and consequently induce chip breakage. This provides more space for the high-pressure coolant to penetrate the cutting region. During this stage, coolant may not only provide more lubrication to reduce friction at the contact interfaces but also act as a thermal barrier to restrict the heat transfer between chip and cutting tool. • The feed rate, cutting speed and coolant pressure have a considerable influence on the appearance of the chip segments. Feed rate did not have any considerable effect on hmax and (j>seg. Similarly, coolant pressure did not have any considerable effect on hmin and dch. • Discontinuous, segmented chips were generated when machining with high pressure coolant, while long continuous chips were generated when machining with lower pressure and conventional coolant. References [1] R. S. Pawade,Suhas S. Joshi, Mechanism of Chip Formation in High-Speed Turning of Inconel 718, Machining Science and Technology, 15: 132-152., (2011). [2] A., B. Mohd Hadzley, R. Izamshah, A. Siti Sarah and M. Nurul Fatin, Finite Element Model of Machining with High Pressure Coolant for Ti- 6Al-4V alloy. Malaysian Technical University Conference on Engineering & Technology. (2013). [3] Davorin Kramar, Janez Kopač, High Pressure Cooling in the Machining of Hard-to-Machine Materials, Journal of Mechanical Engineering 5511, 685-694. (2009). [4] Nambi Muthukrishnan, Paulo Davim, Influence of Coolant in Machinability of Titanium Alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) Journal of Surface Engineered Materials and Advanced Technology, 1, 9-14, (2011). [5] Suresh Palanisamy Stuart D. Mc Donald, Matthew S. Dargusch, Effects of coolant pressure on chip formation while turning Ti6Al4V alloy International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 49, 739743., (2009). [6] Miroslav Neslušan, Michal Sipek, Jozef Mrazik, Analysis Of Chip Formation During Hard Turning Through Acoustic Emission Materials Engineering 19, 1-11, (2012). [7] G.A. Oosthuizena, G. Akdoganb, D. Dimitrovc, N.F. Treurnichtd, A Review of the Machinability of Titanium Alloys. [8] S, M. Brandt, M.S. Dargusch, Characteristics of cutting forces and chip formation in machining of titanium alloys International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 49, 561-568, (2009). [9] G. Sutter, G. List. Very high speed cutting of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy-change in morphology and mechanism of chip formation" International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 66: 37-43, (2013), [10] A. Daymi, M. Boujelbene, S. Ben Salem, B. Hadj Sassi, S. Torbaty, Effect of the cutting speed on the chip morphology and the cutting forces, Archives of Computational Materials Science and Surface Engineering 1/2 77-83., (2009). [11] A. Gente, H.W. Hoffmeister, C.J. Evans, Chip formation in machining Ti6Al4V at extremely high cutting speeds, CIRP Annals-Manufacturing Technology 50, 49-52,(2001) [12] P. Dahlman Comparison Of Temperature Reduction In High-Pressure Jet-Assisted Turning Using High Pressure Versus High Flow Rate of Engineering Manufacture April 1, vol. 216 no. 4 467-473, , (2002) [13] S. Belhadi, M.A. Yallese, K. Bouacha and N. Kribes, Chip Segmentation Effect On Cutting Forces Variation, [14] Oguz £olak, Investigation on Machining Performance of Inconel 718 under High Pressure Cooling Conditions. Journal of Mechanical Engineering 58, 683-690., (2012). [15] Fuat KARA, Kubilay ASLANTAS, Adem 0CEK, Ortogonal Kesme i§leminde Kaplama Malzemesinin Tala§ Morfolojisi uzerinde etkisinin ara§tirilmasi 2. Ulusal Tasarim imalat ve Analiz Kongresi (2010), Balikesir. [16] M. Cotterell, G. Byrne, Dynamics of chip formation during orthogonal cutting of titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V CIRP Annals -Manufacturing Technology 57, 93-96., (2008). [17] Shane Y. Hong, Irel Markus, Woo-cheol Jeong, New cooling approach and tool life improvement in cryogenic machining of titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 41 2245-2260, (2001). [18] Taguchi, G., Konishi, S. Orthogonal Arrays and Linear Graphs. American Supplier Institute., (1987). Experimental Study on Machinability of AISI H13 Tool Steel B. Yalpn1, K. Kiran2, E. Aykan1, O. £olak2 1 Suleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Technology, Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Turkey 2 Suleyman Demirel University, CAD/CAM Research and Application Center, Turkey Abstract AISI H13 tool steel has widely been used in industry especially to manufacture moulds/dies due to its good resistance. This paper presents an experimental study on rough turning of AISI H13 tool steel in order to investigate influence of machining parameters and coating grades on machining performance. Experimental design was made as full factorial at three different cutting speed, feed rate levels and two different coating grades. CVD-Ti(C,N) + Al2O3 + TiN and PVD-Oxide coated tungsten carbide tools were used and machining performance measures such as cutting forces, surface roughness and tool life were measured during the turning tests. The experimental results have shown that cutting forces and surface roughness for both coating grades have exhibited similar trends but CVD-Ti(C,N) + Al2O3 + TiN coating grade has provided longer tool life about 8 times higher than the other one at high cutting speed. Keywords: Machinability, Tool life, Turning, Coating grade 1 Introduction The manufacturing process of dies/molds is one of the most demanding tasks in manufacturing industries. Complex workpiece geometries, high material hardness as well as short lead time are among the main obstacles. At the same time, quality requirements become more and more important due to intensified competition and quality awareness [1]. A wide range of tool steels are employed to produce machined moulds and dies. In forging and die casting, the choice is generally hot work tool steels (AISI Group H series) which can withstand the relatively high working temperatures involved, typically 315-650 oC [2]. One of them that is frequently used in manufacturing industries is chromium based AISI H13 hot work tool steel. This steel possesses good resistance to thermal softening and heat checking, high hardenability, high strength and high toughness resulting in increased production rates and longer tool life. Therefore it is widely utilized on the production of hot work dies, such as forging dies, extrusion dies, die casting dies e.t.c (the hardness of AISI H13 varies with its application for different type of dies) [ 3-6]. The machining of tool steels has great importance in manufacturing industry. Thus, many researchers have conducted numerous investigations on machinability of AISI H13 with various cutting tools and machining parameters. Ghani et al. [7] have carried out an experimental work to investigate performance of P10 TiN coated carbide inserts when semi-finishing and finishing end milling of hardened AISI H13 tool steel (50±3 HRC). Xiong et al. [5] have studied on turning of AISI H13 hardened steel with WC-5TiC-10Co ultrafine cemented carbides. They investigated effect of cutting parameters on the tool life and tool wear mechanism. Axinte and Dewes [8] performed an experimental study to research effect of cutting parameter on surface integrity during the high speed milling of hardened AISI H13 tool steel using solid carbide ball nose end mills coated with TiAlN. Ozel [9] has conducted a research on the influence of edge preparation in cubic boron nitrite (CBN) cutting tools on process parameters and tool performance by utilizing practical finite element (FE) simulations and high speed orthogonal cutting tests. The study shows that the presence of a chamfer affects the cutting forces and temperatures while no significant change in chip formation. Numerical simulation of hard machining AISI H13 tool steel was made by Umbrello et al. [4]. They developed hardness-based flow stress and fracture models for machining AISI H13 tool steel. Qian and Hossan [10] also performed numerical simulations of high-speed orthogonal machining by using CBN inserts. This study investigates the rough turning of AISI H13 tool steel at various cutting parameters and tungsten carbide tools coated with CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition)-Ti(C,N) + Al2O3 + TiN and PVD (Physical Vapor Deposition)-Oxide. The experiments were designed as full factorial at three different cutting speeds (Vc), feed rates (f) and two coating grades. The turning tests were conducted at dry cutting conditions and the depth of cut (ap) was kept constant. Machining performance measures namely cutting forces, surface roughness and tool wear were recorded during the experiments. 2 Experimental work A full factorial experimental design was performed in order to investigate influence of machining parameters on cutting forces and surface roughness. Machining parameters and their levels were given in Table 1. Table 1 Machining parameters and levels used in the experiments The experiments were made on ALEX ANL-75 CNC lathe machine that is equipped with variable spindle speed from 50 rpm to 4000 rpm and a 15 kW motor drive. The cutting forces, Fc, Ff, Fp, and surface roughness, Ra, were measured by using a three component piezoelectric dynamometer (Kistler 9722-A) mounted on the turret of lathe and surface profilometer respectively. The experimental layout is shown in Figure 1. The two types of cutting insert, WC-CNMG120408PM-GC4205 CVD-Ti(C,N) + Al2O3+TiN and WC-CNMG120408MM-GC1115 PVD-Oxide coated tungsten carbide, supplied by Sandvik Coromant were tested at dry cutting conditions. All the experiments were carried out using the AISI H13 tool steel without hardening (hardness 20-22 HRC) supplied as bars (100 mm diameter and 270 mm long). 3 Experimental Discussion Results and Level I II III Vc [m/min] 250 350 450 f [mm/rev] 0.15 0.25 0.35 Coating grade CVD-Ti(C,N) + Al2O3 + TiN PVD- Oxide ap [mm] 1.5 - - Base on the experimental plan, totally 18 experiments were carried out for both coating grades. Linear regression models for cutting forces and surface roughness were generated using experimentally obtained data. The test results with respect to cutting speed and feed rate are presented in Figure 2, 3, 4 and 5. From the plots of cutting forces we can see that all the cutting force components increase with rising feed rate as expected. Figure 1 Experimental layout This is resulted from increasing in contact area on some cutting force components. This is due to between workpiece and cutting tool. As can be also softening of workpiece material emerged from seen that cutting speed has a little decreasing effect high cutting temperature. Figure 2 Main cutting force results for CVD-Ti(C,N) + Al2O3+TiN and PVD-Oxide coated tungsten carbide tools respectively Figure 3 Feed force results for CVD-Ti(C,N) + Al2O3+TiN and PVD-Oxide coated tungsten carbide tools respectively Figure 4 Passive force results for CVD-Ti(C,N) + Al2O3+TiN and PVD-Oxide coated tungsten carbide tools respectively Figure 5 Surface roughness results for CVD-Ti(C,N) + Al2O3+TiN and PVD-Oxide coated tungsten carbide tools respectively Figure 5 indicates surface roughness results for both coating grades. It is shown that surface roughness is strongly affected by feed rate. It is well known that the theoretical geometrical surface roughness is primarily a function of the feed for a given nose radius and changes with the square of the feed rate value [11]. It is also clearly observed that cutting speed does not have considerable influence on surface roughness. Comparing the plots each other, similar trends can be seen for both CVD-Ti(C,N) + Al2O3+TiN and PVD-Oxide coated tungsten carbide tools. But cutting force components for CVD-Ti(C,N) + Al2O3+TiN coating grade are a bit higher than the other one. The properties of coating grades can probably responsible for this difference. In turning, to avoid the catastrophic tool failure that cause damage in tool, workpiece or machine tool, the useful life of a tool can be defined in terms of the progressive wear that occurs on the tool rake face (crater wear) and/or clearance face (flank wear). The flank wear is frequently used to define the end of effective tool life because of its major negative influence on dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the component as well as the stability of the machining process once a certain level is reached [12]. Thus, the flank wear (VBb=0.3 mm) is defined as the tool life criterion in the present study. Obtained tool life results are given in Figure 6 for both coating grades. Figure 6 Tool life for each coating grade at Vc =350 m/min, f =0.25 mm/rev, ap = 1.5 mm It is shown that CVD-Ti(C,N) + A^Os+TiN coated tungsten carbide tool has about 8 times longer tool life compared with the other one. PVD-Oxide coated tungsten carbide tool has exhibited poor cutting performance at those machining parameters. Hence, one more tool life test were executed at Vc =50 m/min, f =0.2 mm/rev, ap = 2 mm to discover the problem, and the tool life is measured as 17.79 minutes at these parameters. We have figured out the fact that high cutting speed that increases temperature of cutting edge causes lower tool life when machining with PVD-Oxide coated tungsten carbide tool. 4 Conclusions In this study rough turning of AISI H13 tool steel was investigated at various cutting parameters and tungsten carbide tools coated with CVD -Ti(C,N) + Al2O3 + TiN and PVD-Oxide. The influence of machining parameters and coating grades on cutting forces, surface roughness and tool life were determined by performing a series of experiments. Base on the results, it can be concluded that cutting forces and surface roughness for both grades showed similar trends. But cutting force components when machining with CVD-Ti(C,N) + Al2O3+TiN coated tungsten carbide tools are a bit higher than the other one. This can be due to the properties of coating grades. On the other hand, CVD-Ti(C,N) + Al2Os+TiN coating grade has provided about 8 times longer tool life than PVD-Oxide at given parameters. This poor tool life of PVD-Oxide coating grade is due to cutting speed resulting in high temperatures in the cutting zone. Thus, tool flank wear reaches quickly to defined tool life criteria. It should be utilized at lower cutting speeds in order to be prolonged tool life. Acknowledgements This work was supported by Unit of Scientific Research Projects of Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey (project 2547-M-10). References Processing Technology, 135, pp. 301-311, 2003. [3] J. C. Outeiro, D. Umbrello, J. C. Pina, S. Rizzuti. Modelling of Tool Wear and Residual Stress during Machining of AISI H13 Tool Steel. AIP Conf. Proc. 908, pp. 1155-1160, Portugal, 17-21 June, 2007. [4] D. Umbrello, S. Rizzuti, J.C. Outeiro, R. Shivpuri, R. M'Saoubi. Hardness-Based Flow Stress for Numerical Simulation of Hard Machining AISI H13 Tool Steel. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 199, pp.64-73, 2008. [5] J. Xiong, Z. Guo, M. Yang, W. Wan, G. Dong. Tool Life and Wear of WC-TiC-Co Ultrafine Cemented Carbide during Dry Cutting of AISI H13 Steel. Ceramics International, 39, pp. 337-346, 2013. [6] A. G. Jaharah, I. A. Choudhury, H.H. Masjuki, C. H. Che Hassan. Surface Integrity of AISI H13 Tool Steel in End Milling Process. International Journal of Mechanical and Materials Engineering (IJMME), 4, pp. 88-92, 2009. [7] J A. Ghani, I.A. Choudhury, H.H. Masjuki. Performance of P10 TiN Coated Carbide Tools when End Milling AISI H13 Tool Steel at High Cutting Speed. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 153-154, pp.1062-1066, 2004. [8] D.A. Axinte, R.C. Dewes. Surface Integrity of Hot Work Steel after High Speed Milling-Experimental Data and Empirical Models. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 127, pp.325-335, 2002. [9] T. Ozel. Modeling of Hard Part Machining: Effect of Insert Edge Preparation in CBN Cutting Tools. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 141, pp. 284-293, 2003. [1] H. Yan, J. Hua, R. Shivpuri. Flow Stress of AISI H13 Die Steel in Hard Machining. Materials and Design, 28, pp. 272-277, 2007. [2] H. Coldwell, R. Woods, M. Paul, P.Koshy, R. Dewes, D. Aspinwall. Rapid Machining of Hardened AISI H13 and D2 Moulds, Dies and Press Tools. Journal of Materials [10] L. Qian, M. R. Hossan. Effect on Cutting Force in Turning Hardened Tool Steels with Cubic Boron Nitride Inserts. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 191, pp. 274-278, 2007. [11] K. Bouacha, M. A. Yallese, T. Mabrouki, J. F. Rigal. Statistical Analysis of Surface Roughness and Cutting Forces using Response Surface Methodology in Hard Turning of AISI 52100 Bearing Steel with CBN Tool. Int. Journal of Refractory Metals & Hard Materials, 28, pp. 349-361, 2010. [12] J.A. Arsecularatne, L.C. Zhang, C. Montross. Wear and Tool Life of Tungsten Carbide, PCBN and PCD Cutting Tools. International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 46, pp. 482-491, 2006. Feeding the ultrasonic devices used in boats with solar energy by using logic switching method R. Abdulla1, F.G.K. Abdulla1 1 Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey Abstract The marine industry is evolving constantly as many of the countries have shore. In order to be durable for years; boats' hull are generally made of fiber or steel. For preventing the corrosion of the boat and making the surface of the boat below sea uniform and smooth; it is painted. These paints used are toxic and are produced to keep marine organisms away from the boat. However full efficiency can not be achieved and they also harm the environment. Accordingly; to remove the marine organisms that cause extra friction and increase the fuel consumption; motorized equipments, acid and cleaning systems that require arm strength are used. These methods help to clean under the vessel a little but they also result in loss of time. To eliminate such problems; various systems are tried and finally with the help of ultrasonic waves; marine organisms are disturbed and prevented from sticking onto boat's surface. Ultrasonic antifouling systems are generally operated when the boat is on hold in marines or ports. Some of the boats do not have battery and some have portable battery. As a result; to protect the "boat on hold" from marine organisms; a device fed by solar energy must be installed. In this study; the environment friendly ultrasonic systems which take its operating energy from the battery of boats are aimed to be operated with solar energy. With the help of logic switching system, solar energy is used and the feeding of battery which will operate the ultrasonic device is completed. Keywords: Ultrasonic antifouling, environment, solar energy, boating industry. 1 Introduction Nowadays ultrasonic technology is increasingly well-known and used in many areas [1, 2]. Because of the difficulty and high cost of the traditional cleaning process, ultrasonic technology also started to be used in marine industry. The installation of this eco-friendly device is completed when it is installed in the interior of the boat which does not have any contact with water. The operation of the system is based on the principle of conversion of high voltage ultrasonic waves into mechanical movement with piezoelectric transducers and the mechanical movement transmitted [2] to boat's hull. In existing ultrasonic systems, supply is provided from boat's battery. However it is not possible for boat's without battery. Therefore, to solve the problem of feeding the device, solar energy - an inexhaustible supply of renewable energy [3] can be used. Thus, an automatic selection between the battery of the boat and the battery fed by solar energy is done with a simple switching circuit and the operation of ultrasonic device is provided. Logic switching method is used for this. Logic switching circuits are widely used in the protection or control of electronic systems [4]. In this study , with the help of microprocessor and relay that is used as switching element, automatic selection of the energy source necessary to run the ultrasonic device is provided either from boat's battery or the battery fed by solar energy. 2 The Design Of Circuit 2.1 Choice of components Some of the main circuit components used in this study are as follows. Pic16f88: Voltage control programming is done with this microprocessor. This 18 pin microprocessor is chosen on purpose as it provides enough number of pins in generating ultrasonic waves and overcoming other tasks. 20MHz crystal: It supports the selected operating frequency of microprocessor. High operating frequency allows high processing speed and generating precise frequency. 5V Relay: This circuit component works as a switch allowing passage of solar energy if input voltage in normally open (NO) pin is greater than the rated coli voltage of relay. 12V Relay: This circuit component works as a switch allowing passage of solar energy or energy from the boat's battery depending on input voltage in NO pin. 7805 Voltage Regulator: It is used to provide 5V that microprocessor and other circuit components need. Resistors: They act as a voltage divider for the energy from solar power. In this way, a voltage in the range of 12V is controlled without using the voltage reference pins of microcontroller. 2.2 Circuit At this stage, the control of the voltage input with a programme and the auto-selection of solar energy is implemented. In Figure 1, the circuit diagram and the batteries that feeds the circuit are shown. One of the battery is the boat's and the other one is the solar energy. Energy supply from solar energy fed battery providing the required voltage needed for the circuit is the main goal. 5 V or 12V is needed for the output of the circuit. These voltages provide the supply for microprocessor and other necessary circuit components. In order to benefit from solar energy optimally, automatic switch is required (Figure 2). The switch controlled by microcontroller decides whether allow passage of solar energy or not. For make it happen, the voltage from the battery fed by solar energy is read with the help of microcontroller. The energy coming from this battery, supply 5V reference voltage to microcontroller with the help of voltage divider consisting of two resistors. This results in simple circuit and computation for programmer. In the circiut the voltage value of AN0 pin of microcontroller, which is configured as analog input, is read and determined. Accordingly, by considering the proper threshold limit value (0.2 V is chosen for the study), if the voltage value read by microcontroller is smaller than 12V - threshold value; - AN1, the digital output of the microprocessor is set to 1.Thus the output will be 5V.This output set the RL1 switch to the Normally Open (NO) pin and the common output of relay (COM) becomes( 5V. As the NO pin of RL2 relay will be 5V, there will be no change and the input of 7805 voltage regulator will be fed by boat's battery (Figure 3a). Figure 1 Energy source selection. Figure 2 The circuit scheme. b) Figure 3 a) Boat battery is switched, b) Solar energy is switched. if the voltage value read by microcontroller is greater than 12V - threshold value; - AN1, the digital output of the microprocessor is cleared. Thus the output is 0V. This output doesn't make any changes on RL1 relay. Therefore the COM output is 12V fed by solar energy. As the NO pin of RL2 relay will be 12V, relay will be switched to NO pin. Thus COM of RL2 will be 12V supplied by solar energy (Figure 3b). 2.3 Pseudocode The basic functioning of the programmed designed circuit is as in the following pseudocode. start program configure pin AN0 as analog configure pin AN0 as input configure pin AN1 as output determine threshold value start infinite loop read ADC from AN0 pin control result if control < 12V-threshold value Set AN1 //i.e. boat battery is in progress else clear AN0 //i.e. solar panel is in progress write result to LCD jump to loop end Corresponding pins are shown in Figure 4. Figure 3 Microcontroller's input - output pins. 3 Conclusion To feed the ultrasonic devices which are used in boats and supply the needed energy from boat's battery with alternative eco- friendly solar energy is a must. In the study, with the help of logic switching method auto-selection of the feeding energy is performed for a boat which has both battery and solar panels. With this system, required levels of output voltages have enabled generating ultrasonic waves. Consequently, the environment friendly ultrasonic systems take the needed operating energy from the battery fed by solar energy. References [1] K.S. Suslick: The Chemical Effects of Ultrasound. Scientific American, pp. 80-86, Feb., 1989. [2] I. Ay, N. Ana?: Ultrasonik Yontemle Par?a Temizleme. IV. Muhendislik-Mimarlik Sempozyumu, Balikesi Universitesi, pp. 229-241. 11-13 Sep., 2002. [3] Q. Fang, L. Canbing: Design of Transmission Line Solar Ultrasonic Birds Repeller. Power Engineering and Automation Conference (PEAM), 2011 IEEE, Vol:1,pp. 217-220, 8-9 Sep., 2011. [4] C.E. Shannon: A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits. Trans. of AIEE, Vol. 57, pp. 713-723. 20-24 Jun. 1938. Technologies for tube sampling in nuclear power plant heat exchangers J. Valentinčič1, M. Resnik1, M. Frankovič1 1 University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Abstract This paper deals with the problem of taking samples of stainless steel tubes from heat exchangers in nuclear power plants. Sometimes, these heat exchangers may also be referred to as steam generators. Maintenance of such heat exchangers assumes periodical tube sampling to determine the degree of degradation. There are many obstacles and requirements due to limited access and possible radiation. These narrow tubes must be cut from inside out in depths up to 10 meters with minimal or zero debris left in the system. Additionally, the damage of the surrounding tubes has to be avoided. The end of the tube is rolled into a tube holding plate, thus loosening up of that end is also required in order to successfully extract the tube. After examining the existing patents electro thermal solutions were chosen for this application. Main reason is that they can be used for both, cutting and extracting the tube. Keywords: Heat exchangers, steam generators, nuclear power plants, tube sampling, electrical discharge machining (EDM). 1 Introduction Nowadays nuclear power plants contribute an important part of electrical energy all over the world. Maintenance is crucial to avoid power losses, break downs, and other unnecessary costs. Therefore, maintenance intervals are carefully planned and maintenance should always be on schedule. Among various tasks, the tubes inside a heat exchanger have to be examined. Random tube samples are taken to determine the state of degradation and study the wear mechanisms of these tubes. Based on the examined samples, the heat exchanger is either confirmed to be further used or it is determined for replacement. Furthermore, they help to predict problems and improve the design of heat exchangers. Main problem that occurs on site is limited access and difficult working environment, often inside the radioactive zone in the nuclear power plant. In this paper, requirements for tube cutting from inside out will be presented together with the overview of already patented solutions. 1.1 Tube specifications Tubes are exclusively made of stainless steel because of its wear and corrosive resistance. There are many different sizes of tubes used in heat exchangers, identified by outer tube diameter and wall thickness. The most common types of tubes used are shown in Table 1. Table 1 Tubes used in heat exchangers Material X5CrNi18-10 (A 213 Tp 304) Dimensions (diameter x wall thickness) 12.7x0.71; 12.7x0.72; 25x0.7; 25x1.25; 19x1.25; 19x1.35; 25.4x3.2 1.2 Other specifications The chosen principle should be able to cut all specified types of tubes as fast as possible. Tube can be accessed from one side only and there are only 2 meters between tube end and the wall. Cutting head should be able to be placed as deep as 10 meters inside the tube and work without interruptions. The part of tube that stays inside is plugged but never the less, debris from the cutting process is highly unwanted. Maximum size of debris should not be above 0.1 millimeter in diameter. Another requirement that needs considering is getting the rolled in part of the tube loosened up to enable the tube to be pulled out of the supporting plate. This is achieved by heating the tube and cooling it down afterwards. Since the tube is rolled in a supporting plate, it cannot expand outwards due to the heating. In the cooling phase, the tube shrinkage occurs. 2 Solutions overview In this section, patented solutions that are interesting for our application will be presented and new solutions will be proposed. They can be divided into two main groups on the basis of how the material is removed. 2.1 Mechanical solutions Mechanical solutions are using cutting edges to remove material. 2.1.1 Tube cutting apparatus and method Rotating head is attached to a flexible shaft [1]. When shaft rotates the cutting edge comes in contact with the tube wall. Cutting edge includes serration which defines two cutting teeth where chips are being formed: Figure 1. Figure 1 Tube cutting apparatus [1]. 2.1.2 Movable cutting edge Cutting knife has one cutting edge and is forced out against the wall with a spring. It is inserted inside the tube by being rotated counter clockwise. The cutting begins with rotating the head clockwise. 2.1.3 Eccentrically mounted cutting knife This solution is based on a cutting knife mounted on a shaft eccentrically placed inside the tube housing. When shaft rotates, knife is in partial contact with the tube. When a certain section is cut, tube housing is gradually rotated so that the next section can be cut. This process goes on until the tube housing does a full circle and the tube is cut around entire circumference. 2.1.4 Grinding Instead of a cutting insert a simple abrasive disk is used. Rotating disk causes radial force that forces the disk in contact with the tube inner wall. Disk wear is easily compensated but the cut is not an ideal circle. The debris left over is smaller than debris from other mechanical solutions. 2.2 Electro thermal solutions These solutions use electric energy to heat and remove material, similar as in electrical discharge machining. Some solutions use individual discharges while others use a continuous arc. 2.2.1 Internal tube cutter Rotating head is mounted to the shaft under an angle so that contact is ensured between the head and the tube [2]. Coolant must be present. Because of an electric circuit between both, an arc occurs: Figure 2. Figure 2 Internal tube cutter [2]. 2.2.2 Apparatus for electric discharge machining of holes This apparatus is designed to make vertical holes between horizontal planes or holes using electrical discharge machining [3]. By rotating the electrode around the tube it could be cut in half. It uses a hard drawn copper wire as an electrode and a stainless steel tube as housing (Figure 3). m- Figure 3 Apparatus for electric discharge machining of holes [3]. 2.2.3 Electron discharge machining apparatus and method This patent includes both, cutting and pulling out the tube [4]. There is an electrode on a rotating shaft and a complex mechanism for centering the electrode. Another mechanism enables the electrode to be moved closer to the tube wall with purpose of starting and maintaining the arc (Figure 4). Figure 4 Electron discharge machining apparatus [4]. 2.2.4 Inner wall tube disintegrator Powerful electrical source is used to disintegrate the tube and relax the tube from a boiler tube sheet [5]. Solution is highly complex. An electrode is rotated at the end of a flexible cable (Figure 5). Figure 5 Inner wall tube disintegrator [5]. 2.2.5 Remotely actuated metal disintegration machining apparatus This is a solution patented by Westinghouse, designed to access the places inside the tube through bends [6]. This patent includes a solution for positioning the electrode at a desired remote location by a vibration feeder (Figure 6). 2.2.6 Device for cutting the wall of tubular piece by EDM Here, axial movement of a simple cone is transformed into a radial movement of the electrode [7]. Servo system controls the gap between the electrode and the tube. Deionized water is used as dielectric. Therefore the tube must be appropriately plugged (Figure 7). Figure 7 Device for cutting the wall of tubular piece by EDM [7]. 2.2.7 Portable device for cutting the inside wall of a tube by a continous arc The last of solutions is using a powerful electrical source such are TIG welder, 12V battery or other, and is more similar to a disintegrator than an EDM [8]. This solution uses a rubber spacer to force the rotating wolfram electrode against the tube wall: Figure 8. Figure 6 Remotely actuated metal disintegration machining apparatus [6]. Figure 8 Portable device for cutting the inside wall of a tube by a continous arc [8]. 3 SWOT analysis To decide which solution fits our requirements best a SWOT analysis was conducted. Strengths and weaknesses from internal origin and opportunities and threats from external origin were carefully evaluated. 3.1 Mechanical solutions In Table 2 the SWOT analysis of mechanical solution for tube cutting can be found. Table 2 SWOT of mec hanical solutions Strengths Weaknesses - multiple solutions - deformation due to - simple material head rotation removal - getting the cutting - fast cutting head in and out - well known process - cutting edge wear resistance Opportunities Threats - cheap - particles left in the - patentable system 3.2 Electro thermal solutions In table 3 the SWOT analysis of electro thermal solutions is shown. Table 3 SWOT of electro thermal solutions for heating is with induction, using an internal water cooled copper coil. The cutting head must be as simple and robust as possible. It should be cost effective and easy to replace, in order to replace is after each cut. In future work, EDM and TIG principle of cutting welder will be examined. A great benefit would be if the cut can performed without the dielectricum or shielding gas. References [1] Evans, David. "Tube cutting apparatus and method". Patent 4,779,496. 25 October 1988. [2] Cammann, Fred. "Internal tube cutter". Patent 2,942,092. 21 June 1960. [3] Dudden, Derrick. "Apparatus for electric discharge machining of holes". Patent 3,995,134. 30 November 1976. [4] Cole, William. "Electron discharge machining apparatus and method". Patent 5,543,599. 6 August 1996. [5] Cammann, Fred. "Inner wall tube disintegrator". Patent 4,476,368. 9 October 1984. [6] Zafred, Paolo. "Remotely actuated metal disintegration machining apparatus". Patent 4,584,452. 22 April 1986. [7] Chamming's, Pierre. "Device for cutting the wall of tubular piece by electrical discharge machining". Patent 4,916,282. 10 April 1990. [8] St. Louis, Daniel. "Portable device for cutting the inside of a tube by a continuos arc". Patent 5,077,456. 31 December 1991. Strengths Weaknesses - mechanical - presence of coolant properties of the or dielectric tube are - complexity unimportant - slow process - debris is small - energy consumption enough - electrode wear Opportunities Threats - good chances of - expensive developing an - avoid already useful solution patented solutions 4 Conclusions After considering all possible solutions, the electro thermal solution proved to be the best. It meets the requirements better than mechanical or any other solution. TIG welding machine can be used as a power source for both, cutting and heating of the tube with intent to extract it. Another alternative Application of Vortex tube for tool cooling Miroslav Duspara1, Borut Kosec2, Marija Stoic3, Davorin Kramar4, Antun Stoič1 1 Mechanical Engineering faculty in Slavonski Brod, 2 Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Ljubljana 3 College of Slavonski Brod, 4Faculty of Mechanical Engineerig, Ljubljana Abstract The environmental pollution and health hazards of traditional tool cooling technique applied for machining processes will be evaluated and compared with new acceptable alternatives, based on six main sustainability aspects: cost, environment impact, energy consumption, waste management, safety and personal health. The innovative technique with the analytical predictive models has to be developed for industrial applications. This technologies show high potential of productivity increasing while assuring sustainability principles. The introduction of dry machining is one of sollution of today's metal cutting industry that tirelessly endeavours to reduce machining costs and impact from chemicals in the environment. Modern tool tips are already capable of maintaining their cutting edge at higher temperatures, but even with these improvements in tool materials, the cutting edge will eventually break down. Applying cold air to the tool interface of these modern tool tips will also extend their tool life reducing the cost of metal cutting. Keywords: Dry machining, air-cooling, principle of work of vortex tube 1 Introduction The vortex tube was discovered by Ranque [1] and first described in detail by Hilsch [2]. Vortex tubes are now commercially used [3] for low-temperature applications, e.g. to cool parts of machines, to set solders, to cool electronic control cabinets, to chill environmental chambers, to cool food, to test temperature sensors, and they are also applied to dehumidify gas samples [4]. Recently it has been proposed that vortex tubes could be used as components in refrigeration systems replacing the conventional expansion nozzle in order to increase the efficiency [5]. The coolants in refrigeration systems pass through a thermal cycle in which the pressure may well drop below atmospheric. ADJUSTABLE SPOT COOLER ADVANTAGES ► No moving parts. ► Quiet ► Driven by air not electricity. ► Small and light weight-portable. ► Low in cost compared to most others ► Superior design and performance ► Maintenance free operation ► Made of durable stainless steel and metal parts, no cheap plastic parts ► Adjustable temperature range ► Generators are interchangeable ► System uses strong magnetic base D E F a =5 C B Figure 1 Vortex tube [6] Figure 1 shows adjustable Spot Cooler-Compressed air enters at point (A) into the vortex tube component of the spot cooler. The vortex tube splits the compressed air into a hot (B) and cold (C) stream of air. The hot air from the vortex tube is vented to the atmosphere at point (D) after being muffled to reduce noise. Cold air enters into the muffler (E) and then distributed through the hose distribution kit (F) and onto the item being cooled. A strong magnet (G) holds the spot cooler in place. The temperature of the cold air is controlled by an adjustable knob. Figure 2 Using vortex tube for cooling turning process [6] 2 Principle of work of vortex tube The flow rate and temperature in a Vortex Tube are interdependent. When you open the adjusting valve at the hot end, the cold air flow decreases and the temperature drops. As you close the valve the cold air end flow increases and temperature rises. The percentage of the total input air that exits the cold end is termed the "cold fraction". Depending on inlet air temperature a cold fraction of between 60% and 80% produces the optimum combination of flow and temperature drop for maximum cooling effect, when using an H generator. Lower cold fractions produce colder air but do not cool as well because of reduced flow. Most industrial applications require the 60% to 80% setting and the H generator for optimal cooling. In some instances such as cooling laboratory samples, testing circuit boards and other "cryogenic" applications, a 'C generator is used which limits the cold end flow rate to lower levels and produces very cold temperatures. To set the Vortex Tube to the desired temperature simply insert a thermometer at the cold end and adjust the hot end valve. The inlet nozzle is tangential to the vortex generator and therefore can provide a high speed rotating airflow inside the vortex generator. Subsequently, there is a radial temperature gradient increasing from the inner core of the tube to the outside wall of the tube. This is primarily because of the potential energy of compressed air converting to kinetic energy due to the forced vortex caused by the external torque near the tangential air inlet. Therefore the high-speed swirling flow inside the tube and away from the walls is created. The existing air inside the vortex hot tube is normally at the atmospheric temperature and so, when the rotating flow enters the vortex tube it expands and its temperature drops to a temperature lower than the ambient temperature. The difference between these two temperatures will lead to a temperature gradient along the tube producing colder peripheral air than the core air. As a result, the central air molecules will lose heat to those in the outer region as shown in Fig. 3. Figure 3 Radial heat convection in vortex tube due to the expansion of the compressed air [7] It is notable that this system is a dynamic system due to the nature of the airflow in the tube and so will not reach equilibrium. Hence the peripheral air has a higher kinetic energy (hotter) than the inner air (colder). The existence of a major pressure gradient due to the forced vortex in the radial direction will provide a centripetal force for circular swirling and therefore it will lead to a high pressure at the tube wall and low pressure at the centre. When the air enters to peripheral region (A), as it expands, the outer air will be cooled due to its expansion. Consequently, the inner core air (B) will get warm because it is compressed by the expansion of the peripheral air. Peripheral air (A) Figure 4 Schematic positions of the peripheral and inner core air [7] Heat is then transferred from the inner core (B) to the outer core (A). As the inner air is being compressed, it naturally tries to push against the periphery by expanding. Work is therefore done on the outer core air, which then gets heated and the difference in pressures results in the expansion and contraction of the air, which causes work to be done on the peripheral air. Work is therefore done on the outer core air, which then gets heated and the difference in pressures results in the expansion and contraction of the air, which causes work to be done on the peripheral air. Therefore, heat is transferred radially outward as shown in Fig. 4. 2.1 Temperature of hot/cold side on vortex tube The vortex tube with atmospheric inlet pressure was operated for a variety of cold gas fractions Y= jc/j0. The temperature measurements are shown in figure 5. Figure 5 Exit temperatures for vortex tube with atmospheric inlet pressure [8] Clearly the temperature splitting effect is obtained. The cooling is well developed, but it appears as if the heating is not quite as pronounced. We have lately become aware that varying the moisture content of the ambient air will change the thermal capacity of this working fluid significantly and hence contribute to variations of the temperature change. This effect could easily amount to several degrees and it should be more pronounced in the hot flow component than in the cold stream. To put the temperature measurements into perspective several high-pressure curves for the same vortex tube are given in figure 6. Figure 6 Total temperature separation for vortex tube operated with compressed air [8] 3 Effect of air-cooling on tool life It is known that all the wear mechanisms increased at elevated temperatures reducing the tool life [9]. The application of cold air to the tool tip is shown to reduce the temperature at the tool tip enabling the tool tip to have a longer tool life [10]. The effectiveness of the air-cooled system can be shown when a comparison is made between the wear for a dry cut and an air-cooled cut for one minute and seven minutes of machining. Figures 7a-d show the flank wear as seen under a microscope. Figure 7a Picture showing flank wear for a dry cut after 1 minute of machining at a cutting speed of 190 m min-1 and feed rate of 0.23 mm/rev with a 2 mm depth of cut [7] Figure 7d Picture showing flank wear for a air-cooled cut after 7 minutes of machining at a cutting speed of 190 m min-1, and feed rate of 0.23 mm/rev with a 2 mm depth of cut Figure 7b Picture showing flank wear for an air-cooled cut after 1 minute of machining at a cutting speed of 190 m min-1 and feed rate of 0.23 mm/rev with a 2 mm depth of cut [7] Figure 7c Picture showing flank wear for a dry cut after 7 minute of machining at a cutting speed of 190 m min-1 and feed rate of 0.23 mm/rev Figure 8a Picture showing top rake face wear for a dry cut after 7 minutes of machining at a cutting speed of 190 m min-1, and feed rate of 0.23 mm/rev with a 2 mm depth of cut [7] The development of the flank wear was shown to take longer to develop when the cooled air was applied to the cutting zone as shown in Fig. 7d. After seven minutes of dry machining the top rake face is starting to develop crater wear, at 0.5 mm from the flank face as shown in Fig. 8a. Further dry machining will accelerate this rate of wear. At this stage the tool radius shows no sign of wear and the top flank edge has no observable notches. The air-cooled tool tip shows no visible sign of tool wear on the top rake face and the flank wear is also substantially reduced. Observation of the chips produced during dry and air-cooling indicated that much of the heat was being dissipated from the cutting zone. with a 2 mm depth of cut Figure 9 shows the chips produced during the dry and air-cooled tool tip test. The left hand chips produced during dry cutting and the right hand produced during air-cooling. , ^ 5mmM^ Figure 9 Picture showing chips produced by a 2 mm depth of cut at 0.23 feed rate, and cutting speed of 190 m min-1 [7] 4 Conclusion The results obtained from using compressed air combined with the vortex tube have shown that this method of cooling the tool interface is effective and compares exceedingly well with traditional cooling methods. The temperature recoded during air-cooling was found to be 60°C which is 40 °C cooler than that obtained during traditional wet machining and 210 °C cooler than dry machining as shown by Fig. 10. These temperatures were measured 1 mm from the tool interface and for that reason the temperatures recorded at this position are considerably reduced from that of the tool interface. 300 250 - The most convenient method of determining the effectiveness of the air-cooling is by determining the tool life, as it is known that there is a relationship between tool life and the wear mechanisms that are shown to increase at elevated cutting temperatures. Inspection of the tool tip using a microscope confirmed that the tool wear is reduced when being air-cooled, resulting in longer tool life. The vortex tube air-cooling systems proved to be effective at dissipating the heat from the tool tip, proving that air-cooling is an effective method of cooling tool tips. Therefore, whenever dry machining is the preferred method of metal cutting, aircooling should be incorporated as there are no associated environmental issues and will extend the life of the tool. References [1] Ranque G J 1933 Exp'erienesd sur la detente giratoire avecproductions simultanes d'un echappement d'air chand etd'un echappement d'air froid J. Phys. Radium IV (7)112-14 [2] Hilsch R 1946 Die expansion von gasen im zentrifugalfeldals k'alte prozess Z. Naturforsch. 1 208-14 [3] Swirl Tubes Norgren 5400 South Delaware, Littletown, Colorado; Vortex Tubes Exair products, 1250 Century Circle North, Cincinnati, OH, 45246, USA; Vortex Tubes Vortec Corp, Cincinnati OH, USA [4] von Linde R 1950 Einrichtung zum abk'uhlen einesverdichteten gases German Patent 926729 (24 October 1950) [5] Keller J U 1993 J. Kl Klima Luft K'alte Heizung 21 300-4 [6] http://www.nex-flow.com/vortex tube.htm (15.07.2013) [7] Brian Boswell and Tilak T Chandratilleke; Air-Cooling Used For Metal Cutting, American Journal of Applied Sciences 6 (2): 251-262, 2009 [8] B Ahlborny, J Camirey and J. U. Keller; Low-pressure vortex tubes, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 29 (1996) 1469-1472. [9] Young, H.T., 1996. Cutting temperatures to flank wear. Wear, 201: 117-120. [10] Cook, N., 1973. Tool wear and tool life. ASME Tran. J. Energy. Ind., 95: 931-938. Figure 10 Temperatures recoded at the tool tip for dry and air-cooling [7] Burr Formation after Face Milling of Compacted Graphite Iron used in Diesel Engine Blocks M. O. dos Santos1-3, G. F. Batalha1, M. Stipkovic Filho1-2 and E. C. Bordinassi3 1 Laboratory of Manufacturing Engineering - Dept. of Mechatronics & Mechanical Systems Eng. Polytechnic School of Engineering - University of Sao Paulo - Av. Prof. Mello Moraes, 2231 Sao Paulo - SP - Brazil Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie - School of Engineering - Rua da Consolacao, 930 Sao Paulo - Brazil Dept. Mechanical Engineering - Instituto Maua de Tecnologia - Praca Maua, 1 Sao Caetano do Sul - SP - Brazil Abstract Since the growing demand in the use of engine cylinder blocks of Compacted Graphite Iron (CGI), especially in diesel engines, and the cost spent on machining lines with deburring processes, this work aims to investigate the burr formation mechanisms during face milling of CGI, in a similar face of an engine cylinder block (6- cylinder in line). Carbide inserts were used in a 100 mm of diameter milling cutter. A Complete Factorial Planning was used to determine de quantity of experiments, varying the cutting speed, the feed rate, the depth of cut, the flank wear and the exit angle of the tool cutter from the workpiece. The burrs measurement was performed in seven different positions of the workpiece exit edge. The tool wear and the exit angle of the tool from the workpiece interfered significantly in the burr height. It was observed the decrease of the burr height with the increase of the feed rate and with the decrease of cutting speed and cutting depth. Through the software STATISTICA 8.0 values were obtained for main effects and interactions, along with confidence intervals and standard error. Finally, the adopted plan allowed the development of an empirical model capable of predicting the burr height. Keywords: Compacted Graphite Iron, CGI, Face Milling, Burr, Cutting Parameters, Diesel Engines. Introduction The growing demand of the companies to expand their markets, by reducing costs and adding value to the product has been accompanied by solutions committed to the reduction of environmental pollution, such as reducing emissions of air pollutants and noise. In this context, the automotive industry and its suppliers have increasingly seeking to improve their processes and products as well as develop new materials and technologies to achieve a compromise between profits and low environmental impact [1]. A typical example of this can be viewed in the diesel engines manufacturing, where recent technological developments, both in performance and in reducing the emission of pollutants and noise, are the result of higher working pressures and temperatures, causing in the block engine major mechanical stress, which may cause premature breakage. The gray cast iron, traditionally material used in the manufacture of diesel engine blocks, in the current levels of its development, only resist the efforts of high pressure from fuel combustion by increasing the sectional area of the material, an undesired situation. To avoid this situation, vermicular cast iron or CGI (Compacted Graphite Iron), with its mechanical properties intermediate to those of gray cast iron and nodular, is gaining force in the automobile industry [2]. However, such superior properties of this material imply a higher cost compared to machining of gray cast iron, mainly due to process times and higher tool wear. Thanks to these problems has been intensively researching the machinability of this material, so that it may be increasingly closer to gray cast iron. Despite numerous studies involving machining processes in engine blocks, there are still many problems to obtain the final product within optimum parameters of tolerance and finishing surface. Among them may be cited the lack of quality at the edges of machined workpiece, a problem that takes into account the burr formation. Burr is an undesirable protruding material out from the workpiece that is formed in front of the cutting edge due to the plastic deformation involved during machining [3]. Their size depends on the process and the machining operation, the material, cutting conditions, the cutting tool material, among others. Besides being very harmful during the machining provoke premature wear of the tool, also cause geometric distortions in the machined surfaces difficult the assembly between components and endangers the physical integrity of workers and hinder or prevent the deployment of automated manufacturing. Thus, the occurrence of burrs in the manufacturing process is indispensable to use a deburring operation to remove them and to give to the finished part the design dimensional tolerance. Despite the importance of the subject in machining there are few studies on the mechanisms that lead to the burr formation. There is more research on the deburring than with the aim of studying the mechanisms governing their formation to seek a way to avoid them or at least minimize them. Among the research related to the burr formation, there were many researchers who have worked in their classification. In some cases the mechanism of burr formation was used, in others they were classified according to the cutting edge of the tool that generate the burr. The shape and burr direction were also criteria used to classify them. In according with [4] three basic mechanisms of burr formation: a lateral deformation involving material flux to the free surface of the workpiece; chip bending to the same cut direction as the tool reaches the workpiece face and tensile rupture of the material located between the chip and the workpiece. According to these mechanisms they classified the burrs in four types: Poisson burr, rollover burr, tear burr and rupture or cut-off bur, as showed in Figure 1 [4]. In according with [5], after face milling stainless steel AISI 304 classified the burrs in five different types: Knife-type burr, Secondary-type burr, Burr breakage, Curl-type burr and Wave-type burr. According to [6], many studies have been conducted in an attempt to minimize the dimensions of burrs, since the appearance of these is inevitable in all machining operations. Another researcher [7], has analyzed that the dimensions and geometric description of the burrs may be considered its height and its thickness. To measure these two quantities can be used since simple dial indicator to complex image analyzers. It is known that the thickness of the burr has an irregular profile making it a little more difficult to measure [8]. The Figure 2 shows the height and thickness of a burr, where tb is the thickness of the root of the burr, tmin is the minimum thickness, tmix is the maximum thickness and h is its height. Figure 1. (a) Poisson burr; (b) roll-over burr; c) Tear burr [4]. Figure 2. Burr dimensions scheme [7]. To simplify the analysis of the complex mechanisms of burr formation, the majority of researches on the subject use the orthogonal cut due to its geometric simplicity and to reduce the number of variables involved [9]. In orthogonal cutting, burr occurs in three stages: initiation, development and forming. The burr formation starts when the cutting tool is approaching to the end of the workpiece (Figure (3)), giving large deformation at its edge, creating a bulge, if the material is ductile and partial or total detachment edge, if the material is brittle [6]. Figure 3. Geometric variables and the displacement of the cutting tool from point A to point A' and rotation of negative shear plane around B [6]. 355 MPa, elongation = 0.4%, using carbide interchangeable inserts. Figure 4. Workpieces prepared for the machining tests. The metallurgy laboratory from the Maua Institute of Technology, through some samples from the workpieces, has conducted analyzes of the each workpiece checking its graphite morphology and matrix structure, as shown in Figure 5. According to [6], the early formation of burr occurs at the instant that the chip formation ends when the cutting tool reaches the point A. Thus the energy that was intended for the chip is transferred to the burr formation. The displacement of the cutting tool from point A to point A' causes rotation of negative shear plane around the pivot point B. Occurs then the change of shear angle for your final condition From this point burr formation occurs. As studied by [10] is necessary to differentiate the investigations related to the formation of burrs in machining of research on how to minimize them. Gilespie et al. [4] in their work had already observed that the burrs cannot be avoided by changing machining parameters alone as feed rate, cutting speed and tool geometry. These cutting parameters directly influence the formation of burrs and therefore must be taken into account in the analysis of the mechanisms of their formation. These parameters are in the foreground in influencing the burr formation and their dimensions can be minimized significantly by choosing appropriate cutting data [10]. Experimental Methodology The machining tests aimed the measurement of the generated burr. They consist of the face milling of a workpiece with similar face to the flame face from an engine block of compacted graphite iron FV450 (Fig. 4), ISO 16112/2006 JV450, = 246HB Brinell hardness, yield stress = (a)