MOSTOVI 2/1991/XXVI 19
3um®c3@\ycoa g^/a\ooogo
Alan McConnell Duff
Crossing the Border
On the use of translation in language learning
Prestop meje
O uporabi prevajanja pri učenju jezika
V skoraj 20-letni praksi kot prevajalec in pisec literature za učenje angleščine kot tujega jezika je
avtor spoznal, da se pri poučevanju tujih jezikov premalo uporablja prevajanje. Kot vzroke za odpor
do uporabe prevajanja v te namene navaja: tradicijo, da je prevajanje bolj povezano s preverjanjem
znanja kot pa s poučevanjem jezika; prepričanje, da je prevajanje na splošno vezano na pisano
besedilo in se ne šteje kot komunikativna dejavnost; da je zelo zamudno; da se s prevajanjem jezika
večidel lotevamo nesistematično in učenci ne vedo, česa se pri tem učijo; in končno, da se pri
poučevanju tujega jezika odločno premalo uporablja materin jezik, pri prevajanju pa brez njega ne
gre.
Avtor nato predlaga, kako bi lahko odstranili ali omilili navedene vzroke in s tem pri učenju tujih
jezikov omogočili uporabo prevajanja kot izrazito naravne jezikovne dejavnosti. Nato postreže z
mnogimi primeri, iz katerih je razvidno, da utegne biti uporaba prevajanja pogosto zelo smotrna in
učinkovita metoda pri poučevanju tujih jezikov.
Translation, as the process of conveying
messages across linguistic and cuiturai
barriers, is an eminently communicative
activity, one whose use could well be
considered in a vvider range of teaching
situations than may currently be the čase.
(Dr. lan Tudor, in ELT Journal)
On the vvhole, translation is regarded (except
by specialist departments) as a nuisance, an ac-
tivity vvhich goes on "outside".
Since it cannot be taken tor granted that
translation has a rightful plače in the language
teaching programme, let us look briefly at the
reasons for this resistance.
I. Some theoretical questions
Hovvever persuasive the arguments in favour
of translation may be, we must acknowledge
that it is stili not widely used in language learn¬
ing. This natural and necessary activity is either
ignored in the language programme, or else
grundgingly given a little space.
20 MOSTOVI 2/1991 /XXV/
Why is translation not more widely used?
The chief reasons, I suggest, are the following:
• Translation is traditionally associated with
language testing rather than with language
teaching.
The emphasis is on error detection and cor-
rection: translation reveals what the študent
does not know. The focus is negative. Marks
are deducted for mistakes, but rarely given
for intelligent Solutions or "trouvailles”. The
language is corrected, not taught.
• Translation is regarded as text-bound, con-
fined to reading and vvriting. Discussion, if
any, is limited to points of detail (mainly
vocabulary). It is not a “communicative ac-
tivity".
• Translation is time-consuming. If the work is
done in class, and in vvriting, couid not the
students’ time be better used? If it is done out
of class, couid not the teacher’s time - spent
on correction - be better used?
Translation is associated with "difficult" texts,
often literary, and full of language traps. The
students spend precioustimetusseling with a
language they do not "need" (thšme et ver-
sion). The language of translation seems to
bear little relation to the language of "real life".
• Translation activities have no clear focus.
They involve a random approach to lan¬
guage. There is no coherence. The problems
raised by one text may have no bearing on
those raised by another. The students do not
know what they are learning, and their
progress - if any - cannot be discerned.
• And, finally, translation involves use of the
mother tongue. This, in many institutions, is
inadmissible, and even vvhere it is permitted it
is not always encouraged. (Students come to
language classes to learn a foreign language,
not to practise the mother tongue!)
What translation has to offer
The objections raised above are ali valid. But
underlying them is the implication that the
mother-tongue has no proper role in language
learning. In fact, the mother-tongue is often
regarded as a gatecrasher at what should be a
cosy (monolingual) language party, hosted by
the 12. But the guests ali speak another lan¬
guage, the mother-tongue, the L1 of the vvorld
"outside".
If we are to use translation successfully in lan¬
guage teaching, we must accept - not ignore -
the importance of the mother-tongue.
Not ali foreign language learners become
teachers. Many become doctors, engineers,
sales representatives, journalists, and ... trans-
lators. Their work demands the ability to work
easily and speedily from one language to the
other. They are constantly Crossing the border
from the foreign language (L2) to the mother-
tongue (L1).
Of ali language learning activities, translation
can best teach us how to cross these borders.
Before outlining ways in vvhich translation
might effectively be used in language learning, I
should like to look back at some of the points
already raised.
Discussion
Teaching or testing? The value of translation
as a testing device is proportionate to the
amount of time spent on the practice of trans¬
lation. Like any other škili, translation requires
practice3 . If no practice is given, translation
should not be used - or be used only sparing-
ly - as a testing device.
If translation is used for testing, the texts
should not contain arbitrary (lexical) traps,
and the marking should not be based solely
on errors. Inventiveness should also be
revvarded.
Time. There is no purpose in using translation if
it is merely a sporadic activity. it must either
be regularly used, or not used at ali.
Time-wastage in translation classes can be
reduced: a) by svvitching the emphasis from
vvritten to oral translation, b) by using short
texts (2-3 sentences) with a clear language
focus, e.g. -ing-forms, if-clauses, phrasal
verbs, etc. c) by "sharing the load", ie. by
dividing up longer texts into manageable seg-
ments (up to 5 sentences) and asking the stu¬
dents to work in groups of three on just one
segment. This last approach has several ad-
vantages: it combines vvritten and oral work; it
allovvs the students time to grapple with part
of a complete text; it ensures that ali are ac-
MOSTOVI 2/1991/XXVI 21
tively engaged at the same time; and finally -
because the load is being shared - it turns
what vvould have been a chore into a chal-
lenge.
Communication. It is sometimes argued that,
because translation is so closely associated
with vvriting and the printed page, it must be a
"non-communicative" activity. This is true
only if the translation is done in vvriting and in
isolation. But it is possible to devise activities
vvhich involve both vvriting and speaking, and
vvhich encourage the exchange of ideas.
Translation is not - as some may think
it is - a matter of finding the "right" solution.
It is, rather, a matter of vveighing up several
plausible Solutions and selecting the best
among them. In this process of selection,
the more suggestions that are offered, the
more likely one is to reach consensus as
to vvhich are the best. This involves dis-
cussion, therefore communication. I should
also add that many of the most satisfactory
translations are arrived at after the students
have "rubbed off" their ideas on one another,
picking up fresh thoughts on the way, and
gradually modifying and improving their
original suggestions.
As an example, let me quote tvvo short
passages from an activity in vvhich the
focus is on the use of make:
i) Mrs. Thatcher has succeeded in
making people believe in her
economic "miracle", vvhich as vve have
repeatedly argued, is largely an illusion.
ii) Although Miss Quested had not made
herself popular vvith the English, she
brought out ali that vvas fine in their
character.
For students translating these sentences,
the first proved relatively easy, as a con-
venient verb aiready existed in the mother
tongue for "make ... believe" (uvjer(i)ti). The
second, hovvever, presented a greater chal-
lenge, partly because no suitable equivalent
for "popular" could be found in the mother
tongue. They had no difficulty in under-
standing either sentence, the problem vvas
to convey the meaning of the second.
And this leads me to the next point.
Difficulty. With regard to difficulty, materials
used for translation differ notably from other
language learning materials in that a text
vvhich is "easy" to understand is often "hard"
totranslate. The reverse may also betrue. For
instance, an expression such as: “You’re
dead right", vvhich is not hard to understand,
might not be easy to translate. (Tas
raison(?), Absolument! (?), Lš je suis bien
d’accord (?) etc.) While a sentence vvhich
may appear difficult because of its length and
complexity, may in fact be easy to translate:
"Detailed calculations find that the accelera-
tion of an object under gravity depends on
both the mass and temperature of an object
in a vvay that makes heavier, or coooler ob-
jects fall faster than lighter or hotter ones."
One of the great merits of translation as
a language learning activity is that it can
allovv students to take a fresh look at familiar
language. Translation need not imply long
minutes spent poring over the dictionary.
Indeed, in many of the activities I shall
shortly be outlining, no dictionaries vvould
be required (though they could, of course,
be used).
One of the main aims of using translation
in the language class is to encourage
flexibility in the students, to make them
more open to the options offered by both
languages. This aim cannot be achieved if
the material offered is over-complex or,
simply, untranslatable.
Language focus. If you run a race, you expect
there to be, somevvhere, a starting-point and
a finishing-line. VVithout these, the race is not
a race, merely an uncoordinated run.
In most language-teaching activities, the
starting-points and finishing lines are clearly
defined (at least in the text-books). There
may be room for discussion, improvisation,
but generally the students knovv vvhere they
are going and vvhat they are doing (prac-
tising the present perfect, polishing up their
prepositions, etc.).
In translation, alas, there is often no sense of
direction. The text is tossed to the students
22 MOSTOVI 2/1991 /XXVI
with a dismissive: "Translate this, then hand it
in! 11 This is not good enough. The students
should know why they are vvorking on the
material.
Although it is not diffficult to find suitable
material to iliustrate points of language (L1
and L2) through translation, there are unfor-
tunately few practical text-books of translation
vvhich are designed specifically for classroom
use. As a result, the teacher may have to
devise his or her own materials, and this is
time-consuming.
Until suitable materials are produced,
designed specifical!y for language learners,
translation will remain a marginal activity in
foreign language learning.
Use of the mother-tongue. If a particular institu-
tion feels that the mother-tongue should not
be used in foreign language learning then,
clearly, there can be no translation.
If the mother-tongue is allowed, certain
hidden benefits may emerge. One of these is
a sense of ease and relaxation. If students are
not obliged to pretend that they do not have a
mother-tongue, they often open out more
readily in the foreign language. When the
mother-tongue is admitted, the foreign lan¬
guage seems less threatening.
An experiment I carried out recently in
Austria helped to confirm this view. The
theme of the seminar was not translation, but
literature. The vvorking language was English,
not German. Tovvards the end of the course, I
decided to try out an activity using both lan-
guages.
The stimulus was a well-known text,
Shakespeare’s sonnet "Shali I compare Thee
to a Summer’s Day?“ (The text had been on
display for several days, but I had not dravvn
attention to it, and no questions were asked.)
The instructions for the activity were: 1. Im-
agine that an international conference is
being held in this village (Raach). What is the
title of your imagined conference? 2. The
mayor of Raach (who speaks no English) will
give his vvelcoming speech in German, but he
vvould like to include an English quotation ...
In pairs, vvrite the speech (5 sentences in Ger¬
man) and include any vvords from the
Shakespeare sonnet.
When this was done, I told the participants
that one person in each pair should deliver
the speech (in German), and the other should
give an on-the-spot translation in English.
The results were excellent. Partly, because
the situation was clear and plausible, partly
because the material was generated in the
mother-tongue, and partly because - in the
transfer to English - the situation allovved for
lapses in accuracy, and a certain "stretching"
of the vvritten text.
In my work with professional translators, I
have used similar spproaches with com-
parable results (e.g. vvrite the opening para-
graph of a speech by the manager/director of
your firm, vvelcoming a foreign visitor. Pro-
vide an off-the-cuff translation.) These, and
similar experiences have reaffirmed my belief
in the value of combining vvritten vvith oral
translation.
To conclude this section on a general note,
I should like to stress that translation is an
eminently natural language activity - far
more natural, indeed, than many of the so-
called communicative activities dreamt up by
text-book vvriters. Surely an activity vvhich
goes on ali around us outside the classroom
- in banks, shops, airports, offices - deserves
attention inside the language class?
II. Some practical approaches
In this section, I should like to touch on some
of the many ways in vvhich language can be ap-
proached through translation, and to offer a
sample of the activities.
Context and register
Language is coloured by context. As soon as
vve see the vvords "Depress the button ..." or
"J’accuse ršception de ... " vve associate them
almost automatically vvith the context of an in-
struction manual or a business letter, respec-
tively. Similarly, if vve hear the vvords "scattered
MOSTOVI 2/1991/XXVI 23
thundershovvers", we think instinctively of a
weather report. (It would be hard to imagine two
old villagers discussing the weather and speak-
ing of the "likelihood of scattered thunder-
showers” - though it is not, of course,
impossible.)
As an introductory activity, offer the students a
selection of language fragments such as these,
and ask the class - as a single group - to sug-
gest contexts from vvhich the fragments might
be drawn. And, if possible, to complete the
vvording.
A few more examples:
English
. Light refreshments...
. Scattered thundershovvers...
. Keep well out of reach of...
.... took a hammering from ...
French
. Ne pas consommer apršs ...
.... mais il reste toujours k voir si...
.... ont constatš une Išgšre emšlioration ..
. Je vous prie de bien vouloir...
The purpose of the activity is not to find the
“right" ansvver, but to suggest a plausibie con-
text. Once the students have offered their sug-
gestions, the full source is revealed, e.g. In the
finals of the Basketball Championship, Canada
took a hammering from Cuba: 71 -106.
Note. This is not just a warming-up activity. It
helps to draw students’ attention to the close
link (in both languages) between language and
context. (A link vvhich is sometimes ignored in
EFL textbooks.) Ali fragments should be dravvn
from authentic sources, and the students
should be given the full context at the end of the
activity.
Source language influence
Although the mother tongue exerts an un-
doubted influence over language learners, little
attention is paid to its effect in most (British) EFL
materials. Perhaps because it is tacitly assumed
that this is a matter best dealt with by the in-
dividual teacher. Perhaps, too, because the
focus in most EFL vvorks is exclusively on
English. But the influence of the mother tongue
cannot be removed simply by being ignored.
Translation, because it involves the use of
both languages, reveals most effectively the in¬
fluence of one upon the other. I have in mind not
just differences of vocabulary, or "faux amis",
but also the more elusive questions such as
those of word order, register, stress, choice of
structures, etc. It is these factors - the “invisible
influences" - vvhich often distort our use of the
foreign language. And it is translation vvhich can
best make us avvare of their effect. Consider
these three examples:
In 1950, domicile-vvork trips represented
more than 80% of RATP traffic. At the present
time, this percentage is about 50%. By the
year 2000 it will probably — about 40%.
a) have descended to
b) have dropped to
c) be as lovv as.
The research and development institute, and
the design and production departments —
the most modem computers of Hevvlett Pack¬
ard make.
a) are provided with
b) have
c) are equipped with
Mostar has a Mediterranean climate with long
warm summers and mild vvinters. — Mostar
has practically no dead tourist season, and
attracts visitors throughout the year.
a) As a result
b) Thanks to its climate
c) Due to these ideal climatic conditions.
VVhichever vvording one chooses for the
gaps, each of these sentences vvould be "gram-
matically" correct. But grammatical correctness
is not ali. There is a difference betvveen a trans-
lated sentence vvhich doggedly follovvs the
source language and one vvhich is thought
through in the target language. The first example
was translated from French. The expression the
translator used vvas a) "have descended to”,
(aura probablement baissš/ descendu jusqu’ h
...?). Both b) and c) vvould be preferable in
English.
24 MOSTOVI 2/1991/XXVI
In the second example, translated from
Slovene, the translator used a) “are provided
with", a formulatlon vvhich comes directly from
the source language. Yet b) or c) would have
been more appropriate. In the third example,
translated from Serbo-Croatian, we again see
source language influence, in the translator's
choice: c) Due to these ideal climatic condi-
tions. Here, the register is too formal for the con-
text.
These are aspects of language vvhich, though
difficult to teach, need to be learnt. In my
opinion, they are best learnt through translation.
Translation can also help to make students
avvare of those differences betvveen languages
vvhich may not emerge vvhen the focus is ex-
clusively on the foreign language (L2). Words
and expressions, for instance, vvhich can be un-
derstood vvithout the help of the dictionary, yet
vvhich can often not be translated even with the
help of the dictionary.
Peter Nevvmark gives atypical example: (5)
Retenir like assurer is one of those madden-
ing vvords that have too many meanings, and
the dictionaries fail to stress the most typical
ones, vvhich I think are: "accept", "consider"
and “take into account" (a proposal, an argu¬
ment, a project).
"Everyday vvords"
For the language learner, some of the most
useful translation activities are those vvhich test
the potential of common vvords and expres-
sions. Suitable material is not hard to find. In ali
languages there are certain operative vvords and
expressions vvhich vvill occur on almost any
page. VVords such as: get, go, make, take, put
... (or, avoir, tenir, mettre, trouver, obtenir,
etc.)
In the translation class, the students vvork on
a range of material dravvn from different sour-
ces, but vvith a common focus. For instance, the
use of get or go in English:
RABIES CAN KILL!
Rabies is a serious hazard ali overthe vvorld.
You can get it if you are bitten ... by an in-
fected dog. If you’re bitten vvhile abroad:
. Get medical attention fast. Go to the nearest
hospital. You may need rabies vaccination.
BEFORE YOU GO ABROAD
. Get your doctor’s advice, if you have any ill-
ness. But you can only get a small supply of
medication under the NHS for use vvhile you
are away.
.... It may be difficult and expensive to get
treatment vvhere you are going.
(Brochure, Department of Health and Social Security)
"I must fly," cried Sally. 'Trn about tvvo hours
late already!"
“Got a new boyfriend?" But Sally ignored my
grin.
Tve got to see a man on business," she said
briefly.
"When shall vve meeet again?"
Til have to see, darling. I’ve got such a lot on
... I'll let you knovv. I may be going to
Frankfurt quite soon.
"Have you got a job there?"
"No. Not exactly".
(from Christopher Ishervvood, Goodbye to Berlin)
These tvvo passages shovv that material from
different sources can usefully be combined in
translation.
(While in English one can get: a job, a nevv
boyfriend, medical attention, doctor’s advice, or
even rabies, in French the verbs needed vvould
probably be: trouver, chercher, consulter, at-
traper ... but not obtenir.)
Notions and functions
Translation can serve a useful role in lan¬
guage reinforcement. Particularly in areas vvith
vvhich the students are familiar, but not adept.
One of these areas is that of functions, eg. ways
of expressing obligation, possibi-
lity/capability, necessity, cause and effect,
intention, etc. (4)
MOSTOVI 2/1991/XXVI 25
Since this topič is dealt with in some detail in
Transiation 12', I shall add here only two
remarks. Firstly, in looking for suitable material,
it helps to think first of the context in which a
particular function or expression is likely to
occur. For instance, medical and scientific
reports abound in the language of cause and ef-
fect, while expressions of condition or pos-
sibility (if-ciauses) can readily be found in
contracts, regulations, and instruction manuals.
Secondly, in selecting examples one should
keep an eye open for “disguised" expressions,
ie. vvords or phrases vvhich might be rendered
by different structures in the target language.
The three sentences below, for instance, are ali
expressions of condition/possibility, but in the
third the if (si) is disguised as En caso de ...
. Si detecta la existencia de una fuga de
gas, cierre la llave de pašo general de la in-
stalacion de gas...
. Si no puede contactar con la Empresa In-
staladora, llarne al Servicio de Urgencia de la
Compania.
. En caso de detectar fuga de gas en un
aparato, cierre la llave de pašo del mismo ...
(GAS, Consejos e Informacion, Catalana de Gas)
Just in passing I should like to add that, al-
though material such as this may seem "dry" to
some language teachers, it is generally well
received by the students. This may be because
the context is clear, the sentences are relatively
short, and there is some purpose to the transla-
tion exercise. (If you had an English guest stay-
ing with you, you might actually need to explain
what the booklet saysl). One can also work on
such material in two ways - ora!ly and in vvriting
- with one group of students giving an off-the-
cuff spoken interpretation, and the other a more
considered vvritten version of the text.
Idiomatic language; colloquialisms, cultural
differences
Idiomatic language is a nail made of soft
metal: when you hammer it, it bends. In foreign
language usage idioms are often hammered
when they should be gently tapped:
. David Oistrakh, one of the world’s ace
violinists, ... Flis repertoire includes the
cream of violin concertos.
(Record sleeve, translated from Russian)
. At the same time zenith and beginning of a
prodigious culture, his work makes up the
keystone of our musical history.
(A la fois sommet et point de dšpart d’une
culture prodigieuse, son oeuvre forme la clef
de voute de notre histoire musicale.)
(Muridor record sleeve, translated from
French.)
. The nightspots here - discotheques, coffee
houses and snack bars - are open far into
wee hours, drawing many night owls.
(Guide to Tokyo)
In each čase, the idiom is out of plače: ace
violinist (a mismatch: ace is reserved mainly for
sportsmen); the cream of violin concertos (unin-
tended clichš); makes up the keystone (vvrong
verb: is the keystone); far into wee hours (vvrong
quotation: the wee small hours), dravving many
night owls (slightly dated, second-hand expres-
sion - perhaps dug out of the dictionary?)
In a foreign language, idioms and collo-
quialisms are notoriously difficult to handle cor-
rectly. Yet students do need to have at least a
passive understanding of them. Transiation will
immediately reveal vvhether an idiom or collo-
quialism can be naturally transferred to the tar¬
get language, or vvhether it is being forced upon
it.
VVhere idioms are concerned, languages rarely
match on a one-to-one basis. Even a simple col-
loquial expression, such as to make it, may
have no suitable L1 equivalent:
. People come to Bombay to "make it", not be
idle. Consequently, there are thousands in
marginal occupations.
If there is no L1 equivalent for "to make it", a
synonym must be used, eg. "to succeed".
I vvould not claim that transiation can teach
students hovvto use idiomatic language correct-
ly, but it can help them to čope more adequately
vvith idioms when they arise.
26 MOSTOVI 2/1991/XXVI
VVith regard to English (as a foreign lan¬
guage), this is an area in which much usetul
work can be done on, for instance, phrasal and
prepositional verbs.
Conclusion
The ideas outlined above have germinated
slowly. For nearly twenty years, I vvorked both as
a translator and as a vvriter of EFL materials. But
there was, alas, little opportunity to bring these
two worlds together. Translation and language
learning were treated as worlds apart. It is only in
the last five years that some border-crossing
points have been opened. This opening-up has
certainly been accelerated by the recent, and
welcome, changes in Eastern Europe. Political
changes have brought changes in language.
One of the important effects of these changes
- now that much of the jargon has gone - will be
to reaffirm the vitality of what formerly existed
only as "underground" languages (Hungarian,
Czech, Polish, etc.).
By the year 1992, talented translators will be
in great demand. But they will not be found if
language teaching programmes continue to
focus on the foreign language at the expense of
the mother tongue. It may be true that few lan¬
guage students will become professional trans¬
lators, but it is also true that most, in their
professional lives, will use translation. Should
they not be given some practice?
Translation can be an effective tool in lan¬
guage teaching, but only if it is properly used:
for teaching, ratherthan testing.
References
1 Dr lan Tudor, in "ELT Journal", October 1987.
2 See: Alan Duff, Translation, Oxford University
Press: Resource Books for Teachers, 1989
3 See: Peter Newmark, 'Paragraphs on Translation
- 5", in The Linguist, 1/1990. "Unless it is
exceedingly complex, grammar is not usually a
major problem in translation."
4 Alan Duff, Translation, op. cit.
5 See: Peter Nevvmark, "Paragraphs on Translation
- 5", op. cit.