L. ŠTEFANIJA • MUSIC DURING THE GREAT WAR IN SLOVENIA
UDK 78(497.4) )"1914/1918" DOI: 10.4312/mz.53.2.133-148
Leon Štefanija
Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani Faculty of Arts, Unviersity of Ljubljana
Music During the Great War in
Slovenia
Glasba med prvo svetovno vojno v Sloveniji
Prejeto: 9. avgust 2017 Sprejeto: 13. oktober 2017
Ključne besede: Slovenska glasba in prva svetovna vojna, glasba prve svetovne vojne, slovenska glasba
IZVLEČEK
Prispevek je pregled glasbe kot družbene prakse med prvo svetovno vojno na območju današnje Slovenije. Slovensko glasbeno prakso obravnava s treh med seboj dopolnjujočih se gledišč. Prvič, članek ponuja vpogled na glasbeno Ljubljano, kjer je poleg zabavnega muziciranja obstajalo tudi koncertno abonmajsko glasbeno življenje. Drugič, osrednji del besedila se osredotoča na slovensko glasbeno produkcijo, povezano s prvo svetovno vojno, in sicer z dveh plati: s stališča glasbe za prvo svetovno vojno (in o njej) kakor tudi z glasbo o dogodkih, ki niso vezani samo na prvo vojno, so pa značilni tudi za glasbo tega, za mnoge grozovitega obdobja. Prispevek ponuja skico slovenske glasbene kulture med prvo vojno in glasbenega reperto-rija časa velike vojske, ilustriranega na analitičnem fragmentu pesmi Tam na karpatskojgori (Prošnja umirajočega junaka). Tretjič, sklepni del prispevka načenja problematiko recepcije glasbe, povezane s prvo svetovno vojno na Slovenskem po letu 1918.
Received: 9th August 2017 Accepted: 13th October 2017
Keywords: Slovenian music and the Great War, Great War Music, Slovenian Music
ABSTRACT
The contribution is a survey of music as a social practice on the territory of today's Slovenia during the Great War. It addresses the Slovenian music culture during the Great War from three complementary perspectives. Firstly, it gives a glimpse of the musical practice in Ljubljana, where, beside the entertaining music practice, subscription concerts were offered as well. The second section, the most elaborated one, focuses on the Slovenian music production connected to the Great War in two respects: on the music for (and about) it, as well as on the musical practice based on the events of the period that is considered, by many, to be odious. It offers a taste of the musical culture in Slovenia during the Great War and of the repertories of music pertaining to soldiery, concentrating on one in-depth analytical fragment of the song Tam na karpatskoj gori (Prošnja umirajočega junaka). Thirdly, the last section is devoted to the reception of the music connected to the Great War in Slovenia after 1918.
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MUZIKOLOSKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LIII/2 The Scope and methodology
In October 1915, when Belgrade surrendered to Feldmarschall August von Mackensen, the Ljubljana Glasbena matica gave its first concert that season. The concert, according to the introductory explanation by Stanko Premrl, was performed in honour of the 66th year of the reign of Franz Josef I, whereas the proceeds were given to the Red Cross and to the families of war victims. The programme consisted of the Slovenian version of the anthem ("Bog ohrani, Bog obvari / nam cesarja, Avstrijo!"), followed by a set of lieder and choirs by Slovenian composers and a set of folk-songs arrangements. Importantly, instrumental music was absent - due to the circumstances of the pre-1914 prevalently vocal music culture on the territory of today's Slovenia. Stanko Premrl - the otherwise rather reserved writer of the review, who was one of the leading personalities of Slovenian church music as well as of Slovenian music historiography - noticed particularly one of those folk songs, the folk song from Adlesici (a region on today's western Slovenian-Croatian border):
„GLASBENA MATICA" V LJUBLJANI.
XLIII. DRUŠTVENO LETO. XXIV. LETO REDNIH DRUŠTV. KONCERTOV.
V sredo 2. decembra 1914 zvečer ob V28. uri v veliki dvorani „Narodnega Doma"
DOBRODELNI KONCERT
ob šestinšestdesetletnici vladanja Nj. Veličanstva Presvitlega
Cesarja FRANA JOSIPA I. na korist „Rdečemu Križu" in rodbinam vpoklicanih vojakov.
SODELUJEJO: gdč. Cenka Severjeva, (mezzosopran); gosp. Leopold Kovač, (tenor); gosp. Josip Vedral, klavirsko spremljevanje in pevski zbor „Glasbene Matice".
VSPORED:
J. Haydn: Cesarska pesem.
1. a) Dr. Gojmlr Krek: Zvečer. fi) Anton L-ijovic: Napitnica. iV) Anton Lajovic: Vodica čista se vila...
1. a) Dr. Gojmir Krek: Šum vira in zefira. i b) Dr Gojmir Krek: Tam zunaj je sneg. yc) Anton Lajo\ic: Pesem starca.
3. a) Dr. Gojmir Krek: Predsmrtnica II. i b) Anton Lajovic: Pesem o tkalcu. ' ct Josip Pavčič: Pesem.	i
č) Anton Lajovic: Bujni vetri v polju. /
1 Mešani zbori. Poje
pevski zbor .Glasbene )	Matice'
Pesmi poje g. Leopold Kovač.
(Po rokopisu.)
Pesmi poje gospod Leopold Kovač.
•~C> Dr. Gojmir Krek: Pogodba, /fi	«t
5. Narodne pesmi, liarmonizirane za mešani zbor:	"
i <-.„..	■„..	' , pesmi. Harmoniziral gos-
"	2ma,mC0' i "<" M«»i Hubad.
č) Na Gorenjsčem je fletno. Harmoniziral gospod Slanko Pirnat.
d)	Češi me, češi! Hrvatska narodna. Harmoniziral gospod Anton Andel.
e)	Želja ranjenega vojaka. Belokranjska narodna. V Adlešičih zapisal in
harmoniziral gospod Ludvik Kuba.
CENE PROSTOROM: Sedeži po 5, 4, 3 in 2 K- Stojišča po K 1-20, za dijake po 60 h. Predprodaja vstopnic v trafiki gdč. J. Dolenčeve v Prešernovi ulici in na večer koncerta od 7. ure naprej pri blagajni. — Vspored in besedilo pevskim točkam po 20 h istotam. Preplačila se hvaležno sprejemajo in Izkazujejo.
Figure 1: Concert program of Glasbena matica on 2 December 1914.. Photo by: dLib, https://www. dlib.si/.
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L. ŠTEFANIJA • MUSIC DURING THE GREAT WAR IN SLOVENIA
"Very timely was especially the last song [The Wish of the wounded soldier, a song from White Carniola, harmonized by Lud(o)vik Kuba], solemn throughout, which had a very strong effect with its noble text and striking music along with accidental cannon shots from Ljubljana's castle signalling the fall of Belgrade." 1
We may say that the concert indicates three features of the musical life during the Great War in Slovenia. The first, and the most obvious feature, relates to the very troubled social context: the fear of the unknown, stemming from a bitter experience, was probably the main reason - embodied in the Emperor's song - that stimulated many people to search for safety in the 66th year of the ruler. The second feature is the relatively modest, even though for that period far from unusual performance capacity, which may be seen as a sign of changed circumstances in public as well as private music practices: although Leopold Kovac (1887-1954) had already started his career as a professional tenor at that time, Cenka Severjeva's achievements remained confined to a few soloist performances with the choir of Glasbena matica. And, thirdly, the significantly absent instrumental music - even a basic comparison of the concerts given by Glasbena matica and Philharmonische Gesellschaft should be taken into account for this argument -, as well as a fairly huge share of folk-song arrangements, indicate not only the tastes and capabilities of the national musical culture in that period, but also a historiographically important fact: a poor heritage of regional music production. Following a historical method of close reading of publicly available archival materials2 on music and consulting the literature on the Great War and music in today's Slovenia, I shall address, first, the concert practice of that time, mainly in Ljubljana; after that, the question of Slovenian music for and from the Great War shall be posed. The contribution concludes by addressing the reception of music from and for the Great War after 1918.
Musical Life During the Great War: Ljubljana
In his survey of the cultural climate in Ljubljana, the historian Dragan Matic noted reduced concert activities in Ljubljana: already in the 1914/15 season, the concerts were mainly of choral and chamber music, but the Philharmonische Gesellschaft also gave subscription concerts of more ambitious proportions. In both cases, the students' concerts form an important part of the music reproduction during the war for Slovenians as well as for the German population. The income from the concerts was primarily charitable.3 If reduced at first, the frequency of the concerts grew in the last year of the war. In summary:
1	Stanhko Premrl, ""Glasba," Dom in svet 25, no. 1 (25. 1. 1915): 32-33. Acc. 4 October 2017. http://www.dlib.si/?URN-URN:NBN:SI:DOC-VGQETOF7.
2	It should be emphasized, however, that the number of published personal testimonies is growing, for instance Kacin, 1997, Zupančič, 1998, Reuh, 1999, Hacin, 2002. Anyway, if one could thoroughly reconstruct the individual activities of the musicians, as it may be done at least theoretically for World War II through testimonies such as Osana, 1999, the ideas of music as a social practice might be clearer in future.
3	Dragan Matic, Kulturni utrip Ljubljane med prvo svetovno vojno: kulturne in družabne prireditve v sezonah 1913/14-1917/18 (Ljubljana: Zgodovinski arhiv, 1995), 296 and 272.
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MUZIKOLOSKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LIII/2
"In the 1917/18 season, there are more than 82 different concerts recorded. 42 were of art music, [probably] more than 42 were coffee shop, promenade or restaurant etc. concerts. Compared to the previous seasons, a huge leap is recorded in the quantity of art music concerts. There were more of those than even in the pre-war season of 1913/14. Musicians from all around were performing in Ljubljana, organizing concerts by themselves as well - without the help of [the two main music institutions in Slovenia] Glasbena matica and Philharmonische Gesellschaft, and in such large numbers that it presented a novelty in comparison to the previous seasons."4
(BewMllfll mil Eilolj del k k. Pclircidiiekilsn uom 21. man 1917. I. Ifl2 L.)
Philharmonirche Geielirchaff in taibach,
vm&pysa* Gegründet 1702. 9wwwwifti^no 215. Vereinsjahr, ■w&pjvtiv. 1891 ausgezeichnet durch die mit dem flllerhöchilen Wahllptuche gezierte goldene medaille, Beil&erin der SdiuherMHodalile In Silber des Wiener illflnnergelangperelnes und der Badi.fllcdaillc der Wiener Singakademie.

fc
Montag den 2. April 1917, um halb 8 Uhr abend;
im großen Saale des Kaiino
5. Seielirchafis-Konzeri
w
©	Orchefterleitung: Konzertmeifter Prof. Hans Gerftner; Chorleitung: Sang-
JP	wart Viktor Ranth; Soliit: Paul Pampichlcr (Bariton) aus Graz; Klooier-
O	begleitung: Heinrich Wettach; der gemifchte Chor des Deutfdien Sing-
J2	oereines und das oerftärkte Streidiorchefter der Phiiharmon. Gefellfchaft.
¡2	= Vortragsfolge:	=
Q). l o) fronzCöffler: Huldigungsfeftgefang; j	C| ß
©	„Hetl Karl dem I iifterre.chs Kotier!" mifH!<,aoierbcg,eitunq
tj; b) Jofef ödieu: .Hoffnung";	I
&■ 2. Jofef Zöhrer: Vier Tonffücke für Streidiarchefler. [nachgelaffene.s Werk.) ^	Uraufführung.' (Jntroduktion Kanon Serenade Rondino.)
5. o) Robert Schumann: „Jch grolle nicht";	■ Lieder mit Klauier-
b) —	— " „Du bifl mie eine ßlume-; | begleitung, gelungen
w cj Engelbert Humperdinck: „Wiegenlied- ;	| bon Herrn
^ ci> felix u. Weingartner: „Ciebesfeier-;	' Paul Pampichlei.
4. Johan S. Suendfen: a) ITlaeitofo. b) ITloderoto; zroei i C	isländifche Ulelodien;	| fflr strcidiorchcrt^r.
O Eduard Grieg: a) llento (6rftes Begegnen); b) flllegro | **	rifoluto, zrooi noraiegifche Ulelodien;	I
5 5.'Theodor Podbertsky: „Die laufendjährige Lindl". Bilder aus Deutichlands Vergangenheil nach Karl Stielers Dichtung „Unter der Linde", für 3	Sopran- und Bariton-Cinzelgefang, gemachten Chor und Klanierbegleitung.
O
3 N
' t'rftaufführungen in Caibach. 3	9W Der Wortlaut der Cieder ift an der Rbendhaffe erhältlich.
Ende um halb 10 Uhr abends.
nichtmltglleder haben nach ITlafjgabe der »erfügbaren Piäije Zutritt gegen Cölung uon Gaftkarten (ein Sitj 5 K, ein .Stehplal; I K 50 h, .Studenteneintritt 60 h), deren Ertrag den Zwecken der Kriegsfürlorge gewidmet wird.
Voruerkauf aus Gefälligkeit in der Buchhandlung lg. u. Kleinmayr & fed. Bamberg, Rbcndkaffa.
Zur gefälligen Beachtung! i. nie Eintrittskarten find den .Saaldienern abzugeben, ohne Eintrittskarte roird kein Cinlafj gemährt. 2. Die frauen werden gebeten, im .Saale ohne Hüte zu erfcheinen. Das Betreten und Verlanen des Saales mährend der Dauer eines mufihftflekes ift nicht geltattet. 6s wird um pünktliches Erfcheinen erlucht. 4. Beitrittsanmeldungen zur Philharmonilchen Gefellfchaft werden in der Oirehtionskanzlei, Tonhalle, in den Hachmittagsitunden (3 - o) entgegengenommen ; dafelbS wollen auch Wohnungsänderungen derGefelllchaftsmitglieder(fchriftiich oder peiiöniich) rechtzeitig angezeigt werden.
Während der Vorträge bleiben die SaaltUren gefchloffen.
Figure 2: Concert leaflet of the 5th subscription concert by the Philharmonische Gesellschaft in Ljubljana, 2 April 1917. Photo by: dLib, https://www.dlib.si/.
4 Ibid., 325.
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L. ŠTEFANIJA • MUSIC DURING THE GREAT WAR IN SLOVENIA
Both the national and cultural proportions also changed somewhat in the last war season in favour of Slovenians: while the military music concerts fell under 50 % of the whole concert offerings, the Slovenians organized around 30 % and the Germans around 48 %, leaving more than 20 % of the concerts to foreign musicians.5
Regarding the programmes, the one reproduced in Figure 2 may be considered typical of the concerts given by the Slovenians. The Germans and their main institution, the Philharmonische Gesellschaft, however, offered musically richer performances, as their 5th subscription concert of the penultimate war year reveals. And in both instances, one may notice the presence of emotionally laden pieces, indicating political correctness (at that time depending, of course, on the perspective of political sides, yet, considered conceptually, regardless of it). Such a "social emotionalism", if the politically correct musical programming may be labelled so, was not the rule. Moreover, during the Great War, it appeared more frequently in Slovenian than in German concert programmes in Ljubljana.
This is but a glimpse into the public concert life during the Great War in Carniola's capital, Ljubljana. It should be complemented by other bigger cities of today's Slovenia, and especially by gathering information on regional musicking in the more rural parts of the country (although the majority of it was rural), as well as by a study of the music within the army. Here, both topics are considered only partially while discussing Slovenian music for and from the Great War.
Slovenian Music for (and about) and from the Great War
Tone Smolej, the literary historian, offered an 'alfresco' formulation of the difference between Slovenian war poetry and the English and German songs on/from the Great War:
"If we compare the motifs of our war songs with those in English or German (Losch-nigg 1994), we may discover that in Slovenian poetry the refugee-topoi come to the fore because the poets have, as a rule, resided in the hinterland. While in our poetry there are no discernible accounts of it, they feature prominently in English poetry (for instance Counter-Attack by Siegfried Sassoon) Further, in European literature, the enemy is rarely described in hostile terms (the exception is For all we have and are by Rudyard Kipling), because the war propaganda is not easily imposed upon the poets. In Slovenian poetry, in which a Slav cannot be proclaimed the enemy, the war itself is the fiend, as turned a brother into a beast. In German poetry, war is sometimes depicted through avant-garde procedures that are indicated in the work of Bevk."6
Even if the Great War has left many personal testimonies that urge the historian to research the private archives as well as newspaper entries and military reports, the
5	Ibid., 330.
6	Tone Smolej, "'Ne jaz, ampak vojska je napisala to povest:' prva svetovna vojna in slovenska književnost (1914-1941)," in Peter Vodopivec and Katja Kleindienst, eds., Velika vojna in Slovenci (Ljubljana: Slovenska matica, 2005), 100.
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quoted difference regarding poetry nicely introduces the Slovenian cultural position: it was incomparable to the state of some more ardent nationalist colleagues (as for instance the notorious cases of Arnold Schönberg and especially his disciple Anton Webern). Slovenian composers remained creatively almost silent during the Great War. The war seems to have evoked some compositions more from a pragmatic than a programmatic, not to mention an ideological level. Some compositions have been composed in circumstances of war, although they do not address directly any war themes in specific terms. Here, one may mention Emil Adamic's (1877-1936) Tri turkestan-ske (tatarske) ljubavne pesme (Three Turkestan [Tatar] Love Songs) or his Tatar Suite (symphonic pieces written in memory of his war imprisonment), the disputably "first Slovenian symphony" Lovska simfonija (Hunter's or Hunting symphony), 1915, by Fran Gerbič, a number of choirs, also nationally oriented, such as Stanko Premrl's Slovenska govorica (Slovenian language)7 (or even his harmonization of Zdravljica (A Toast), today's Slovenian anthem - although it was made in 1905), along with a number of other patriotic songs, such as Anton Kosi's Za domovino Avstrijo (For the Fatherland Austria). The list should continue not only with some compositions from the concert repertoire, but also with the music by Slovenian church musicians, of whom the journal Cerkveni glasbenik (Church Musician) offered a nice account during the war; in this respect perhaps the most active field (beside popular music), the performance history of religious music, seems fairly important and has yet to be written. As organist Tomaž Holmar wrote in 1915:
"Many organists have gone to war, as well as many singers! But our Carniolans sing even in the trenches! [...] Although I am above the age for military service, I shall go to fight for the faith, the Emperor, and the fatherland, and I shall fight till the last drop of blood, till the last breath! Long live the Emperor, long live the fatherland!"8
It seems that Slovenian music from and for the Great War testifies about that period with a confined circle of music production ranging between several original, primarily choir music pieces (not too difficult to perform), a relatively small number of folk songs adaptations, and a handful of instrumental compositions. According to Zmaga Kumer, "the Great War has not left visible traces in the folk heritage, though some reflections from that period nevertheless remain. [...] Despite everything, three song-books have been published during that period".9 And all three were published in 1915 - when feelings regarding the war were relatively favourable toward the Cisleithanian (since 1915 Austrian) visions despite the repressive local authorities10 a cultural climate of affiliation that lasted until the beginning of 1917.
7	Stanko Premrl in Anton Medved, "Slovenska govorica," in Trije mešani zbori (Ljubljana: Glasbena matica, 1917). http://www. dlib.si/?URN-URN:NBN:SI:DOC-RECQGIPH.
8	Cerkveni glasbenik 38, no. 7/8 (1915): 90.
9	Marjetka Golež Kaučič, »Fantje se zbirajo ...«: vojna in vojaki v slovenski ljudski pesmi (Ljubljana: Založba ZRC, ZRC SAZU, 2013), 41.
10	Walter Lukan, "Habsburška monarhija in Slovenci v prvi svetovni vojni," Zgodovinski časopis 62, no. 1/2 (2008): 91-149.
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L. ŠTEFANIJA • MUSIC DURING THE GREAT WAR IN SLOVENIA
An imprint of music from the Slovenian Great War music — and for the Great War
The first mentioned folk song, The Wish of a Wounded Soldier, may serve as a nice example for the examination of the Slovenian Great War music. The same song was performed by the same musicians the following spring, on a concert on May 8th. The first to transcribe the song was Ludovik Kuba, one of the most intriguing ethnomusi-cologists of his era. He published it within the impressive series of Slovanstvo ve svych zpevech (Pardubice 1884-1895), in the collection of 123 harmonized Slovenian folk songs in 1890.11 Its performance was first recorded in 1914 and published in Strajnar, 1989; it is a rather popular folk song from White Carniola. Ivan Šašelj called the song a Midsummer's Eve song, mentioning three of his versions of the song, which he had acquired already in 1886 and published in the tamburica songbooks Bisernice I and II, respectively (1906: 48-56 and 1909: 24-5).12 He mentions that for Kuba, the song "je to jedna najcennejšich pismi mnou vubec zapsanych, tudiž i najlepši upominka na moji belokrajinskou zajiždku."13 Šašelj also reports that
"I heard from a former Austrian soldier last year [i.e., in 1935] that the same song was sung during the Great War in 1918 in Galicia, in the cities of Brody and Kovel, by Slovenian chaps - soldiers. They must have heard the song from the soldiers from White Carniola. "14
There are several versions of the songs Tam na karpatskigori (Prošnja umirajočega junaka)15 and Naročilo ranjenega vojaka (gospoda barona), and perhaps several more songs. All three songs are thematic tokens of the same event - the event of a dying man expressing his last wish .
11	The mentioned song is on pp. 222-4, a copy may be found at http://www.nulk.cz/ek-obsah/kuba07/224.htm, acc. 1 May 2014.
12	The texts are also available under No. 13 at http://sl.wikisource.org/wiki/Bisernice_iz_belokranjskega_narodnega_zaklada_I, acc. 1 May 2014.
13	I[van] Šašelj, "Iz belokranjskega narodnega pesništva," Etnolog 8/9, no. 1 (1936): 30.
14	Ibid.
15	Zmaga Kumer, ed., Slovenske ljudske pesmi, vol. 2, Pripovedne pesmi (Ljubljana: Slovenska matica, 1997), 110-119; Miha Vrhovnik, "Zbogom, moj domači kraj: vojaštvo v slovenski ljudski pesmi," (Diploma thesis, University of Ljubljana, 2009), 67.
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Želja ranjenega vojaka		Naročilo ranjenega vojaka (gospoda barona)	
[Wish of a wounded soldier]		[The order of a wounded soldier (Mr. Baron)]	
Tam na karpatski gori (Prošnja umirajočega junaka)			
[There on the Carpathian mountain [A request of a wounded hero]			
V ovi crni gori	Na karpatskoj gori		»Le sem pojdi, ti moj hlapec,
žarki ogenj gori.	šviga ogenj doli.		da boš ti pogledal;
Mimo njega pelja uzka steza mala,	Mimo pa prijaše		če so moje rane rdeče,
i po njej zaide trideset junaka,	trideset vojakov.		boš šel po padarja;
trideset junaka, na izbor soldata,	Fsi so čvrsti, zdravi,		če so moje rane črne,
i medj njimi jeden jako kruto ranjen.	samo eden ranjen.		mi boš jamo kopal.«
Za Boga vas prosim, draga bračo moja,	Ranjen milo kliče:		»Oh, kaj pa bo, barone!
ne ostavljajte me v ovoj crnoj gori,	»Kopljite mi jamo!		Tvoje rane so črne.«
neg' me vi peljite u Bosansko polje,	Kopljite mi jamo		»Le pojdi mi jamo kopat,
u Bosansko polje, k svetemu Ivanu!	pri svetem Ivanu.		globoko in široko,
Kopajte mi jamo pri svetem Ivanu	Vanjo položite		z brinjem jo obloži,
po sabljo široko, četiri gliboko.	moje grešno telo.		da me ne bodo trgali
Noter pogrnite moj kopenik beli,	Na karpatskoj gori		le-ti turški orli.«
nanj'ga položite moje mrtvo telo,	šviga ogenj doli;		»Oh, kaj pa bo, barone,
poleg njega den'te belo kopje moje,	na karpatskoj gori		kaj bo za moje lone?«
nanj'ga privežite moj'ga konjca vranca,	šviga ogenj doli.		»Le pojdi mi v štalo,
naj me konjec žali, kad me ljuba neče!	Voni pa pustite		vzemi največga konja,
Ljuba bi žal'vala, ki bi ona znala!	mojo desno roko.		domu mi pojezdi,
	Zanjo privežite		trikrat okolj znamnja prijezdi;
	mojga bratca konja.		tebe bodo srečevali
	Naj se konjič joče,		preljubi moji otroci,
	če ljubica neče.		lepo jih potolaži,
	Ljubca bi jokala,		da me bodo lože pozabili;
	če b sirota znala.		tebi bo prišla napoti
	Konjič zargeče,		moja žlahtna gospa,
	ljubica zatrepeče.		lepo jo potolaži,
			da me lože pozabi.«
	(Kumer 1997:100-119)		»Oh, kaj pa bo, barone,
			kaj bo za moje lone?«
			»Miznico ven potegni;
			noter so rmeni zlati,
			tisti bodo ti za lone.
			Le pojd ni jamo kopat,
			globoko in široko,
			z brinjem jo obloži,
			da me ne bodo trgali
			le-ti turški orli.«
			(Kumer 1997: 52-54)
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L. ŠTEFANIJA • MUSIC DURING THE GREAT WAR IN SLOVENIA
Without going into details about the provenance of the song, Šašelj has indicated, through Ludvik Kuba's aesthetic preference of the White-Carniolan version of the song over the Bulgarian and Montenegrian versions16 (which explains rather nicely the "uniqueness" of this song), that the song has a universal historical background and cannot be confined to the Great War. Moreover, Marjetka Golež Kaučič adds passingly in her book on song texts connected to the Great War: "Also in the heroic songs of the 'Prošnja umirajočega junaka' or 'Bolni junak' (SLP I/19) type we find a trace of the Great War. For instance, in the variant SLP I/19/29 from Strahovica, GNI M 23.936: the 1st stanza reads: 'There on the Italian front / thirty heroes, / all firm, healthy, / only one is wounded'."17 Marija Klobčar18 refers to the song as a "ballad [...] that originated in Kajkavian Croatian territory and [...] spread to other Slovenian regions during the First World War," while during the Second World War it became "a song of the Partisan movement."
The several national and historical contexts gathered during the song's historical life indicate that the music, specific to the Great War as well, should not be confined to one period, although its content has a certainly important message for that era. The song entered the Great War as a transhistoric epic song in several versions. Textually, they were generated from a difference between a soldier (as a generative concept) and a hero (as a specific token), between the bad and the good, between a wish and the reality. Musically, as seen from Kuba's transcription given below, a generative phrase consists of a recognizable melodic gesture within the first two bars: a minor third skip, followed by two variants of it - an expansion of the ambitus for a major second up with (Schenkerian) diminution of the range and a sequence for a major second lower, ending with a Phrygian cadence (the examples are from Kuba's transcription):
The (Phrygian) modal conception alongside the "aksak" ("irregular", or liteerally "limping", "slumping", "stumbling") rhythmic features within a metric structure (7/4; not unusual in folk music from some regions of Slovenia) indicates an aesthetic laxness typical of folk music of geographically and culturally diverse regions throughout the Balkans. And it seems that it is this epic narrativity that fits with what Smolej characterized as "refugee-topoi", typical of Slovenian poetry.
The discussed song is but one part of the Great War music. The meagre state of the music written during the Great War was indicated by the circular appeal of a telling title, Mehr Marsch- und Soldatenlieder in der Schule,19 made by the lower Austrian Landess-chulrat in April 1915. It is because of this appeal that the war songbooks from 1915 were compiled. Although there are actually at least seven war songbooks20 with Slovenian songs, only two of them - by Kosi and Marolt - may be taken as an illustration of their
16	Kuba also published a series of comments regarding his voyages alongside the musical examples from the contries he visited. The details about his relations with Slovenia are available in Kumer, 1999.
17	Golež Kaučič, »Fantje se zbirajo ...«, 41.
18	Marija Klobčar, "The expressiveness of traditional Slovenian Military Songs," foreword in the CD booklet for Regiment po cesti gre (Ljubljana: ZRC SAZU, Glasbeno-narodopisni inštitut, 2007), 39.
19	Das deutsche Volkslied. Zeitschrift für seine Kenntnis und Pflege. Jg. 1915, 8/9. Heft, 101. Also available at: http://www. volksliederarchiv.de/volksliedforschung-295.html, acc. 5 May 2014.
20	Beside Kosi and Marolt, all 1915, Hladnik as well as Andrejka, 1916, should be added as Slovenian war songbooks, although only Marolt, 1915, was meant as a handy pocket-booklet suitable for soldiers.
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Figure 3: http://www.nulk.cz/ek-obsah/kuba07/224.htm, p. 222, acc. 1 May 2014.
circulation (the duplication is indicated with the red colour) and juxtaposed with what two respected musicians - Zirovnik and Gerbic - had published before the Great War as important folk music heritage:
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Anton Kosi: Vojaške	Fran Marolt: Slovenske	Janko Žirovnik:	Fran Gerbič:
narodne pesmi za dom in	vojaške narodne pesmi	Narodne pesmi z	Album slovenskih
šolo (1915)	(1915)	napevi (1900-10)	napevov (1910)
l.Cesarska pesem	1. Al' me boš kaj rada imela?	Al' me boš kaj	
2. Cesarski orel pravi	2. Barka zaplavala	rada imela? (I/4)	Barčica (20)
3. Danes ta dan*	3. Danes je taisti dan	Danes je taisti dan	
4. Ena ptič'ca priletela*	4. Danes je dan*	(I/15; II/19)	
5. Fantje marširajo*	5. Ena ptička priletela*	Fantje marširajo	Ena ptica
6. Fantje se zbirajo	6. Fantje marširajo*	(IV/18)	priletela (11)
7. Kaj maramo mi	7. Mladi glas iz gradca gre		
8. N'coj je prav lep večer	8. Kaj si je' zmislu naš cesar		Nocoj je prav lep
9. Nobene bukvice niso	9. Kaj so to za eni fantje		večer(15)
tak' lepe	10. Ko ptičica na tuje gre		
10. O ti moj dom	11. Lavdon		
11. Oblaki so rdeči*	12. Leži, leži ravno polje	Prišla bo pomlad	Nobene bukvice
12. Oj ta vojaški boben*	13. Ljuba si pomlad zelena	zelena (IV/12)	(33)
13. Pesem slovenskih	14. Mal'postojmo		
vojakov	15. Mi smo se skupaj zbrali		
14. Po polju pa rož'ce	16. Nekoč v starih časih		
cvetejo	17. Nobene bukvice niso		
15. Pomlad se že približa*	tak lepe		
16. Popotnica vojaška	18. Nocoj, pa oh, nocoj		
17. Presvitli cesar vabi nas	19. Nocoj je en lep večer		
18. Regiment po cesti gre	20. Oblak'rdeči so*		
19. Slovo I	21. Oj ta soldaški boben*	Slovo (I/12)	
20. Slovo II	22. Oj kako strašno		
21. Slovo III	23. Pobič sem star šele 18.		
22. Solnce gre za goro	let I.-II.	Oj ta vojaški	
23. Solnce mi rajža*	24. Pomlad se bliža*	boben (I/20;	
24. Spomladi vse se veseli*	25. Po polju že rožce cvetejo	II/18)	
25. Vodica med gorami	26. Pozimi pa rožice ne		
26. Vojak na tujem	cveto		V nedeljo jutro
	27. Prisega, na bandero		(25)
Umetne:	28. Radecki	Regiment (I/16)	
1 Za dom med bojni grom!	29. Regiment po cesti gre		
(H. Volarič)	30. Slovenski fantje		
2. Slovo (H. Volarič)	31. Solnce mi rajža*		
3. Vojaška (B. Ipavec)	32. Spomladi vse se veseli*	Tam za turškim	
4. Novinci (H. Volarič)	33. Tam na zelenem	gričem (I/17)	
5. Cesarska (J. Haydn)	travniku		
6. Na straži (A. Nedved)	34. Tam za laškim gričem		
7. Naprej! (D. Jenko)	35. V nedeljo jutro vstala		
	bom I.-II.		
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Even if the histories of all the songs are not clear, the majority of them are folk tunes and - if the songbook practice of Anton Kosi is taken into account - several tunes may have been supplied by Slovenian "composers and musicians".21 These three songbooks were meant for wider circulation, as the foreword to Marolt's collection suggests: "The price and the handy book format offer to each friend of the folk song a possibility to get a copy of it for himself."22 Some of the songs had been widely circulated before the war, also as part of the educational system, such as the songbooks by Janko Žirovnik (1900-1910; above, the volume/pagination is given in brackets) or Jakob Aljaž (18861900), or through collections such as the folk song piano album by Fran Gerbič (1910) and Šašelj's Bisernice (1906-9).
On the dissemination of the songs, Anton Leban reports from the front lines on 19th November 1915:
"The Germans have beautiful patriotic and war songs. Prinz Eugenlied is, for instance, a cherished song and is sung often, but there are different lyrics to it and that disturbs the flow and the melody of the song. All that singing is dear, gentle and beautiful, but our folk songs are even more beautiful. Everybody knows them, at least every at least somewhat educated Slovenian. How beautifully those convenient songs resound now! How gorgeously Lavdon sounds at the White City [Belgrade]! How noble the singing about Radecki in Italy is. It goes from heart to heart.
We find more songs that are, for our soldiers, convenient and gorgeously beautiful —folk songs (Regiment po cesti gre)."
All in all, Golež Kaučič23 interestingly notes:
"Slovenian soldiers were exceptionally good singers; they sang different songs, military as well as love songs and songs sung for the dead, but according to his opinion [= Leo Hajek's, assistant and later Director of the Phonogrammarchiv], not even a single march."
This view on the Slovenian Great War music - Slovenian soldiers as musicians, not militarists - urges one to express "certain doubts that the songs mirror the real military action in somewhat too limited terms."24 The claim about marches is somewhat problematic, since at least Anton Jakl (1873-1948), one of the most prominent Kapellmeister beside his younger colleague Josip Čerin (1896-1951) was a prominent composer of marches before the Great War and, besides, there are more instrumental marches from the fin de siècle that just might have been performed during the Great War period as well. Thus, whether a 2/4-measure popular folk-song with a marching pace and military lyrics is defined as a march or not is not a question of musical genre
21	Anton Kosi, Opombe k pesemski zbirki 'Šopek šolskih pesmi': s posebnim ozirom na narodne in v narodnem duhu zložene napeve (Središče na Štajerskem: Anton Kosi, 1906) 5, especially footnote on pp. 4-6.
22	Fran Marolt, Slovenske vojaške narodne pesmi, za moški zbor (Ljubljana: self-publishing, 1915), s. p. II.
23	Golež Kaučič, »Fantje se zbirajo ...«, 44-45.
24	Ibid., 91.
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but of its usage, and it seems that it is precisely this epic openness to addressing the elemental feelings of life, love, fear of death and patriotism that has remained an important feature of the musical heritage connected to the Great War. Moreover, it may be said for the entire production as well as reproduction that a certain vitalistic pragmatism prevails, in which the folk heritage is intertwined with artistic ambitions of the individual performers and composers alike.
It may be sensible to sum up the Slovenian music from the Great War with respect to the production within the absent genre of instrumental music. Although no systematic research has been done so far, one may say that the Great War bore witness to the first "Slovenian Symphony", as historiographers disputably label Lovska simfonija from 1915 by Fran Gerbic, and the Three Turkestan (Tatar) Love Songs and the Tatar Suite by the then imprisoned Emil Adamic are the only larger-scale instrumental works. During the Great War, the scattered secular vocal and chamber music production was confined to individual musicians due to the termination of the journal Novi akordi (1901-1914), leaving only the church music production more or less publicly available through the journal Cerkveni glasbenik (1878-1945). One should speak of the Slovenian Great War music primarily with regard to the reproduction, as the production was lagging far behind the reproduction. What remains to be done is a thorough topology of music re/production and perception during that period, a period in which singing and playing have been reported to act as important social activities initiated by individuals, as well as within different social circumstances.
Reception of the Great War in Music
Some of the mentioned folk songs, as well as some of the composed pieces, have hardly found their way into today's music repertoire. The lively music tradition between the wars speaks in favour of what Marko Terseglav has found for Slovenian folk poetry, and it may also be ascribed to the national music during the Great War as a whole:
"it is a vital phenomenon that something is found not only in the process of becoming, but also incessantly in its renewal, permanently acquiring new elements and specialities."25
After 1918, direct links to the Great War music are rather scarce. If one considers The Wish of a Wounded Soldier a Great War song, which to some extent it certainly was, then Lucijan Marija Škerjanc's Vonom černem lese for string orchestra (1934) should be mentioned alongside Pavel Mihelcic's version of the same piece within the cycle Štiri ljudske pesmi za sopran in orkester.26
However, if one thinks of the aforementioned Prinz Eugenlied, one of its versions known as Lavdon was even taken as an orthographic example in Kmetijske in
25	Marko Terseglav, "Šolske pesmarice kot možni vir za ljudske pesmi," Traditiones 36, no. 2 (2007): 20.
26	Pavel Mihelčič, Štiri ljudske pesmi za sopran in orkester, Ed. DSS 1941 (Ljubljana: Društvo slovenskih skladateljev, 2009).
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rokodelske novice on 30. 5. 1848 as one of the "Slovenian songs of the Camiolan folk" (94). Although it was heard at the concert of the Philharmonische Gesellschaft in Ljubljana on 24. 2. 1917 - the concert of the society that was abolished after 1918, and whose property was overtaken by the Slovenian Glasbena matica, it was rephrased in 1944 into a partisan song.27 These historical transformations28 that are based on the practice of contrafactum as well as music adaptation, as indicated also by The Wish of a Wounded Soldier, open up a nice horizon for the discussion about the reception of the Great War music. Although the evidence of the music production is scarce, and the music reproduction seems to be the main historical heritage of that period, it is exactly this missing production that indicates the period in which terror had caused a rather similar consequence, emptiness. There are, of course, direct musical ties to the Great War - yet, the music discussed above persistently evades confinement to the Great War.
Bibliography
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Aljaž, Jakob. Slovenska pesmarica. 2 vols.Celovec: Družba sv. Mohorja, 1896-1900.
Čremošik, Gregor. Naša vojaška narodna pesem. Glasnik Muzejskega društva za Slovenijo 20 (1939).
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Hacin, Janko. Vsi ti mladi fantje. Ljubljana: Slovenska matica, 2002.
Hois, Eva Maria. "'Wem geht's denn nur besser als wie an Soldat': Zur Typologie von Soldaten und Kriegsliedern im Ersten Weltkrieg". In: Stefan Hanheide and Dietrich Helms, eds., Musik bezieht Stellung: Funktionalisierungen der Musik im Ersten Weltkrieg, 121-144. Göttingen: V&R Unipress, Universität-Verlag Osnabrück, 2013.
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27	Golež Kaučič, »Fantje se zbirajo ...«.., 55.
28	A historical perspective on this song is offered by Michael Fischer at:http://www.liederlexikon.de/lieder/prinz_eugen_der_ edle_ritter, acc. 5 May 2014.
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POVZETEK
Prispevek ponuja pregled glasbe kot družbene prakse med prvo svetovno vojno na območju današnje Slovenije. Slovensko glasbeno prakso obravnava s treh med seboj dopolnjujočih se gledišč. Prvič, članek ponuja vpogled na glasbeno Ljubljano kot eno bodočih prestolnic nove države, ki se je oblikovala na tem področju po prvi vojni. Ta pogled prinaša povzetek znanih dejstev, da je bodoča prestolnica poleg razmeroma bogatega zabavnega muziciranja imela tudi abonmajsko koncertno življenje, utelešeno, seveda, v rednih dejavnostih Filharmonične družbe, ki jih je redno beležil časopis Laibacher Zeitung. Slovenska glas-beno-gledališka podjetnost je v času prve svetovne vojne molčala, Glasbena matica pa je imela krepko okrnjeno koncertno dejavnost. Drugič, (o)srednji del besedila se osredotoča na slovensko glasbeno ustvarjalnost, ki je vezana na drugo svetovno vojno. Ta predstavlja veliko manjši - pravzaprav komajda obstoječi - del glasbenega dogajanja v primerjavi z glasbeno poustvarjalnostjo.
Glasbeno dogajanje prikazuje z dveh plati: s stališča glasbe za prvo svetovno vojno (in o njej), osredo-točajoč se na objave glasbe (kar v osnovi pomeni: na vojne pesmarice) med prvo vojno, kakor tudi z glasbo o dogodkih, ki niso vezani samo na prvo vojno, so pa značilni tudi za glasbo tega, za mnoge grozovitega obdobja. Zato prispevek podrobneje skicira slovensko glasbeno kulturo prve vojne in njenega glasbenega repertorija z analitično ilustracijo pesmi Tam na karpatskojgori (Prošnja umirajočega junaka). Pesem si zasluži podrobno predstavitev skozi vse njene različice ob kaki drugi priložnosti, čeprav tu nakazuje zgodovinski okvir in jo je treba razumeti kot orientir za nadaljnje raziskave slovenskih glasbenih del tako med vojno kakor tudi pred in po njej.
Tretjič, sklepni del prispevka načenja problematiko recepcije glasbe, povezane s prvo svetovno vojno na Slovenskem po letu 1918. V njem je z omembo pesmi o Princu Evgenu (Lavdon) izpostavljeno dejstvo, da k tematiki ne sodi samo glasba, vezana na prvo svetovno vojno, temveč tudi tista, ki »potuje« skozi čas in prehaja iz enega obdobja v drugo.
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