27 Keji Felix Faniran Keji Felix Faniran Osun State University, Osogbo College of Humanities and Culture Nigeria felixfaniran@gmail.com ANALYSIS OF LINGUISTIC FEATURES IN THE FRENCH TRANSLATION OF OSOFISAN’S ONCE UPON FOUR ROBBERS 1 INTRODUCTION As long as there are literary works then linguistic features will always be pertinent in communication, which is also applicable to translation studies. A language is like an um- bilical cord that is inseparable in communication, either in an oral or written form. The use of language in this paper is very unique, as both the source and the target texts depict the linguistic background of the focal playwright. As with other writers, Femi Osofisan, a Yoruba man in Nigeria, exhibits his cultural background in the presentation of the text Once Upon Four Robbers. The playwright makes use of Yoruba songs, incantations, Ifá 1 panegyrics, Yoruba dirges and other Yoruba cultural items in developing the intrigue of his play. This is also reflected in the playwright’s choice of words and the presentation of his messages to the audience. It is clear that while two languages can have identical linguistic features, they cannot have wholly the same linguistic elements. Both English and French languages rarely have the same structural features at the linguistic level, and this is reflected in our study. The deep review of the text in this study convinces us that there are a lot of obstacles associated with the translation of plays, especially when such plays contain some elements of indigenous languages, folk songs, jokes, incantations, Ifá chants, mimes and other indigenous thoughts. The translation of indigenous thoughts from indigenous languages into European one is often full of tasks that need cross­cul- tural knowledge as a result of cultural variations. In this study, the approaches employed are descriptive and comparative. The data is chosen from the texts and analyses are made by comparing the linguistic features from the source and target texts, and this is based on the interpretative theory of translation. The examples presented in this study are directly from the text and its translated version. 1 Ifá­ This is one of the divinities in Yoruba lands, in Nigeria. UDK 81'255.4=111=133.1:82Osofisan F. DOI: 10.4312/vestnik.12.27­42 Vestnik_za_tuje_jezike_2020_FINAL.indd 27 Vestnik_za_tuje_jezike_2020_FINAL.indd 27 21. 12. 2020 15:39:05 21. 12. 2020 15:39:05 28 VESTNIK ZA TUJE JEZIKE/JOURNAL FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGES 2 TRANSLATING DRAMA TEXTS The mission of a translator of a dramatic work is slightly different from that of other literary genres because it involves performance. A drama text is written in order to be performed on stage. Drama translation is also impossible without relating it to the socio­ cultural context in which it was conceived. Drama texts cannot be translated like other genres of literature, such as prose and poetry, and the three major genres of literature can- not be read in the same manner. Some parts of a play may create an unending suspense which, if a translator is not conversant with this, they may not be able to translate or sup- port the message of the source text in the target text. Drama texts are full of dialogues, rhythms, intonations, patterns, pitches, changes in volume and other dramatic elements. Linguistic expressions in most drama texts are symbols or signs constituted not only as discourse signs, but also as other signs. According to Komissarov (1991: 5) In translating a play, the translator must bear in mind the requirements of theatrical presentation of such play; at all times, the translator must hear the voice that speaks and take into consideration the ‘gesture’ of the language, all rhythms and pauses that occur when the written text is spoken. This shows that drama as a genre of literature is very different from other genres be - cause it involves actions. The translator of a drama text must put such actions in their mind in order not to miss out the aesthetics and embellishments of the source text in the target text. The experience of Samuel Beckett, playwright and self­translator, shows the tremen- dous influence of self­translation on the message of the translator’s original text. Beckett’s En attendant Godot is translated by the playwright as Waiting for Godot, which makes clearer certain aspects of his mindset in the translated version. In Holmes’ view (1970:79), the points of difference between the author of the original and the translator are perhaps another way of viewing equivalence as an objective criterion of translation quality: The differences between the author and the translator are governed by the dif- fering social and literary situations. The conventional designation of which is the taste of the day. In practice, these differences between the original and the translation can be reduced to shifts in the structural process. Each individual method of translation is determined by the presence or absence of shifts in the various layers of the translation. All that appears as new with respect to the original, or fails to appear where it might have been expected, may be inter- preted as a shift. The fact that the process of translation involves shifts in the semantic properties of the text does not mean that the translator wishes to un- deremphasise the semantic appeal of the original. The very opposite is true. Vestnik_za_tuje_jezike_2020_FINAL.indd 28 Vestnik_za_tuje_jezike_2020_FINAL.indd 28 21. 12. 2020 15:39:05 21. 12. 2020 15:39:05 29 Keji Felix Faniran From Holmes’s analogy about translation it can be deduced that it involves shifts that are cultural or linguistic in the structural process. He also emphasises the relevance of method and style of translation in order to achieve the semantic appeal of the original. 2.1 Problems Relating to the Translation of Drama Texts Many translation scholars have made different assertions as regard the problems facing the translations of drama texts. It is noted that every genre of literature poses some specific problems of translating into a particular language, and drama translation is no exception. The fundamental fact about the problems of translating drama texts, or plays, is that the tasks are related to cultural, linguistic and performative issues. Many literary translations fail to achieve the fame and quality of the original texts as a result of factors relating to this reality. Some of the impediments are based on the cognitive, stylistic, ethical or cultural and performance strictures. Most translators translate word­for­word without considering the integral unit and translating in sections. Moreover, some drama texts are not translated intention by intention, and thus elements of pragmatics and discourse prosody in translation are not taken into consideration. Another problem is related to the author’s style, in which may not be comprehended by the translator. An individual writer has their own her style of writing, and a translator should not insist on the style of the source text but instead the focus should be how the source message could be passed to the target audience. Furthermore, the style that is incorporated in a translation can aid the better comprehension of the audience. There is also a problem of false friends (faux-amis), which is rampant in general translation. Moreover, in plays proper names are normally changed to suit the graphic and phonic instances of the source text, but very often this brings about contradictions. There is also a problem of the mistranslation of information, sub­interpretation of the original text and as well superficial interpretation of connections between intentional correlatives. Drama texts cannot be translated in the same way as prose, because they involve action and performance. According to Steiner (1975:396): A bad translation is one which is inadequate to its source­text for reasons which can be legion and obvious. The translator has misconstrued the original through ignorance, haste, or personal limitation. He lacks the mastery of his own language required for adequate representation. He has made a stylistic or psychological blunder in choosing his text; his own sensibility and that of the author whom he is translating are discordant. Where there is difficulty, the bad translator elides or paraphrases. Where there is elevation he inflates and where author offends he smoothes. Vestnik_za_tuje_jezike_2020_FINAL.indd 29 Vestnik_za_tuje_jezike_2020_FINAL.indd 29 21. 12. 2020 15:39:05 21. 12. 2020 15:39:05 30 VESTNIK ZA TUJE JEZIKE/JOURNAL FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGES Steiner’s point here is that a bad translation moves far from the concept of the source text as a result of misconception or ignorance, haste or some other reasons that can arise in the work of a translator. For example, perhaps the translator lacks knowledge of the languag - es involved. Kolawole and Moruwawon (2007: 375­379) state that “the translator had the responsibility of finding a solution to the most daunting problems, and he declared that the functional view must be adopted with regard not only to meaning but also to style and form”. This reiterates the relevance of style and form in translation, and Kolawole and Moruwawon say that the solution to the most daunting problems of translation is to adopt not only the meaning of the original but also its stylistic preoccupation. The word ‘meaning’ has different implications, and these can be polysemous or ambiguous in nature. Therefore, a translator is expected to put into consideration aspects of cognitive premises, psychology and socio­ linguistics in their work, and above all the appropriate choice of words is necessary. Another problem associated with the translation of drama texts is an indirect use of language (figurative expressions). The aesthetic use of figurative expressions in literature and most especially in plays can result to over­ or under­translation of the source message into the target language. Furthermore, it is as well noted that the methodology used in translating prose is sometimes also inappropriately used to translate drama texts. Further- more, Nord (1991) categorises the problems of translating drama into different phases – as pragmatic problems which refer to the fact that there may be difference between the situ - ations in the source and target cultures. These differences include time, place, and so on, and in order to identify potential pragmatic problems we need to check the extra textual factors for each text. He further states that there are a number of linguistic problems, as most scholars emphasise. These arise as a result of differences in the structure, vocabulary and syntax of the source and target languages. Along with the other problems of translat- ing drama are those related to cultural issues. According to Nord, cultural problems are the result of the differences in norms and conventions that guide verbal and non­verbal behaviours in the two cultures involved, as every culture has its own habits and conven- tions. He also notes that there are text­specific problems, which depend on the type and nature of the texts involved in translation. This means that problems may arise as a result of the complexity of the material in a particular text. This can be in the form of the choice of words, use of figures of speech, choice of proverbs, and so on. Moreover, most of the problems mentioned in this section are reflected in the current study, with quite a few is - sues raised with regard to untranslatability, culture­based problems, style and semantics, and by extension discourse prosody. 2.2 Interpretative Theory of Translation The interpretative theory of translation is interdisciplinary in nature, because it is adopted in translation studies, sociology, applied linguistics, psychology and many other fields of studies. The theory was developed by two translation scholars in the 1970s, with Seles- kovich and Lederer (2001) challenging the view prevailing at that time that: Vestnik_za_tuje_jezike_2020_FINAL.indd 30 Vestnik_za_tuje_jezike_2020_FINAL.indd 30 21. 12. 2020 15:39:05 21. 12. 2020 15:39:05 31 Keji Felix Faniran Translation was no more than a linguistic activity, one language being merely transcended into another. She believes translation is a triangular process­ from language to sense and from sense to the other language. The Interpretative The- ory of Translation was coined before translation studies became a field of study. Seleskovich and Lederer see translation as a triangular process – from language to sense and from sense to the other language. In connection with the theory, the process of translation is divided into three phases: comprehension, deverbalisation and reformula- tion or re­expression. According to Selescovitch and Lederer (1983): The component comprehension means adding extra linguistic knowledge to lin- guistic signs, new information constantly enriching extra­linguistic knowledge. There is another important element in the interpretative theory according to Selesco- vitch (1983): The process of translation is the “deverbalisation” to comprehension and re- formulation. Everybody deverbalises in one way or the other. For instance, we do keep in mind facts, notions, concepts and events conveyed by words, but we do not retain the words in our memory. Languages and thoughts are located in different areas of the brain. The concept of deverbalisation in Interpretation Translation Theory is common in oral speech and interpretation; it is more dif- ficult to observe in written translation. Deverbalisation needs an extra effort by translators to implement. In the stage of deverbalisation, sense is freed from all linguistic structures of the source language. The next stage is the reformation of meaning according to the two theorists. In this stage, a translator re­expresses the message of the source text into the target message. In this case, meanings are expected to be more important than words. In the interpretative theory of translation, the translation of a text should produce the same cognitive, affective and aesthetic effects on readers as the original text does through comprehension, deverbalisa - tion and reformulation. Selescovitch and Lederer (1983) support the idea by remarking that: Croire qu’interpréter consiste à passer directement d’une langue à l’autre pos- tule des savoirs, dire qu’interpréter consiste à passer par le sens postule en outre de l’intelligence. To believe that to interpret is to pass directly from one language to another and this postulates knowledge, to say that interpreting is to go through the meaning to postulate in addition to intelligence. (Our translation) Vestnik_za_tuje_jezike_2020_FINAL.indd 31 Vestnik_za_tuje_jezike_2020_FINAL.indd 31 21. 12. 2020 15:39:05 21. 12. 2020 15:39:05 32 VESTNIK ZA TUJE JEZIKE/JOURNAL FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGES This shows that meaning takes prominence in the act of translating and interpreting, with knowledge of the source and target languages having a very important position. 3 ANALYSIS OF LINGUISTIC FEATURES IN THE FRENCH TRANSLATION OF OSOFISAN’S ONCE UPON FOUR ROBBERS 3.1 Translating Once Upon Four Robbers as Il était une fois quatre voleurs The first linguistic feature to be considered in Osofisan’s play is the presentation of the title and how it is translated into French. Since translation can be done in numerous ways to suit the original message in the target text, as suggested by the interpretative theory, the issue of sense for sense translation is pertinent here. A title of this nature can be translated into different forms without losing the original message of the source text, and this all depends on the discretion of the translator. Considering Osofisan’s title from the literal point of view, one would have thought that the translator should have presented as Quatre voleurs, or Une fois quatre voleurs or Il y avait quatre voleurs. The title in the source text is idiomatic, and Nicole Medjigbodo approaches its translation in an idiomatic manner. She was able to find the cultural and linguistic equivalence of the title in the French milieu. The translator would also have thought of other alternatives if she could not find the cultural and linguistic equivalent of the title in French, and other options could be Quand jadis, quatre voleurs or Autrefois, quatre voleurs. In essence, the translator approached the French trans- lation of the title by trying to find the direct equivalent to the expression. The expression Once upon a time is common among Africans, most especially at when elders narrate a story or tell a tale under the moonlight. Nicole Medjigbodo thus presents her French title to be able to depict the semantic content of the source text in the target text. 3.2 French translation of pidgin and other expressions Indigenous languages or dialects can be in the form of vernaculars, which include from dialects, slang, street languages, argots, pidgin, lingo, jargon, idioms, patois, idiolects, and so on. A vernacular can be any language spoken or written outside the official language of the linguistic community. In Osofisan’s literary opus, there are numerous local languages. Despite the deliberate use of poor English by the playwright to create humour and satire and to depict the class level of the speakers, Nicole Medjigbodo was able to translate the words, phrases and sentences according to the intention of the playwright. For instance: Yess aaah............................... ou ……! Darring mi! 2 ......................... ma chéééérie! 2 Darring mi! It means “my dear” Vestnik_za_tuje_jezike_2020_FINAL.indd 32 Vestnik_za_tuje_jezike_2020_FINAL.indd 32 21. 12. 2020 15:39:05 21. 12. 2020 15:39:05 33 Keji Felix Faniran Yes, di yah! ................................ I’ am here! How many pickin we get? 3 ....... On a combien de gosses? Pardon? ...................................... Quoi? Shirrup! ...................................... La ferme Pitakwa 4 .................................... Local name for Port­Harcourt (p.57) In the above examples, we can observe that there are certain vernacular expressions or items of slang employed by the playwright. According to the interpretative theory of trans - lation, the translator re­expresses or reformulates the jargons and pidgin of the source mes - sage. Seleskovitch and Lederer emphasise that the rendering of the message of the source text may not necessarily take the same linguistic pattern as the original message. The source message must be reformulated to the target message in a language that the target audience can fully understand. In the context of the current study, Medjigbodo attempts to find the equivalents of the local pidgins so as to produce the messages of the source text in the target text. She translates the vernacular expressions by replacing those vernaculars in English with others French, which is the target language. It is certain that she must have made some effort to be able to find the equivalents of the above expressions, since they are not standard French like the other elements represented in this study. From the above expressions, we can deduce that Osofisan employs the vernacular to create some dramatic effects, such as satire and humour; likewise, Medjigbodo’s French translation of the expressions is done with the use of pidgin French. For example, the expression “Darring mi!” is translated as “Ma chéeeerie!” From this expression, we can observe that the translator does the French translation according to the message from the source text. 3.3 Translation of Koranic Verses In the source text of our study, the use of Koranic chants is common from the prologue of the work to the epilogue. This is because this literary work involves the activities of a Muslim cleric, Aafa. Equally, as part of the intrigue of the play there is the use of a mixed religion, with elements of Islam and traditional religions. To reinforce this idea of syncretism, in the play Aafa, a Muslim cleric, brings out the paraphernalia of Ifá and that of Islamic chants. In the view of Hatim and Munday (2004:15): The notion of untranslatability is described as a relative notion, and it has to do with extent to which, despite obvious differences in linguistic structure (gram- mar, vocabulary, etc), meaning can still be adequately expressed across lan- guages. But, for this to be possible, meaning has to be understood not only in 3 How many pickin we get? This means how many children do they have? 4 Pitakwa. This concentrates on the accentuation of Port­Harcort. Vestnik_za_tuje_jezike_2020_FINAL.indd 33 Vestnik_za_tuje_jezike_2020_FINAL.indd 33 21. 12. 2020 15:39:05 21. 12. 2020 15:39:05 34 VESTNIK ZA TUJE JEZIKE/JOURNAL FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGES terms of what the source text (ST) contains, but also equally significantly, in terms of such factors as communicative purpose of translation. In our study, our selected text has various kinds of aesthetic functions which mean the issue of untranslatability is a common one. For instance, in Once Upon Four Robbers Osofisan makes use of some well­known Islamic chants, likewise, Medjigbodo uses the same chants and expressions directly without translating them. i. Aafa: il étend la natte tout en chantant: Ataiyatu : lilahi 5 Azakiyatu: lilahi Ike oluwa: 6 lilahi Ige oluwa: 7 lilahi, Ko lo ba Mohamadu – Lilahi Ataiyatu Salamatu ! Etc. (p.16) ii. Aafa : Wahalu hairu hafizan, wauma arihamu rohimim. (p.17) From the above example, it can be deduced that the translation of Islamic chants cannot be easy, except when such chants are subjected to transliteration, and in this way translators can translate the chants into other indigenous and foreign languages. The idea is applicable to our text, Once Upon Four Robbers, where the playwright translates his songs in Yoruba language into English so as to make the translation easy for non­Yoruba translators and to have a wider audience. 3.4 Translation of Proper Nouns A noun that is designated to a particular being or thing, does not take a limiting modi- fier, and is usually capitalised, is called a proper noun. It is obvious from our study that Osofisan makes use of different proper nouns such as the names of deities, kings, places and so on. For instance : Medjigbodo’s Translation