A NNALE Anali za istrske in mediteranske študije Annali di Studi istriani e mediterranei Annals for Istrian and Mediterranean Studies Series Historia et Sociologia, 26, 2016,1 ISSN 1408-5348 UDK 009 ISSN 1408-5348 AnnaleS Anali za istrske in mediteranske študije Annali di Studi istriani e mediterranei Annals for Istrian and Mediterranean Studies Series Historia et Sociologia, 26, 2016, 1 koper 2016 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 ISSN 1408-5348 UDK 009 Letnik 26, leto 2016, številka 1 UREDNIŠKI ODBOR/ COMITATO DI REDAZIONE/ BOARD OF EDITORS: Glavni urednik/Redattore capo/ Editor in chief: Odgovorni urednik/ Redattore responsabile/Responsible Editor: Uredniki/Redattori/Editors: Gostujoči urednik/Guest editor Tehnična urednica/Redattore tecnico/ Technical Editor: Prevajalci/Traduttori/Translators: Oblikovalec/Progetto grafico/ Graphic design: Tisk/ Stampa/Print: Izdajatelja/Editori/Published by: Za izdajatelja/Per Editore/ Publisher represented by: Sedež uredništva/Sede della redazione/ Address of Editorial Board: Simona Bergoč, Furio Bianco (IT), Milan Bufon, Lucija Čok, Lovorka Čoralic (HR), Darko Darovec, Goran Filipi (HR), Vesna Mikolič, Aleksej Kalc, Avgust Lešnik, John Martin (USA), Robert Matijašic (HR), Darja Mihelič, Edward Muir (USA), Claudio Povolo (IT), Vida Rožac Darovec, Mateja Sedmak, Lenart Škof, Tomislav Vignjevic, Salvator Žitko Darko Darovec Salvator Žitko Mateja Sedmak, Gorazd Bajc, Tina Rožac Peter Sekloča, Mojca Pajnik Urška Lampe Petra Berlot (it., ang., slo.) 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ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Anali za istrske in mediteranske študije - Annali di Studi istriani e mediterranei - Annals for Istrian and Mediterranean Studies UDK 009 Letnik 26, Koper 2016, številka 1 ISSN 1408-5348 VSEBINA / INDICE GENERALE/CONTENTS Aleksandr A. Cherkasov, Vladimir G. Ivantsov, Roin V. Metreveli & Violetta S. Molchanova: The Destruction of the Christian Historical-Cultural Heritage of the Black Sea Area: Trends and Characteristics (the Late 18th and First Half of the 19th centuries).................................................. 1 La distruzione del patrimonio storico-culturale cristiano dell'area del Mar Nero: tendenze e caratteristiche (tardo '700 e prima meta de!!'800) Uničenje krščanske kulturnozgodovinske dediščine v pokrajinah ob Črnem morju: težnje in značilnosti (konec 18. in prva polovica 19. stoletja) Dragana Kujovic: Oriental-Islamic Cultural Identity in Montenegro - A Museum Artefact Story.................13 Identita culturale orientale-islamica in Montenegro - una storia di manufatto museale Islamska orientalska kulturna identiteta v Črni Gori - zgodba muzejskih artefaktov Tina Košak: Sv. Didak iz Alkale ozdravlja bolne. Oltarna slika Pietra Mere v cerkvi sv. Ane v Kopru in njen slogovni ter ikonografski kontekst.................25 San Diego d'Alcala guarisce i malati. Aspetti stilistici ed iconografici della pala d'altare di Pietro Mera nella chiesa di Sant'Anna a Capodistria St. Diego of Alcala's Miraculous Healing. The Altar Painting by Pietro Mera in the Church of St. Anne in Koper and its Stylistic and Iconographic Context Sanja Reiter: Delimitations Regarding Fishing in the Adriatic Sea between Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and Kingdom of Italy after the First World War. The Brijuni Convention From 1921 ...................................... Delimitazioni relative alla pesca nel mare Adriatico tra il Regno dei Serbi, Croati e Sloveni e Regno d' Italia dopo la prima guerra mondiale. L'Accordo di Brioni dal 1921 Razmejitev v zvezi z ribolovom v Jadranskem morju med Kraljevino Srbov, Hrvatov in Slovencev in Kraljevino Italijo po prvi svetovni vojni. Brionski sporazum iz leta 1921 Borut Žerjal: Societa cooperativa per la costruzione di case in Capodistria: Primer ljudske gradnje v Kopru................................53 Societa cooperativa per la costruzione di case in Capodistria: Un esempio dell'edilizia sociale a Capodistria Societa cooperativa per la costruzione di case in Capodistria: A Case Study of Social Housing in Koper Zvonko Kovač: Razvoj slavistike - od slovanske filologije do interdisciplinarne solidarnosti...............67 Sviluppo della slavistica - dalla filologa slava fino alla solidarieta interdisciplinare Slavic studies development - from the Slavic philology to an interdisciplinary solidarity Nada Šabec: Language, Literature and Ethnic Identity: the Case of the Vancouver Slovene Community.................................................75 Lingua, letteratura e identita etnica: Il caso della comunita slovena di Vancouver Jezik, književnost in etnična identiteta v vancouverski slovenski skupnosti Agnieszka B^dkowska-Kopczyk & Špela Antloga: Ključne besede slovenske kulture. Interdisciplinarni pristop..........................................85 Le parole chiave della cultura slovena. Un approccio interdisciplinare Key words of Slovene culture. An interdiscipinary approach Melita Zemljak Jontes & Alenka Valh Lopert: 43 Pismenost v teoriji in praksi - temeljni cilj slovenskega institucionalnega izobraževalnega Sistema..........................................95 Alfabetismo in teoria e pratica - Obiettivo fondamentale del sistema educativo istituzionale in Slovenia Literacy in Theory and Practice - a Fundamental Objective of the Slovenian Institutional Education System ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Anali za istrske in mediteranske študije - Annali di Studi istriani e mediterranei - Annals for Istrian and Mediterranean Studies Peter Sekloča: Politična učinkovitost digitalnih državljanov: komuniciranje v strukturirani hierarhiji moči.................................107 Efficacia politica dei cittadini digitali: comunicazione nella gerarchia strutturale del potere Political effectivness of digital citizens: communication in the structured hierarchies of power Tanja Oblak Črnič: Mladi državljani in institucionalna politika v kontekstu participativne digitalne kulture...............................119 Giovani cittadini e la politica istituzionale nel contesto della cultura digitale partecipativa Young Citizens and Institutional Politics in the Context of Participatory Digital Culture Majda Hrženjak & Mojca Pajnik: (Samo)percepcije mladih v polju političnega: izzivi za državljanstvo........................................... 133 (Auto)percezione dei giovani nel campo politico: sfide per la cittadinanza (Self) Perception of the Young in the Political Field: Challenges for Citizenship Jernej Amon Prodnik: The instrumentalisation of politics and politicians-as-commodities: A qualitative analysis of Slovenian parties' understanding of political communication....................................145 La strumentalizzazione della politica e politici-come-merce: analisi qualitativa delle posizioni dei partiti sloveni sulla comunicazione politica Instrumentalizacija politike in politiki-kot-blaga: kvalitativna analiza stališč slovenskih strank o političnem komuniciranju Marko Ribac: The Slovenian political field and its constraints..................................................159 Ambito politico sloveno e i suoi vincoli Slovensko politično polje in njegove omejitve Peter Berglez: Few-to-many communication: Public figures' self-promotion on Twitter through "joint performances" in small networked constellations.......................................171 Comunicazione "da pochi a molti": autopromozione delle persone pubbliche su Twitter attraverso "i'azione comune" nelle piccole costellazioni collegate Komunikacija od peščice k mnogim: Samopromocija javnih osebnosti na Twitterju s skupnim nastopanjem v malih spletnih konstelacijah Kazalo k slikam na ovitku........................................185 Indice delle foto di copertina Index to images on the cover Navodila avtorjem................................................... 186 Istruzioni per gli autori............................................. 188 Instructions to authors..............................................190 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 original scientific article DOI 10.19233/ASHS.2016.1 received: 2016-03-11 the destruction of the christian historical-cultural heritage of the black sea area: trends and characteristics (the late 18th and first half of the 19th centuries) Aleksandr A. CHERKASOV International Network Center for Fundamental and Applied Research, Russian Federation Dr. (History), Head of the laboratory of world civilizations e-mail: sochi003@rambler.ru Vladimir G. IVANTSOV Sochi State University, Russian Federation Roin V. METREVELI Georgian National Academy of Sciences, Georgia Violetta S. MOLCHANOVA International Network Center for Fundamental and Applied Research, Russian Federation ABSTRACT This study represents the first ever attempt to assess the degree to which the Christian historical-cultural heritage of the Black Sea area has been preserved to the present day and identify the reasons as to why that extent varies so much, with some of the temples being well-preserved (those in Abkhazia) and others lying in ruins (those north of the area between the Psou River and the modern-day resort city of Anapa). The authors' use of the historical-comparative method and extensive application of the method of comparison of historical facts. The authors conclude by inferring that the principal reason behind the destruction of Orthodox monuments in the historical-cultural heritage of the Black Sea area was the activity of Islamic extremists during the period between the 1830s and 1850s, as part of their struggle against Christianity as a phenomenon. Keywords: Black Sea area, Abkhazia, historical-cultural heritage, Byzantine temples, Islam, Christianity, Paganism LA DISTRUZIONE DEL PATRIMONIO STORICO-CULTURALE CRISTIANO DELL'AREA DEL MAR NERO: TENDENZE E CARATTERISTICHE (TARDO '700 E PRIMA METÀ DELL'800) SINTESI Lo studio rappresenta il primo tentativo di valutare l'attuale stato di conservazione del patrimonio storico-cultura-le cristiano nell'area del Mar Nero e identificare le ragioni dei grandi contrasti riscontrati tra alcuni templi molto ben conservati (quelli di Abcasia) e altri completamente in rovina (i templi al Nord dell'area tra il fiume Psou e la città turistica moderna di Anapa). In base ai risultati dello studio, nel quale si sono avvalsi del metodo storico-comparativo e di una vasta applicazione del metodo di raffronto di fatti storici, gli autori concludono che il motivo principale della distruzione dei monumenti ortodossi nel patrimonio storico-culturale dell'area del Mar Nero è stata l'attività degli estremisti islamici nel periodo tra il 1830 e il 1850 come parte della loro lotta contro il fenomeno del cristianesimo. Parole chiave: area del Mar Nero, Abcasia, patrimonio storico-culturale, templi bizantini, islam, cristianesimo, paganesimo 1 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Aleksandr A. CHERKASOV et al.: THE DESTRUCTION OF THE CHRISTIAN HISTORICAL-CULTURAL HERITAGE OF THE BLACK SEA ..., 1-12 INTRODUCTION During the period of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the examined portion of the Black Sea area was inhabited (from north to south) by such tribes as the Natukhai, Shapsugs, Ubykhs, Jigets, and Abkhaz (Fig. 1). These tribes, in varying proportions, professed paganism, Christian beliefs, and, increasingly, Islam. Note that with the Natukhai, Shapsugs, and Ubykhs, due to closeness to the Turkish fortress of Anapa, Islam initially was professed chiefly among their noble mountaineer clans, which contributed to the more intensive spread of the religion. It was these nobles who, led by a desire to regain their former status in mountaineer society, which they had lost during the civil war of 1785, sought to promote the ethics and forms of governance in alignment with the precepts of the Quran. The Jigets and the Principality of Abkhazia retained the feudal aristocratic form of government. The year 1810 marked the start of the process of incorporating Abkhazia into the Russian Empire. An autonomous principality all along since then, Abkhazia would, eventually, go on to be annexed by the Russians in the mid-1860s (Lakoba et al., 1991). Somewhat different from the afore-mentioned tribes of the Black Sea area were the Samurzakan, who lived along the border with Georgia, spoke a dialect influenced by Mingrelian, and almost exclusively professed Christianity. The afore-noted originality of the tribes which inhabited the Black Sea area was the principal factor in the attitude towards Christian monuments in their territories. The study's chronological range is as follows. The lower limit is the year 1785, associated with the civil war in the area, which brought about modifications in the existing system of government and changes in the locals' religious beliefs as a consequence of Islam being promoted among them. The upper limit is the mid-19th century, when the strife of Islamic extremists against Christianity in the area was over. And here is the geographical range covered by the study. The historical material under examination deals with the littoral portion of the Black Sea area from Anapa to Abkhazia inclusive. MATERIALS AND METHODS In writing this article, the authors made use of reports from archaeological expeditions, sources of personal Figure 1: A map of the area's tribal formations 2 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Aleksandr A. CHERKASOV et al.: THE DESTRUCTION OF THE CHRISTIAN HISTORICAL-CULTURAL HERITAGE OF THE BLACK SEA ..., 1-12 origins from travelers and emissaries from the period of the Caucasus War, as well as scholarly publications and some reference literature related to the issue under study. Among the materials left behind by travelers and emissaries, of particular interest are the diary notes of Englishman James Bell, French Swiss Frédéric Dubois de Montperreux, and Pole Teofil tapiñski. The work carried out by the authors is based on the principle of historicism. The fact that some of the temples have been destroyed in one portion of the area under study and some have been preserved in the other is viewed as the result of specific social-historical conditions shaped by a set of deciding external factors. The authors' use of the historical-comparative method and extensive application of the method of comparison of historical facts made it possible for them to identify the key preconditions for the period's phenomena and reveal the cause-and-effect relationships between them. An important characteristic of this study is that no historical events related to the destruction of Christian cult buildings have been reflected in the related sources. The mountaineer tribes, which knew no writing, could simply not have left any written accounts of them, while the related testimonies of Europeans who visited the region are quite fragmentary and scant. This lack of information is filled, to one degree or another, by findings from archaeological research, various indirect testimonies from preceding works, as well as logically substantiated hypotheses. DISCUSSION It is worth noting that the topic explored by this study has never been the subject of serious scholarly discussion. Also, for a long time, the region remained closed to travelers, i.e. someone capable of supplying detailed descriptions of the area. Things changed only in the late 18th century, when the area's population began to come under the impact of first the Ottoman Empire and then the Russians. The fact that there are no sources from the medieval and late-medieval periods may well suggest that Christian temples must have been destroyed here as a result of military conflicts or natural disasters. There have been numerous archaeological expeditions around the area's cult sites, but nearly none of them has reported solid scientific evidence as to when a particular temple was destroyed (Natolochnaya et al., 2015). RESULTS In the territory of the present-day Black Sea area from Anapa to Abkhazia, there is not a single undamaged medieval temple that has survived to this day. During the period between the 10th and 12th centuries, this territory was part of the Zikh diocese in the Constantinople Orthodox Church. Afterwards, the Europeans would long Figure 2: The ruins of the temple in Loo; its present-day condition call the locals 'Zikhians' or 'Zikhs'(de Montperreux, 2010). For many centuries, the Zikh diocese had been having its cultural impact across the Trans-Kuban Region as well. Much of the cultural influence on the region also came from Christian Georgia. Since the 1740s, attempts to restore Christianity among the native population of the North Caucasus had been made by the Ossetian metochion, later known as the Ossetian Spiritual Commission, which had been in operation, including in Abkhazia, with a few intervals up until 1860 (Savenko, 2011). The influence of Orthodox Christianity was founded on numerous temples and monasteries from the medieval period, which have reached our day with varying degrees of preservedness. The density of the concentration of temples in the examined territory of the Black Sea area was significant. Across the coastline alone, which extends 230 kilometers from Sochi to the southern part of Abkhazia, there currently are 26 medieval temples which have been preserved to varying degrees, including 10 temples in Greater Sochi, 6 in Jigetia, and 10 in Abkhazia (Dbar, 2006). It is worth noting that some of the Christian cult structures were situated within the area of fortresses. This study's sample incorporates only the temples outside fortress compounds, almost all of them located within the littoral zone. Among the temples in Greater Sochi, the one in the best condition is located in the vicinity of the settlement of Loo. The temple of Loo has been explored in depth by Soviet archaeologist Yu.N. Voronov, according to whom "The temple in Loo is situated 2 km from the sea coast at an altitude of about 200 meters. The monument's south wall is destroyed completely, while its west and east walls are, likewise, badly damaged by time. Only its north wall still retains its former height. The temple's outer dimensions are 12.25 m wide by 21 m long. The 3 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Aleksandr A. CHERKASOV et al.: THE DESTRUCTION OF THE CHRISTIAN HISTORICAL-CULTURAL HERITAGE OF THE BLACK SEA ..., 1-12 walls' thickness is up to 1.1 meters" (Voronov, 1979). On the strength of descriptions from archaeological expeditions, the temple's exterior has been reproduced through reconstruction to give one an idea of what it looked like during the period of its cult activity. According to archaeologists, the walls of the temple in Loo were made of reworked limestone blocks and sandstone and slate slabs. Sandstone was used to face the entire outer surface of the walls, as well as the windows and the door. The blocks made up the bonding foundation of the pilasters piercing the walls. The solution was a mixture of very coarse sand and selected pea gravel. An important part of the solution was special organic-inorganic composite material which incorporated such organic supplements as milk, egg-white, rice water, etc. It is the use of these supplements that made for amazingly sturdy brickwork, which was virtually immune to moisture and time (Vinogradov et al., 2013). The rural locality of Lesnoe (in Adlersky City District in Greater Sochi) contains the ruins of two Byzantine temples. The picture below features the basilica Les-noe-2. The temple is believed to have been built somewhere between the 7th and 8th centuries. It is a three-aisled and triapsidal structure, with a narthex before the main (west) entrance. The surviving parts of the wall were put together using the ashlar masonry technique. The basilica is about 18.25 m in length, including the narthex; the reconstructed width of its three aisles is 16 m. The structure functioned as a cult building until the 14th-15th centuries. Additionally, here are some of the other temples in the area which are in ruinate condition: those in Khosta, Lesnoe, Kashtany, on Mount Akhun, underneath Mount Yefrem, and others (these are located in Adlersky City District and Khostinsky City District in Greater Sochi). We could presume that the temples in Loo, Lesnoe, and other places in the Black Sea area were destroyed by a devastating earthquake. But this immediately raises a number of questions: 1) Why were the temples not restored afterwards?; 2) What must the power of an earthquake be for it to be able to knock down a temple built with special limestone brickwork, with walls of a thickness of no less than 1 meter; 3) Why did the earthquake not destroy any other temples located relatively not that far from the destroyed ones? To answer these questions, we need to compare the destroyed historical-cultural heritage of the Black Sea area with its counterpart in Abkhazia. The geographical territory of Greater Sochi borders on that of Abkhazia. In contrast with those in Sochi, Abkhazia's early-medieval and medieval cult structures have been preserved in all their original splendor. Below are two drawings of the temples in Pitsunda and Dran-da. These are the earliest drawings which date back to the 1830s. The temples across Sochi and Abkhazia are dated to similar chronological periods, and the structures belong to the same architectural school. There were temples from the Eastern-Byzantine school of architecture throughout the Black Sea area, including Abkhazia. Its center was Trebizond. Here are some of the school's major characteristics. The mainstream Syrian architectural tradition predetermined the massive, ponderous, and compact character of the school's cult structures, which were based on simple geometric shapes. The building mass was little articulated, faceted apses being an exception. The structures had smaller window openings and were predominated by blank surface walls. Most of the time, they stood isolated and were situated on elevated ground and hills. The interiors of Trebizond's buildings employed pillars for support, which were mostly cross-shaped, massive, and heavyish and divided the inner space into separate 4 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Aleksandr A. CHERKASOV et al.: THE DESTRUCTION OF THE CHRISTIAN HISTORICAL-CULTURAL HERITAGE OF THE BLACK SEA ..., 1-12 Figure 5: The temple in Pitsunda; a lithograph after a drawing by Frédéric DuBois De Montperreux, 1833 parts, which made it look compartmentalized. The main construction material was ashlar stone. So, we have every reason to believe that in building temples in this area they used the same construction materials, forms, and techniques. If, assumingly, the Byzantine temple in Lesnoe was razed to the ground as a result of an earthquake with a maximum magnitude of 10, then, according to seismologists, the shocks within 30 kilometers of the epicenter would have had to be no less than 5-6 points in magnitude. The ruins of the temple in Lesnoe are in the vicinity of the road from Adler to Krasnaya Polyana, and the distance between Adler and Gagra is 30 km along the coastline. This means that in the event of a major earthquake in the area of Adler, the temple in Gagra would have been destroyed too, albeit not even the roof of its narthex was damaged (Fig. 8). Quite logically, this leads us to conclude that the destruction of Byzantine temples in the Black Sea area was not caused by a natural cataclysm. The drawings of the temples in Abkhazia contain one more very important detail - there is some vegeta- tion shown, whose age could be estimated, considering the characteristics of the formation of the ground, at 50 years. Which means the desolation of the place began in the late 18th century. So, what really was going on in the littoral areas? In 1785, a civil war broke out in the Russian Black Sea area and Abkhazia, which was provoked by an uprising led by Sheikh Mansour in Chechnya (Cherkasov et al., 2015a). During the war, new religious rules began to be instituted in these Christian territories, with the Quran getting ground alongside the Bible, the Psalms of David, and the Book of the Evangelists (Cherkasov et al., 2014). The process of the implantation of Islam in the area was going in an augmented fashion and with substantial amplitude. There started to appear lots of mullahs in the territories, with increasingly much of the trade being conducted with the mountaineers - adherents of Islam. Polish emissary Teofil tapinski, who fought alongside the mountaineers during the last period of the Caucasus War, noted that "the clergy in the land of the Adyghe can be divided into two classes. The first one incorporates the old Christian-Pagan clergy, called the Jiour, 5 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Aleksandr A. CHERKASOV et al.: THE DESTRUCTION OF THE CHRISTIAN HISTORICAL-CULTURAL HERITAGE OF THE BLACK SEA ..., 1-12 Figure 6: The Cathedral of the Dormition of the Mother of God in Dranda; a lithograph after a drawing by A. Nordmann, 1835 who, being illiterate, have never enjoyed much respect and have, therefore, never been able to compete with their Mahometan counterpart, with its mysterious Quran replete with wisdom, which, according to the Adyghe, was written by almighty Tkha himself. These old priests hold their church services and rites openly only in certain places on the shore of the Black Sea; and most of the time they pray in secret; the new Mahometan clergy hate them and persecute them" (tapinski, 1995). One should not take T. tapinski's personal evaluations of the mountaineers' old faith and its inconsistences seriously, for tapinski fought on the side of the Moslem Adyghe against Russia. What matters is that Teofil tapinski describes this in the late 1850s - i.e. it took just 70 years from the moment the Quran was introduced into circulation in the area for its residents' former religion to become the object of persecution virtually throughout the region. It is worth noting that the only written record outlining the circumstances of the destruction of the region's historical-cultural heritage belongs to Edmund Spencer. He visited the Black Sea coast in 1836 and traveled from Gelendzhik to Mingrelia along the seashore. While staying in the land of the Shapsugs, he made the following 6 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Aleksandr A. CHERKASOV et al.: THE DESTRUCTION OF THE CHRISTIAN HISTORICAL-CULTURAL HERITAGE OF THE BLACK SEA ..., 1-12 have destroyed several interesting remains of antiquity, such as churches and convents of the earliest Christians, under the apprehension that the invaders might transform them into forts, and thus enslave them. This demolition is the more to be regretted as there is every reason for believing that many contained records of high value and great antiquity" (Spencer, 2008). It is worth noting that in 1836 there were a great many non-Moslems among the mountaineers in the area. The destruction of Christian monuments must have caused controversy among the Christian-Pagan clergy and their congregation. A role here was played by the Islamic version of a military-political reason for the destruction of Orthodox churches and monasteries. To be able to effectively sort this issue out, we need to examine the geographic location of those structures - say, the one in Loo. As we have mentioned above, the temple is 200 meters above sea level and 2 km from the seashore. Sending landing forces down there meant a virtual death sentence for them, for they would be easily encircled by the enemy. This means it was totally impossible to use the temple as a military site or a strongpoint during the Figure 8: The Temple of Saint Hypatius of Gagra (the early 6th century) An engraving after a drawing by Frédéric Dubois de Montperreux, 1833 Figure 7: A diagram map of the area's major historical-cultural heritage sites notes in his diary: "Since the Russians have taken possession of the old church and convent at Vadran, and fortified them, I have been assured that the Abasians 7 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Aleksandr A. CHERKASOV et al.: THE DESTRUCTION OF THE CHRISTIAN HISTORICAL-CULTURAL HERITAGE OF THE BLACK SEA ..., 1-12 Figure 9: An ancient cross hanging on a tree near the village of Socha Caucasus War. On top of that, temples in the Black Sea area were small in dimensions (no more than 100 square meters), which meant their garrison could not have consisted of more than 10 men. Thus, the region's cult structures were not likely to pose any military threat. The 1830s were marked by the arrival of foreign secret agents in the Black Sea area. The interference of foreigners in the affairs of the mountaineers began almost immediately following the Treaty of Adrianople. Apart from foreigners, to destabilize the situation in the Black Sea area, they also used individuals from the local population. At first, the job of the emissaries was to spread misinformation and provide advice, but in a short while it was already more of abetting a popular uprising (Ber-zhe, 1881). The emissaries promised support from the English government, Ottoman Empire, and Egyptian Pasha. This support manifested in the gratuitous distribution of arms, lead, and powder (Berzhe, 1881). Putting all of these subversive projects into effect required considerable finances. These finances were coming in, along with secret agents, with enviable regularity from Turkey by sea (Karataev, 2014). To illustrate the validity of our hypothesis regarding the destruction of the area's Byzantine temples through the human factor, we shall give you one more example -a temple in the area of a fortress in Gagra. The settlement of Gagra was part of the territory of the tribe of Jigets. The Jigets bordered Abkhazia along the Bzyb River and the Ubykhs along the Khosta River. As you may know, the area from the mouth of the Kuban River to Poti officially became part of Russia following the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829. As early as 1830, Russia brought a garrison into the area of the medieval fortress in Gagra and kept it there up until the Crimean campaign, i.e. until 1854 when the Russians left Gagra. Over the course of the existence of the Gagra fortification, the Russian leadership was able to enter into a dialog with the Jigets and, most importantly, the Jiget gentry. There is reason to believe that the relationship developed between the Russians and the Jigets contributed to the temple being preserved during the period between 1854 and 1864, i.e. up until Mu-hajirism - the mountaineers' exodus to Turkey. Within the context of this subject, it is important to clear up the issue of the attitude of the mountaineer princes (the pshi) and nobles (the uorks) towards the outcomes of the civil war of 1785. One of its most significant effects was permission to profess Islam in the littoral areas, something not allowed before. The other crucial outcome was the fact that the civil war deprived the mountaineer gentry - the Natukhai, Ubykhs, and Shapsugs - of the rights they had enjoyed for centuries. The reins of power shifted to the people's assemblies, where the gentry only had the right to vote alongside the commoners. These radical changes did not, obviously, suit the princes and nobles within the mountaineer community. Teofil tapinski notes that the gentry remembered with pain their lost greatness and tried to always hold together (tapinski, 1995). The gentry's new status did not just manifest in their disgruntlement. There are numerous testimonies to the fact that the littoral princes and nobles had themselves enlisted in the Russian service during the military confrontation of the Caucasus War (Cherkasov et al., 2015c, ADACS, Cherkasov et al., 2015b). On top of that, they even solicited the Russian leadership to reinstate serfdom in the littoral areas, i.e. help them restore their authority (Cherkasov et al., 2014). Concerning the gentry's attitude towards Islam, of interest is the testimony of English emissary James Bell about Ubykh prince Ali Akhmet Oblagou, who carried a Spanish sword as a weapon and had never been spotted by foreigners saying a Moslem prayer, and was even suspected to adhere to the old faith (Bell, 2007). J. Bell also left a detailed description of a cross (Fig. 9) hanging on a tree on Mount Aoubla-Arnykh in the vicinity of the village of Sasha (today's Sochi): "Here I came to the object of my curiosity, pendent from the arm of a huge old oak, to which it was attached by an iron wedge. The accompanying sketch can best convey some idea of this curious relic of antiquity and undoubted proof of Christianity having once here prevailed, as well as of the locality chosen for it. The hooks were the recipients of many a various offering, which were scrupulously left there till borne off piecemeal by the elements. Some rags of the last showed that such offerings had not long since been made" (Bell, 2007). The cross was in immediate proximity to the Russian fortification of Navaginskoye. The Ubykhs, fearing that the Russians might attempt to found on it a claim to the area, suggested taking it down and moving it to a safer location, but Ubykh prince Ali Akhmet Oblagou rose in opposition of that and ordered it be protected where it had been set up. By defending the cross, Ali Akhmet Oblagou referred to it directly as a relic of the faith of his remote ancestry (Bell, 2007). 8 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Aleksandr A. CHERKASOV et al.: THE DESTRUCTION OF THE CHRISTIAN HISTORICAL-CULTURAL HERITAGE OF THE BLACK SEA ..., 1-12 At the same time, many faithful Circassians observed only the external rules of Islam. On the one hand, they totally quit drinking wine, but, on the other, that did not prevent them from consuming the other kind of alcohol - mead, a beverage made with honey and fermented grape syrup. The mountaineers consumed local vodka as well (Bell, 2007). Naturalist Frédéric Dubois de Montperreux notes: "Only the Circassian princes and gentry - who are Moslems - observe Mahometan rites, but they do it only for the sake of salving their conscience and with total indifference; and they often make fun of all those ceremonies" (de Montperreux, 2010). In our view, the fact that a portion of the area's princes and nobles adopted Islam had to do with their attempt to retain control of the majority of the local population, by leaning on the Quran as well as some knowledge of the nature of social relations in Turkey, which was exemplary to them. The events of 1785 associated with the forced modification of the system of governance urged the mountaineer gentry to look for allies. The local gentry joining hands with the Russian leadership started to become a regular practice throughout the region. Teofil tapinski notes that very few uorks and pshi did not collaborate with the Russian leadership, namely the clans of Tsatsiok in Djougba, Abat on the Abin, and Berzek and Brak in Ubykhia (tapinski, 1995). The events of the civil war of 1785 were preceded by the Treaty of Georgievsk signed in 1783 between the Georgian kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti and the Russian Empire. Subject to the treaty, tsar Irakli II would recognize the patronage of Russia and partially discontinue the pursuit of an independent foreign policy, pledging that the kingdom would faithfully serve the Russian empress with its military. Catherine II, in turn, would act as a guarantor of Kartli-Kakheti's independence and territorial integrity. Georgia would be granted total sovereignty. The two sides went on to exchange envoys (Yuzhakov, 1903). Once signed, the treaty was in force for 3-4 years. Then there was considerable resistance on the part of Turkey. Under its influence, there was an increase in incursions into the Georgian lands of the Lezgins from Dagestan and the Akhaltsikhe pasha. There was a sharp rise in the activity of murids in Dagestan and Chechnya; the year 1785 saw the initiation of a civil war on the coast, including in Abkhazia. During the period of 1802-1804, eastern and western Georgia became part of the Russian Empire, and 1810 saw the start of the process of incorporating the Principality of Abkhazia into the Russian Empire. In 1822, the rule of Abkhazia was passed over to pro-Russian prince Mikhail Shervashidze. However, complicated relations within the prince's family resulted, 8 years later, in the emergence of a movement for making Abkhazia a territory under Turkish control. That is what, in our view, the civil war of 1785 was all about. Prince Shervashidze was, however, able to prevent this from happening, as he kept things under control until the arrival of Russian troops, which effectively quelled the movement. Using a minor detachment of the Russian army and his Abkhaz militia, M. Shervashidze was able to secure the area against the activity of Islamic radicals. Thus, thanks to the efforts of the Russian leadership and prince Mikhail Shervashidze, Abkhazia's historical-cultural heritage was preserved. While the situation in Abkhazia stabilized, Islamic radicals were still active in the northern part of the Black Sea area. Among the most prominent of them was one of Shamil's naibs, Magomet Amin, who, essentially, was in charge of the littoral areas during the period of 18481859. Here is how Head of the Postal Service of the Ottoman Empire Ismail Pasha characterized Magomet Amin in 1856: "...this man is a fanatical mullah, just recently a figure of consequence thanks to the spread of Mohammedanism, but his influence has totally withered away now and he no longer has any authority to wield; besides, the naib is an irreconcilable enemy of any Christian, so we must be on guard for him almost as much as the Russians do, should he, God forbid, become powerful again" (tapinski, 1995). A testimony to the activity of newly converted Moslem mountaineers, Magomet Amin's henchmen, who destroyed Christian monuments across the area from the mouth of the Kuban River to the Shapsukho River (the lands of the Natukhai and Shapsugs), was left by Teofil tapinski: "There are still quite many gravestones around here with inscriptions in Latin on them and plain crosses hewn from solid rock or made of wood. The new Moslems are on a constant hunt for these symbols and are doing their best to destroy them" (tapinski, 1995). Following the capture of Shamil in 1859 and Mahomet Amin's flight to Turkey, the situation in the area changed. According to T. tapinski, "The residents of the littoral area no longer wanted to hear about either the naib [Magomet Amin] or Sefer [Sefer-pasha, the Sultan's vicegerent in Circassia]; adherents of Christian and Pagan rituals, they hated Mohammedanism emanating from Dagestan and Constantinople alike" (tapinski, 1995). CONCLUSION The local population of the Black Sea area, prior to Islam spreading around there, had, to one degree or another, been adherents of Christian, as well as Pagan, beliefs. The major attributes of Christian worship among the area's locals are the medieval temples from the Byzantine period and religious paraphernalia related to Christianity. As a result of the civil war of 1785, the region had to go through the process of change in the religious beliefs of its residents, which involved the forced implantation of Islam in the area, the Ottoman Empire's Caucasus 9 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Aleksandr A. CHERKASOV et al.: THE DESTRUCTION OF THE CHRISTIAN HISTORICAL-CULTURAL HERITAGE OF THE BLACK SEA ..., 1-12 policy being a defining factor in the situation in the re-gmn- Islamic expansion in the region was characterized by the total destruction of Christian cult structures across the littoral area from Anapa to Abkhazia, while temples in Abkhazia and Jigetia were left undamaged. The differences in the magnitude of destruction in the various parts of the Black Sea area were associated not only with the efforts of the Russian leadership in Abkhazia but the stance assumed by the ruler of the Principality of Abkhazia, Mikhail Shervashidze. Systematic destruction of Orthodox sanctuaries by Islamic radicals took place during the period between the 1830s and 1850s. The process involved more than one stage and had a number of distinctive characteristics. The first period (the 1830s) was characterized by the destruction of temples under the pretense of pre- venting the Russians from using them as military defensive fortifications. During the second period (the 1840s-1850s), every single Christian monument in the area's historical-cultural heritage was subjected to destruction. The principal cause behind the destruction of Orthodox monuments in the historical-cultural heritage of the Russian Black Sea area was the purposeful activity of Islamic extremists. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study was prepared within the framework of the laboratory of world civilizations of International Network Center for Fundamental and Applied Research. The theme is "Small nations in the extreme conditions of war and peace (historical and comparative study)". 10 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Aleksandr A. CHERKASOV et al.: THE DESTRUCTION OF THE CHRISTIAN HISTORICAL-CULTURAL HERITAGE OF THE BLACK SEA ..., 1-12 UNIČENJE KRŠČANSKE KULTURNOZGODOVINSKE DEDIŠČINE V POKRAJINAH OB ČRNEM MORJU: TEŽNJE IN ZNAČILNOSTI (KONEC 18. IN PRVA POLOVICA 19. STOLETJA) Aleksandr A. CHERKASOV Mednarodno omrežno središče za temeljne in aplikativne raziskave, Ruska federacija e-pošta: sochi003@rambler.ru Vladimir G. IVANTSOV Državna univerza v Sočiju, Ruska federacija Roin V. METREVELI Gruzijska narodna akademija znanosti, Gruzija Violetta S. MOLCHANOVA Mednarodno omrežno središče za temeljne in aplikativne raziskave, Ruska federacija POVZETEK Kulturnozgodovinska dediščina ruskega ozemlja ob Črnem morju je bogata s spomeniki iz preteklosti, začenši z velikim številom najdišč prazgodovinskih naselbin v regiji. Med najpomembnejše zidane spomenike tega področja se uvrščajo templji iz bizantinskega obdobja. Samo v Sočiju z okolico, ki se razteza preko 100 km daleč vzdolž obale Črnega morja, je deset templjev, ki so bili uničeni v začetku 19. stoletja. S pričujočo študijo smo kot prvi poskusili podati oceno, kako dobro ali slabo ohranjena je danes krščanska kulturnozgodovinska dediščina na črnomorskem področju, in ugotoviti, zakaj so stopnje ohranjenosti tako različne, saj so nekateri od templjev v zelo dobrem stanju (denimo tisti v Abhaziji), od drugih pa dandanes ostajajo samo razvaline (denimo templji severno od območja med reko Psou in sodobnim letoviškim mestom Anapa). Raziskave so pokazale, da so bili dogodki po letu 1785 odsev težnje otomanskega cesarstva, da bi razširilo svojo oblast nad krščanske dežele goratih predelov črnomorskega področja, zaradi česar je zoper tamkajšnjo krščansko-pogansko duhovščino nastopilo z represivnimi ukrepi. Avtorji prispevka so na podlagi izsledkov prišli do sklepa, da je bilo uničenje pravoslavnih spomenikov kulturnozgodovinske dediščine v pokrajinah ob Črnem morju predvsem posledica delovanja islamskih skrajnežev v obdobju med letoma 1830 in 1850 kot del boja proti krščanstvu nasploh. Ključne besede: področje ob Črnem morju, Abhazija, kulturnozgodovinska dediščina, bizantinski templji, islam, krščanstvo, poganstvo 11 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Aleksandr A. CHERKASOV et al.: THE DESTRUCTION OF THE CHRISTIAN HISTORICAL-CULTURAL HERITAGE OF THE BLACK SEA ..., 1-12 SOURCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY ADACS = Archive Department of the Administration of the City of Sochi (ADACS). F. R-348. Op. 1. D. 8. L. 7-8. Bell, J. S. (2007): Journal of a residence in Circassia during the years 1837, 1838 and 1839. Vol. 1. Nalchik, Russia, El-Fa. Bell, J. S. (2007): Journal of a residence in Circassia during the years 1837, 1838 and 1839. Vol. 2. Nalchik, Russia, El-Fa. Berzhe, A. P. (ed.): (1881). Acts of the Caucasus Ar-cheographical Commission. In thirteen volumes (Vol. 8). Tiflis, Georgia, Tipografiya Glavnogo Upravleniya Namestnika Kavkazskogo. Cherkasov, A. A., Ivantsov, V. G., Šmigel, M., & V. S. Molchanova (2015a): The daily life and morals of Circassian society: A historical-comparative investigation based on sources from the period between the mid-16th and the first half of the 19th centuries. Brukenthal. Acta Musei, 10, 1, 77. Cherkasov, A. A., Ivantsov, V. G., Ustinovich, Ye. S., & V. S. Molchanova (2015b): Russia and Circassia: Problems in their mutual relations and characteristics thereof (the late 18th-early 19th centuries). Rusin, 4, 53-65. Cherkasov, A. A., Menkovsky, V. I., Ivantsov, V. G., Ryabtsev, A. A., Molchanova, V. S., & O. V. Natoloch-naya (2014): The "nobility" and "commoners" in Ubykh society: The reasons behind the social conflict. Bulletin of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences, 8, 3, 64-72. Cherkasov, A. A., Šmigel, M., Bratanovsky, S. N., & V. S. Molchanova (2015c): The Jikis and Jiketi under conditions of war and peace (1840-1860). Bylye Gody, 38, 4, 888-893. Dbar, D. (2006): A brief essay on the history of the Abkhaz Orthodox Church. New Athos, Georgia, Strato-fil. de Montperreux, F. D. (2010): Voyage around the Caucasus. In two volumes (Vol. 1, p. 49). Maykop, Russia, OAO Poligraf-Yug. Karataev, V. B. (2014): The activity of foreign emissaries across the Black Sea coastline area. Journal of the International Network Center for Fundamental and Applied Research, 1, 1, 4-12. Lakoba, S. Z., Voronov, Yu. N., Sagariya, B. Ye., Achugba, T. A., Bgazhba, O. Kh., Butba, V. F., . . . & R. P. Shamba (1991): The History of Abkhazia. Sukhumi, Georgia, Alashara. tapiriski, T. (1995): The mountaineers of the Caucasus and their struggle of liberation from the Russians. Nalchik, Russia, El-Fa. Natolochnaya, O. V., Zimovets, L. G. & N. I. Kryuk-ova (2015): Christianity in the territory of Russia's Black Sea area during the 8th-15th centuries: Historical and archaeological aspects. Bylye Gody, 38, 4, 779-785. Savenko, Ye. A. (2011): Issues related to periodizing the spread and restoration of Christianity in the North Caucasus. In Issues in and prospects for the study of the ecclesiastical history of the North Caucasus: Proceedings of the Fourth Svyato-Ignatyev Readings (2nd ed.), Stavropol, May 11-12, 2011. Stavropol, Russia, StPDS. Spencer, E. (2008): Travels in the western Caucasus: Including a tour through Imeritia, Mingrelia, Turkey, Moldavia, Galicia, Silesia and Moravia in 1836. Nalchik, Russia, Resp. Poligrafkombinat. Vinogradov, A., Beletskiy, D. (2013): Revisiting Byzantine influence in Caucasian architecture (the 9th-10th centuries). Vizantiyskiy Vremennik, 72, 97, 247-263. Voronov, Yu. N. (1979): Antiquities of Sochi and its environs. Krasnodar, Russia, Krasnodarskoye Knizhnoye Izdatelstvo. Yuzhakov, S. N. (Ed.) (1903): The great encyclopedia. In twenty-two volumes. Vol. 7. Saint Petersburg, Russia, Prosveshcheniye. 12 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 original scientific article DOI 10.19233/ASHS.2016.2 received: 2016-04-01 oriental-islamic cultural identity in montenegro - a museum artefact story Dragana KUJOVIC University of Montenegro - Podgorica, Historical Institute, Bulevar Revolucije br. 5, Podgorica e-mail: kujovic.dragana@gmail.com ABSTRACT Our interest in this research is to highlight ways of interpreting the symbols of Oriental-Islamic cultural identity in Montenegro. We are looking for the most representative sign of artefacts belonging to Oriental-Islamic material culture and this representative sign can be Arabic letter as well as inscriptions in Arabic script - as an obvious transmission of the distinctive cultural system. However, within the Oriental-Islamic cultural identity in Montenegro there is a mixture of original characteristics coming from the East and regional identity, so that the same cultural symbol in different usage tells us that our cultural identities are not reduced to a distinctive character of identity signs. Keywords: material culture, heritage, Montenegro, archives and museums, artefacts, Islamic Orient IDENTITA CULTURALE ORIENTALE-ISLAMICA IN MONTENEGRO - UNA STORIA DI MANUFATTO MUSEALE SINTESI La nostra intenzione in questa ricerca e quella di evidenziare diversi metodi dell' interpretazione dei simboli di identita culturale orientale-islamica in Montenegro. Stiamo cercando i segni piu rappresentativi dei manufatti ap-partenenti alla cultura materiale orientale-islamico e il piu rappresentativo dei segni pud essere l'alfabeto arabo o le iscrizioni in caratteri arabici - come l'esempio di un'ovvia trasmissione del sistema culturale distintivo. Tuttavia perd, all'interno dell'identita culturale orientale-islamica in Montenegro vi e una miscela di caratteristiche originali provenienti dall'identita Oriente e regionale, in modo che lo stesso simbolo culturale in uso differente ci dice che le nostre identita culturali non sono ridotte ad un carattere distintivo dell'identita segni. Parole chiave: cultura materiale, patrimonio, Montenegro, archivi e musei, l'Oriente islamico 13 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Dragana KUJOVIC: ORIENTAL-ISLAMIC CULTURAL IDENTITY IN MONTENEGRO - A MUSEUM ARTEFACT STORY, 13-24 INTRODUCTION In this essay we will try to study a museological segment bounded with a certain common symbolic element of the Islamic art and craft expression. As we know, the power of an image made by a group, lies not so much in what it shows, but in what it hides (Glus-berg, 1983, 11). According to the theory of structuralism, items in a museum could be explained in relation subject: symbol, so each one is a symbol or a sign in the museological context, and has its own meaning. The symbol is in a continuous dynamic process of expansion, change or deformation of its meanings, depending on the complexity of its connotations, accepted by the one who thus expresses his decision to respect certain rules and characteristics of a cultural identity. As far as the cultural identity is concerned, it should be seen as a relationship with others. In historical process, the cultural identity develops depending on the criteria that a particular group is established in relations with other social groups. In analysing the cultural identity of a particular group, it would be desirable for three fundamental levels to be distinguished (observable artefacts, values, and basic underlying assumptions) (Schein, 1990, 111). Our focus will be on museum artefacts in which certain culture manifests itself. The data in regard to these visible artefacts are easily obtained however are difficult to interpret. We can describe all discernible elements among members belonging to a social group, "but we often cannot understand the underlying logic of cultural patterns and their symbols" (Schein, 1984, 3-4). ARABIC HARF (A LETTER) AS A SYMBOLIC COMMON THREAD BETWEEN MUSEUM ARTEFACTS OF THE ORIENTAL-ISLAMIC ORIGIN Polysemy of the cultural memory in Montenegro spreads between opposite poles. We notice a certain ignoring of all visible traces of the Ottoman culture on one hand, and on the other an effort toward emphasising the rule of the Turks in the Balkans. Aside of associating the Turkish or Oriental-Islamic cultural heritage as foreign to us, Turks and Muslims as 'others', we also recognize the constitutional role of the Turks in forming our individuality. Trying to answer the question of how it is possible that these two positions are there at the same time, when it is clear that the acceptance of one implies the rejection of another, we should analyse our cultural memory among a lot of loans and layers in our language, music, lifestyle and culture. If we talk about "external signs" of a culture, we primarily have in mind the letter or written elements, and it does not mean that the suggestion cannot be applied to the entire field of visual culture. What about the visible, "external" signs of the Oriental-Islamic heritage in Montenegro? Most of today's generation has a very confusing image of the period of Ottoman rule in this country. If we are not suf- ficiently informed, and hence we cannot even have a clear idea, the indifference occurs as a result of the mentioned. The message of indifference is that the traces and any sign of the presence of the invaders should quickly go away, no matter that their rule ended yesterday or many years ago. However, what is actually motivated by this indifference? Within consequences of the indifference is obviously the fact that the Turkish monuments in this region now are rare, so that today, every piece of paper written in Arabic script is very precious. Stereotypes of a "cultural threat of Islam and Turks" and "Islam as the enemy and rival of Christianity, using some Christian truths for its own purposes" (Hourani, 1989, 236) made us to continue chasing vigorously our former conqueror, and therefore the most valuable fragments of the Oriental-Islamic heritage can be found in museums and archives far from Montenegro. How to gather them? What is the common thread and sign that can isolate and create the whole identified by the name Oriental-Islamic heritage of Montenegro? If we have in mind a thought that there is "...some awareness of the phenomenon, majestic and puzzling, of Islamic civilisation, stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, with Arabic as its lingua franca, the most universal language which had ever existed" (Hourani, 1989, 230), we got a starting point for our further analysis. Thus, we have found items marked with Arabic inscriptions in regional museums of Montenegro. The question is on what basis can we with certain make conclusions about these items? Without undertaking a research process, we cannot adequately compare these items with other ethnographic collections in museum funds, which have an established and documented history. These items cannot be given any dimension of credibility as testimonies of cultural history if they remain exposed as dumb contents of an antiquarian space. In a museological process an artefact can be selected as a document or as a witness to a particular period of time or a particular social group. Once selected, it is transferred into another space, functioning in a new way as a part of the new context which enables a different evaluation of the material culture in historical identity. In this open space of evaluation, the ideas are transferred from their natural context which exists in the real world, into a museum to define their museological value. However, being transferred into a museum context, the artefact becomes a subject of further interpretation of stored artefacts and their meaningful content in possible relations with the real world. We can say that the museum artefact is now open to new interpretations and meanings. Among artefacts belonging to the Oriental-Islamic heritage, and within the process of shaping a possible context of their public presentation, a collection should be described as a valuable memorial and a portrait of habits, standards and cultural priorities of a social group. For example, sometimes Islamic manuscripts were rewritten within regular school duties and other time copies of whole 14 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Dragana KUJOVIC: ORIENTAL-ISLAMIC CULTURAL IDENTITY IN MONTENEGRO - A MUSEUM ARTEFACT STORY, 13-24 Fig. 1 a, b, c: Parts of metal dishes with Arabic script (Rozaje, Pljevlja, 19th century) Fig. 1 a, b, c: Le parti di metallo di stoviglie con la stampa araba (Rozaje, Pljevlja, XIX secolo) Fig. 3: La bandiera con la stampa Fig. 2: Levha (Homeland Museum - Pljevlja, 19th century) araba (Moschea di Hussein-Pa- Fig. 2: Levha (citazioni caligrafiche del Corano) (Museo locale - Pljevlja) sha, XVI secolo) 15 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Dragana KUJOVIC: ORIENTAL-ISLAMIC CULTURAL IDENTITY IN MONTENEGRO - A MUSEUM ARTEFACT STORY, 13-24 Fig. 4: Kur'an in Husein-pasha's Mosque in Pljevlja (16th century) Fig. 4: Corano della Moschea di Hussein Pasha a Pljevlja (XVI secolo) books were made. This activity was a source of living for scribes, who were partly or well educated. Generally speaking, the ability of people to write was considered as a "special gift" and a book was considered as a somewhat holy object (Hadzimejlic, 2009, 25). We know cultures are set up in order to be easily transmitted and to establish a cultural identity. A culture proposes and consequently imposes specific and established standards to regulate life. A network of accepted standards represents a cultural identity. In our case or in the case of the items with Arabic inscriptions a network of accepted standards would be one that concerns the general characteristics of the craft skills of Oriental-Islamic culture or specific aesthetic needs of consumers for a cultural pattern. If we talk about the Oriental-Islamic written heritage, a religious sign is obvious, because it follows the spiritual achievements and aesthetic standards of the Islamic East. This sign is somewhat neutral, because Oriental-Islamic or Islamic written material appears in Iraq, Egypt, Turkey, Iran, etc., and this material is stored in libraries throughout all Europe. All this, perhaps, be- longs to the overall world heritage of Oriental-Islamic written treasures, which can be assessed by a still nonexistent universal list of general standards, but one that is created somewhere in a European country determines the cultural identity of the area and thus it inseparably belongs to it, as well as another non-Oriental cultural legacy. We believe that its value could certainly be determined in relation to other achievements at the global level, but what could conditionally be called its "local" character, is defined primarily in the context of all of what we call the cultural uniqueness of the community or area that has inherited it. If we isolate artefacts defined by Arabic script, we get a whole that is not created by the case, the name of the owner or the donor, because its elements have clearly established connection. Thus, despite their possible sporadic, insufficiently persuasive value and authenticity, they are transformed into a particular and not negligible cultural discourse. Of course, Arabic harf (a letter) cannot close a circle that it describes, but it certainly names it. Selected items from the museum collec- 16 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Dragana KUJOVIC: ORIENTAL-ISLAMIC CULTURAL IDENTITY IN MONTENEGRO - A MUSEUM ARTEFACT STORY, 13-24 Fig. 5: Gashevitch's translation of Mevlud into Bosnian language (Rozaje, 19th century) Fig. 5: Traduzione di Mevlud in bosniaco a cura di Gasevic (XIX secolo) tions of Montenegro, following the trail of Arabic and Ottoman script, are certainly part of an "Album" of a cultural memory. Arabic harf represents a connective thread in the Oriental-Islamic decoration on objects or ex-libris pointing to their owner, author or craftsman. If we know that the uniform and expected style of a craft or an artistic production within the framework of Oriental-Islamic makes any quest for significance of the author's name and signature senseless, we consider that the carved, woven, or written Arabic inscriptions are sure mark of identifying such museum items as persuasive parts of the mentioned cultural pattern. In museum funds and private collections of Montenegro we can find many metal, ceramic and textile items with Arabic script, as well as prints on the glass, and stone walls, and in the end, manuscripts - the original environment of harf, illuminated or significant, due to their centuries of age and beauty of the script. All of them are the representative as a specific expression of Oriental-Islamic literacy, aesthetic patterns and spiritual values, and above all, the Arabic alphabet in this case can be described as an obvious particular transmission of the distinctive cultural system. ORIENTAL-ISLAMIC PATTERNS OF DECORATION AND RELIGIOUS SYMBOLS AS A PART OF THE ORIENTAL-ISLAMIC AND NON-ORIENTAL HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL IDENTITY - FIVE ARTEFACTS FROM MONTENEGRIN MUSEUM FUNDS Beyond an artefact, there is a world and history of people who used the artefact, the events that surrounded it. Understanding the role that an object played in people's lives, the meanings it held to different individuals and communities, the way it reflected the common knowledge, values, and tastes of a particular era, allows the object to become a part of our history. With a single artefact, we can connect to a set of values and beliefs. In all religious traditions there are objects that are used in worship, or as reminders to followers of their beliefs, their traditions, and their identity. They represent a symbolic connection with the community and its history, 17 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Dragana KUJOVIC: ORIENTAL-ISLAMIC CULTURAL IDENTITY IN MONTENEGRO - A MUSEUM ARTEFACT STORY, 13-24 principles and beliefs, or a sign of belonging. Religious symbols serve to be a cohesive force within a society (Durkheim, 1995, 234), but symbols are also distinctive elements of our culture, making a difference and distance from others, and representation of the society in relation to the outer world. Here we try to talk about artefacts associated with specific religions which could also be linked to other belief groups and cultural traditions. Therefore, cultural interconnections are the key points in this part of our analysis. In many cases, such interconnections are described as impossible and rare, but life connects incompatible elements. Deep layers of our cultural history sometimes appear in signs and symbols, which belong to other religious tradition, with different and changed meanings. Members of a social group are connected by their symbols, or in other words, symbols make connections between very different parts of our reality. People are separated by their religion, language and tradition, but the same cultural symbol in different usage tells them that their connections and cultural identity are not reduced to a distinctive character of their identity signs. We want to say that certain religious or cultural signs are sometimes being transmitted, because a national or socio-cultural group has power to give them their own meaning. Religion is never merely metaphysics (Geertz, 1973, 126). For all people the forms or objects of worship are covered with a sense of deep moral and traditional meaning. A religious system consists of sacred symbols and settings so that the whole could be seen as creating a fund of general meanings stored in symbols: a cross, a crescent, or a feathered serpent. According to this symbolic whole, we interpret our individual experiences and organise our life. Religious symbols are in use in rituals or related to myths and deep layers of ethnic traditions. The subject often does not become valuable because of its precious material, but becomes valuable because of the special significance that carries in itself. Accordingly, the special significance that carries in itself is generated by our perception, and without these components, it's an ordinary, everyday element. On a wall above the southern entrance of Piva Monastery (16th century, Northern Montenegro) is a fresco of a Turkish very high-ranked man and, according to some analysis, a man on the fresco is Sokollu Mehmet Pasha, an Ottoman statesman. The legend says that prominent Turks from Drobnjak prayed in front of the fresco of Sokollu Mehmed Pasha in Piva Monastery, leaving a gold coin to the monks after their prayer (Bojovic, 1992, 242-243; Kujovic, 2010, 105). Truth or lie, the legend shows a very unusual cultural mixture represented in three key points of the story: 1) a fresco of a high- ranked Muslim, 2) Islamic prayer in the Christian house of God, and 2) Islamic prayer in front of a fresco. All mentioned highlights very deep rooted different layers of cultural interconnections that found a way of their expression in a picture of a Muslim on a church wall and in a folk legend. Just as a word has its basic meaning and also expands it, so a symbol, religious or not, can be used outside of an expected framework of its use and have multiple meanings. The phenomenon of multiple meanings is defined by the concept of polysemy. "As a symbol is used again and again, multiple meaning accrues, so the most meaningful symbols often are old rather than new" (Stewart, Hurwitz, 1996, 266). Symbols have their history, describing and functioning as axioms with initial stable meaning. By decoding of a related code, new complex components of the semantic field of the symbol are revealed to us. In four museums of Montenegro (Me-dun, Bar, Cetinje, Ulcinj) we chose five artefacts with atypical and unexpected use of what we mean religious or cultural symbols, and they are, as follows: a necklace with three different religious symbols (Fig. 6, Homeland Museum - Medun), Northern Albanian Christian folk costume decorated with crescents and stars (Fig. 7 a,b, Homeland Museum - Ulcinj), silver cross framed with Turkish coins (Fig. 8, Homeland Museum - Bar), an icon of the Mother of God with an inscription in Arabic (Treasury of the Cetinje Monastery) (Fig. 9), and the Turkish battle flag taken and used by the Montenegrin army with Islamic elements changed into Christian (Fig. 10, Homeland Museum - Bar). The three aforementioned artefacts (the necklace, folk costume and silver cross) are of the Albanian origin. The first one is stored in the Homeland Museum in Medun, but there is not any record about how it has come into the museum and to whom it had belonged. There's only a hypothesis that the artefact has Albanian origin, according to the region where it was found. It has three religious symbols, and among them is a crescent with star above. The other two artefacts have also Oriental-Islamic elements: crescents with stars and Turkish coins. But none of these three artefacts could be considered as Oriental-Islamic. The three religious symbols on the necklace are not distinctive elements to identify the necklace as a part of a religious tradition. Neither do the crescent moon featuring on the Albanian folk costume which is mostly worn by Catholic Albanians. It probably refers to old Albanian national tradition, closely related to Illyrian influences. As we all know, the crescent moons are not an original symbol of Islam and belongs to the ancient cult of the goddess Mother or goddess of the moon. Numerous Illyrian axes were known to have two blades which can visually represent a symbol of the moon, i.e. the phase of rising and the phase of falling moon, which again fully forms a circle which can symbolize a full moon. The adherence to ancient Albanian pagan beliefs also continued well till the 20th century, particularly in the northern mountain villages to which the costume refers. Alexander Hilferding, a Russian Empire linguist and folklorist from the 19th century, wrote that Albanians are indifferent toward religion, and Islam is only the form that they accepted to please the authorities. An Albanian Muslim is primarily Albanian, but Islam was for him a matter of secondary importance (Giljferding, 1972, 293). They remember very well that 18 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Dragana KUJOVIC: ORIENTAL-ISLAMIC CULTURAL IDENTITY IN MONTENEGRO - A MUSEUM ARTEFACT STORY, 13-24 their ancestors were Christians (Giljferding, 1972, 294). He noticed that according to Tosca Muslims customs, there is a strange fasting, the rest of Christian tradition, and this fasting is counted only on the basis of the visual sightings of the moon, so that sometimes does not coincide with the Christian fasting for a few days (ibid, 1972, 250). A British traveler from the beginning of the 20th century, Edith Durham admits that among Albanians "to get at real beliefs of either Muslim or Christian is most difficult" (Durham, 1910, 456). She also recorded that in Albania she had lived with Muslim tribesmen all night and all day, but she had never seen one prayed or performed the ceremonial ablutions, and his women were all unveiled (Durham, 1910, 456). The presence of a star above the crescent moon can be explained as a part of a popular form of the symbol. This crescent moon with a star is the symbol of Islam, but the crescent moon on the northern Albanian folk costume doesn't mean a religious symbol. It means the symbol featuring in ancient Albanian tradition. Edith Durham in her description of the Christian women folk costume in Scutari says: "... On the head is a flat black cap on the crown of which is sewn a crescent, or a double crescent, of silver-gilt filagree. Or a similar design is worked in gold thread. This crescent the Christian women say they have always worn, and that it is not Turkish. In this they are probably correct. The crescent and sun are very commonly tattooed together with the cross on all these Christian tribes-folk, men and women. This seems to be the remnant of some old pre-Christian belief not connected with Mahomedanism at all. The Moslems do not tattoo the crescent but a double triangle." (Durham, 1909, 51) She also noticed that "yet many of the grave-slabs in Dushmani churchyard are rudely scored with mysterious patterns in which the sun and crescent moon almost invariably occur, and the cross seldom - the symbols of the pre-Christian beliefs that still influence the people" (Durham, 1909, 166). The aforementioned artefact from the Homeland Museum in Bar - a cross covered by Turkish silver coins, confirms what we said. It's a true evidence that silver coins don't represent a symbol of Oriental-Islamic tradition or cultural identity in the region. These coins covering the cross have no cultural meaning, but only aesthetic, and can be considered as a precious decoration. In this part of our discussion, we should remind of a slogan made by a northern Albanian intellectual and poet Pashko Vasa that The religion of Albanians is Albanism. That means that there is a strong unifying cultural identity among Albanians, where even Muslims and Christians see themselves as Albanian before anything else. Albanian culture takes precedence over religion and this has been probably solidified historically by the common experience of struggling to protect the national culture in the face of various outside conquerors. And here we are noticing, that symbols can have any meaning, depending on the wishes of the person who interprets them (Willocks, 2009, 33). The fourth artefact we talk about in this essay is an icon of the Mother of God exposed and stored in the Treasury of the Cetinje Monastery, with an inscription in Arabic. The inscription is as follows: (literally: Holy Mother of God is mighty to ask the Lord for mercy, or: Holy Mother of God prays for us). The icon was a gift to Montenegrin King Nikola I Petro-vic from Patriarch of Antioch Melentije (beginning of the 20th century). Such icons from Palestine, Lebanon and Syria in the Ottoman period, often called Melkite icons, were painted with oriental details and sometimes bear their painter's signature, his native place and a date. From the 7th century, when the Arabs conquered the entire Middle East, the Melkites become in fact Arab Christians of the Byzantine rite. All Melkites are Arabs - (linguistic and cultural), they can be Lebanese, Syrians, Egyptians or Palestinians or they are Christians, Catholics, following the Byzantine (or Greek) rituals as Russians. Melkite artists learned the rules of painting and form of the icon from works brought to the Middle East and also from Greek artists who lived in Syria, Lebanon and Palestine. In the earliest period their works are characterized by decoration borrowed from Islamic art, but floral, vegetable and geometric designs covering the whole surface, and also Arabic inscriptions, are general traits that distinguish Melkite icons (Lewis, 2009). The aforementioned icon is something entirely created far away from the Montenegrin space and it can be considered as an imported and strange element. The presence of an Arabic inscription reveals with no doubt the Oriental origin, influenced by Islamic art, but the Christian nature of the artefact does not allow us to name it "Oriental" with an Islamic sign. The fifth artefact we talk about is the flag from the Homeland Museum in Bar, remade to be used by Montenegrin army and its original Islamic elements are changed into Christian. This change could be described as an attempt of making a motivating symbol of triumph and victory and the flag got a new meaning in comparison to its original symbols. In an introduction of a book named "Imaginarni Turcin" ("Imagining 'the Turk'"), written by Bozidar Jezernik (2010), we can also see a card from the author's private collection, showing a Turkish lion depicted as the German poodle (Jezernik, 2010, 23). Such images play a game with deep rooted motives, sending an emotional message and a common sign, very much like impressions left behind advertisements in our lives nowadays. These images are consumed as signs, like a brand name, the principal concept of advertising, whose function is to signal the product, as well as to mobilize of affect - they are "full of signification and empty of meaning", so that they speak in "a language of signals" (Baudrillard, 1988, 17). In the remade Turkish battle flag from the Homeland Museum in Bar we cannot talk about a mixture of symbols, created as a result of deep cultural interconnections, but it can be shown as an interesting witness of our sharply divided past. 19 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Dragana KUJOVIC: ORIENTAL-ISLAMIC CULTURAL IDENTITY IN MONTENEGRO - A MUSEUM ARTEFACT STORY, 13-24 Fig. 6: Necklace with three different religious Fig. 7 a, b: Northern Albanian Christian folk costume decorated symbols (Homeland Museum - Medun) with crescents and stars (Homeland Museum - Ulcinj) Fig. 6: Collana con tre diversi simboli religiosi Fig. 7 a, b: Costume nazionale cristiano del nord di Albania, (Museo locale - Medun) decorato di mezzalune con le stelle (Museo locale - Ulcinj) 20 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Dragana KUJOVIC: ORIENTAL-ISLAMIC CULTURAL IDENTITY IN MONTENEGRO - A MUSEUM ARTEFACT STORY, 13-24 a Fig. 8: Silver cross framed with Turkish coins (Homeland Museum - Bar) Fig. 8: Croce in argento incorniciata dalle monete otto-mani (Museo locale - Bar) Fig. 9: Icon of the Mother of God with an inscription in Arabic (Treasury of the Cetinje Monastery) Fig. 9: Icona della Madonna con la stampa araba (Tesoreria del Monastero di Cetinje) CONCLUSION Symbols are distinctive cultural features (implicit and explicit) and the structural part of the identity. These are more or less visible ethnic and cultural codes of a community for which it is believed that indicate a gathering of community members, as well as separate them from other communities. This definition was created as a summary of many studies confirming the ambivalent character of symbols at all. Every culture characterized by its own set of symbols associated with different experiences, traditions, history and perceptions. Symbols are a representative of reality and our research interest in this essay was to point out different possible ways of interpreting the meaning, distinctness of symbols of Oriental-Islamic cultural identity in Montenegro. Under the Ottoman rule in the Balkans, Oriental-Islamic influences meet very deep rooted local tradition, so a regional expression of Oriental-Islamic cultural identity or the "Crypto-Christianity" and religious syncretism became very common. Among typical of the pre-Christian or pre-Islamic traditional beliefs are the dichotomy of light and dark, equivalents to male and female, sun and moon, good and evil, and this can be seen in symbols and images used in legends, myths, fairy tales, oaths, curses, tattoos, amulets, handicrafts, on gravestones, etc. The adherence to ancient pagan beliefs also continued through centuries and layered in shaping each new coming influence into a specific cultural expression. In the context of Oriental-Islamic cultural identity, we could talk on a mixture of original characteristics coming from the East and local regional identity. Besides, sometimes Oriental elements became a part of a pre-Islamic regional tradition taking changed meaning charge. In the process of recognising and selecting of artefacts of Oriental-Islamic origin, the first step can be isolating a common thread which is a reliable evidence 21 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Dragana KUJOVIC: ORIENTAL-ISLAMIC CULTURAL IDENTITY IN MONTENEGRO - A MUSEUM ARTEFACT STORY, 13-24 Fig. 10: Turkish battle flag taken and used by the Montenegrin army with Islamic elements changed into Christian (Homeland Museum - Bar) Fig. 10: Bandiera militare turca catturata e utilizzata dall'esercito montenegrino con gli elementi islamici modifi-cati in cristiani (Museo locale - Bar). of their cultural belonging. Further procedure concerns to the history and all details of an artefact. In museologi-cal context different artefacts can be in interconnections on the basis of different criteria and a common charac- teristic, but they must not be put in a certain collection forever, without continuing research and studying all possible ways, aiming to express and make a presentation of each part of our collective memory. 22 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Dragana KUJOVIC: ORIENTAL-ISLAMIC CULTURAL IDENTITY IN MONTENEGRO - A MUSEUM ARTEFACT STORY, 13-24 ISLAMSKA ORIENTALSKA KULTURNA IDENTITETA V ČRNI GORI - ZGODBA MUZEJSKIH ARTEFAKTOV Dragana KUJOVIC Univerza Črne Gore - Podgorica, Zgodovinski inštitut, Bulevar Revolucije br. 5, Podgorica e-mail: kujovic.dragana@gmail.com POVZETEK Večina današnje generacije v Črni Gori ima zelo konfuzno predstavo o času islamske oblasti na tem območju. Ce nismo dovolj informirani, se kot rezultat navedenega pojavi ravnodušnost. Sporočilo te ravnodušnosti je, da morajo sledi in vsi znaki prisotnosti osvajalca čim prej izginiti, ne glede na to, ali se je njegova oblast končala včeraj ali že zdavnaj. Med posledicami te ravnodušnosti je vsekakor tudi dejstvo, da so turški spomeniki na tem območju redki, tako da se najbolj dragoceni fragmenti islamske orientalske dediščine najdejo v muzejih in arhivih daleč stran od Črne Gore. Kako jih zbrati? Katera je skupna nit ali znak za opredelitev celote, ki se identificira kot islamska orientalska dediščina v Črni Gori? Medsebojne kulturne povezave so ključni elementi naše analize. V mnogih primerih so takšne povezave razumljene kot nemogoče in redke, vendar življenje povezuje nezdružljivo. Globoki sloji naše kulturne zgodovine so včasih prisotni v znakih in simbolih, ki pripadajo drugim religijskim tradicijam, z različnim in spremenjenim pomenom. Ljudi delijo religija, jezik in tradicija, vendar isti kulturni simbol v različni rabi dokazuje, da se njihove medsebojne povezave in kulturna identiteta ne končujejo z razločevalnimi značilnostmi njihovih identi-tetnih simbolov. Ravno zaradi tega muzejski artefakti ne smejo biti za vselej umeščeni v neko muzejsko zbirko, brez nadaljnjega preučevanja vseh možnih poti s ciljem izražanja in prezentiranja posameznih delov našega kolektivnega spomina. Ključne besede: materialna kultura, dediščina, Črna Gora, arhivi, artefakti, islamski Orient 23 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Dragana KUJOVIC: ORIENTAL-ISLAMIC CULTURAL IDENTITY IN MONTENEGRO - A MUSEUM ARTEFACT STORY, 13-24 BIBLIOGRAPHY Baudrillard, J. (1988): Selected Writings (Edited and Instroduced by Mark Poster). Stanford, Stanford University Press. Bojovic, J. R. (1992): Ljetopis manastira Piva. Podgorica, Istorijski institut Crne Gore. Durham, E. (1909): High Albania (with Illustrations by the Author and a Map). London, Edward Arnold (Publishers to the India Office). Durham, E. (1910): High Albania and its Customs in 1908 (Reprinted from the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute). London, Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 453-472. Durkheim, E. (1995): The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Tokio, Singapore, The Free Press. Geertz, C. (1973): The Interpretation of Culture (the Analysis of Sacred Symbols). New York, Basic Books, Inc., Publishers. Giljferding, A. (1972): Putovanje po Hercegovini, Bosni i Staroj Srbiji. Sarajevo, Veselin Maslesa. Glusberg, J. (1983): „Hladni" i „vruci" muzeji - k muzeoloskoj kirtici: s originalnim crtezima Luisa Bene-deta. Muzeologija, 23, 9-77. Hourani, A. (1989): Islam in European Thought, The Tanner Lectures on human Value. (Delivered at Clare Hall, Cambridge University, January 30 and 31 and February 1.) Hadzimejlic, C. (2005): Umjetnost islamske ka-ligrafije. Sarajevo, Sedam. Kujovic, D. (2010): Smail-aga Cengic izmedu dva epska portreta. Istorijski zapisi, 1, 101-110. Jezernik, B. (2010): Stereotipizacija Turcina. In: Jez-ernik, B. (ed.): Imaginarni Turcin (original title: Imagining the "Turk"). Beograd, Biblioteka XX vek (Publisher of the original: Cambridge Scholars Publishing), 9-29. Lewis, K. (2009): Melkite Icons. In Notes on Arab. Orthodoxy. araborthodoxy. b!ogspot.com/.../me!kite-icons.ht... (27. 2. 2016). Schein, E. (1984): Coming to a new awareness of organizational culture. Sloan Management Review, 25, 2, 3-16. Schein, E. (1990): Organizational culture. American Psychologist, 45, 2, 109-119. Stewart, J., Leets Hurwitz, W. (1996): A Social Account of Symbols" In: Stewart, J. (ed.): Beyond the symbol model: Reflections on the representational nature of language. Albany & New York, State University of New York Press, 257-273. Viloks, T. (2009): Religija. Beograd, PortaLibris. 24 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 original scientific article DOI 10.19233/ASHS.2016.3 received: 2015-12-15 5V DIDAK IZ ALKALE OZDRAVLJA BOLNE. oltarna slika pietra mere v cerkvi sv. ane v kopru in njen slogovni ter ikonografski kontekst Tina KOŠAK ZRC SAZU, Umetnostnozgodovinski inštitut Franceta Steleta, Novi trg 2, 1000 Ljubljana Univerza v Mariboru, Filozofska fakulteta Koroška cesta 160, 2000 Maribor e-mail: tkosak@zrc-sazu.si IZVLEČEK Prispevek je poglobljena študija oltarne slike sv. Didaka v frančiškanski cerkvi sv. Ane v Kopru. Upodobitev frančiškanskega redovnega svetnika sv. Didaka iz Alkale, ki pred Marijinim oltarjem ozdravlja bolne, je signirano in z letnico 1629 datirano delo v Benetkah delujočega slikarja Pietra Mere (ok. 1577/78-1644), zaradi svojega porekla poznanega tudi kot Il Fiammingo. Kot ena redkih upodobitev tega motiva v sočasnem beneškem slikarstvu je v članku ikonografsko, motivno in slogovno analizirana, pri čemer so izpostavljene vsebinske, motivne in slogovne paralele z upodobitvami sv. Didaka zlasti v beneškem, pa tudi v rimskem in flamskem slikarstvu zadnjih let 16. in prvih desetletij 17. stoletja. Ključne besede: slikarstvo, Koper, cerkev sv. Ane, ikonografija, svetniki, sv. Didak iz Alkale, 16. stoletje, 17. stoletje, Benetke, flamsko slikarstvo, Pietro Mera, Sante Peranda SAN DIEGO D'ALCALÄ GUARISCE I MALATI. ASPETTI STILISTICI ED ICONOGRAFICI DELLA PALA D'ALTARE DI PIETRO MERA NELLA CHIESA DI SANT'ANNA A CAPODISTRIA SINTESI L'articob e uno studio del dipinto raffigurante San Diego d'Alcala che davanti all'altare di Maria guarisce i malati. L'opera, situata nella chiesa francescana di Sant'Anna a Capodistria, e datata 1629 e siglata dal pittore Pietro Mera (ca. 1577/78-1644), di origine "fiamminga", attivo a Venezia. Essendo un motive iconografico molto raro nel contesto della pittura veneziana agli inizi del Seicento, il dipinto viene analizzato sia dal punto di vista iconografico che stilistico, tracciando possibili parallele. Il soggetto trattato ed i caratteri stilistici dell'opera vengono messi in correlazi-one con le rappresentazioni del santo nel contesto veneziano, romano e fiammingo alla fine del Cinquecento e inizi del Seicento. Parole chiave: pittura, Koper/Capodistria, chiesa e convento francescano di Sant'Anna, iconografía, santi, San Diego d'Alcala, Cinquecento, Seicento, Venezia, pittura fiamminga, Pietro Mera, Sante Peranda 25 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Tina KOŠAK: SV. DIDAK IZ ALKALE OZDRAVLJA BOLNE. OLTARNA SLIKA PIETRA MERE V CERKVI SV. ANE V KOPRU ..., 25-42 Slikarska oprema frančiškanskega samostana in samostanske cerkve sv. Ane v Kopru in njen historiat še nista bila deležna poglobljenih raziskav, čeprav si jih, glede na nekdanji obseg zbirke in kvaliteto slikarskih del, nedvomno zaslužita. Iz cerkve in samostana je bilo leta 1940 v Italijo odpeljanih največ, domnevno enainšestdeset oziroma petinšestdeset, umetnin (prim. Hoyer, 2005a, 26-29; Allegri, L'Occaso, 2005, 91-94),1 kar je onemogočilo temeljit študij večjega dela cerkvene opreme in situ. Razmeroma skromno stanje raziskav slikarske opreme samostanske cerkve tako še vedno temelji na orisih in krajših študijah posameznih slik v topografskih inventarjih in preglednih monografijah, v katerih ikonografskemu pomenu del, njihovim tipološkim in slogovnih značilnostim in vprašanju recepcije večinoma ni bilo posvečene posebne pozornos-ti.2 Pričujoči prispevek poskuša zapolniti majhen del te vrzeli z ikonografsko in slogovno analizo oltarne slike Pietra Mere Sv. Didak iz Alkale ozdravlja bolne, ene od umetnin, ki so se v cerkvi sv. Ane ohranile do danes, ter z njeno umestitvijo v kontekst sočasnega evropskega slikarstva (sl. 1, 2). Signirana in datirana slika (PETRUS MERA P. ANNO 1629) je bila prvič omenjena leta 1700 v Naldinijevem krajepisu Kopra kot ena od sedmih oltarnih slik v samostanski cerkvi sv. Ane (Naldini, 1700, 195; Darovec, 2001, 142). Na podlagi Naldinijeve omembe in letnice ob slikarjevi signaturi je mogoče domnevati, da je bilo naročilo zanjo izvedeno ob ali kmalu po arhitekturni prenovi cerkve, ki naj bi potekala v dvajsetih letih 17. stoletja (za prenovo gl. Manara, 1910, 333; Alisi, 1910, 6-7, op. 1-2; Prohinar, 2005, 5, 56, 58; Alisi, 2006, 41, op. 6). Med deli, ki so se ohranila in so v cerkvi ostala tudi po drugi svetovni vojni, je edina oltarna slika, pridobljena v času prenove v 17. stoletju (Craievich, 1999a, 66-68, kat. št. 67).3 Arhivskih virov, ki bi natančneje pojasnili okoliščine naročila slike in oltarja sv. Di-daka, zaenkrat ni bilo mogoče najti;4 na podlagi upodobljenega svetniškega prizora, ki se neposredno navezuje na potridentinsko frančiškansko redovno ikonografijo, bi mogli domnevati, da je šlo za redovno naročilo, ki bi ga bila morda lahko spodbudila tudi zasebna donacija. Lesen polihromiran in delno pozlačen nastavek oltarja sv. Didaka, v katerega je vstavljena Merova slika, je Massimo De Grassi opredelil kot delo furlanske delavnice iz sredine 17. stoletja (De Grassi, 1999, 66-67, kat. št. 66), v marmor oblečena kamnita oltarna menza pa je poznejše delo, datirano v leto 1731 (prim. Alisi, 1910, 19; prevod: Alisi, 2006; De Grassi, 1999, 67, kat. št. 66).5 Merova upodobitev sv. Didaka slogovno in ikonografsko še ni bila podrobneje analizirana. V krajšem slogovnem orisu, objavljenem v lokalnem mesečniku Obala, se ji je pred desetletji posvetil le Janez Mikuž (1973, 4445). Poznejši avtorji, ki so pisali o njej, so se temeljitejši obravnavi njene vsebine in slogovnih značilnosti v okviru sočasnega evropskega slikarstva izognili (prim. Brejc, 1983, 136; Craievich, 1999a, 68, kat. št. 67; Prohinar, 2005, 14-15); deloma bržkone tudi zato, ker je zaradi slabega stanja ohranjenosti prizor zelo slabo viden.6 Več pozornosti kot slika je bil deležen njen avtor. Naldini ga je iz neznanega razloga - domnevno pomotoma (prim. Craievich, 1999a, 68, kat. št. 67) - poimenoval Pietro Mera starejši (il Seniore), kar je v zadrego spravilo poznejše pisce (Naldini, 1700, 196; Darovec, 2001, 142).7 Antonio Alisi, ki je letnico na slikarjevi signaturi napačno razbral kot 1679, se je v monografiji o cerkvi sv. Ane ob oznaki starejši spraševal o obstoju dveh slikarjev z enakim imenom (Alisi, 1910, 18-19; Alisi, 2006, 25). O skrivnostnem slikarju Pietru Meri in vprašanju njegovega mlajšega naslednika je še 1 Revidiran in s fotografskim gradivom podprt seznam v Italiji zadržane opreme iz samostana in cerkve sv. Ane, ki ga je je leta 1954 sestavil pater Rupert Suhač, je po ogledu ohranjenih in deponiranih del v Mantovi leta 2002 objavila Sonja Ana Hoyer. Štirih slik s seznama ob ogledu v depoju v Mantovi ni bilo (Hoyer, 2005a, 29). V istem letu sta seznam umetnin iz cerkve in samostana sv. Ane v zborniku razprav o restavriranih delih iz Istre v Italiji objavila tudi Giugliana Alegri in Stefano l'Occaso (2005, 91-94). Leta 2005 so bile umetnine prepeljane v frančiškanski samostan sv. Antona v Huminu (it. Gemona), kjer je del zbirke razstavljen v okviru stalne muzejske postavitve. 2 Notranjščino cerkve sv. Ane je v svojem vizitacijskem zapisniku leta 1580 opisal že veronski škof Agostino Valier (Lavrič, 1986, 66-70). V krajepisu Nicola Manzuolija je samostan sv. Ane deležen le kratke omembe (Manzuoli, 1611, 72). Podrobnejši opis samostana in cerkve ter njune opreme je podal Naldini (1700, 194-196; prim. tudi Darovec, 2001, 142-144). Za poznejše obravnave opreme samostanske cerkve sv. Ane gl. zlasti: Pusterla, 1846, 203; Manara, 1 91 0, 331-336; Alisi, 1910 (prevod: Alisi, 2006); Santangelo, 1935, 27-38; Brejc, 1 983, 136; Pavanello, Walcher, 1999, 65-75; Prohinar, 2005, 12-26; Navernik, 2012. 3 Že med Valierjevo vizitacijo je bilo pri Sv. Ani sedem oltarjev, prav toliko, vključno z glavnim oltarjem in poznejšim oltarjem sv. Didaka, jih je bilo v cerkvi na začetku 17. stoletja, kar ob novih naročilih kaže na spremembe v postavitvi in reorganizaciji oltarjev oziroma cerkvene opreme v času prenove (prim. Naldini, 1 700, 195; Lavrič, 1986, 69; Craievich, 1999a, 68, kat. št. 67). 4 Med arhivskim gradivom, povezanim z delovanjem frančiškanskega samostana sv. Ane, so v Sloveniji le parcialno ohranjeni fondi, večinoma gre za poznejše gradivo, datirano po sredini 18. stoletja. Vprašanje ohranjenosti arhivskih fondov, ki so bili odneseni v Italijo, še ni bilo raziskano (prim. Škofljanec, 2008, 282). Za pojasnilo v zvezi z ohranjenostjo arhivskega gradiva, povezanega s frančiškanskim samostanom sv. Ane, v koprskem Pokrajinskem arhivu se zahvaljujem dr. Zdenki Bonin. 5 Na predeli oltarja so bile nekdaj tri slike iz 16. stoletja s podobami sv. Ane, sv. Joahima in Device Marije. Prvi dve sliki je Santangelo (1 935, 29) pripisal Girolamu da Santacroceju. Upodobitev sv. Ane je bila identificirana med deli iz seznama v Italiji zadržanih umetnin (prim. Bernardi, 1866; Craievich, 1999a, 68, kat. št. 67; Hoyer, 2005a, 26, 29; Alegri, L'Occaso, 2005, 91). 6 Oksidirane barvne plasti in površina slike so domnevno posledica restavratorskega posega v drugi polovici 19. stoletja, ko naj bi bili barvne plasti poskušali oživiti s premazom na osnovi lanenega olja (Alisi, 1910, 18; Alisi, 2006, 24). 7 Craievich (1999a, 68) domneva, da je Naldini Meri dodal pridevnik Starejši, ker ga je pomešal s Palmo starejšim oziroma mlajšim. Sama menim, da bi morda lahko imel v mislih tudi v Padovi, Vicenzi in Benetkah delujočega sorojaka Pietra della Vecchie (1603-1678). 26 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Tina KOŠAK: SV. DIDAK IZ ALKALE OZDRAVLJA BOLNE. OLTARNA SLIKA PIETRA MERE V CERKVI SV. ANE V KOPRU ..., 25-42 Sl. 1: Pietro Mera: Sv. Didak iz Alkale ozdravlja bolne, Koper, frančiškanska samostanska cerkev sv. Ane (foto: J. Košak) Fig. 1: Pietro Mera: Miraculous Healing of St. Diego of Alcalá, Koper, Church of St Anne (photo: J. Košak) dobra tri desetletja kasneje, leta 1942, razglabljal v pismu, naslovljenem na profesorja umetnostne zgodovine na Univerzi v Padovi in poznavalca beneške umetnosti Giuseppeja Fiocca (za objavo pisma: Pavanello, 2005, 164-165). Verjetno je prav Naldinijev opis koprske slike privedel do tega, da je leta 1936 - leto zatem, ko je izšel popis umetnostnih spomenikov v puljski upravni enoti, ki je vključevala tudi slovenska obalna mesta - v popisu spomenikov v Čedadu Mero označil s pridevnikom starejši (Il vecchio Pietro Mera) tudi Antonino San-tangelo (Santangelo, 1936, 18; prim. tudi Santangelo, 1935, 31). O življenju slikarja, v Benetkah poznanega kot Pietro Mera (ok. 1577/78-1644), ne vemo veliko. Da je bil po rodu Il Fiammingo, poroča že Carlo Ridolfi, ki ga v življenjepisu slikarja Antonia Vassilacchija (15561629) omenja kot enega njegovih prijateljev in portre-tirancev (Ridolfi, 1648, 220).8 Dolgo je zmotno veljalo, da je Mera pred prihodom v Benetke krajši čas bival v Firencah (prim. npr. Faggin, 1964, 172-173; Donzel-li, Pilo, 1967, 286; Pallucchini, 1981, 1, 82; Pedroc-co, 2000, 1, 21-22). V seznamih članov beneškega slikarskega ceha Fraglia dei Pittori je omenjen med letoma 1598 in 1640 (Pignatti, 1965, 31; Favaro, 1975, 151, 165, 166, 176; prim. tudi Puppi, 1968, 28; Meijer 2000, 275). Merova oporoka, ki jo je leta 1968 objavil Lionel-lo Puppi, je razkrila vrsto novih podatkov o slikarjevem življenju in delu (Puppi, 1968, zlasti 30-31); med drugim tudi to, da med njegovimi dediči ni bilo nikogar, ki bi bil lahko poimenovan Pietro Mera mlajši, kar govori v prid domnevi, da ga je Naldini za starejšega verjetno označil napak. Arhivski podatki, ki jih je v zapisih priseg Merovih poročnih prič med t. i. examina matrimonium našel Michel Hochmann, so razkrili, da je Mera pripotoval v Benetke okrog leta 1593, kot petnajst- oziroma šestnajstletni mladenič, na podlagi česar je njegovo rojstvo mogoče postaviti v čas okrog 1577 oz. 1578. Potrdili so, da je okrog leta 1596 za nekaj mesecev odpotoval v Rim, in ovrgli domnevo o njegovem bivanju v Firencah (Hochmann, 2003, 643-644, 645). Še vedno nepojasnjeni pa ostajata vprašanji Mero-vega prvotnega imena in rojstnega kraja. Pietro Zani ga je napačno identificiral s slikarjem Pietrom Meertom (1620-1669), ki je na Flamskem izpričan tudi še v poznih šestdesetih letih 17. stoletja, torej še več kot dve desetletji po Merovi smrti (Zani, 1823, 30; za Meerta gl. RKD artists). Wurzbachov leksikon nizozemskih in flamskih slikarjev navaja, da naj bi Mera izhajal iz Bruslja (Wurzbach, 1910, II, 145), Timon Henricus Fokker pa ga je povezal s flamsko slikarsko družino Van der Meeren (Meiren, Meyeren), kar povzemajo tudi nekateri poznejši avtorji (Fokker, 1931, 30; prim. tudi Puppi, 1968, 29; Pallucchini, 1981, 1, 82; Fantelli, 2000, 192-193; Villa, 2000, 192; Aloisi, 2014, 550).9 Civitas Otrest flandrensis (Hochmann, 2003, 645), od koder naj bi po pričevanjih ene od prič v examina matrimonium izviral Mera, na historičnih zemljevidih 8 »/.../ Fece anco varii rittrati degli amici fuoi; di Pietro Mera Pittore Fiamingo /.../«. 9 Poleg slikarske družine Van der Meeren (Aegidius van der Meeren (pred 1640-1698) je od leta 1659 naprej izpričan v Rimu), je v drugi polovici 17. stoletja v Antwerpnu deloval tudi Jan Baptist van der Meiren, slikarji s priimkom (Van) de(r) Meere (tudi Meire) pa so na Flamskem in Nizozemskem (zlasti v Gentu in Leidnu) dokumentirani med sredino 15. in začetkom 18. stoletja. Zaradi številnih različic priimka lahko domnevamo, da so pripadali več rodbinam (prim. Thieme-Becker, 24, 1 930, 332-333; De Maere, Wabbes, 1994, 273275; RKD artists). Na podlagi trenutnega stanja raziskav Pietra Mere ne moremo neposredno povezati s katero od omenjenih slikarskih družin, saj zaenkrat nimamo zadostnih podatkov o njegovem poreklu. 27 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Sl. 2: Pietro Mera: Sv. Didak iz Alkale ozdravlja bolne, Koper, cerkev sv. Ane, detajl (foto: J. Košak) Fig. 2: Pietro Mera: Miraculous Healing of St. Diego of Alcalá, Koper, Church of St Anne, detail (photo: J. Košak) severozahodne Evrope ni mogoče izslediti, po izgovorjavi pa močno spominja na nizozemsko mesto in provinco Utrecht, najbolj katoliško od severnonizozemskih regij, od koder je ob koncu 16. in v prvih desetletjih 17. stoletja v Italijo emigriralo ali odpotovalo večje število slikarjev.10 Podobno kot Merovo poreklo ostajata nerazrešena tudi vprašanje njegove delavniške formacije in kronologija njegovega ohranjenega opusa. Številne ohranjene slike, ki jih je naslikal za beneške cerkvene in redovne naročnike, pričajo o tem, da se je slogovno dokončno izoblikoval v Benetkah.11 Kot Merova beneška dela se tudi njegove slike v Furlaniji in Padovi slogovno navezujejo na pozen opus Palme mlajšega (Palma Il Giovane, 1548/50-1628) in na dela nekaterih 10 Pri beleženju imena rojstnega mesta bi lahko prišlo do napačnega zapisa, saj je dokument bržkone sestavljal beneški pisar po pričevanju Flamca. Ker je beneški patriarhat samski stan tujcev navadno preverjal pri osebah, ki so prihajale iz istega kraja, in ker sta bili obe Merovi priči iz Antwerpna, je (čeprav sta obe poudarili, da Mere v Antwerpnu nista poznali) mogoče, da je Mera pred prihodom v Benetke deloval (tudi) v Antwerpnu. 11 Študije, ki bi v celoti zajela ohranjen in razmeroma dobro izpričan Merov opus v Benetkah, še nimamo. Še najbolj temeljiti so stari topografski pregledi slik v cerkvenih in javnih zbirkah (zlasti Boschini, 1674; Zanetti, 1771, 500-501) in vodniki (npr. Moschini, 1815, I (39, 136, 584, 654), II (19-20, 283); za poznejši pregled prim. Lorenzetti, 1974, 107, 343, 362, 374, 389, 406). Za kasnejše atribucije in obravnave posameznih Merovih ohranjenih del prim. zlasti: Faggin, 1964, 172-173; Donzelli, Pilo, 1967, 285-286; Petricioli, 1980, 130, kat. št. 118; Pallucchini, 1981, 1, 82-83; Bean, Turčic, 1 982, 136, kat. št. 130; Limentani Virdis, Banzato, 1990, 23-35, 66-69, kat. št. 1, 17, 18; Daniel, 1996, 128-129, kat. št. 20; Meijer, 2000, 2 75-283; Villa, 2000, 192; Pedrocco, 2000, 210-22; Fantelli, 2000, 192; Rossi, 2007, 62-64; Tomic, 2002, 61-63; Hochmann, 2003; Bralic, Kudiš Buric, 2006, zlasti 546-547; Tomic, 2006, 266-268; Mancini, 201 3, 342-343, kat. št. 113; Hochmann, 2013; Aloisi, 2014. 28 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Tina KOŠAK: SV. DIDAK IZ ALKALE OZDRAVLJA BOLNE. OLTARNA SLIKA PIETRA MERE V CERKVI SV. ANE V KOPRU ..., 25-42 drugih slikarjev, v literaturi poznanih kot pittori delle sette maniere (prim. Boschini, 1974, Diestizione di sette Maniere /.../, s.p; prim. tudi Pallucchini, 1981, 30, 78-79; Mason Rinaldi, 1984, zlasti 59; Pedrocco, 2000, 25-35). Na močan vpliv Palme na Merov opus oziroma na to, da bi lahko deloval v Palmovem krogu, kažejo poleg slogovnih in kompozicijskih značilnosti njegovih del tudi naročniki in lokacije, na katerih je deloval (Meijer, 2000, 275-276, 280). Ridolfijevo navedbo, da je Mera prijateljeval z An-toniom Vassilacchijem (Ridolfi, 1648, 220), dopolnjuje podatek, da je z Vassilacchijem sodeloval pri oltarni sliki Sv. Jakob s sv. Štefanom in sv. Lovrencem za čedaj-sko stolnico, ki jo je podpisal leta 1611 (gl. Santangelo, 1936, 18; Rizzi, 1969, 39; Bergamini, 1995, 62; Aloisi, 2014, 552). Na podlagi slogovnih sorodnosti s tem in manj znanimi signiranimi deli (mdr. Sv. Frančišek Asi-ški sprejema stigme v župnijski cerkvi sv. Petra v Tra-vesiu, datiran 1615) mu je bilo pred kratkim pripisanih več slik v Furlaniji in Veroni, ki so jih prej povezovali s Palmo mlajšim oziroma njegovo delavnico (Rossi, 2007, 62-64; Aloisi 2014, 549-564). Njegove oltarne slike srečamo tudi v Istri in Dalmaciji. Poleg signirane-ga in datiranega (1635) Marijinega rojstva v samostanski cerkvi sv. Marije v Zadru (Petricioli, 1980, 130, kat. št. 118; Tomic, 2002, 61-63; Tomic, 2006, 266-268, kat. št. 101), ki je zaradi dekorativnih elementov pomembna primerjava za koprsko sliko, mu je bilo pred leti pripisano tudi Kristusovo obrezovanje v cerkvi sv. Dominika v Splitu iz začetka dvajsetih let 17. stoletja (Tomic, 2002, 63), v hrvaškem delu Istre pa oltarna slika Mati Božja izroča škapulir sv. Simonu Stocku v župnijski cerkvi sv. Hi-eronima v Vižinadi, ki posnema Merovo signirano delo istega motiva v Merlengu di Ponzano Veneto (Bralic, Ku-diš Buric, 2006, 546-547; prim. tudi Villa, 2000, 192). Poleg monumentalnih nabožnih prizorov, signira-nega portreta dominikanskega redovnika (Pallucchini, 1981, 82; Limentani Virdis, Banzato, 1990, 34-35, kat. št. 1) in ilustracij v matrikuli bratovščine flagelantov (Scuola dei Botteri) iz leta 1603, ki so njegovo najstarejše dokumentirano delo (Meijer, 2000, 275-276), je bilo Pietru Meri pripisanih tudi nekaj študijskih risb za oltarne slike (prim. Bean, Turčic, 1982, 136, kat. št. 130; Rapozo Gallery) ter več kabinetnih slik z upodobitvami mitoloških in svetopisemskih tem in krajin (Faggin, 1964, 172-173; Limentani Virdis, Banzato, 1990, 6669, kat. št. 17, 18; Meijer, 2000; Hochmann, 2003; Hochmann, 2013, 95-101). Za razliko od monumentalnih oltarnih slik z izrazito beneškim slogovnim izrazom je značaj njegovih oljnih del na bakrenih ploščah izrazito severnjaški in kaže tesne povezave s flamskim in nemškim kabinetnim slikarstvom poznega 16. in zgodnjega 17. stoletja, zlasti z deli prav tako v Benetkah delujočih Flamca Paola Fiamminga (1540-1596) in Bavarca Hansa Rottenhammerja (1546-1625; prim. Meijer, 2000, 276-279; Hochmann, 2013). Merova oltarna slika sv. Didaka v samostanski cerkvi sv Ane v Kopru ima v slikarjevem opusu pomembno mesto, saj je edina upodobitev narativnega svetniškega prizora med njegovimi signiranimi in izpričanimi deli; pogojno sta mu bili pred kratkim pripisani še dve upodobitvi Kamenjanja sv. Štefana (Verona, Museo di Ca-stelvecchio; Concordia Sagittaria, stolnica sv. Štefana; prim. Aloisi, 2014, 552, 554). Druge Merove ohranjene upodobitve svetnikov so večinoma deli večjih Marijan-skih prizorov ali statične celopostavne podobe svetnikov, njegovi narativni prizori pa upodabljajo zlasti Kristusovo in Marijino življenje. Koprska slika je ena redkih upodobitev čudežev sv. Didaka v beneškem slikarstvu in, kot kažejo raziskave tega ikonografskega motiva za pričujoči prispevek, verjetno najstarejša znana upodobitev tega svetnika v slikarstvu na Slovenskem.12 Sv. Didak iz Alkale (šp. San Diego de Alcalá; Diego de San Nicolás del Puerto; ok. 1400-1463) se je rodil neznanim staršem v kraju San Nicolás del Puerto v Andaluziji. Po vstopu v frančiškanski samostan v Arrizafi v Cordobi je kot brat laik skrbel za revne, leta 1441 pa so ga poslali na Kanarske otoke, kjer je bil imenovan za gvardijana samostana v Fuerteventuri. Po vrnitvi v Španijo se je leta 1450 kot spremljevalec starejšega so-brata Alonsa de Castra odpravil na romanje v Rim, da bi se udeležil razglasitve kanonizacije sv. Bernardina Sienskega. Ob nenadnem izbruhu kuge je v samostanu Santa Maria in Aracoeli v Rimu negoval obolele. Z oskrbo bolnih in revnih je nadaljeval tudi po vrnitvi v Španijo, sprva v kastiljskem samostanu Nuestra Señora de La Salceda, domnevno od leta 1456 pa v samostanu Santa María De Jesús v Alcalá de Henares, kjer je leta 1463 umrl (prim. Coulson, 1958, 145; Sabatelli, 1964, 4, 606-608; Thurston, Adwater, 1965, 4, 327-328; Ide, 1976, 21-25; Dragutinac, 1979, 202; Case, 1983, 235240; Zimmermanns, 1994, 54-56; Kasper, 1995, 3, 207; Thomas, 1997, 110; Case, 1998, 95-120; Smolik, 2000, 4, 344-345; Rincón García, 2004, 24-31; Bracci, Poz-zebon, 2015, 166-167). 12 Druge znane oziroma dokumentirane upodobitve sv. Didaka iz Alkale v slikarstvu na Slovenskem so iz 18. in 19. stoletja. Na oltarni sliki sv. Krištofa v župnijski cerkvi sv. Jurija v Piranu, pred leti pogojno pripisani Odoricu Politiju (1 785-1846), je Didak upodobljen kleče z razpelom (prim. Santangelo, 1935, 1 52; Alisi, [1955/1972], 100; Brejc, 1983, 150; Craievich, 1999b, 208, kat. št. 386). V seriji osmih slik frančiškanskih svetnikov za brežiški frančiškanski samostan iz prve polovice 18. stoletja je tudi enofiguralna upodobitev sv. Didaka (prim. Murovec, 2000, 362). Tudi na sosednjem Hrvaškem so upodobitve zdravljenja sv. Didaka redke in večinoma poznejše. Po sredini 18. stoletja, okrog leta 1 770, je na primer motiv sv. Didak ozdravlja bolne in uboge na majhni oltarni sliki za frančiškansko cerkev v Slavonskem Brodu upodobil madžarski slikar Ferencz Falconer (prim. Mirkovic, 2000, 138; Repanic Braun 2004, zlasti 190-191). Za sliko sv. Didaka v molitvi, delo Paulusa Antoniusa Senserja iz sredine 18. stoletja v zbirki osiješkega frančiškanskem samostan, gl. Repanic Braun, 2004, 170-1 71. 29 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Tina KOŠAK: SV. DIDAK IZ ALKALE OZDRAVLJA BOLNE. OLTARNA SLIKA PIETRA MERE V CERKVI SV. ANE V KOPRU ..., 25-42 Sl. 3: Adriaen Collaert po Maartenu de Vosu: Življenje in čudeži sv. Didaka iz Alkale, bakrorez (Diels, Leesberg, 2005) Fig. 3: Adriaen Collaert after Maarten de Vos: The Life and Miracles of St. Diego of Alcalá, engraving (Diels, Leesberg, 2005) Kanonizacija sv. Didaka iz Alkale, ki ga je leta 1588 kot prvega svetnika po koncu tridentinskega koncila razglasil papež Sikst V. (1521-1590), je imela v prvih desetletjih katoliškega preporoda zelo pomembno politično in kulturnozgodovinsko vlogo.13 Bila je rezultat večde-setletnih prizadevanj visokih krogov španskega plemstva na pobudo kralja Filipa II. (1527-1598), ki naj bi bil leta 1562 k sv. Didaku molil za ozdravitev (svojega sina) svojega sina Dona Carlosa (gl. npr. Case, 1988; Case, 1998, 123-150; Villalon, 1997; Dandelet, 2001, 170-178).14 V času napetih odnosov med katoliško unijo in protestantskimi državami je kanonizacija sv. Didaka potrdila in utrdila politično zavezništvo med papežem in Španijo v boju za katoliško in politično prevlado v Evropi (prim. Villalon, 1997, zlasti 711-715; Tutino, 2014, 518).15 Čeprav je imel Didak kot prvi redovni svetnik, ki ni bil duhovnik, in prvi španski frančiškanski svetnik (gl. Case, 1998, 154; Bracci, Pozzebon, 2015, 167) v frančiškanski redovni ikonografiji pomembno mesto, njegove upodobitve v oltarnem slikarstvu poznega 16. in prvih desetletij 17. stoletja niso pogoste. Največkrat ga srečamo med svetniki, ki spremljajo Kristusa ali Marijo na prestolu ali ob drugih, praviloma frančiškanskih svetnikih (najpogosteje ob sv. Frančišku). Zlasti po sredini 17. stoletja se pojavlja tudi v serijah enofiguralnih upodobitev svetnikov, ki so bile pogosto del slikarskega repertoarja frančiškanskih samostanov. Samostojni narativni prizori Didakovega življenja in čudežev so v slikarstvu 16. in 17. stoletja precej redki. Med najstarejšimi znanimi slikarskimi upodobitvami sv. Didaka v evropski umetnosti je retabel Maartena de Vosa (1532-1603) iz nekdanje frančiškanske cerkve v Antwerpnu, na katerem osrednje polje s celopostavnima podobama sv. Frančiška Asiškega in sv. Didaka iz Alkale obdajajo narativni prizori Didakovega življenja in čudežev (Antwerpen, Koninklijk museum voor Schone Kunsten, 1591-1600). De Vos se je v kompozicijski in formalni zasnovi oltarja navezal na srednjeveško tradicijo oltarjev s prizori življenja in čudežev sv. Frančiška Asiškega,16 pri vsebini polj z upodobitvami svetnikovega življenja in čudežev pa je sledil kanonizacijskim poročilom, ki jih je v svojih besedilih povzemal sloviti flamski frančiškan Henrik Sedulius (Henrik de Vroom, 15491629), teolog in avtor številnih hagiografskih kompendi-jev (prim. Zweite, 1968; Zweite, 1980, 224-236).17 Sedulius je imel ključno vlogo pri širjenju ikonografije in likovne tradicije upodabljanja sv. Didaka (gl. Zweite, 13 Pred sv. Didakom je bil leta 1 523 kot zadnji svetnik pred začetkom tridentinskega koncila kanoniziran sv. Antonin Florentinski (1 389— 1459) (Villalon, 1997, 691). 14 Ozdravitev hudo bolnega princa je v kanonizacijskih poročilih in sočasnih biografijah sv. Didaka poudarjena kot eden njegovih najpomembnejših čudežev (gl. Case, 1988; Case, 1998, 131-134; za upodobitev ozdravitve Dona Carlosa gl. Pascual Chenel, Rodriguez Rebollo, 2014). Kralja je k molitvi k sv. Didaku spodbudilo dejstvo, da je sedemnajstletnega Dona Carlosa le nekaj mesecev poprej poslal v alkalski samostan, da bi tam študiral latinščino (Case, 1998, 130-131, s citirano literaturo). 15 Kako pomembno vlogo je imela razglasitev sv. Didaka za svetnika v pontifikatu papeža Siksta V., ki je bil tudi sam frančiškan, kažeta njeni upodobitvi na freski Cesareja Nebbia in Giovannija Guerre v dvorani Siksta V. (1588/89) in reliefu Egidia della Riviere na njegovem nagrobniku (prim. npr. Mâle, 1932, 98; Anselmi, 2005, 245-250). 16 Za pomen in vlogo srednjeveških retabel Bonaventure Berlinghierija (ok. 1210- po 1274) s prizori iz življenja Frančiška Asiškega v okviru frančiškanske ikonografije gl. npr. Hager, 1962, zlasti 94-100; Blume, 2011, 114-123. Za njihov vpliv na slikarstvo zgodnjega novega veka prim. Zweite, 1968, 81-88; Zweite, 1980, 224-229. 17 Seduliusovi opisi Didakovega življenja povzemajo obsežnejši biografiji Pietra Galesina, Sancti Didaci Complutensis Vita (Vatikan, 1588; italijanski prevod: Rim, 1589) in Francisca Peñe (Pegna), De Vita Miraculis et Actis Canonizationis Sancti Didaci Libri tres (Rim, 1589) (prim. Zweite, 1968, 94; Case, 1983, 23). 30 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Tina KOŠAK: SV. DIDAK IZ ALKALE OZDRAVLJA BOLNE. OLTARNA SLIKA PIETRA MERE V CERKVI SV. ANE V KOPRU ..., 25-42 Sl. 4: Maarten de Vos: Sv. Didak ozdravlja bolne, Retabel sv. Didaka iz Alkale, Antwerpen, Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Künsten, detajl (© Lukas - Art in Flanders, foto: Dominique Provost) Fig. 4: Maarten de Vos: Miraculous Healing of St. Diego of Alcala, Retable of St. Diego of Alcala, Antwerp, Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten, detail (© Lukas - Art in Flanders VZW, photo: Dominique Provost) 1968, zlasti 94-97). Po njegovem naročilu je bil De Vosov oltar kmalu po nastanku reproduciran na bakrorezu Adri-aena Collaerta (gl. Diels, Leesberg, 2005, 142-143, št. 945, sl. 3), njegovi kompozicijski shemi pa sta sledila tudi neznani avtor ilustracij založnika Philipsa Galleja v Seduliusovi Imagines Sanctorum (Antwerpen, 1602) in Peter de Jode na celostranski ilustraciji v njegovem biografskem kompendiju Historia seraphica vitae Francisci Assisiatis (Antwerpen, 1613). Sorodno zasnovo upodobitev življenja in čudežev svetnika kot pri De Vosu in na omenjenih ilustracijah srečamo tudi na bakrorezu Jana Sadelerja I. (gl. Ramaix, 2003, 70/3, 242, 244, št. 049). Med naročniki, ki so prispevali k hitremu širjenju češčenja sv. Didaka in njegovi prepoznavnosti v Italiji, so bili poleg frančiškanskega reda sprva tudi papeževi sodelavci in predstavniki španskega plemstva v Rimu. Najznamenitejša narativna upodobitev njegovega življenja in čudežev, cikel fresk, ki so jih Annibale Carracci (1560-1609), Francesco Albani (1578-1660) in Dome-nichino (1581-1641) med letoma 1604 in 1606 naslikali v kapeli sv. Didaka (Capella Herrera) v cerkvi San Giacomo degli Spagnoli v Rimu, je nastala kot naročilo premožnega španskega bankirja Juana Henríqueza de Herrere (izbrana temeljna literatura: Posner, 1960; Posner, 1971, 69-72, kat. št. 154-172; Puglisi, 1999, 112-118; Terzaghi, 2007; Robertson, 2008, 187-189).18 Za isto kapelo je Carracci naslikal tudi oltarno sliko Sv. Didak priporoča sina Juana de Herrere Kristusu (Posner, 1971, 74, kat. št. 178).19 Že nekaj let poprej je sv. Didaka po naročilu papeževega tesnega sodelavca in prijatelja kardinala Antonia Maria Gallija na sliki Kristus Trpin s sv. Teklo, sv. Viktorjem, sv. Korono in sv. Didakom iz Alkale v stolnici v Osimu (ok. 1601) upodobil Guido Reni (1575-1642; gl. Terzaghi, 2007, 177-179; Benati, 2013, 26-28). Šele od tridesetih let 17. stoletja naprej so sv. Didaka upodabljali tudi v španskem slikarstvu. Francisco de Zurbarán (1598-1664) ga je večkrat upodobil na zanj značilno asketskih redukcijah narativnih prizorov, Bartolomé Esteban Murillo (1617-1682) pa med letoma 1645 in 1646 na slikah Zamaknjenje sv. Didaka (Toulouse, Musée des Augustins), Sv. Didak deli miloščino ubogim (Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando) in Angelska kuhinja iz delno ohranjene serije svetniških upodobitev za frančiškanski samostan San Francesco v Sevilli (Pariz, Musée du Louvre; gl. Hernández Perera, 1965; Angulo Iñiguez, 1981, II, zlasti 7-10, 15-17, kat. št. 4-6; 11, Marquez, Valdivieso, 1982, 12, 155-156, kat. št. 4; Navarrete Prieto, Pérez Sánchez, 2009, 230237, kat. št. 8, 9). Med najstarejšimi in najpogosteje reproduciranimi upodobitvami sicer zelo redkega ikonografskega motiva Didakovega čudežnega ozdravljenja bolnih, ki ga je Pietro Mera upodobil na oltarni sliki v cerkvi sv. Ane v Kopru, je prizor na De Vosovem oltarju za nekdanjo frančiškansko cerkev v Antwerpnu (sl. 4). V zadnjih letih 16. stoletja je De Vosovo invencijo z manjšimi spremembami v kompoziciji in precej drugače razporejenimi figurami na prevodni grafiki povzel Adriaen Col-laert (sl. 3), nanj pa sta se naslonila Jan Sadeler I. na samostojnem prevodnem listu in De Jode na ilustraciji v Seduliusovi Historii seraphici (prim. Zweite, 1968; Diels, Leesberg, 2005, 142-143, št. 945; Ramaix, 2003, 70/3, 242, 244, št. 049; Sedulius, 1613, 421). Na vseh treh grafikah je pod samim prizorom čudežno ozdravljenje opisano v kratkem komentarju v latinščini: sv. Didak ozdravi različne bolezni z oljem iz svetilke, ki visi pred Marijinim oltarjem tako, da bolne mazili z zna- 18 Freske, ki so bile v 19. stoletju snete in prenesene na platno (Posner, 1960, 397-398; Puglisi, 1999, 113), danes pa so v madridskem Pradu in v Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya v Barceloni, so bile doslej poglobljeno obravnavane predvsem z vidika avtorstva posameznih prizorov in vprašanja naročništva. Za posamezne ikonografske vidike poslikave gl. zlasti Terzaghi, 2007. 19 Pripravljalne risbe za Carraccijevo oltarno sliko in za freske hranita Nationamuseum, Stockholm in Windsor Castle, London. 31 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Tina KOŠAK: SV. DIDAK IZ ALKALE OZDRAVLJA BOLNE. OLTARNA SLIKA PIETRA MERE V CERKVI SV. ANE V KOPRU ..., 25-42 Sl. 6: Francesco Albani, Annibale Carracci: Sv. Didak iz Alkale ozdravlja slepega, Barcelona, Museu Nacional dArt de Catalunya (©Museu Nacional dArt de Catalunya, 2016, foto: Jordi Calveras) Fig. 6: Francesco Albani, Annibale Carracci: St. Diego of Alcalá Healing a Blind Young Man, Barcelona, Museu Nacional dArt de Catalunya (©Museu Nacional dArt de Catalunya, 2016, photo: Jordi Calveras) Sl. 5: Domenico Mona: Sv. Didak iz Alkale ozdravlja slepega, Ferrara, Santo Spirito (Frabetti, 1978, 80, XVI) Fig. 5: Domenico Mona: St. Diego of Alcalá Healing a Blind Man, Ferrara, S. Spirito (Frabetti, 1978, 80, XVI) menjem križa.20 Podrobnejša primerjava štirih prizorov ozdravljenja kljub sorodnim opisom v spremljajočem besedilu razkriva kompozicijske razlike tako v načinu zdravljenja kot v postavitvi figur.21 Obenem prizori ne sledijo povsem natančno opisom Didakovih ozdravitev v hagiografskih kompendijih in kanonizacijskih poročilih; na podlagi tega lahko domnevamo, da prve grafične upodobitve na Flamskem verjetno niso upodabljale konkretnih primerov čudežnih ozdravitev, opisanih v svetnikovih biografijah, temveč so svobodno povzemale De Vosovo invencijo. Tudi v italijanskem oltarnem slikarstvu srečamo prve upodobitve Didakovega ozdravljenja bolnih že okrog leta 1600. Med njimi je oltarna slika Domenica Mone Sv. Didak iz Alkale ozdravlja slepega (1550-1602) v cerkvi Santo Spirito v Ferrari, ki je okvirno datirana v čas med letoma 1575 in 1599 (sl. 5; gl. Frabetti, 1978, 80, kat. št. 79; Vannugli, 2009, 197; Fototeca Fonda-zione Zeri, št. 41905). Po Monovem prizoru sta delno povzeti tudi figuri Didaka in slepega na grafičnem listu neznanega avtorja Sv. Didak iz Alkale ozdravlja obsedenega (prim. Bracci, Pozzebon, 2015, 166). Na eni izmed fresk v kapeli Herrera je okoli leta 1604 oziroma 1605 Didakovo ozdravljenje slepega mladeniča naslikal Francesco Albani v sodelovanju z Annibalom Carracci- 20 Oleo e lampade pendente ante altare B. Mariae, infirmos crucis in modum ungens, varios eorum modus morbus curat (Zweite, 1968, 100). 21 Na De Vosovem oltarju in Collaertovem bakrorezu Didak ozdravlja mlado žensko, ki je v večji skupini ljudi pokleknila predenj. Na Sadelerjevi grafiki se z roko približa čelu klečečega moškega. Na De Jodejevi ilustraciji Seduliusovega kompendija pa polaga roko na glavo mlajšega moškega. 32 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Tina KOŠAK: SV. DIDAK IZ ALKALE OZDRAVLJA BOLNE. OLTARNA SLIKA PIETRA MERE V CERKVI SV. ANE V KOPRU ..., 25-42 Sl. 7: Pietro Mera: Sv. Didak iz Alkale ozdravlja bolne, Koper, cerkev sv. Ane, detajl (foto: J. Košak). Fig. 7: Pietro Mera: Miraculous Healing of St. Diego of Alcalá, Koper, Church of St Anne, detail (photo: J. Košak). jem (sl. 6).22 Pri tem se je morda navezal na opis čudežne ozdravitve dečka, ki si je vid poškodoval med igro z žogo, v svetnikovi biografiji Pietra Galesina (Galesino, 1589, 120-121). V baziliki Santa Maria in Aracoeli v Rimu, kjer je Didak med izbruhom kuge leta 1450 skrbel za bolne, oltarno sliko Sv. Didak ozdravlja slepega Giovannija de Vecchija (1536-1614) v Didakovi kapeli vsebinsko dopolnjuje prizor ozdravitve obsedenega na ciklu fresk Vespasiana Strade (Vannugli, 2009, 196, fig. 9, 10). Slabih pet let pred Mero, med letoma 1624 in Sl. 8: Pietro Mera: Krst v Jordanu, Benetke, Santi Giovanni e Paolo (Pavanello, 2013) Fig. 8: Pietro Mera: The Baptism of Christ, Venice, Santi Giovanni e Paolo (Pavanello, 2013) 1625, je po naročilu rodbine Guano za njihovo kapelo v frančiškanski cerkvi Marijinega oznanjenja v Levantu Didakovo ozdravljenje bolnih upodobil tudi Bernardo Strozzi (1581-1641; za Strozzijevo sliko in njenega naročnika gl. Mortari, 1995, zlasti 158, kat. št. 150; Man-zitti, 2013, 133, kat. št. 133). Pietro Mera je torej prizor na oltarni sliki za koprske frančiškane naslikal v skladu z likovno tradicijo, ki se je v evropskem slikarstvu izoblikovala le približno tri desetletja poprej. Svetnika je upodobil z oljenko v levici, v trenutku, ko z desnico, na katero je nanesel čudežno olje, sega proti rami moškega, ki je v upanju na ozdravitev pokleknil predenj. Pri tem je sledil uveljavljenim kompozicijskim in motivnim elementom, ki so prisotni tudi na drugih upodobitvah svetnikovih ozdravitev. Kot večina sočasnih slikarjev23 je dogajanje postavil 22 Za vprašanje atribucije fresk in študijskih risb Francescu Albaniju prim. zlasti Posner, 1971, 72, kat. št. 167s-168s; Puglisi, 1999, 116117, kat. št. XII. 23 Edini dokumentirani sliki, ki ju poznam, na katerih Didakovo čudežno zdravljenje ni upodobljeno pred Marijinim oltarjem v cerkveni notranjščini, sta oltarna slika Giovannija Battista Trottija (1555-1611) iz cerkve sv. Vincencija v Cormanu, na kateri Didak ozdravlja mladega moškega v navzočnosti Marije z otrokom na oblakih (Milano, Pinacotheca Brera; za reprodukcijo prim. Fondazione Federico Zeri, št. 31747), in že omenjena slika Giovannija de Vecchia v kapeli sv. Didaka v samostanu Santa Maria in Aracoeli, na kateri prizorišče ni razvidno. 33 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Tina KOŠAK: SV. DIDAK IZ ALKALE OZDRAVLJA BOLNE. OLTARNA SLIKA PIETRA MERE V CERKVI SV. ANE V KOPRU ..., 25-42 Sl. 9: Pietro Mera: Sv. Didak iz Alkale ozdravlja bolne, Koper, cerkev sv. Ane, detajl (foto: J. Košak) Fig. 9: Pietro Mera: Miraculous Healing of St. Diego of Alcalá, Koper, Church of St Anne, detail (photo: J. Košak) pred Marijin oltar, pogled nanj pa je zasnoval podobno kot Albani in Carracci, ki sta prizor naslikala frontalno, medtem ko je na delih drugih sočasnih slikarjev prizorišče z oltarjem podano od strani. S frontalno postavitvijo je Mera podal bolj neposreden pogled na svetnika in dogajanje pred oltarjem. Oltar je pomaknil nekoliko v levo, na desni pa je upodobil manjšo skupino bolnih in opazovalcev, s čimer je razgibal in uravnotežil kompozicijo. Pri izbiri tipa Marijine podobe na oltarju se je Mera nekoliko oddaljil od zasnov starejših in sočasnih slikarjev, ki so na to mesto praviloma umestili kip ali sliko stoječe ali sedeče Marije z otrokom (npr. Domenico Mona; Carracci in Albani) ali sliko Brezmadežne (npr. De Vos in po njem povzete ilustracije in grafični listi). Mariji z otrokom, ki je sicer sorodna Marijini podobi na ovalni sliki na freski v kapeli Herrera, je dodal Janeza Krstnika, Jožefa in Elizabeto,24 pri čemer se je posredno navezal na priljubljen tip Marije z Jezusom in Janezom Krstnikom, ki ga je uvedel Rafael na slikah Madonna della Sedia (Firen-ze, Palazzo Pitti), Madonna della Tenda (München, Alte Pinakothek) in Madonna della Rosa (Madrid, Prado).25 Medtem ko Merova slika v Kopru kaže posamezne kompozicijske in vsebinske paralele z upodobitvijo Di-dakove čudežne ozdravitve slepega v rimski kapeli Herrera, pa obenem izkazuje beneški slogovni značaj. Poleg 24 Elizabeta je zaradi slabega stanja ohranjenosti Merove slike zelo slabo vidna; še najbolj prepoznavna je njena oglavnica, ki obdaja potemnjen obris obraza ob Marijini desni rami. 25 Za izbor literature o tipologiji Rafaelovih upodobitev Marije z otrokom in Janezom Krstnikom in Svete družine in njihovih odmevih v zgodovini slikarstva gl. npr. Tarchiani, 1 923; Salmi, 1968, 120-160; De Vecchi, 1981, 64-72; Joannides, 2004, 749-752; Dal Bello, 2012, zlasti 13-17; za Rafaelove Marije v reprodukcijski grafiki gl. npr. Hoper, 2001, zlasti 316-319. 34 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Tina KOŠAK: SV. DIDAK IZ ALKALE OZDRAVLJA BOLNE. OLTARNA SLIKA PIETRA MERE V CERKVI SV. ANE V KOPRU ..., 25-42 Sl. 1G: Sante Peranda: Sv. Didak iz Alkale ozdravlja bolne, Benetke, San Francesco della Vigna (foto: T. Košak) Fig. 1G: Sante Peranda: Miraculous Healing of St. Diego of Alcalá, Venice, San Francesco della Vigna (photo: T. Košak) samega slogovnega izraza, ki razkriva sorodnosti s Palmo mlajšim in njegovim krogom, je izrazito beneških tudi več kompozicijskih značilnosti. S parom ženskih figur, ki jih je, s hrbtom obrnjenih proti gledalcu, postavil v ospredje prizora, je Mera sledil elementom, ki jih v beneškem slikarstvu druge polovice 16. in začetka 17. stoletja srečamo zelo pogosto, večkrat pa jih je uporabil tudi sam. Skoraj enako, a celopostavno figuro ženske z globokim izrezom na hrbtu kot na koprski sliki je denimo naslikal na Krstu v Jordanu v baziliki Santi Giovanni e Paolo v Benetkah (sl. 7, 8). Sorodno drugim slikarjem Palmovega nasledstva pa je interpretiral tudi zgornji del prizora s podobama angelcov, ki sv. Didaku podajata oljenko (sl. 9). Merovo prepričljivo oblikovanje detajlov na koprski sliki je razvidno kljub slabi ohranjenosti in potemnelim barvnim plastem. Posamezni predmeti, denimo oljen- Sl. 11: Adriaen Collaert po Maartenu de Vosu: Sv. Didak iz Alkale ozdravlja bolne, bakrorez, detajl sl. 3 Fig. 11: Adriaen Collaert after Maarten de Vos: St. Diego of Alcala/s Miraculous Healing, engraving, detail of fig. 3 ka in čipke na oltarnem prtu, razkrivajo za nizozems-ko-flamske slikarje značilen minuciozni slikarski rokopis, ki je sicer navzoč na Merovih kabinetnih delih, na oltarnih slikah pa ga srečamo precej redkeje; s podobno preciznostjo je denimo naslikal čipke na posteljnem pregrinjalu in vzorce na draperijah sv. Neže in sv. Gregorja na Marijinem rojstvu v Zadru (prim. zlasti Tomic, 2006, 266-268, kat. št. 101). Kot njegova kabinetna dela tudi koprska in zadrska slika pričata o tem, da se Mera nizozemsko-flamski likovni tradiciji, s katero je bil v neposrednem stiku pred odhodom v Benetke, ni nikoli povsem odpovedal. Merovo eklektično združevanje slogovnih poudarkov in kompozicijskih elementov, značilnih za beneško, rimsko in flamsko slikarstvo, odpira tudi vprašanje likovnih virov oziroma vzorov za njegovo upodobitev sv. Didaka pri koprskih frančiškanih. Čeprav kaže koprska slika paralele z Albanijevo in Carraccijevo fresko v kapeli Herrera, ki se ji Mera, kot rečeno, približa v zasnovi prostora in upodobitvi oltarja z Marijino sliko, nam Merovi biografski podatki in dosedanje vedenje o reprodukcijski grafiki po freskah v kapeli Herrera ne omogočajo teze o neposrednem naslonu na njuno invencijo. Mera je v Rimu izpričan leta 1596 35 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Tina KOŠAK: SV. DIDAK IZ ALKALE OZDRAVLJA BOLNE. OLTARNA SLIKA PIETRA MERE V CERKVI SV. ANE V KOPRU ..., 25-42 (prim. Hochmann, 2003, 644), torej več let preden je Carracci prejel naročilo za freske, najstarejša poznana oziroma dokumentirana grafična reprodukcija Carracci-jeve in Albanijeve upodobitve ozdravitve slepega pa je iz serije devetnajstih jedkanic Simona Guillaina (16181658), ki je leta 1646, torej več kot desetletje po koprski sliki, izšla pod naslovom Vita di San Diego (Annibale, 1986, 243-251).26 Prizore v kapeli Herreri je domnevno po koncu prve tretjine 17. stoletja reproduciral tudi Giovanni Andrea Podesta (1608-1674); iz njegove serije jedkanic je danes poznan samo Čudež s cvetjem (Annibale, 1986, 252). Čeprav na podlagi trenutnega stanja raziskav o reprodukcijski grafiki po freskah v kapeli Herrera ne moremo pojasniti kompozicijskih in motivnih paralel med Carraccijevim in Albanijevim prizorom Di-dakovega zdravljenja in Merovo kompozicijo, pa vendarle ne moremo povsem izključiti možnosti, da se je naslonil na kakšen drug neohranjen ali nedokumentiran grafičen list oziroma neohranjeno ali spregledano delo slikarja, ki je sledil Carraccijevi in Albanijevi shemi. Oprijemljivejše so okoliščine Merovega naslona na upodobitve sv. Didaka v bližnjih Benetkah, kjer je če-ščenje tega svetnika na začetku 17. stoletja dokumentirano v okviru frančiškanskega reda in bratovščine (Cico-gna, 1853, 596; Gallo, Neppi Scire, 1994, 34). Za najstarejšo ohranjeno in dokumentirano upodobitev sv. Didaka iz Alkale v Benetkah velja slika na oltarju kapele sv. Didaka v špitalski cerkvi San Giobbe, v kateri je bila leta 1610 ustanovljena bratovščina sv. Didaka (gl. Fondo Pallucchini, 93; Cicogna, 1853, 596-597; Gallo, Neppi Scire, 1994, 34-36). Sliko svetnika, ki moli ob navzočnosti Žalostne Matere Božje, Ridolfi in Boschini pripisujeta Carlettu Caliariju (1570-ok. 1596), njuno atribucijo pa povzemajo tudi poznejši avtorji (Ridolfi, 1648, 342; Boschini, 1674, Sestier di Canareggio: 63; Zanetti, 1771, 3, 269-270; Fondo Pallucchini, 93), čeprav zgodovinske okoliščine kažejo na to, da bi bila lahko pridobljena šele ob ali po ustanovitvi bratovščine, torej po Caliarijevi smrti (Gallo, Neppi Scire, 1994, 36).27 Na prelomu iz 16. v 17. stoletje sta bili naslikani tudi upodobitvi sv. Didaka za frančiškansko cerkev San Francesco della Vigna v Benetkah. Pendanta Zamaknjenje sv. Didaka iz Alkale in Sv. Bonaventura, ki sta nekdaj visela nad glavnim oltarjem (prim. Boschini, 1674, Sestier di Castello: 41-42; Zanetti, 1771, 4, 320-321), naj bi Palma mlajši (glede na trenutno stanje raziskav) naslikal še pred koncem 16. stoletja (Onda, 2003, 129-130).28 Za primerjavo z Merovo sliko v Kopru pa je pomembna zlasti oltarna slika Santa Perande (1566-1638) Sv. Didak iz Alkale ozdravlja bolne v kapeli sv. Didaka iz Alkale (sl. 10). Peranda, ki je za cerkev San Francesco della Vigna domnevno naslikal več del (prim. npr. Onda, 2003, 66, 69), je oltarno sliko sv. Didaka dokončal nekaj let pred velikim naročilom za serijo upodobitev Psihe za palačo rodbine Pico v Mirandoli, v okviru katerega je delal s svojim učiteljem Palmo mlajšim in ki mu je omogočilo, da se je za več let preselil na Picov dvor (za Pi-covo naročilo Pallucchini, 1981, 41; Martineli Braglia, 1987, 13-14).29 Perandova kapela in oltarna slika sv. Didaka sta namreč že leta 1604 opisani v delu Venetia, citta nobilissima (Sansovino, Stringa, 1604, 116v; prim. L'Occaso, 20 1 5),30 kar kaže tudi na to, da je Perandova slika, ki v okviru slikarjevega opusa in beneškega slikarstva še ni bila deležna podrobnejše obravnave, verjetno najstarejša upodobitev Didakovega zdravljenja v oltarnem slikarstvu v Benetkah; naslikal jo je, še preden sta prizore svetnikovega življenja in čudežev na freskah v kapeli Herreri v Rimu dokončala Albani in Carracci. Peranda se je pri snovanju slike Sv. Didak iz Alkale ozdravlja bolne za cerkev San Francesco della Vigna naslonil na flamsko reprodukcijsko grafiko. V zasnovi prostora, postavitvi oltarja in figur, najočitneje pa pri portalu na levem robu kompozicije s poudarjenim profi-liranim timpanonom je sledil Collaertovemu bakrorezu (sl. 3, 11), ki je, kot rečeno, povzemal De Vosovo inven-cijo. Da se je Peranda naslonil na flamsko predlogo, ni nenavadno, saj so mu bili prizori Didakovega življenja in čudežev bržkone najbolj dosegljivi prav preko flam-ske reprodukcijske grafike. Ker se je domnevno šolal tudi v delavnici v Benetkah delujočega Flamca Paola Fiamminga (1540-1596), je bil s flamskim slikarstvom tudi sicer v neposrednem stiku.31 Ob dejstvu, da je motiv Didakovega ozdravljenja bolnih v beneškem slikarstvu poznega 16. in začetka 26 Vita di San Diego, dipinta nella Cappella di S. Giacomo de Spagnuoli in Roma da Anibale Carracci delineata et intagliata da Simone Guillain, Roma Collignon (Rim, 1646); reprodukcije Guillainovih jedkanic so dosegljive na spletni fototeki Bibliothece Hertziane: http:// foto.biblhertz.it/exist/foto/i-raraview.xq?bhr=Dt+1240-2460+gr+raro (18. 11. 2015). 27 Leta 1610, ko je bila v cerkvi San Giobbe ustanovljena bratovščina sv. Didaka iz Alkale, so svetniku posvetili kapelo, ki je bila prej zasebna kapela rodbine Testa. Vprašanje atribucije in datacije oltarne slike sv. Didaka ostaja odprto, saj slika še ni bila podrobneje analizirana (Gallo, Neppi Scire, 1994, 34-36). 28 Zahvaljujem se patru Adrianu Campesatu, OFM, ki mi je omogočil ogled slik Palme mlajšega, ki sta danes v zakristiji. 29 Za temeljno novejšo literaturo o Santu Perandi gl. Marchiori Ascione, 1959, 126-1 33; Pallucchini, 1981, 41-44; Martineli Braglia, 1987; Pedrocco, 2000, zlasti 25, 32; Meijer, 2001, 122-126; Rusca, 2001, 135-1 39; L'Occaso, 2015 (slednji z izčrpnim pregledom del in seznamom literature). 30 Sansovino, Stringa, 1604, 116v: »/.../ la picciola Cappella, dedicata ultimamente a S. Didaco. La pala dell'altare e di mano del Peranda /.../«. Slika je kot Perandovo delo navedena tudi v poznejših topografskih pregledih slikarskih del v Benetkah (prim. Boschini, 1674, Sestier di Castello: 41-42; Zanetti, 1 771, 4, 337), atribucija pa je bila sprejeta tudi v poznejši umetnostnozgodovinski literaturi (Pallucchini, 1981, 44; Onda, 2003, 72; prim. tudi Fondo Pallucchini, 119). 31 Redovnik, ki ozdravlja bolne, je upodobljen tudi na Perandi pripisani risbi (pripravljalni študiji) v zbirki Art Institute of Chicago, ki precej odstopa od njegove kompozicije v Vigni; gl. http://www.artic.edu/aic/collections/artwork/82332?search_no=2&index=0 (20. 11. 2015). 36 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Tina KOŠAK: SV. DIDAK IZ ALKALE OZDRAVLJA BOLNE. OLTARNA SLIKA PIETRA MERE V CERKVI SV. ANE V KOPRU ..., 25-42 17. stoletja zelo redek, lahko domnevamo, da je imela Perandova slika sv. Didaka pri frančiškanih v Vigni pri snovanju (morda tudi pri odločitvi za motiv) oltarne slike v Kopru pomembno vlogo. Pietro Mera je Peran-dovo kompozicijo najverjetneje poznal, saj so za Vigno že ob koncu 16. in v prvem desetletju 17. stoletja delali slikarji, s katerimi je bil Mera neposredno povezan (poleg Palme mlajšega tudi Vassilacchi; gl. Onda, 2003, 70, 86, 129-130, 142). Domnevamo lahko, da je bil v času Perandovega bivanja v Benetkah in dela v Palmovi delavnici v stiku tudi s Perando. Za cerkev in samostan San Francesco della Vigna pa je Mera nenazadnje slikal tudi sam (prim. Boschini, 1674, Sestier di Castello: 42, 44-45; Zanetti 1771, 5, 500). Domnevno okrog leta 1620, torej bržkone še preden je prejel naročilo za cerkev sv. Ane v Kopru, je za Vigno naslikal delo Sv. Frančišek priporoča Mariji bolno ženo, ki visi na severni steni prezbiterija (prim. Onda, 2003, 89).32 Morda bi lahko Didakovo kapelo in Perandovo sliko Didakovega zdravljenja v frančiškanski cerkvi San Francesco della Vigna poznal tudi naročnik Merove slike v Kopru. Naročilu slike in oltarja sv. Didaka v Kopru bi v tem primeru lahko botrovalo tudi češčenje tega svetnika v bližnjih Benetkah in redovne povezave z beneškimi frančiškani.33 Primerjava Merove in Perandove upodobitve Didakovega čudežnega ozdravljenja bolnih pa vendarle razkrije relativno malo kompozicijskih paralel. Če je na Perandovi sliki pogled na oltar, podobno kot na njenih flamskih vzorih, podan od strani, je Mera, kot rečeno, Marijin oltar in dogajanje pred njim poudaril s frontalno zasnovo, na podlagi česar bi mogli domnevati, da Perandova slika ni mogla biti edini vzor za koprsko in da je Mera vendarle sledil tudi neki drugi shemi, ki je v osnovi morda izvirala iz Albanijeve in Carraccijeve. Perando-vemu prizoru se koprska slika še najbolj približa v upodobitvi svetnika, ki z desnico sega k bolnikovi rami. Ker ima, podobno kot pri Perandi, tudi moški na Merovi sliki na desni rami rano in ker je Didak z roko bliže bolnikovi rami kot očem, lahko sklepamo, da je tudi na koprski sliki upodobljena ozdravitev bolnega oziroma poškodovanega in ne slepega moškega, kot je doslej veljalo v literaturi.34 Na to kaže tudi primerjava z upodobitvami Didakovega ozdravljenja slepih, na katerih se svetnik z roko precej bolj nazorno približa očem. Nenavadno svetle roženice na koprski sliki, ki dajejo vtis, da je moški slep, pa bi lahko pripisali tudi slabi ohranjenosti barvnih plasti, saj ima podobno (čeprav manj izrazito) bledo obarvane roženice tudi klečeči moški na desni. V skladu z načeli tridentinskega koncila, ki je poudaril pomen češčenja svetnikov, se je upodabljanje španskega frančiškanskega redovnika Didaka iz Alkale v evropskem slikarstvu zelo hitro uveljavilo tako v okviru frančiškanskega reda kot tudi za potrebe afirmacije vloge, pobožnosti in moči posvetnih naročnikov in dona-torjev. Oltarna slika Pietra Mere v Kopru kot edina dokumentirana upodobitev motiva Didakovega ozdravljenja bolnih v tem delu Istre potrjuje, da so koprski frančiškani ob naročilih nove opreme za samostansko cerkev sv. Ane med njeno prenovo v dvajsetih letih 17. stoletja sledili novim, a vendarle v okviru beneškega slikarstva že uveljavljenim ikonografskim smernicam. Pietro Mera je beneški slogovni izraz in ikonografske vzore združil z rimskimi in severnjaškimi kompozicijskimi in motivnimi elementi ter le štiri desetletja po Didakovi kanonizaciji zanje prepričljivo upodobil enega njegovih čudežev. 32 Boschini pripisuje Pietru Meri v cerkvi in samostanu San Francesco della Vigna več slik: Marijo z otrokom in svetniki (sv. Frančiškom, Dominikom, Janezom Krstnikom in Janezom Evangelistom), ki je visela v prezbiteriju, sliko sv. Frančiška v zakristiji in »molti Beati della Religione Francescana, di mano di Pietro Mera« v samostanu (Boschini, 1674, Sestier di Castello: 42, 44-45). Obseg naročil in kronologija del, ki jih je Pietro Mera naslikal za frančiškanski samostan San Francesco della Vigna sta v veliki meri neraziskana, zaradi česar ne moremo z gotovostjo potrditi, da je Mera za Vigno delal, preden je prejel naročilo iz Kopra. V prid tej tezi za zdaj govorita okvirna datacija slike s sv. Frančiškom okrog 1620 in podatek, da naj bi za samostan naslikal večje število del, kar kaže na to, da je od samostana verjetno pridobil več naročil. 33 Mera je koprsko sliko naslikal le leto pred izbruhom velike epidemije kuge v Benetkah leta 1630 oziroma v istem letu, ko je bila epidemija že v razmahu v sosednji Lombardiji (Casoni, 1830; Lane, 1991, 463). Morda je na izbor motiva čudežnega ozdravljenja in upodobitev sv. Didaka, ki so ga častili v eni od beneških špitalskih cerkva vplival tudi ta dogodek. Zahvaljujem se Heleni Seražin, ki me je prijazno opozorila na možnost vpliva epidemije kuge na naročilo. Za sugestije o okoliščinah redovnih naročil in diskusije o svetniški ikonografiji se zahvaljujem Ani Lavrič in Blažu Resmanu. 34 Da je upodobljeno ozdravljanje slepega, omenja že Alisi (1910, 18), po njem pa povzema domala vsa poznejša literatura. Janez Mikuž (1973, 44) podaja napačen opis, da svetnik »/.../ z desnico nosi olje iz svetilke na oči slepca, ki kleči na levi, in ga tako zdravi«. Brejc (1 983, 1 36) navaja, da pred Didakom kleči »slep starec«, kot Ozdravljanje slepega pa prizor naslavlja tudi Craievich 1999a, 66. 37 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Tina KOŠAK: SV. DIDAK IZ ALKALE OZDRAVLJA BOLNE. OLTARNA SLIKA PIETRA MERE V CERKVI SV. ANE V KOPRU ..., 25-42 ST. DIEGO OF ALCALÁ'S MIRACULOUS HEALING. THE ALTAR PAINTING BY PIETRO MERA IN THE CHURCH OF ST. ANNE IN KOPER AND ITS STYLISTIC AND ICONOGRAPHIC CONTEXT Tina KOSAK ZRC SAZU, France Stele Institute of Art History, Novi trg 2, 1000 Ljubljana University of Maribor, Faculty of Arts, Koroska cesta 160, 2000 Maribor e-mail: tkosak@zrc-sazu.si SUMMARY The article discusses altar painting St. Didacus of Alcalá's Miraculous Healing in the Franciscan Church of St. Anne in Koper. The depiction of the Franciscan friar St. Didacus (Diego) of Alcalá, healing the sick and crippled in front of Mary's altar, is a signed and dated (1629) work by Pietro Mera (c. 1577/78-1644), Venetian painter of Netherlandish origin, who was also known as Il Fiammingo. The article provides an iconographic and stylistic analysis and comparison of Mera's painting in Koper with other known depictions of St. Didacus' healing in Venetian, Roman and Flemish art around 1600. The altar was most probably commissioned during the renovation of the monastery church in the 1620s. Its subject confirms that commissioning new furnishings, Franciscan friars in Koper followed relatively new iconographic patterns, which by then had, however, been already established in Venice. Mera's painting reveals several compositional parallels with Francesco Albani and Annibale Carracci's fresco of St. Didacus of Alcala Healing a Blind Man in Herrera Chapel in Rome. More direct influence for the Koper painting, however, came from Venetian altar painting. In Venice, where the cult of St. Didacus of Alcalá was promoted by the Franciscan order as well as by the Confraternity of St. Didacus (founded at the Church of S. Giobbe), the first depictions of the saint date to the end of the 16th century, but are relatively rare. In St. Didacus' chapel in the Franciscan church San Francesco della Vigna, the altar painting St Didacus of Alcalá's Mircaculous Healing by Sante Peranda (1566-1638) was documented as early as 1604. Since Mera himself also worked for Friars in Vigna, he must have known Peranda's painting. Moreover, the commissioner of the painting in Koper could have been familiar with the painting in Vigna as well. We can thus assume that Peranda's St. Didacus of Alcalá's Miraculous Healing in San Franesco della Vigna inspired and directly influenced Mera's altar painting of the same subject in Koper. Keywords: painting, Koper, Church of St. Anne, iconography, saints, St. Didacus (Diego) of Alcalá (c. 1400-1463), Franciscan order, 16th century, 17th century, Venice, Flemish painting, Pietro Mera (c. 1577/1578-1644), Sante Peranda (1566-1638) 38 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Tina KOŠAK: SV. DIDAK IZ ALKALE OZDRAVLJA BOLNE. OLTARNA SLIKA PIETRA MERE V CERKVI SV. ANE V KOPRU ..., 25-42 VIRI IN LITERATURA Alisi, A. [Sennio, I / Leiss, A.]. (2006): Cerkev in samostan svete Ane v Kopru. Muzej umetnin. Nova Gorica, Branko. Alisi, A. [Sennio, I]. (1910): La Chiesa ed il Convento di S. 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Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Antwerpener Malerei in der zweiten Hälfte des 16. Jahrhunderts. Berlin, Mann. 42 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 original scientific article DOI: 10.19233/ASHS.2016.4 received: 2015-05-09 delimitations regarding fishing in the adriatic sea between kingdom of serbs, croats and slovenes and kingdom of italy after the first world war. the brijuni convention from 1921 Sanja REITER Ulica IX 57, Kozino, 23 000 Zadar, Croatia e-mail: sanja.reiter@gmail.com ABSTRACT This paper deals with delimitations in the Adriatic sea after the signing of the Brijuni Convention in 1921 between Kingdom of Italy and Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The author analyses the Italian version of the agreement in accordance with the attached map. Analysis of the Brijuni Convention provides an insight into Adriatic fishing policy during the first decades of the 20th century as well as into complex relations between the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and the Kingdom of Italy. Keywords: Adriatic Sea, Brijuni Convention, fishing, Kingdom of Italy, Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, 1921 DELIMITAZIONI RELATIVE ALLA PESCA NEL MARE ADRIATICO TRA IL REGNO DEI SERBI, CROATI E SLOVENI E REGNO D' ITALIA DOPO LA PRIMA GUERRA MONDIALE. L'ACCORDO DI BRONI DAL 1921 SINTESI L'articob tratta delimitazioni nel Mare Adriático dopo la firma dell' Accordo di Brioni nel 1921 tra Regno d' Italia e Regno del Serbi, Croati e Sloveni. Viene analizatta la versione italiana dell' accordo in conformità con la mappa allegata. Analisi dell' Accordo di Brioni offre una panoramica su questioni di pesca nel Mare Adriatico, nonché delle relazioni complesse tra il Regno dei Serbi, Croati e Sloveni e il Regno d' Italia nel primi decenni del XX secolo. Parole chiave: Accordo di Brioni, Mare Adriatico, pesca, Regno d' Italia, Regno dei Serbi, Croati e Sloveni, 1921 43 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Sanja REITER: DELIMITATIONS REGARDING FISHING IN THE ADRIATIC SEA BETWEEN KINGDOM OF SERBS, CROATS AND SLOVENES ..., 43-52 INTRODUCTION1 Management of the Adriatic Sea has been the subject of interest of its eastern and western lords since the Antique. With the development of technology and the shipping industry the need for legal regulations for managing its resources was growing. First legal frameworks for managing the resources of the Adriatic were found in the Early Modern Age when the coastal municipalities were granted the right of exclusive fishing within one mile of their coastline, as well as the ability to lease the same right to certain subjects (Sambrailo, 1985). However, the legal framework was not always respected. Disputes over fishing usually arose because of undefined limits of the territorial waters of the Adriatic communes and municipalities2. Although the need to protect the local fishermen, and thus to protect a country's economy, has become an important element of the internal and foreign policy during the first Austrian rule in the Adriatic (1797 - 1805), the first significant decree was issued by the French administration in 1808. Today it is known as Dandolo's decree3. The content of the Decree was implemented upon the departure of the French and for a long period after that. The fact that most of the provisions adopted during the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century referred to it testifies to its importance (Reiter, 2015). After the defeat of the French and their departure from Dalmatia, the Austrian Empire regained the authority over the territory and its territorial gains were confirmed at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. During the twenties of the 19th century, the government in Dalmatia issued a proclamation which banned fishing to foreign fishermen within a mile from the coast. The provision was expanded in 1833 with the declaration of the decree prohibiting trawling within two miles of the coast and in channels narrower than three miles (Basio-li, 1973). The next provision that was important for Dalmatia was adopted in 1835 when the government issued Regolamento per la pesca disciplinare di mare sulle Costa del Golfo Adriatico (SAZ, 386, 42, 24.) A free fishing zone was declared within the distance of one mile from the coast, where the right was given to the inhabitants of the coastal zone. The provision was expanded so that the local population was restricted to fishing along the coast of the municipality to which they belonged. The second half of the 19th century witnessed the significant change of the geopolitical situation in the Adriatic when it became an important factor in the foreign policy of the states that controlled it. Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, started to invest more and more time and re- sources into Adriatic ports just when young and united Italy appeared on the other coast, regarding the Adriatic Sea as Mare Nostrum (Reiter, 2015). The turning point of the agreement between the two rulers in the Adriatic occurred in 1884 when two sides met in Gorizia. The Gorizia conference was convened because of unresolved issues after the Italian protest against the Austrian provisions on fishing by which the trawling of the Italian fishermen was to be limited to three miles from the coast4. At the end each side made provisions within their own legal frameworks (Lorini, 1995). The decisions of the conference should be considered within the circumstances of the 19th century when international maritime law was significantly different than today. Due to the non-existence of international arrangements in the matters of territorial sea issues, agreements were only negotiated at the bilateral level. After several months, Austro-Hungarian Monarchy passed the provision that abolished most of the existing ones. Fishing right of the population within the municipal area remained the same. In theory, the fishing right was not permitted to be consigned to another entity (Lorini, 1995). The coastal population on both sides of the Adriatic retained the right of fishing beyond one mile from the coast. The conference in Gorizia set a regulatory framework for the Adriatic that was in power until World War I (Reiter, 2015). FISHING IN THE ADRIATIC SEA AT THE BEGINING OF THE 20th CENTURY During the next years fishing was freely allowed, except withing one mile from the coast and it was based on past regulations. Conflicts at the local level and the battle for proper fishing regulations continued, and the Dalmatian representatives in the battle became increasingly louder in expressing their discontent5. In June 1907 in Trieste a meeting was held by the Monarchy's Com-misione centrale per la pesca maritima, after which the right of fishing within a mile from the coast was extended for the residents of coastal municipalities. It was the last conference before World War I which significantly changed the map of the Adriatic coast (Reiter, 2015). Growing dissatisfaction with the state in the nation, the loss of the ruler Franz Joseph I as a symbol of state and defeats in the war caused the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy to crumble. In early October, the National Council of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs was formed as the representative body of all South Slavs in the Monarchy and at the end of October 1918 the State of Slovenes, 1 The author wishes to thank professor Josip Faricic from University of Zadar for his suggetions and advices. 2 The Adriatic legal framework mostly adhered to European trends. Most of the European treaties before the 19th century refered to the fish stock and the right of sea passage. See: Dagett, 1934; Reiter, 2015. 3 See: SAZ, 386, 17, 10. 4 The three mile distance was a standard measure for territorial waters in agreements during the 19th century. See: Dagett, 1934. 5 For example, see: SAZ, 3 70, 1, 52. 44 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Sanja REITER: DELIMITATIONS REGARDING FISHING IN THE ADRIATIC SEA BETWEEN KINGDOM OF SERBS, CROATS AND SLOVENES ..., 43-52 Fig. 1: Arbe (Croatia), Fishing boats, 1883 Sl. 1: Rab (Hrvaška), Ribiški čolni, 1883 Source/vir: Faber, G. L. (1883): Fisheries of the Adriatic and the Fish Thereof: A Report of the Austro-Hungarian Sea-Fisheries, with a Detailed Description of the Marine Fauna of the Adriatic Gulf. London, Bernard Quaritch. File:FMIB 32729 Arbe.jpeg. From Wikimedia Commons 45 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Sanja REITER: DELIMITATIONS REGARDING FISHING IN THE ADRIATIC SEA BETWEEN KINGDOM OF SERBS, CROATS AND SLOVENES ..., 43-52 Croats and Serbs was proclaimed. A part of the politicians believed that the unification with the Kingdom of Serbia and Montenegro would contribute to securing the order in the country and to strengthening the defense against Italy (Reiter, 2015). The State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs was united with the Kingdom of Serbia by the Act on 1 December. A new state called the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was created. The new state faced problems with its recognition as certain parts of it were promised to Italy by the Treaty of London6. Italy had, according to the provisions of the truce7 and the Treaty of London, occupied some of the towns and islands and declared the Goverment for Dalmatia, dalmatian islands and the islands of Korcula archipelago. The officers of the port authorities and commanders of the control offices for maritime and port services in the occupied territory were given the right to issue orders related to maritime and port security, anchorages, sea shores and coastal areas (SAZ, 386, 58, 110). On the other hand, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes declared fishing bans for foreigners in territorial waters in the area of six miles from the coast to be in force (Zu-panovic, 1995). The undetermined legal status of coastal regions and lackness of an international legal ground for limitations in the territorial sea made fishing matters complicated (Reiter, 2015). The negotiations on the post-war conference in Paris and direct negotiations between Yugoslavia and Italy during 1919 were not successful so the highest state representatives agreed to meet aging soon in Italy. The result of those negotiations was the Treaty of Rapallo concluded on 12 November 1920. According to the Treaty the following territories were given to Italy: Istria without the municipality of Kastav, Zadar and the surrounding area, the islands of Cres, Losinj, Lasto-vo and Palagruza with the surrounding rocks and islets (Diklic, 2010). The treaty was met with criticism on both sides and it became clear that the new borders in the eastern Adriatic created a necessity for implementation of the new Adriatic policy8. According to the provisions from Rapallo, the question of fishing was to be resolved in mutual agreement. Italy started to establish fishing companies whose members stood up in defense of Italian fishing interests while seeking grounds for the Italian fishing zone. The Italian papers warned the government that an agreement should be made according to which the Fig. 2: Signing of the Treaty of Rapallo Sl. 2: Podpis Rapalske pogodbe Source/vir: http://www. enciklopedija. hr/Natuknica. aspx?ID=51831 rights of the two countries would not be equal. The Italian fishermen were supposed to have the right of fishing in the territorial waters, in addition to the exclusive right of fishing for the inhabitants of the coastal municipalities within one mile from the coast9. On the other side of the Adriatic Sea in January 1921 a conference on fishing was held in Split. During the conference, the Yugoslav fishermen voiced their dissatisfaction with the reached agreements and expressed the need to protect the Yugoslav interests in the future (Basioli, 1973). A protection of the Adriatic Sea was requested, emphasizing that the concessions for the Italians, should they need to occur, should be applied only in certain areas without compromising domestic interests10. In the Northern Adriatic the Italians possessed the Gulf of Trieste, almost entire coast of Istria, Cres and Losinj. In the territory of Rijeka a free independent state was founded where the Italians were in charge (Patafta, 2006). In northern Dalmatia, they possessed the Zadar enclave, and in the south they had the islands of Lastovo and Palagruza with nearby islands. Zadar presented a huge political gain for the Kingdom of Italy, but it was also a great economic burden since the city was cut off from its hinterland and its economic prospects did not look promising (Reiter, 2015). Island of Lastovo, along with nearby islands, was proclaimed to be a municipal- 6 The Treaty of London was concluded on 26 April 1915 between the Triple Entente and the Kingdom of Italy. Italy was supposed to get Trentino, Cisalpine Tyrol with its geographical and natural frontier, Trieste, Gorizia, county of Gradiska and Istria and Kvarner as a compensation for joining the war on the side of the Entente. According to Article 5, Italy was supposed to get the province of Dalmatia in its then-administrative borders; between Lisarica and Tribanj to Cape Planka, Kvarner islands Cres, Losinj and nearby outlying islands as well as all the Dalmatian islands, except for Hvar, Brae, Solta, Drvenik Veli and Drvenik Mali. See: Sisic, 1920. 7 For the conditions of the truce between Austria and Italy, see: Narodni list, 7. 11. 1918: Sklopljeno primirje Austrije s Italijom, 1. 8 For more see: Reiter, 2015; SAZ, 3 70, 1, 85. 9 Corriere di Zara, 30. 6. 1921: Basi di un protocollo, 1-2. The Italians demanded negotiating in accordance with the provisions of the Conference in Gorizia from their representatives. 10 For more see: Reiter, 2015; SAZ, 3 70, 1, 85. 46 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Sanja REITER: DELIMITATIONS REGARDING FISHING IN THE ADRIATIC SEA BETWEEN KINGDOM OF SERBS, CROATS AND SLOVENES ..., 43-52 — granica Italije i Austro-Ugarske do 1918, granica tslije i Kraljevine SHS 1934. t_J Slobodna Država Rijeka VjTA pripojeno Italiji 1920. Fig. 3: Map of the eastern Adriatic coast after the Treaty of Rapallo Sl. 3: Zemljevid vzhodne jadranske obale po Rapalski pogodbi Source/vir: http://www.enciklopedija.hr/Natuknica. aspx?ID=51831 ity within the province of Zadar11. Although this province was far away and thus neglected from all aspects, both countires showed interest for fishing in the Lastovo channel. Due to the geological conditions and the dynamic changes of the current, the sea around Lastovo and the archipelago of Lastovo was characterized by rapid changes in the fish stock that were favourable for fishing12. THE BRIJUNI CONVENTION In order to reach the final agreement, the Italian and Yugoslav government called for a conference that was held in Belgrade during the spring and summer of 1921 13. The negotiators from the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes were prominent experts in the field with years of experience in fishing issues in the institutions of the former Austro-Hungarian state (Reiter, 2015). Among them was Petar Lorini, former fishing inspector at the Ministry of Maritime Affairs of the former monarchy who was known for his innovative solutions for improvement of fishing. Together with the representative Fran Ivanisevic in the initial stage of negotiations that were held during spring in Belgrade, Lorini requested a relocation of the limits of the territorial sea to five miles from the coast14, as well as a ban on hunting for Italian fishermen along the coast (Basioli, 1973). This dispute caused temporary cessation of the negotiations which were renewed in June when a certain progress was achieved. Commercial disputes were resolved by the Commercial Agreement concluded on 12 July 1921. It served as a basis for further negotiations regrding the task to define the legal foundations for the common fishing zone in accordance with the protection of the fish stocks of the Adriatic (Reiter, 2015). In such an atmosphere, the two parties parted ways without a final agreement on fishing. During the summer, the negotiators gathered again on the island of Brijuni. There were changes in the Yugoslav delegation15 so the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was represented by the following representatives: Ivo Krstelj, Milan Lazarevic, Budislav Stipanovic, Ivan Pastrovic and Maksim Sardelic16. Italy was represented by count Fulco Tosti di Valmuta, Gustavo Brunel-li, Giustianiano Bullo and Andrea Davanzo. The eastern Adriatic coast is know for its fishing wealth and the Italians relied on the rights they enjoyed during the last centuries as well as their advanced fleet which was no match to the Yugoslavian fleet. The need for fish in Italy was growing and a lot of pressure was put on negotiators. From Brijuni the delegates headed towards South and to agree on final fishing boundaries. They travelled stopping in different ports where they met with fishermen and prominent experts. In the middle of August, they visited Split, Trogir and Korcula, where they were ceremonially greeted.17 While sailing along the coast back towards Brijuni, the cruiser stopped in Zadar in the night of 22 August, where the representatives of both 11 SAZ, 118, 52, 240; Bollettino ufficilale, 20. 1. 1921: Parte ufficiale, 4. 12 For information on the abundance of the fish stock of the area, see: Basioli, 1978; 1981; 1985. Corriere di Zara states that the triangle Lastovo-Palagruza-Susac is a significant fishing area for the fishing of sardines, mackerels, mullets and lobsters. Corriere di Zara, 9. 8. 1921: La pesca nell' Adriatico, 1. 13 Corriere di Zara, 30. 6. 1921: Basi di un protocollo, 1-2. 14 Given that during the negotiations there was no international agreement regarding the limits of the territorial sea, negotiators had no basis for reference. In the period between the two world wars, a serious discussion began on the issue of territorial waters, and an important step forward was made in 1930 when a conference was held in Hague. For more information on the conference, see: Miller, 1930. 15 Ivan Skormeza was removed during the negotiations in Belgrade, and Lorini passed away on 17 June. See: Basioli, 1973, 140; SAZ, 370, 1, 88. 16 Raccolta ufficiale delle leggi e dei decreti del Regno d'Italia, 1923, vol. II, N. 281: Accordo fra i delegati del Regno d'Italia e del Regno dei Serbi, Croati e Sloveni per un progetto di convenzione per regolare la pesca nell Adriatico, 1070-1087. 17 Corriere di Zara, 26. 8. 1921: La crociera dello "Zara", 2. 47 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Sanja REITER: DELIMITATIONS REGARDING FISHING IN THE ADRIATIC SEA BETWEEN KINGDOM OF SERBS, CROATS AND SLOVENES ..., 43-52 countries were met by the town representatives18. On 24 August the participants of the negotiations set off from Zadar towards Brijuni, where the negotiations were finished in early September19. Although the newspapers speculated on the outcome of the negotiations towards their end, they were held in secret, which deteriorated the already strained relations between the two countries (Reiter, 2015). The speculations about the outcome of the negotiations came to halt in mid-September when the text of the Brijuni Convention20 was officially published. DIVISION OF THE EASTERN ADRIATIC SEA ACCORDING TO THE BRIJUNI CONVENTION The demarcation line of the fishing zones was mostly positioned one nautical mile from the shores of the mainland and the islands or very small islands and reefs that were inhabited or used for economic activities21. The larger portion of the territory that was covered by the agreement included zones22 where the fishermen from the both sides had rights to fish. The zones were divided into two categories: zone under the sovereignty of only one country and zones under the sovereignty of more countries. The latter ones included the Gulf of Rijeka23, Srednja vrata24, Krusija25, channel the channel between islands of Plavnik and Krk, Gulf of Kvarneric, a part of Zadar channel26 and Lastovo channel. In this area, the sovereignty was divided among Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, Kingdom of Italy and Free State of Fiume. In general this meant that the fishermen from all three states were allowed to fish without restrictions, besides the one nautical mile rule (Reiter, 2015). The zone which included the channels of Silba, Olib, Pohlip and Maun, as well as a part of the Zadar channel was controlled by the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. It. Its northern boundary was located at a distance of one mile north of the line which connected the islet Grujica and cape Samotvorac on the island of Silba, reef Moravnik near the island of Olib, northwestern end of the island of Skrda and cape Misnjak on the island of Pag. The southern border of the zone was a line that connected the northern border of Zadar with Lukoran on the island of Ugljan. Having a zone that was under a single Yugoslavian sovereignty did not have an effect on fishing. Fishing was still free for fishermen from both states and, due to lackness of a strong fleet, Yugoslavian side was challenged to take real control over this zone. At the north Yugoslav side retained jurisdiction over the Vinodol and Velebit Channel. Northern Dalmatia, except for the Vir sea and a part of the Zadar Channel, as well as central Dalmatia, continued to belong to Yugoslav fishermen. The same was applied for southern Dalmatia, with the exception of the Lastovo channel. The delimitation between the first mile of the coastal zone and the zones where fishing was free for everyone was established by a line that was modified in certain zones. There were two demarcation lines, eastern and western one, which divided the above mentioned zones. The eastern line was based on the boundaries of the Free State of Fiume27 following the coast to Urinj, then descended south towards the island of Sveti Marko, Krk capes Tenka Punta28 and Cuf, and then towards capes Pelova, Glavotok and Crnika29. With the exception of the gulf of Krk, the line was extended towards capes Ne-grit and Bracol, crossing over the northern edge of the island of Prvic and St. Grgur, next to capes Sorinj and Kalifront on the island of Rab. It further extended towards the island of Pag, following the coast from Lun to the cape Zaglav near Kosljun30, and from there it stretched along the western coast of the island of Vir31 towards Privlaka and further on towards Petrcane32. The line that connected cape Artic near Privlaka and cape Skala next to Petrcane did not follow the coastline, instead it bypassed the bay of Zaton, as it is known today. From there the line continued to stretch along the coast re- 18 Corriere di Zara, 24. 8. 1921: La commissione mista per la pesca nell'Adriatico, 2-3. 19 Corriere di Zara, 10. 9. 1921: L'accordo sulla pesca, 2. 20 The text of the Convention can be found in: Raccolta ufficiale delle leggi e dei decreti del Regno d'Italia, 1923: Accordo fra i delegati del Regno d'Italia e del Regno dei Serbi, Croati e Sloveni per un progetto di convenzione per regolare la pesca nell Adriatico, 1070-1087. In case of dispute, the Italian version of the agreement was recognized as the original, therefore it is the version used in this paper. 21 For deviations from that rule, see further below. 22 For information on the cartographic representation of the division of the Adriatic after the Brijuni Convention, see: SAZ, 383, call number 191. 23 The area of Rijeka's territorial waters was located outside the zone of joint control. 24 It. Canale di Veglia. The channel is located between the islands of Cres and Krk. Comp. Peljar I. 1999. 25 It. Corsia. The channel is located between islands Plavnik and Cres and today it is regarded as a part of the Srednja vrata. 26 The sea between Zadar and Ugljan was divided at its north with a line that connected the northern point of Zadar with Lukoran, and at the south the demarcation line connected the southern border of Zadar and the island of Osljak. 2 7 According to the Rapallo Treaty the Free State of Fiume was established within the limits of the former Hungarian corpus separatum, ie. within the limits of town and district of Rijeka, with the addition of a part of western Istria. See: Novak, 1985, p. 98. 28 It. Punta Sottile. 29 It. Punta Desiderio. 30 It. Porto Cassion. 31 It. Puntadura. 32 A suggestion similar to this one was made by the paper Corriere di Zara during the negotiations. They demanded an exemption of certain coasts and islands of Kvarner and Kvarneric from one mile zone. See:Corriere di Zara, 30. 6. 1921: Basi di un protocollo, 1-2. 48 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Sanja REITER: DELIMITATIONS REGARDING FISHING IN THE ADRIATIC SEA BETWEEN KINGDOM OF SERBS, CROATS AND SLOVENES ..., 43-52 Fig. 4: Map of the Adriatic Sea after the Brijuni Convention (SAZ, 383, 191) Sl. 4: Karta Jadranskega morja po Brionskem sporazumu (SAZ, 383, 191) maining one mile away from the coastal limits of Zadar. The western line started in the Zadar channel on the island of Ošljak and connected it with the islet Idula, cape Križ on the island of Sestrunj, cape Kok on the island of 1st and cape Lopata on the island of Premuda. The line continued to follow the northeastern coast of Premuda linking the island Lutrošnjak, cape Radovan on the island of Ilovik33, islet of Palacol and capes of Cres, St. Damjan and St. Duh34 without following the southeastern coastline of Cres. In that way, the sea between the capes of St. Damjan and St. Duh was preserved for the inhabitants of Cres. From the cape St. Duh, the line followed the coastline of Cres up to the cape Tarej, where it was interrupted in the area of channel Krušija. After that, it followed the northeastern coast connecting cape Kosminj and cape Jablanac. The line was interrupted there at Moscenica, after which it followed the coast to the border of the Free State of Fiume at a distance of one mile. Fishing boundaries around the islands within the zones of free fishing were set at a distance of one mile35 and thus the inhabitants of the islands retained the exclusive right of fishing within that zone (Reiter, 2015). Taken into consideration the political division of the borders and the length of the coastline achieving an agreement that would be satisfying for both parties seemed impossible so certain deviations were made. The demarcation line spreaded around the island of Plavnik in Kvarner one mile from the cape Veli Pin36 on Plavnik to the cape Madona following the northeastern and the southern coast of the island surrounding the islands of Kornati. Trawling was forbidden in the entire area of the Krusija channel and in the Zadar channel within the agreed limits. The one mile zone was limited to the distance of 300 meters in the northern part of the Srednja vrata37, in the Maun channel, at the eastern shores of Planik and around the islets Grebeni38 in the Silba channel. The rights to fish within one mile around was limited to certain islands39 in the Kvarneric area and it was given to inhabiants of Cres and Losinj (Italian territories) as well as Novalja and Rab (Yugoslavian territories). It is considered that this was a compensation for the Italian fihermen with centuries long tradition in fishing coming from the northern towns of today Italy. Having in mind Adriatic fishing agreements from past centuries we see that the Brijuni Convention relied on some of them. In the area of the Lastovo channel, an exception was made from the one mile rule. Fishing was allowed to the inhabitants of the island within a two mile zone. For the residents of Lastovo, the border was a line that connected the islet of Glavat, northern capes of Lastovnjaci, Lastovo, Susac and the islets between them40. The inhabitants of Korcula had the right to fish within the area south of the island: from the line which connected cape Velo Dance, the most prominent islands south of Korcula and cape Veli Zaglav. After that, the line followed the coast to the cape Raznjic. Due to previous regulations and yugoslavian demands certain deviations were agreed (Reiter, 2015). Forty boats from Komiza received a permission to fish around Palagruza during the summer and ten fishing boats from Vis had 33 It. Asinello. 34 In the Convention Coromacna is mentioned as the name of the cape. Today, the name Koromacna belongs to a bay on the island of Cres, and the nearby cape is called St. Duh. Comp.: SAZ, 383, call number 191; Peljar, 1999, p. 105. 35 For more exceptions, see below. 36 It. Punta Cruzi. 3 7 The furthest points of the border were capes Pelova and Negrit on the island of Krk, capes Grota and Kosminj on the island of Cres, capes Veli Pin and Madona on the island of Plavnik. Channels Krusija and bay of Krk were exempt from the zone. 38 It. Pettini. 39 The regulation refers to three islands east from Cres (Veli Cutin, Mali Cutin i Trstenik) and Grujica in the Kvarner channel. 40 The line followed northern capes Vrhovnjak and Donji skoji, thus connecting them with prominent capes of the northern coast of Lastovo. Further on, it followed the northern coasts of the islets that were located western of Lastovo connecting them with the western coast of Susac. For more information on the division of the archipelago of Lastovo, see: Peljar, 1999, pp. 2 78-282. 49 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Sanja REITER: DELIMITATIONS REGARDING FISHING IN THE ADRIATIC SEA BETWEEN KINGDOM OF SERBS, CROATS AND SLOVENES ..., 43-52 the right of fishing around Susac. The inhabitants of Lumbarda on the island of Korcula received a permission to fish around Vrhovnjak in the eastern part of the archipelago of Lastovo. The western parts of the islands Lastovnjaci were left to the Italian fishermen. For fishing in the waters of Rijeka, Zadar, Lastovo channel and around Susac and Palagruza, the fishermen had to possess a special permit issued by the port where they were registered, in addition to the permission of the authorities. During fishing in the common fishing areas fishermen were freed from the obligation to obtain consular permit for crossing the sea border. Control over the joint fishing zones was supposed to be implemented so that the each party controlled its own territorial waters in accordance with the provisions of the Convention and the laws of the state. The provisions on fishing of the Brijuni Convention could legally go into effect only by the ratification by both countries. Dissatisfaction with the outcome of the agreement caused discussions that have prolonged the process of ratification, thus the fishing remained in crisis. The Conventions in Santa Margherita Ligure, signed on 23 October 1922, resolved the remaining issues between the two countries. After its signing the Brijuni Convention was extended for five years without ratification. The provisions of the Brijuni Convention officially came into power in the Italian Parliament in February 1923 through the ratification of the above mentioned Conventions41. The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes officialy declared the Convention at the end of 1 923.42 In the coming decades the cooperation in the fishing zones was not taking place in accordance with Brijuni Convention and several cases of violation were recorded so fishermen filed appeals43. The Italian side felt they were deprived from their historical right to fish on the eastern Adriatic coast which led to serious damage in Italian fishing industry. The Yugoslavian side was reporting violations from the Italian side in terms of using vessels which were bigger and stronger that permitted and illegal permissions. The goverment in Belgrade showed little interest for fishing in general so it isn't suprising that these appeals were not accepted (Reiter, 2015). Small Yugoslavian fleet prooved to be no match for the illegal fishing, causing disputes during the following years. Due the following issuses and political reasons the Convention was not renewed during bilateral meeting in 19 3 6 44 therefor fishing provisions remained vague during the coming years. CONCLUSION After the end of the World War I, the relations between the Kingdom of Italy and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes were tense. The two countries had a number of unresolved territorial and demographic issues after the Paris Peace Conference. In such circumstances, the question of fishing could be resolved only after the agreement on the demarcation which was signed in late 1920 in Rapallo. The final framework for the fishing policy in the Adriatic was provided by the signing of the Brijuni Convention on fishing in 1921. The agreement signified a great improvement in addressing the burning issue of fishing in the Adriatic. The eastern Adriatic, which was administratively and politically fragmented, was thus given the legal framework upon which the local authorities and fishermen could refer to. The Italians possessed a significantly more advanced technology for fishing at the time of the signing of the agreement, therefore they were granted entry into interinsular areas in the east Adriatic, which carried much significance for them. Having in main the percentege of territory that Italy gained after the Rapallo Treaty, Italian negotiators proved to be successful. Italy had maintained its dominance in the Kvarner region and gained the right of monitoring and fishing within Kvarneric and Lastovo channel, which represented an important fishing area. The Yugoslav side retained jurisdiction over the Vino-dol and Velebit Channel. Northern Dalmatia, except for the Vir sea and a part of the Zadar Channel, as well as central Dalmatia. The same was applied for southern Dalmatia, with the exception of the Lastovo channel. During the next decades both sides showed discontent with the agreement and several cases of violation were recorded. The lack of political interest form both sides showed that at the time of concluding the Brijuni Convention did not exist nor the will nor the capacity for its implementation. 41 See: Raccolta ufficiale, 1923, N. 281, vol. II., 1070-1087; SAZ, 386, 59, 93. 42 Novo doba, 30. 12. 1925: Pitanje ribolova na Jadranu, 1.; Jadranska straža, 9. 9. 1931: Kršenje konvencija o ribolovu u Jadranskom moru, 237-238. 43 As an example, see: Corriere di Zara, 27. 12. 1921: Le vessazioni jugoslave, 1; Jadranska straža, 9. 9. 1931: Kršenje konvencija o ribolovu u Jadranskom moru, 238; Reiter, 2015. 44 Jadranski dnevnik, 13. 1. 1 936: Problem ribolova na Jadranu i talijanska prava na dalmatinsku obalu, 2. 50 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Sanja REITER: DELIMITATIONS REGARDING FISHING IN THE ADRIATIC SEA BETWEEN KINGDOM OF SERBS, CROATS AND SLOVENES ..., 43-52 RAZMEJITEV V ZVEZI Z RIBOLOVOM V JADRANSKEM MORJU MED KRALJEVINO SRBOV, HRVATOV IN SLOVENCEV IN KRALJEVINO ITALIJO PO PRVI SVETOVNI VOJNI. BRIONSKI SPORAZUM IZ LETA 1921 Sanja REITER Ulica IX 57, Kožino, 23 000 Zadar, Hrvaška e-mail: sanja.reiter@gmail.com POVZETEK Članek raziskuje ribolov v Jadranskem morju v prvih desetletjih 20. stoletja. Ribolov je analiziran v luči Brionskega sporazuma, ki je bil podpisan 14. septembra 1921. V skladu s sporazumom je bila vzhodna jadranska obala razdeljena na ribolovne cone. Z analizo italijanskega izvoda Brionskega sporazuma in kartografskega gradiva je bilo ugotovljeno, da je bila le ena cona v okviru enotne suverenosti Kraljevine Srbov, Hrvatov in Slovencev. Obsegala je Silpski, Olibski, Pohlipski in Maunski kanal ter del Zadarskega kanala. V okviru skupne suverenosti pa so bili Reški zaliv, Srednja vrata, kanal Krušija, kanal med otoki Plavnik in Krk, zaliv Kvarneric, del Zadarskega kanala in Lastovski kanal. Ob upoštevanju, da so imeli italijanski ribiči boljšo opremo, lahko zaključimo, da je glede na odstotek ozemlja s podpisom Brionskega sporazuma Kraljevina Italija dosegla diplomatski in ekonomski uspeh. Z aktom o ratifikaciji so postavljeni temelji za ribiško politiko v Jadranskem morju med obema svetovnim vojnama. Ključne besede: Brionski sporazum, Jadransko morje, Kraljevina Italija, Kraljevina Srbov, Hrvatov in Slovencev, ribolov, 1921 51 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Sanja REITER: DELIMITATIONS REGARDING FISHING IN THE ADRIATIC SEA BETWEEN KINGDOM OF SERBS, CROATS AND SLOVENES ..., 43-52 SOURCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY SAZ, 118, 52, 240 - State Archives in Zadar (SAZ) (Državni arhiv u Zadru), Civilni komesarijat Zadar (118), box 52, Naredba od dana 12. siječnja 1921. (240). SAZ, 370, 1, 52 - State Archives in Zadar, Osobni ahiv Petra Lorinija (370), box 1, Zapisnik sa sjednice Centralnog povjerenstva za ribarstvo održane u Zadru pod predsjedanjem predsjednika Pomorske vlade Ernes-ta Bechera od dana 15. ožujka 1899. godine (52). SAZ, 370, 1, 85 - State Archives in Zadar (SAZ), Osobni ahiv Petra Lorinija (370), box 1, Koncepti, Pismo Ivana Skormeže upuceno Petru Loriniju 8. svibnja 1921. Iz Beograda (85). SAZ, 370, 1, 88 - State Archives in Zadar (SAZ), Osobni ahiv Petra Lorinija (370), box 1, Tekst Širne Gran-dova u povodu stogodišnjice rodenja P. Lorinija od 15. svibnja 1950. (88). SAZ, 383, 191 - State Archives in Zadar (SAZ), Cartographical collection (383), Granice ribolovnih pod-ručja Jadranskog mora, Istituto idrografico della R. Marina, Genova, 1923, Call number 191. SAZ, 386, 17, 10 - State Archives in Zadar (SAZ), Stampate (386), box 17, Dandolov dekret o ribolovu u Dalmaciji od dana 15.travnja 1808 (10). SAZ, 386, 42, 24 - State Archives in Zadar (SAZ), Stampate (386), box 42, Disciplinski pravilnik o ribolovu u Jadranskom moru (24). SAZ, 386, 58, 110 - State Archives in Zadar (SAZ), Stampate (386), box 58, Naredba po kojoj lučka poglavarstva i poglavnik kontrolnih ureda za pomorske i lučke službe u okupiranom području, imaju pravo da izdaju u opsegu svoje nadležnosti, naredbe glede pomorskog re-darstva i sigurnosti luka, sidrišta, morskih žala i obala od 24. svibnja 1919. (110). SAZ, 386, 59, 93 - State Archives in Zadar (SAZ), Stampate (386), box. 59, St. Margeritski ugovor izmedu Italije i Jugoslavije 1922 i pogranično razgraničenje carine, 23. listopada 1922. (93). Bollettino ufficiale. Zara, Commissariato civile di Zara e della Dalmazia occupata dal R. Esercito, 1921. Corriere di Zara. Zara, Raimondo Desanti, 1921. Jadranska straža. Split, Izvršni odbor Jadranske straže, 1931. Jadranski dnevnik. Split, Konzorcij "Jadranski dnevnik" (Stjepan Vidovit), 1936. Narodni list. Zadar, Juraj Biankini, 1918. Novo doba. Split, Štamparsko poduzece Novo doba, 1925. Raccolta ufficiale delle leggi e dei decreti del Regno d'ltalia. Roma, 1923. Basioli, J. (1973): Ribari Italije na našem moru. In: Antic V., Barbalic R., Bratulic V. & A. Turina (eds.): Pomorski zbornik, 11. Rijeka, Društvo za pracenje i una-predenje ribarstva Jugoslavije, 121-145. Basioli, J. (1978): Lastovo. In: Brajkovic, V. (ed.): Pomorska enciklopedija, 4. Zagreb, JLZ, 225-228. Basioli, J. (1981): Palagruža. In: Brajkovic, V. (ed.): Pomorska enciklopedja, 5. Zagreb, JLS, 673. Basioli, J. (1985): Sušac. In: Brajkovic, V. (ed.): Pomorska enciklopedja, 7. Zagreb, JLZ "Miroslav Krležao", 617-618. Dagett, A. P. (1934): The Regulation of Maritime Fisheries by Treaty. The American Journal of International Law, 28, 4, 693-717. D'Erco, R. (1973): O ribolovu na istočnom Jadranu. Zagreb, Jadranski institut JAZU. Diklič, M. (2010): Zadar i Rapallski ugovor. Radovi Zavoda za povijesne znanosti u Zadru, 53, 228-230. Hrvatska encikopedija, mrežno izdanje (20132014). Leksikografski zavod Miroslav Krleža, Rapalski ugovor. http://www.enciklopedija.hr/Natuknica.aspx-?ID=51831 (29. 4. 2015). Lorini, P. (1995): Ribanje i ribarske sprave pri is-točnim obalama Jadranskog mora. Zagreb, Dom i svijet. Miller, H. (1930): The Hague Codification Conference. The American Journal of International Law, 24, 4, 674-693. Novak, G. (1985): Rijeka. In: Brajkovic, V. (ed.): Pomorska enciklopedija, 7. Zagreb, JLZ "Miroslav Krleža", 96-99. Patafta, D. (2006): Privremene vlade u Rijeci (listo-pad 1918.- siječanj 1924). Časopis za suvremenu po-vijest, 38, 1, 197-222. Peljar, I. (1999): Jadransko more - istočna obala. Split, Hrvatski hidrografski institut. Reiter, S. (2015): Ribolovno razgraničenje izmedu Kraljevine Srba, Hrvata i Slovenaca i Kraljevine Italije kroz prizumu Brijunske konvencije o ribolovu iz 1921. godine. Radovi Zavoda za povijesne znanosti HAZU u Zadru, 57, 297-316. Sambrailo, B. (1985): Ribarstvo, Ribarstveno pravo. In: Brajkovic, V. (ed.): Pomorska enciklopedija, 7. Zagreb, JLZ Miroslav Krleža, 66-83. Šišic, F. (1920): Jadransko pitanje na Konferenciji mira u Parizu. Zagreb, Izvanredno izdanje Matice hrvatske. Županovic, Š. (1995): Hrvati i more, druga knjiga. Zagreb, AGM. 52 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 original scientific article DOI 10.19233/ASHS.2016.5 received: 2016-03-13 societA cooperativa per la costruzione di case in capodistria: primer ljudske gradnje v kopru Borut ŽERJAL Beblerjeva 6, 6000 Koper, Slovenija e-mail: borutzerjal1@gmail.com IZVLEČEK Societa cooperativa per la costruzione di case in Capodistria (Zadruga za izgradnjo stanovanj v Kopru) je bila ustanovljena leta 1908, kot odgovor na stanovanjske probleme v mestu pred prvo svetovno vojno. Leta 1910 je zgradila dve stanovanjski stavbi, znani kot case nove, ki predstavljata edinstven primer stanovanjskega kompleksa z notranjim dvoriščem (Hof-haus) v Kopru. V članku je predstavljeno delovanje te zadruge do njene ukinitve po drugi svetovni vojni, povezave v medvojnem obdobju s fašističnim režimom in njeno vpetost v tedanjo koprsko družbo prek njenih članov. V zaključku je orisan še standard zadružnih stanovanj. Ključne besede: stanovanjska zadruga, case nove, Tiepolo-Gravisi, Hof-haus, fašizem, mikrozgodovina SOCIETÁ COOPERATIVA PER LA COSTRUZIONE DI CASE IN CAPODISTRIA: UN ESEMPIO DELL'EDILIZIA SOCIALE A CAPODISTRIA SINTESI La Societá cooperativa per la costruzione di case in Capodistria fu stabilita nel 1908 per rispondere alla carenza degli appartamenti economici nella cittá. Nel 1910 costru'l due case con appartamenti conosciute come case nove che rappresentano l'unico esempio del complesso abitativo con cortile interno (Hof-haus) a Capodistria. L'articolo ne parla del funzionamento della societá cooperativa fino allo scioglimento nel secondo dopoguerra, delle relazioni con il regime fascista e il suo ruolo nella societá capodistriana dell'epoca attraverso i suoi membri. Nella conclusione viene descritto anche lo standard degli appartamenti della societá. Parole chiave: abitazioni minime, case nove, Tiepolo-Gravisi, Hof-haus, fascismo, microstoria 53 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Borut ŽERJAL: SOCIETA COOPERATIVA PER LA COSTRUZIONE DI CASE IN CAPODISTRIA: PRIMER LJUDSKE GRADNJE V KOPRU, 53-66 »Man kann mit einer Wohnung einen Menschen genau so gut töten, wie mit einer Axt« UVOD2 Industrijska revolucija v 19. stoletju je globoko preobrazila evropska mesta. Na obrobju mest so zrasle tovarne, ob teh pa ogromna delavska naselja, ki so bila zgrajena po najnižjih možnih standardih. Za novi vladajoči razred - meščanstvo - pa so bile grajene povsem drugačne četrti. Meščanska stanovanja so bila vse pogosteje opremljena z vsemi novimi tehnološkimi pridobitvami evropske kulture, kot so tekoča voda, stranišča na splakovanje, kopalnice s tuši, za razsvetljavo pa najprej plin, nato pa elektrika in podobno.3 Beda, v kateri so živeli delavci, je spodbudila k ukrepanju različne predstavnike kapitala in oblasti. Na eni strani so to bili tovarnarji, ki so ugotovili, da je lahko bolje nastanjena delovna sila, tudi bolj produktivna. Na drugi strani pa so se za novogradnje zavzeli tudi mnogi meščani v strahu pred pomanjkljivo moralo (na primer pred promiskuiteto), ki naj bi vladala v delavskih naseljih in pred socialnimi nemiri. Vznikale so različne organizacije in ustanove, ki so se ukvarjale s posameznimi vidiki izboljševanja delavskih razmer, med drugim tudi z gradnjo stanovanj z višjim bivalnim standardom in nižjimi najemninami. To so bile bodisi človekoljubne organizacije, bodisi organizacije za delavsko samopomoč, v okviru katerih so si tisti, ki so potrebovali boljša stanovanja, ta tudi sami zgradili. Zametki tovrstne gradnje segajo že v prvo polovico 19. stoletja v Angliji, a so se te pobude razširile po vsej Evropi šele v drugi polovici stoletja. Državne oblasti so jih najprej samo pravno urejale in celo v manjšem obsegu subvencionirale, kasneje (po prvi svetovni vojni) pa so začele tudi same bolj aktivno posegati v reševanje te problematike.4 Mesta Koper (Capodistria) se te hitre spremembe skoraj celotno 19. stoletje niso neposredno dotaknile. Odkar se je v 17. in 18. stoletju končala njegova vodilna pomorska vloga in je s propadom Beneške republike izgubil pomen administrativnega središča, je opravljal le še vlogo središča in trga za svojo neposredno agrarno okolico (Mader; Žitko, 2010, 15). Tudi med tremi obalnimi mesti je bil odrinjen na rob: Piran je postal eno pomembnejših pristanišč v Istri (Terčon, 2004, 57-85), v Izoli je bilo zgrajenih več tovarn ribjih konzerv, Portorož pa se je razvijal kot turistično letovišče. Močno pa je Koper zaznamovala kaznilnica, ki je bila v njem postavljena na začetku 19. stoletja (Beltram, 2008). Na prelomu 19. in 20. stoletja je Koper doživel preobrat, ki se je odražal predvsem v razvoju storitvenega sektorja, postopnem razvoju industrije ter ponovni delni koncentraciji politične moči (leta 1899 so v Koper prenesli sedež istrskega deželnega zbora - dieta provinciale iz Poreča). Povečalo se je tudi število prebivalstva. Rezultat tega gospodarskega razvoja je bilo zaznati tudi v organiziranju prve istrske pokrajinske razstave - Prima esposizione provinciale istriana leta 1910 (Mader, Žitko, 2010; Čebron Lipovec, 2015, 131). Naraščanje prebivalstva in propadanje mestnega stavbnega fonda, ki je izviral večinoma še iz časa pred 19. stoletjem, je pripeljalo do ustanovitve družbe Societa cooperativa per la costruzione di case in Capodistria ("Zadruga za izgradnjo stanovanj v Kopruj leta 1908 (v nadaljevanju Zadruga). Zadrugo so ustanovili in zatem podpirali večinoma premožni meščani in člani plemiških družin. Leta 1909 je odkupila nekdanjo palačo Tiepolo-Gravisi, v kateri so bila takrat že najemniška stanovanja in na njenih vrtovih zgradila dve večstano-vanjski stavbi, ki sta znani kot case nove (kar v lokalnem beneško-istrskem dialektu pomeni novi stavbi). Stanovanja so bila namenjena nameščencem (impiegati) in delavcem ter nižjim kadrom (inservienti in operai). Raziskava, kot primer mikrozgodovinske študije, katere cilj je z mikroanalizo nekega zgodovinskega fenomena priti do zaključkov o širšem kontekstu, v katerega je ta fenomen umeščen (Ginzburg, 1993, 32-3; Vergi-nella, 2010, 242-4), temelji v veliki meri na arhivskem gradivu iz Pokrajinskega arhiva Koper, na intervjujih treh sedanjih in nekdanjih stanovalk v stavbah case nove (Le Case nove, 2010; Ponis, 2015; Spadaro, 2015) ter ustrezni literaturi. Za pomoč se zahvaljujem tudi N. Čebron Lipovec, ki se ukvarja z navedeno problematiko (Čebron Lipovec 2015). USTANOVITEV IN GRADNJA STAVB CASE NOVE Razlogi za ustanovitev Zadruge so podani v dopisu iz leta 1909, v katerem je ta občino zaprosila za davčne olajšave.5 Stanje na stanovanjskem področju v Kopru so v Zadrugi opisali takole: 1 Citat Heinricha Zilleja iz Freisitzer in Glück, 1979, 28 (v slov. prevodu: Človeka se lahko ubije s stanovanjem prav tako kakor s sekiro). 2 Raziskava je bila prvotno objavljena kot diplomska naloga na Oddelku za zgodovino in Oddelku za etnologijo in kulturno antropologijo na Filozofski fakulteti v Ljubljani leta 2015 z mentoricama Marto Verginello in Matejo Habinc z naslovom »Societa cooperativa per la costruzione di case in Capodistria: Ljudska gradnja v Evropi v 19. in 20. stoletju: primer Kopra.« 3 O tem gl. več v Studen (1994 in 1 995, 35-66), Vigarello (1999, 207-81), Dibie (1999). 4 O razvoju pogledov na stanovanjsko problematiko in razvoju same socialne gradnje glej Mandič (1996 in o zadrugah 1991), Mumford (1969), Pooley (1992a in b), Power (1 993), Schwertner et al. (2011) ter Freisitzer in Glück (1979). O socialni gradnji v Trstu glej zbornika Trieste '900 (Di Biaggi et al., 2002) in Trieste 1872-191 7 (Rovello, 2007) ter Panjek (2003; 2006). O socialni gradnji v Avstro-Ogrski glej Bruckmüller (1985) ter Fuchs in Mickel (2008). Podrobneje o »rdečem Dunaju« gl. Blau (1999) in Tafuri (1986). O socialni gradnji v Sloveniji glej poleg že omenjene Mandič tudi Godina (1992), Kresal (2005) in Ferlež (2009a in b). O novih idejah v arhitekturi v prvi polovici 20. st. glej Kafkoula (2013) in Šoe [Choay] (1978). 5 SI PAK-7, 307, 2387, Societa cooperativa di costruzione di case in Capodistria, julij 1909. 54 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Borut ŽERJAL: SOCIETA COOPERATIVA PER LA COSTRUZIONE DI CASE IN CAPODISTRIA: PRIMER LJUDSKE GRADNJE V KOPRU, 53-66 [...] glede našega mesta in občine v splošnem, kjer bolj kot kadarkoli prej pomanjkanje stanovanj teži prebivalstvo, medtem ko zastarele, neprimerne bivalne razmere in odsotnost vsakršne racionalne podjetnosti v gradbenem sektorju, zdaj obremenjenem z velikimi davčnimi bremeni, ovirajo in jemljejo deželi možnost naravne in gotove gospodarske širitve [...]6. Kot rečeno je bila Societa cooperativa per la co-struzione di case in Capodistria (Zadruga za izgradnjo stanovanj v Kopru) ustanovljena 2. julija 1908.7 Šlo je za »registrirano zadrugo z omejenim jamstvom«. Bila je članica zveze Unione centrale delle assicurazioni au-striache degli impiegati dello stato in Vienna (Osrednje zveze avstrijskih zavarovalnic za državne nameščence na Dunaju)8. Za prva leta obstoja Zadruge v dokumentih ni seznama članov. Tisti seznami, ki so na voljo pa kažejo, da so bili člani po eni strani premožni in vplivni pripadniki koprskega meščanstva in plemstva, kakor tudi sami stanovalci v stavbah, ki ju je Zadruga zgradila. V drugi skupini so bili vse od gimnazijskih profesorjev in nameščencev do obrtnikov in zaporniških paznikov. Člani iz prve skupine, ki so Zadrugo samo podpirali in niso potrebovali njenih uslug, so vse do njenega konca zasedali različne upravne in nadzorne funkcije, vendar pa so tudi člani z nižjim družbenim položajem že od samega začetka imeli dostop do teh funkcij.9 Zadruga je imela podporo občinskega zastopstva (rappresentanza), ki je na prošnjo Zadruge10 septembra 1909 odobrila davčne olajšave za novogradnje (ki bodo sezidane med letoma 1910 in 1915).11 Leta 1909 je Zadruga odkupila nekdanjo plemiško palačo Tiepolo-Gravisi12 v nekdanji četrti San Tomma-so (sv. Tomaža) na današnji Kreljevi 6 (takrat je imela hišno številko 698, ulica pa se je v obdobju med svetovnima vojnama imenovala Via Carlo Combi13). Skupaj s palačo so kupili tudi obširne vrtove za njo. Izvorno srednjeveška stavba je bila v 17. in 18. stoletju barokizirana, a nikoli dokončana in je bila že v 19. Slika 1: Pobegova ulica s stavbama »case nove« (foto: B. Žerjal) stoletju preurejena v najemniška stanovanja. Med 17. in 19. stoletjem je bila v lasti rodbin Tiepolo in Gravisi, poznana pa je bila tudi pod imenom casa vecia (stara hiša oziroma stavba), tudi case vecieu (Čebron Lipovec, Zanier, 2015). Od leta 1993 ima status kulturnega spomenika (Register, 2015). Leta 191015 je Zadruga na teh vrtovih zgradila dve večstanovanjski stavbi, ki stojita še danes na naslovu 6 »[...] riguardo della nostra citta e del comune in generale dove quanto mai il penurio degli alloggi travaglia la popolazione mentre le antiquate, infelici condizioni degli abitanti e l'inerzia di ogni razionale intraprendenza nell'economia edile ora appressa da pavosi oneri tributari, inceppano o prendono al paese la via di una naturale e sicura espansione materiale [...]". 7 SI PAK-222, 2110, 1087, 44/1, 30. 10. 1908. 8 O tej Zvezi bi bilo zanimivo pridobiti kaj več podatkov; poseben problem je v tem, da se njen naziv v dokumentih Zadruge pojavlja samo v italijanščini in lahko o nemškem izvirniku samo ugibamo. 9 Na tem mestu bi rad opozoril na primerjavo s podobno organizacijo v Ljubljani, ki pa je nastala nekaj desetletji pred Zadrugo. Gre za Društvo za gradnjo delavskih stanovanj v Ljubljani (Suppantschitsch, 1913), ki je bilo ustanovljeno leta 1886. Ustanovilo jo je nekaj »uglednih nemških ljubljanskih meščanov« (Suppantschitsch, 1913, 4), ki so tudi predstavljali večino članov, saj jih je bilo lahko vedno največ 15. 10 SI PAK KP-7, 307, 2387, Societa cooperativa di costruzione di case in Capodistria, 15. 7. 1909. 11 SI PAK KP-7, 87, 271/180, Rappresentanza Comunale-Deliberazioni, 29. 9. 1909 in 9. 12. 1909 12 Med Koprčani, kakor tudi med raziskovalci, je bila v drugi polovici 20. st. znana pod imeni »borilnica« pa tudi kot palača Baseggio in Casa Vida, čeprav so se ta poimenovanja pokazala kot neutemeljena (Čebron Lipovec, 2015, 146; Čebron Lipovec, Zanier, 2015, 1 53). 13 V 19. in 20. stoletju je bila njena hišna številka večkrat spremenjena - v franciscejskem katastru (1818/9) ima številko 582, nato je imela številko 622, po leta 1870 številko 672 in kasneje, pred prvo svetovno vojno in do 50. let, številko 698 (Čebron Lipovec, Zanier, 2015). 14 Poimenovanje v množini je prisotno pri Decarliju (2003) in Cheriniju (2007), ki pa navaja, da se tega imena ne uporablja. 15 SI PAK-222, 1, Akcesija 93, Reperto, 11. 1. 1915. 55 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Borut ŽERJAL: SOCIETA COOPERATIVA PER LA COSTRUZIONE DI CASE IN CAPODISTRIA: PRIMER LJUDSKE GRADNJE V KOPRU, 53-66 Slika 2: Palača Tiepolo-Gravisi na Kreljevi ulici (foto: B. Žerjal) Pobegova ulica 5 in 6 (njuni hišni številki sta bili 790 in 791, ulica pa se je imenovala Calle (chiusa) dei Be-nedittini16). Med Koprčani, posebno med italijanskimi staroselci, sta znani kot case nove. Južna in večja (danes Pobegova ulica 6, nekoč 790) ima 12 stanovanj, ki so bila namenjena nameščencem in zaposlenim v podobnih poklicih ter je zato tudi v načrtih omenjena kot casa degli impiegati. Severna (Pobegova ulica 5, nekoč 791) ima 16 manjših stanovanj; v njej so stanovali večinoma pazniki iz takratnega koprskega zapora (Le Case nove, 2010) in drugi kvalificirani delavci. Posledično so jo imenovali casa degli operai, v načrtih pa je zanjo uporabljen izraz casa inservienti. Stavbi sta bili zgrajeni leta 1910. Palačo Tiepolo-Gravisi in vrtove je Zadruga odkupila od prejšnjih lastnikov - Emilia in Rinalda Nobila.17 Še v 18. stoletju je palača služila kot plemiška rezidenca, v franciscejskem katastru (1818/9) pa je označena kot »casa a due appartamenti d'affito con due orti« (stavba z dvema najemniškimi stanovanji z dvema vrtovoma). Po navedbi Čebron Lipovec (2015, 132-148), so obe stanovanji v 19. stoletju uporabljali zaposleni v ljudski šoli (scuola popolare), ki se je od začetka stoletja nahajala v nekdanjem samostanu onstran današnje Kreljeve ulice. Med zaposlenimi so bili tako učitelji, kakor šolski sluge, poleg njih pa tudi zaporniški pazniki. Zadruga je leta 1910 dotedanji dve stanovanji preuredila v štiri in vanje naselila nameščence, torej višje uslužbence. Palača je bila namenjena stanovanjem vse do začetka 90. let 20. stoletja, ko so jo začeli prenavljati in so iz nje izselili vse stanovalce in tudi najemnike delavnic in podobno.18 FINANCIRANJE GRADNJE19 Zadruga je gradnjo novih stavb financirala z več posojili iz dveh virov: prvo posojilno pogodbo je sklenila novembra 1909 s skladom Franz Josef I. Regierungs--Jubiläumsfonds 1908 (Jubilejni sklad vladanja Franca Jožefa I. 1908) in je nato s tem skladom do decembra 1912 oziroma januarja 1913, sklenila še tri posojilne pogodbe v višini 180.722 kron (brez vštetih obresti). Poleg tega pa je najela še dve posojili pri zavarovalnici Istituto d'assicurazione per gl'infortuni sul lavoro per Trieste, il Litorale, la Carniola e la Dalmazia in Trieste (Zavarovalnica za nesreče pri delu za Trst, Primorje, Kranjsko in Dalmacijo v Trstu)20. Eno posojilo je pridobila januarja 1911, drugo pa decembra 1912, v skupni višini 114.803 kron (brez vštetih obresti). Skupno si je torej Zadruga v dobrih treh letih sposodila skoraj 300.000 kron (brez vštetih obresti). Jubiläumsfonds je bil ustanovljen kot pripomoček in ukrep zaradi nevzdržnih stanovanjskih razmer v avstrijskih mestih proti koncu 19. stoletja. Cesar Franc Jožef je zato sponzoriral ustanovitev dveh ustanov; leta 1898 ustanovo Kaiser Franz Josef Jubiläumsstiftung (Jubilejna ustanova Franca Jožefa) in nato leta 1908 sklad Kaiser Franz Josef Jubiläumsfonds (Jubilejni sklad Franca Jožefa). Prvo ustanovo, ki je organizirala natečaj za vzorčno delavsko gradnjo, je ustanovila skupina tovarnarjev in človekoljubov. Jubiläumsfonds iz leta 1908 pa je finan- 16 Ime ulice najverjetneje izhaja iz dejstva, da je bila cerkvica (chiesa dell'Annunziata), ki je bila desakralizirana že v 19. stoletju, ob začetku ulice na vogalu z današnjo Marušičevo ulico, v lasti benediktinskega samostana iz Valdoltre (Oltra). 17 SI PAK-77, 2050, GN1876/1909, v povezavi z vpisom v zemljiško knjigo Partito tavolare 972 (SI PAK-77.1, 106), All' I.R. Giudizio dis-trettuale Lez III ..., 21. 6. 1909. 18 Od leta 2009 dalje je potekala njena prenova v okviru projekta Shared Culture - Strateški projekt za poznavanje in dostopnost skupne kulturne dediščine Univerze na Primorskem. 19 Poglavitni vir o teh posojilih predstavljajo vnosi v Zemljiško knjigo (SI PAK-77.1, 106, Parita Tavolare 972), kjer so vsa ta posojila zabeležena kot plombe zaradi hipotek. 20 Leta 1922 se je preimenovala v Istituto nazionale d'assicurazione per gl'infortuni sul lavoro in Trieste, leta 1934 pa so dodali še pridevnik fascista. V nadaljnjem besedilu jo imenujem Tržaška zavarovalnica. 56 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Borut ŽERJAL: SOCIETA COOPERATIVA PER LA COSTRUZIONE DI CASE IN CAPODISTRIA: PRIMER LJUDSKE GRADNJE V KOPRU, 53-66 ciral številne delavske gradnje, kot navajata Fuchs in Mickel (2008, 156).21 Zadruga je dolg do Jubiläumsfonds nehala odplačevati leta 19 1 422. Že kmalu po koncu prve svetovne vojne se je italijanska vlada, natančneje državna blagajna, začela zanimati za ta dolg in je junija 1920 obvestila Zadrugo, da je zdaj ta dolg dolžna poplačati njim.23 Da Zadruga po letu 1914 ni več odplačevala teh dolgov potrjuje pismo,24 ki ga je Zadruga prejela januarja 1925, potem, ko se je avstrijska vlada na mirovnih pogajanjih v Parizu odrekla več posojilom od Jubiläumsfonds, med drugimi posojilu do Zadruge. Italijanska delegacija Komisije za reparacije je želela izvedeti, če to posojilo obstaja in ali bo lahko odplačano. Zadruga pa takrat ni več redno delovala (o tem več v nadaljevanju) in tako verjetno ni nihče niti odgovoril na to vprašanje. Drugega kreditodajalca je Zadruga našla v Tržaški zavarovalnici, kar ni presenetljivo, saj je ta že v drugi polovici 19. stoletju bila eden od dveh glavnih akterjev v socialni gradnji v Trstu in je sama zgradila precej delavskih stavb (Castro, 2002; Marchigiani, 2007). S to dejavnostjo se je, kot je razvidno iz dosegljivih dokumentov, v 20. stoletju manj ukvarjala, vsaj neposredno, očitno pa jo je še vedno podpirala prek posojil oziroma vsaj enega posojila. Kot rečeno, je Zadruga nehala plačevati dolg do Jubilejnega sklada že leta 1914, dolg do Zavarovalnice pa je (s prekinitvijo med letoma 1923 in 1931) plačevala verjetno vsaj do začetka druge svetovne vojne ali celo do leta 1943.25 Kot je razvidno iz zgornjega pregleda, si Zadruga denarja za delavsko gradnjo ni izposojala na prostem trgu, ampak od drugih organizacij, ki so podpirale tako gradnjo. To kaže na še en vidik delavske gradnje: za omogočanje nižjih najemnin ne zadostuje le odrekanje (visokim) dobičkom, ampak so potrebni tudi ugodni viri financiranja. Primer Jubiläumsfonds pa je zanimiv tudi v luči razpada Avstro-Ogrske in delitve njenega premoženja, kar je tudi dolg Zadruge do Jubiläumsfonds navse- zadnje bil. Izkušnja z gradnjo in najemanjem posojil je bila najverjetneje zelo poučna za člane Zadruge, zlasti za vodilne in je bila morda odločilna za razplet dogodkov leta 1923. RAZPUSTITEV LETA 1923 IN DELOVANJE DO LETA 1931 Zadruga je svoj drugi občni zbor, vsaj sodeč po Registru zadrug,26 izvedla šele tri leta po prvem, torej leta 1911. Na občnem zboru leta 1912, so sprejeli nov statut. Leta 1917 je bila uprava razpuščena in na njeno mesto je bil postavljen curatore (skrbnik) Carlo Visintini (davčni upravitelj). Ta je vodil Zadrugo do občnega zbora leta 1920. Leto 1923 se je za Zadrugo že začelo precej burno, saj je, kot priča vpis v zemljiški knjigi,27 Zadruga 1. februarja 1923 dobila »credito esecutivo del R. Erario« - nekakšno izredno posojilo od državne blagajne, na njene nepremičnine pa je bila vpisana še ena hipoteka ter prisilna uprava (»amministrazione forzata«). Aprila 1923 je Zadruga imela izredni občni zbor, na katerem je bila izvoljena nova uprava,28 iz česar lahko sklepamo, da se je prisilna uprava takrat končala. Mesec dni za tem je commissario straordinario (prisilni upravitelj koprske občine) de Manzini podal pobudo za reševanje stanovanjske problematike v mestu in na sestanku z različnimi zainteresiranimi stranmi je bilo odločeno, da bo to »nalogo reševanja pomembne potrebe, ki je v velikem moralnem in ekonomskem interesu našega mesta«29, nase prevzela Zadruga.30 Za ta projekt se je očitno že od vsega začetka zanimal tudi arhitekturni biro Impresa di costruzioni Studio d'ingegneria Nicold de Manzini & Marcello Masutti (Manzini&Masutti),31 saj so že naslednjega dne (5. maja 1923) Zadrugi poslali ponudbo za rekonstrukcijo in povečanje palače Tiepolo-Gravisi ter za gradnjo nove stavbe s šestnajstimi stanovanji. Zadruga je dan za tem (6. 21 Hochhause (loc. cit. Juen, 2012, 10) navaja, da sta bila ta dva sklada sicer dobronamerna, vendar polovičarsko izvedena poskusa reševanja pomanjkanja stanovanj. 22 Kakor je razvidno iz tega pisma; SI PAK-222, 1, 1, An die Societa cooperativa per costruzione di case in Liquidation, 1 3. 2. 1924. 23 SI PAK-222, 1, 1, Alla Spett. SCCC (case degli Impiegati dello Stato) Capodistria, 19. 6. 1920. Kot zanimivost naj omenim, da je to obvestilo prišlo v obliki manj pomembnega dopisa in v majhnem formatu, spričo česar je morda pri upraviteljih Zadruge zahteva izpadla neresno. 24 SI PAK-222, 1, /Akcesija 93/, Al Signor Sottoprefetto di Capodistria, 7. 1. 1925. 25 Zadnja potrdila o plačevanju so sicer iz leta 1 936 (SI PAK-222, 2, 4/Istituto nazionale d'assicurazione degli infortuni sul lavoro Trieste 1931/, Spett. Societa cooperativa per la costruzione di case, 1 3. 3. 1 936), vendar pa vpis v zemljiški knjigi z dne 8. novembra 1943 navaja, da so izbrisane vse zastavne pravice teh dveh ustanov na prošnjo dolžnika, ker te hipoteke niso bile obnovljene. 26 SI PAK KP-7, 307, 2387, Societa cooperativa di costruzione di case in Capodistria 27 SI PAK-77.1, 106, Partita tavolare 972, C, točki 22 in 23, 1. 2. 1 923. 28 SI PAK-222, 2110, 1087, 44/9, 23. 7. 1923. 29 Il Popolo di Trieste, 4. 5. 1923: 'Il municipio, a proposito di quanto scriviamo ieri ..., 4. 30 Za dogajanje, ki ga povzemam v spodnjih odstavkih, vse do razpustitve, sem črpal podatke predvsem iz dokumenta (SI PAK-222, 2, 4/ Pratica ing. Masutti e Manzini, Con invitare(?) dei 2 Maggio 1923, nedatirano), ki povzema to dogajanje. Očitno gre za osnutek, saj je na več mestih kaj popravljeno. 31 Marcello Masutti (rojen 1886, umrl 1 932 v Trstu, stanoval v Kopru) se v dokumentih Zadruge pojavi že leta 1915 kot delegat občine pri poročilu o higienski ustreznosti zadružnih stavb (SI PAK-222, 1, /Akcesija 93/, Reperto, 14. 1. 1915). Nicolo de Manzini se je rodil leta 1872 v Kopru, kjer je takrat tudi stanoval. Sedež biroja je bil v Trstu na Via dell'Universita. 57 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Borut ŽERJAL: SOCIETA COOPERATIVA PER LA COSTRUZIONE DI CASE IN CAPODISTRIA: PRIMER LJUDSKE GRADNJE V KOPRU, 53-66 Slika 3: Okno stopnišča stavbe »»casa impiegati« (foto: B. Žerjal) maja 1923) sklenila,32 da sprejme to ponudbo in iz zapisnika seje tudi izvemo, da so nameravali novogradnjo postaviti na zemljišču nekdanjega Oddelka za mladostnike koprskega zapora (ex sezione giovanile del Penitenziario). Bilo je tudi sklenjeno, da bodo poskušali najti sredstva za gradnjo pri različnih ustanovah, ki namenjajo sredstva za ljudsko gradnjo. S to nalogo je Zadruga poslala, verjetno junija 1923, dva člana v Rim. To sta bila (nepoznani) pisec zgoraj omenjenega dokumenta in Amadeo Orbanich. Zadnji sicer takrat ni bil član uprave, je pa bil verjetno član nadzornega odbora. V Rimu so jima pri Istituto nazi- onale di credito per la cooperazione33 obljubili posojilo, vendar s pogojem, da Zadruga prej od vlade dobi sredstva vsaj za obresti.34 Na ministrstvu za industrijo, trgovino in delo (Ministero delllndustria, Commercio e Lavoro) pa so ta sredstva pogojevali s spremembo statuta Zadruge, ki je bil napisan še v času Avstro-Ogrske. Po vrnitvi obeh odposlancev je Zadruga hitro pripravila spremembe statuta in nov statut poslala v Rim. Medtem je avgusta 1923 biro Manzini&Masutti poslal Zadrugi (verjetno zaradi prošnje Zadruge, naj pošljejo predračun in zato, da bi si zagotovili posel) zelo natančne načrte in predračune za gradnjo.35 V upravnem in nadzornem odboru Zadruge so se v tem času, očitno na podlagi pripomb ministrstva, odločili, da se bodo razpustili in ponovno ustanovili v skladu z italijansko zakonodajo. Očitno so to storili na občnem zboru, ki je bil 28. oktobra 1923, od katerega pa je ostalo samo vabilo, na katerem je kot točka dnevnega reda navedena razpustitev.36 Dogajanje v času do ponovne ustanovitve leta 1931, nam osvetli »spomenica« (memoriale),37 ki jo je leta 1931 napisal član Zadruge Francesco Relli za izrednega upravitelja (commissario prefattizio) Maria Petro-nia. Spomenica se prične z odhodom nekega drugega izrednega upravitelja in sicer, kot piše, januarja 1923 (dejansko 192438). Kmalu za tem, 17. februarja39, je bil sklican nov občni zbor in imenovana nova uprava, v kateri naj bi bilo več vodilnih funkcionarjev iz koprskega fascia40 (»capi esponenti del locale fascio«). Sprejeli so tudi nov statut. Delovanje nove uprave Relli opiše z naslednjimi besedami: Ampak žal nas je razočaranje zadelo že v drugem mesecu, o zasedanjih uprave ni vredno govoriti, in niti ne vem, če je bil zapisnik [verjetno ustanovnega zbora] poslan na Trgovsko sodišče v Trstu, ki mu je bila Zadruga podrejena, za potrebe ratifikacije. Tako se je v kratkem času samo od sebe porušilo vse, kar je bilo narejeno, puščajoč v našo sramoto samo stari avstrijski statut.4' Relli nato nadaljuje, da je v takem položaju, Rosario Cherini (ki je bil član zadnje uprave pred razpustitvijo in 32 SI PAK-222, 1, 1/Akcesija 93, Verbale della seduta di Direzione e Consiglio di sorveglianza tenuta, 6. 5. 1923. 33 Današnja Banca Nazionale del Lavoro. 34 SI PAK-222, 1, /Akcesija93/, Istituto nazionale di credito per la cooperazione, 2. 7. 1 923. 35 SI PAK-222, 2, 4/Pratica ing. Masutti e Manzini, Spett. Direzione ..., 8. 8. 1923. Žal teh načrtov in predračunov v arhivskem fondu Zadruge (SI PAK-222) ni. 36 SI PAK-222, 1, 1, Invito al Congresso Generale ordinario della Società 28. 10. 1923, 20. 10. 1923. 37 SI PAK-222, 2, 4/Partita Cherini Rosario inquilino 1931/, Nel gennaio 1923, nedatirano. 38 O tem dogodku ni nobenega drugega vira. 39 Il Popolo di Trieste, 19. 2. 1924: Cooperativa per la costruzione di case economiche, 4. 40 To je izraz, ki so ga fašisti uporabljali za lokalne izpostave svojega gibanja, potem tudi stranke. 41 »Ma purtroppo una delusione si colpiva già al secondo mese, di sedute direzionali non se ne parlo più, e non so nemeno se sia stato spedito il verbale al Tribunale Commerciale di Trieste dal quale dipendeva la società per la rattifica. Cosi si sciolse in poco tempo da sè tutto cio che si era fatto restando per nostra vergongna soltanto il vecchio statuto austriaco.« (SI PAK-222, 2, 4/Partita Cherini Rosario inquilino 1931/, Nel gennaio 1 923, nedatirano, str. I.) 58 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Borut ŽERJAL: SOCIETA COOPERATIVA PER LA COSTRUZIONE DI CASE IN CAPODISTRIA: PRIMER LJUDSKE GRADNJE V KOPRU, 53-66 nato tiste iz februarja 192442) prevzel v svoje roke najprej vodenje zadružne blagajne in pobiranje najemnin, nato pa sčasoma splošno vodenje Zadruge - to pomeni dodeljevanje stanovanj prosilcem, izplačevanje zadružnih deležev in drugo. To je seveda počel, tako vsaj Rel-li, brez vsakršnih pooblastil in povsem samostojno. Relli navaja njegove različne zlorabe, ki pa jih je Cherini zavračal.43 Spričo vsega tega se je Relli obrnil na različne osebnosti in ustanove s prošnjo, naj glede tega nekaj ukrenejo, vendar se do leta 1931 ni zgodilo nič. Očitno pa je, da je imel Rosario Cherini pri oblasteh takšno ali drugačno zaslombo, ki mu je omogočala tako početje. PONOVNA USTANOVITEV ZADRUGE LETA 1931 IN NJENO DELOVANJE DO UKINITVE Leta 1931 je bila ta praksa prekinjena, saj je prefekt Istrske pokrajine44 24. januarja 1931 z odločbo45 imenoval izrednega upravitelja (comissarrio prefettizio) Zadruge - Maria Petronia - z nalogo njene ponovne ustanovitve. Nova Zadruga je bila ustanovljena na občnem zboru 15. marca 1 931,46 ko so bili izvoljeni tudi člani in predsednik uprave ter tajnik. Novi časi so prinesli tudi nekoliko spremenjeno ime - Societa cooperativa per le costruzione di case economiche in Capodistria (Zadruga za izgradnjo ekonomskih stanovanj v Kopru). V tem obdobju njenega obstoja, ki je trajalo do prenehanja delovanja po drugi svetovni vojni, je Zadruga opravljala le tekoče posle (pobiranje najemnin, sprejemanje novih najemnikov, opravljanje vzdrževalnih del in podobno) in se ni spuščala v večje projekte. Iz zapisnikov občnih zborov lahko sicer vidimo, da je Pie-ro Almerigogna, ki je bil v tem celotnem obdobju član nadzornega odbora, dvakrat predlagal, da bi se Zadruga ponovno lotila načrtovanja novih gradenj (leta 193447 in 194048), a je obakrat prevladalo mnenje, da je predlog sicer dober, vendar čas ni primeren. ZADRUGA IN NJEN ODNOS DO FAŠISTIČNEGA REŽIMA Zadruga je bila pod vplivom Narodne fašistične stranke (Partito Nazionale Fascista, PNF) in imela njeno podporo že od leta 1923. Ko so v fašističnem glasilu Il Popolo di Trieste49 pisali o srečanju na koprski občini glede stanovanjske problematike, so pod članek, Slika 4: Dvoriščna stran palače Tiepolo-Gravisi (Semi, 1975, 425) v poševni pisavi (verjetno je šlo za nekakšen uradniški komentar) napisali, da je ta iniciativa, za katero naj bi bila zaslužna koprski fascio in občina, zelo hvalevredna, omenili pa so tudi Zadrugo in sicer kot »recente conquista fascista« (nedavna fašistična osvojitev). Ko sta po tem srečanju odšla dva predstavnika Zadruge v Rim, da bi tam preverila, kakšna posojila in subvencije lahko Zadruga pridobi, sta se srečala z dvema pomembnima lokalnima politikoma - s političnim sekretarjem fascia iz Pulja, Adrianom Petroniom, (Duko-vski, 1993, 680) in s Francescom Salato, ki je bil vodja Urada za nove province (Ufficio Centrale per le nuove Province) - ter tudi s samim Benitom Mussolinijem.50 Povezanost Zadruge in fašističnega režima, je postala še tesnejša, ko je bila Zadruga ponovno ustanovljena februarja 1924. Med člani sta bila vsaj dva fašistična funkcionarja v Kopru (Nino de Petris in Pie(t)ro Almerigogna).51 To potrjuje tudi Francesco Relli v svoji spo- 42 Sicer kot Rosario Cherincich oziroma v članku iz Il Popolo di Trieste Rasauro C., kar je najverjetneje tiskarska napaka. 43 SI PAK-222, 2, 4/Partita Cherini Rosario inquilino 1931, Preg. Signor Mario Petronio, 2. 3. 1931. 44 Takrat je bil prefekt Leone (Bon Gherardi, 1981, 26). 45 SI PAK-222te2, 4/? e pratiche del Ministero dei lavori pubblici, Il Prefetto dell'Istria, 30. 1. 1 931. 46 To je razvidno iz 3. točke v SI PAK-222, 2, 4/Pratica Consiglio d'amministrazione/, Verbale di consegna, 17. 3. 1931. 47 SI PAK-222, 2, 7/Situazione patrimoniale della Società [...] Bilancio dell'esercizio 1933, Verbale, 28. 3. 1 934. 48 SI PAK-222, 2, 7/Situazione patrimoniale della Società [...] Bilancio dell'esercizio 1939, Verbale Assemblea, 30. 3. 1940. 49 Il Popolo di Trieste, 4. 5. 1923: Il municipio, a proposito di quanto scriviamo ieri ..., 4. 50 Ta omemba Mussolinija je sicer zelo obrobna in tudi ni navedeno Mussolinijevo ime, ampak piše samo predsednik vlade (presidente del consiglio), ki pa je bil takrat (1 923) lahko samo Mussolini. 51 Il Popolo di Trieste, 3. 2. 1924: Costituzione della Società Cooperativa per la costruzione di case economiche, 4; Il Popolo di Trieste, 17. 2. 1924: CASE IMPIEGATI, 4 ter Il Popolo di Trieste, 19. 2. 1924: Cooperativa per la costruzione di case economiche, 4. 59 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 menici iz leta 1 931 ,52 kjer piše, da so bili za upravo leta 1924 izbrani »capi esponenti del locale fascio« (voditelji lokalnega fascia). Tudi po ponovni ustanovitvi leta 1931, je koprski fascio podpiral Zadrugo. Leta 1934 je poslal Zadrugi pismo, v katerem jo je sekretar fascia Piero Almerigogna (ki je bil na vseh občnih zborih med letoma 1932 in 1943 izvoljen za člana upravnega odbora) v imenu direktorja pohvalil »za izjemno delovanje« in njeno upravo »za zdravo, premočrtno in vzorno53 upravljanje Zadruge.«54 Poleg tega je PNF Zadrugi tudi vedno omogočila, da so njeni občni zbori potekali v »Sala del fascio« v Kopru. PRENEHANJE DELOVANJA ZADRUGE Zadruga je verjetno obstajala do leta 1954, ko je Koper, ki ga je leta 1945 zasedla Jugoslovanska ljudska armada, postal del Jugoslavije (Slovenije) z Londonskim sporazumom.55 Zaradi te razdelitve se je večina italijanskih prebivalcev Istre izselilo v Italijo, tako tudi večina Koprčanov (Zagradnik, 1997). Izselili so se tudi skoraj vsi stanovalci iz obeh stavb case nove, razen dveh družin (Ponis, 2015).56 Zadnje dokumente v arhivskem fondu Zadruge (SI PAK-222) predstavljajo prošnje za stanovanja iz let takoj po vojni: zadnji vpis v knjigo zapisnikov sej upravnega odbora57 je iz novembra 1947, zadnji občni zbor pa je bil najverjetneje leta 1943.58 Tako stanje očitno ni ustrezalo niti novi ljudski oblasti, saj je junija 1950 Izvršilni odbor Istrskega okrožnega ljudskega odbora (IO IOLO) odstavil dotedanja upravni in nadzorni odbor in imenoval delegata Božidarja Zego59 z nalogo, da obnovi normalno delovanja Zadruge. Žal, dokumenti ne govorijo ničesar o rezultatih njegovega ukrepanja, iz česar lahko sklepamo, da je bilo neuspešno.60 Kljub temu pa ta dokument izpričuje, da je vsaj prva povojna oblast (torej tista v času cone B STO pred priključitvijo Jugoslaviji) v Kopru v Zadrugi zaznala njeno koristno vlogo, ki jo je vredno ohraniti pri življenju. Domnevamo lahko, da je bila pri tem neuspešna predvsem zato, ker so se skoraj vsi stanovalci in verjetno skoraj vsi člani Zadruge, vsaj aktivnejši, že takrat (1950) izselili ali pripravljali na izselitev. 52 SI PAK-222, 2, 4/Partita Cherini Rosario inquilino 1931/, Nel gennaio 1923, nedatirano. 53 »sana, retta ed esemplare« 54 SI PAK-222te2, 4/? e pratiche del Ministero dei lavori pubblici ... 1931, Al'On. Direzione ..., 8. 4. 1934. 55 No. 3297 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND, ITALY and YUGOSLAVIA Memorandum of Understanding (with annexes and exchange of notes) regarding the Free Territory of Trieste. Signed at London, on 5 October 1954 , UN Treaty Series, 1956. 56 Kot zanimivost naj omenim, da sta obe družini stanovali v manjši stavbi (casa operai) in bi lahko takratno situacijo izkoristili za selitev v boljša stanovanja (v casa impiegati), vendar tega nista storili. 57 SI PAK-222, 1, 2, Libro per verbali, str. 115, 3. 11. 1947. 58 V arhivu se nahaja vabilo - SI PAK-222, 2, /Affitti 1943/, Invito. 59 SI PAK-23, 9, 981(1 -I-50), Zadruga za gradnjo stanovanj v Kopru, 29. 6. 1950. 60 Ta del zgodovine Zadruge bi nam morda lahko osvetlili dokumenti iz Arhiva Republike Slovenije v Ljubljani. 60 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Borut ŽERJAL: SOCIETA COOPERATIVA PER LA COSTRUZIONE DI CASE IN CAPODISTRIA: PRIMER LJUDSKE GRADNJE V KOPRU, 53-66 Nepremičnine izseljencev iz Cone B Svobodnega tržaškega ozemlja v Italijo, so bile po priključitvi Jugoslaviji nacionalizirane z zakonom o nacionalizaciji najemnih pogodb in gradbenih zemljišč (Zagradnik, 1996, 143). Tako so bile nacionalizirane tudi zgradbe Zadruge.61 S tem se pregled delovanja Zadruge zaključuje. V nadaljevanju so predstavljene naloge Zadruge, kakor so zapisane v njenem statutu, struktura njenega članstva ter bivalni standardi stavb case nove. STATUT Zadruga je imela v času svojega delovanja več statutov, vendar obstaja le statut iz leta 1 91262 in sicer v izvodu, ki je bil natisnjen leta 1913.63 Po tem statutu je imela Zadruga »za cilj priskrbeti članom, ki pripadajo manj premožnim slojem, naslednje ugodnosti: a) Poskrbeti za čista in ekonomsko dosegljiva bivališča [abitazioni sane ed economiche] z gradnjo ali nakupom stavb z minimalnimi stanovanji [abitazioni minime] in delavnicami za male obrti [officine per piccole industrie] [...] b) Omogočiti članom nakup hiš z gradnjo hiš [...] in njihovo prodajo članom. Člani, ki nameravajo kupiti te hiše, lahko to storijo tudi z varčevanjem, pologe družba sprejema na tekoči račun.« (čl. 1) Zadruga je dejansko izvedla samo točko a, medtem ko se iz dokumentov ne da razbrati, da bi omogočala članom tudi nakup lastnih hiš, niti da bi to načrtovala, čeprav so člani to zapisali v statut. ČLANI ZDRUGE IN NAJEMNIKI STANOVANJ Kot že omenjeno, je Zadrugo ustanovila in vodila, vsaj v prvih letih, skupina razmeroma premožnih in uglednih Koprčanov. Ti so bili ne-le v začetku, temveč tudi do konca njenega obstoja (oziroma vsaj dokler imamo o njenem delovanju na voljo ustrezne dokumente) prisotni v njenem upravnem in nadzornem odboru. Vendar pa lahko že od njene prve uprave med njenimi člani naletimo tudi na take, ki so se Zadrugi pridružili z namenom, da bi se vselili v njena stanovanja, v drugem obdobju njenega obstoja (po letu 1931) pa so sami stanovalci zasedali večino pomembnih funkcij, vključno z mestoma predsednika in tajnika Zadruge. Seveda pa nam dokumenti ne razkrivajo neformalnih mrež in vplivov, ki so tudi v Zadrugi nedvoumno obstajali. Naj naštejemo nekaj najbolj vidnih članov Zadruge64: • plemiška družina Almerigogna (Paolo, Antonio in Pietro) - vsi trije člani so se politično udejstvovali v okviru italijanske nacionalno-liberalne stranke in kasneje fašizma; • markiza Girolamo in Giannandrea Gravisi - zadnji je bil znan zgodovinar in geograf; • Leo/Leone Klodič, vitez Sabladoski - okrajni glavar (commissario distrettuale) v Kopru v letih pred koncem prve svetovne vojne in prvi predsednik Zadruge; • več pravnikov in odvetnikov (npr. G. Lonza, dr. N. de Petris, dr. O. Ponis in dr. N. Scampicchio). Poleg navedenih pa so imele stavbe case nove velik prestižni pomen za Koper, saj je v njih stanovalo več vidnih posameznikov, ki so bili aktivni na področju kulture in znanosti: • Aldo Cherini, ljubiteljski zgodovinar, ki je napisal obsežen opus o zgodovini Kopra, • Benedetto Lonza, profesor zgodovine in filozofije ter direktor Mestne knjižnice in arhiva med letoma 1939 in 1952, • Francesco Maier (tudi Majer), gimnazijski profesor, bibliotekar, arhivar in zgodovinar, ter • Giuseppe Vatovaz (ali Vatova), ki se je ukvarjal s kulturnimi, folklorističnimi in dialektološkimi študijami in sestavil zbirko istrskih pregovorov. BIVALNI STANDARD ZADRUŽNIH STAVB Kompleks, s katerim je upravljala Zadruga, so sestavljale tri stavbe. Najstarejšo je predstavljala palača Tiepolo--Gravisi. Iz ocene nepremičnin iz leta 192365 je razvidno, da so bila v njej štiri stanovanja in sicer eno v pritličju, dve v prvem nadstropju in eno v drugem nadstropju. Vsa štiri so imela kuhinjo, niso pa imela lastnega stranišča ali kopalnice. V vzhodnem krilu palače je bila pralnica za stanovalce in vsaj ena delavnica (Ponis, 2015). V zgornji oceni njen avtor, arhitekt Marcello Masutti ugotavlja, da je stavba arhitekturno zelo zanimiva, vendar grajena za bivanjske potrebe 19. stoletja in da bi se jo dalo tudi nadzidati.66 Dostop do novozgrajenih stavb (case nove) je bil speljan iz nekdanje Via dellAnnunziata, današnje Marušiče-ve ulice. Ta prehod je bil do leta 1954 zaprt z vrati.67 Poleg 61 To kaže stanovanjska pogodba iz leta 1956, ki je sklenjena med hišnim svetom (in ne Zadrugo) ter najemnikom, zraven pa je pripisano »splošno ljudsko premoženje«. Na odločbi o najemnini za to stanovanje iz leta 1955 pa je žig Stanovanjske uprave Ljudskega odbora mestne občine Koper. (Gre za dokumenta v zasebni lasti.) Šele leta 1960 je bilo v zemljiški knjigi premoženje Zadruge vknjiženo kot »družbena lastnina z zaznamko [sic!], da je upravni organ Občina Koper.« (SI PAK-77.1, 106, Partita tavolare 972, B, točka 7, 19. 11. 1960). 62 SI PAK-77, 2110, 1087, 44/4, 14. 12. 1912. 63 Statut hrani ena od stanovalk. 64 Prim. Cherini (1990 in 1992). 65 SI PAK-222te2ae4/Pratica ing. Masutti e Manzini, STIMA, 26. 6. 1923. 66 Ravno v tistem času je Masutti skupaj s svojim sodelavcem Niccolojem de Manizinijem pripravljal načrte za nadzidavo. 67 Po pripovedovanju G. Ponis (2015), so takrat porušili ta vrata, da so lahko skozi prehod vozili tovornjaki z imetjem prebivalcev, ki so zapuščali Koper. 61 ANNALES ■ Ser. hist. sociol. ■ 26 ■ 2016 ■ 1 Borut ŽERJAL: SOCIETA COOPERATIVA PER LA COSTRUZIONE DI CASE IN CAPODISTRIA: PRIMER LJUDSKE GRADNJE V KOPRU, 53-66 PRIMO = 3HCOMDO PltTC noppoRrro 1