MUZIKOLOSKI ZBORNIK MUSICOLOGICAL A N N U A L L III / 1 ZVEZEK/VOLUME LJUBLJANA2017 C/ Univerza v Ljubljani Izdaja • Published by Oddelek za muzikologijo Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani Glavni in odgovorni urednik • Editor-in-chief Jernej Weiss (Ljubljana) Asistentka uredništva • Assistant Editor Tjaša Ribizel (Ljubljana) Uredniški odbor • Editorial Board Matjaž Barbo (Ljubljana) Aleš Nagode (Ljubljana) Svanibor Pettan (Ljubljana) Leon Stefanija (Ljubljana) Andrej Rijavec (Ljubljana), častni urednik • honorary editor Mednarodni uredniški svet • International Advisory Board Michael Beckermann (Columbia University, USA) Nikša Gligo (University of Zagreb, Croatia) Robert S. Hatten (Indiana University, USA) David Hiley (University of Regensburg, Germany) Thomas Hochradner (Mozarteum Salzburg, Austria) Bruno Nettl (University of Illinois, USA) Helmut Loos (University of Leipzig, Germany) Jim Samson (Royal Holloway University of London, UK) Lubomir Spurny (Masaryk University Brno, Czech Republic) Katarina Tomaševic (Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Serbia) John Tyrrell (Cardiff University, UK) Michael Walter (University of Graz, Austria) Urednici recenzij • Review editors Danijela Špiric Beard (Cardiff University, UK) Katarina Šter (Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Slovenia) Uredništvo • Editorial Address Oddelek za muzikologijo Filozofska fakulteta Aškerčeva 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija e-mail: muzikoloski.zbornik@ff.uni-lj.si http://revije.ff.uni-lj.si/MuzikoloskiZbornik Prevajanje • Translations Urban Šrimpf Cena posamezne številke • Single issue price 10 EUR Letna naročnina • Annual subscription 20 EUR Založila • Published by Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani Za založbo • For the publisher Branka Kalenic Ramšak, dekanja Filozofske fakultete Tisk • Printed by Birografika Bori d.o.o., Ljubljana Naklada 300 izvodov • Printed in 300 copies Rokopise, publikacije za recenzije, korespondenco in naročila pošljite na naslov izdajatelja. Prispevki naj bodo opremljeni s kratkim povzetkom (200-300 besed), izvlečkom (do 50 besed), ključnimi besedami in kratkimi podatki o avtorju. Nenaročenih rokopisov ne vračamo. Manuscripts, publications for review, correspondence and annual subscription rates should be sent to the editorial address. Contributions should include a short summary (200-300 words), an abstract (not more than 50 words), keywords and a short biographical note on the author. Unsolicited manuscripts are not returned. Izdajo zbornika je omogočila Javna Agencija za Raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije With the support of the Slovenian Research Agency © Univerza v Ljubljani, Filozofska fakulteta, 2017 Vsebina • Contents Metoda Kokole In memoriam Zaslužni profesor dr. Jože Sivec (19. januar 1930-30. januar 2017) 5-7 Katarina Šter Mary Magdalene, the Apostola of the Easter Morning: Changes in the Late Medieval Carthusian Office of St Mary Magdalene Marija Magdalena, apostola velikonočnega jutra: Spremembe v poznosrednjeveškem kartuzijanskem oficiju Marije Magdalene 9-53 Klemen Grabnar So gornjegrajski rokopisni zvezki nastali na Kranjskem? Are the Manuscript Volumes from Gornji Grad of Carniolan Origin? 55-79 Metoda Kokole Instrumentalna glasba v Ljubljani na prehodu v 18. stoletje: Sonate da camera a tre op. 2 Francesca Antonia Bonportija (1703) Instrumental Music in Ljubljana at the Turn of the 17th Century: The Sonate da camera a tre Op. 2 of Francesco Antonio Bonporti (1703) 81-102 Matjaž Barbo Josip Čerin in njegov študij muzikologije na Dunaju Josip Čerin and his musicological studies in Vienna 103-119 Karmen Salmič Kovačič Donedavno pojmovanje glasbenega modernizma - »adornovska zmota«? Until recently prevailing concept of musical modernism - "Adornian mistake?" 121-141 Urška Rihtaršič Med telesom in razumom. Izvajalec klasične glasbe v postmodernizmu Between Body and Mind. Classical Music Performer in the Postmodern Era 143-164 Branka Rotar Pance, Ema Igličar Students' Musical Creativity and the Role of Teachers -a Study of Compositions Written for the Music Olympiad Glasbena ustvarjalnost učencev in vloga učiteljev -študija skladb, napisanih za Glasbeno olimpijado 165-183 Boštjan Udovič Music as a means of statecraft: the example of ceremonial sessions of the National Assembly Glasba kot element državništva: primer slavnostnih sej Državnega zbora 185-202 Ana Petrov Yugonostalgia in the market: Popular music and consumerism in post-Yugoslav space Jugonostlagija na trgu: popularna glasba in potrošništvo v post-jugoslovanskem prostoru 203-215 Anita Prelovšek Glasbene prakse v pogrebnem kontekstu: študija primera pokopališč na območju Ljubljane v letu 2016 Musical Practices in the Funeral Context: A Case Study of Cemeteries in the Ljubljana Region in 2016 217-241 Recenzije • Reviews 243-259 Magistrska dela • M. A. Works 261-270 Disertacije • Dissertations 271-292 Imensko kazalo • Index 293-307 Avtorji • Contributors 309-313 Metoda Kokole In memoriam Zaslužni profesor dr. Jože Sivec (19. januar 1930-30. januar 2017) Zaslužni profesor muzikologije dr. Jože Sivec je navzven dajal vtis raztresenega in od vsakdanjega življenja značilno odmaknjenega univerzitetnega profesorja, hkrati pa je bil o vsem, kar se je dogajalo v svetu in muzikološki stroki, še kako na tekočem in njegovo natančno pomnjenje preteklih še tako majhnih dogodkov in podatkov je bilo malodane legendarno. Profesor Sivec se je od nas in svojega bogatega ter glasbe polnega življenja poslovil konec januarja letos malo po svojem sedeminosemdesetem rojstnem dnevu. Jože Sivec se je rodil v tradicionalni ter kulturi naklonjeni in omikani ljubljanski družini 19. januarja leta 1930. Vse stopnje svojega šolanja je zaključil v Ljubljani, kjer je leta 1953 diplomiral na novoustanovljenem historično-folklornem oddelku Akademije za glasbo in nato še leta 1956 na Filozofski fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani, kjer je vzporedno študiral germanistiko. Njegova prva služba je bila delo v knjižnici Psihološkega inštituta in knjige so značilno ostale njegove življenjske spremljevalke. Od 1958 se je nato pet let uril v pedagoških veščinah, ko je opravljal delo asistenta na Glasbeni akademiji v Sarajevu pod vodstvom prof. Cvjetka Rihtmana. Temeljito je študiral literaturo o glasbi in glasbenih zapisih od najstarejših obdobij do sodobnosti. Med njegovimi v širnem svetu uspelimi takratnimi študenti sta na primer profesorica Dujka Smoje, ki je naredila muzikološko kariero na Univerzi v kanadskem Montrealu, in profesor Bojan Bujic, ki je do upokojitve predaval na eni najelitnejših britanskih univerz, Univerzi v Oxfordu. Sivčevo poznanstvo s profesorjem Bujicem je pozneje zelo pozitivno vplivalo tudi na razvoj slovenske muzikološke stroke. Leta 1962 je akademik in profesor dr. Dragotin Cvetko na ljubljanski Filozofski fakulteti ustanovil Oddelek za muzikologijo in kot enega prvih predavateljev leta 1963 -deset let po njegovi diplomi iz glasbene zgodovine - kot svojega asistenta povabil Jožeta Sivca, ki je imel takrat za seboj že sedem let delovnih izkušenj in bogato znanje. Profesor Sivec je nato na omenjenem oddelku predaval do upokojitve in onkraj nje vse do septembra leta 2009, ko se je dokončno umaknil v svoj zasebni svet glasbe. Njegova kariera je bila tiha, a stalno rastoča. Po opravljenem doktorskem študiju, ki ga je leta 1967 zaključil z delom Opera in njena reprodukcija v Stanovskem gledališču v Ljubljani od leta 1791 do 1861, je zgodovini opere ostal zvest do konca svojega življenja. Tudi njegov zadnji tiskani znanstveni prispevek leta 2005 je bil namenjen prav tej tematiki. Docenturo je pridobil leta 1970 s temeljito študijo o poznorenesančnem skladatelju Wolfgangu Stricciusu, ki je bil v letih 1588-1592 kantor stanovske šole v Ljubljani. Nato pa je bil pet let pozneje izvoljen za izrednega in leta 1981 še za rednega profesorja mu-zikologije. Profesor Sivec se je upokojil leta 1995, a je z vsem svojim pedagoškim zanosom muzikološkemu podmladku predaval še naprej in skrbel za visok nivo predajanja znanja o starejših glasbenih obdobjih in glasbeni paleografiji. Prav v letih po upokojitvi je bil mentor številnim diplomantom, magistrantom in tudi doktorantki muzikologije na Filozofski fakulteti. Zaradi velikih zaslug za razvoj oddelka za muzikologijo Filozofske fakultete in za razvoj slovenske muzikološke stroke mu je Univerza v Ljubljani leta 1996 podelila naziv zaslužnega profesorja, leta 2008 pa se mu je s podelitvijo tretje Mantuanijeve nagrade poklonilo tudi Slovensko muzikološko društvo, katerega ustanovni član je bil. Za prispevek k vedenju o operni umetnosti v Ljubljani ga je leta 1991 z nagrado odlikovalo mesto Ljubljana. Njegove sedemdesetletnice se je spomnilo Slovensko muzikološko društvo in mu leta 2000 pripravilo Zbornik ob jubileju Jožeta Sivca / Essays presented to Jože Sivec, v katerem se mu je s svojimi prispevki poklonilo dvaindvajset kolegov, prijateljev ter bivših študentov vseh generacij, ki jih je z dobro mentorsko popotnico pospremil v svet poklicne muzikologije. Široka paleta razprav o glasbi od srednjega veka do sodobnosti odseva tudi slavljenčeva glasbena zanimanja. Ob njegovi osemdesetletnici je pri Založbi ZRC na pobudo Muzikološkega inštituta ZRC SAZU in Oddelka za muzikologijo Filozofske fakultete izšla lična knjiga Opera na ljubljanskih odrih od klasicizma do 20. stoletja, ki prinaša nabor in izbor njegovih dotlej razpršenih besedil o operi v Ljubljani. Prav v tej knjigi je zbrana in urejena njegova celotna bibliografija, ki obsega objave od časa opravljene diplome na Akademiji za glasbo v Ljubljani do leta 2005. Nabor zabeleženih del profesorja Jožeta Sivca, ki so urejena kronološko in v okviru posameznega leta tudi po tipih objav, odseva njegova zanimanja in raziskovalno rast. Njegovo pisanje je rastlo iz manjših komentarjev in kritik preko tehtnih prikazov v koncertnih in opernih listih (predvsem v sedemdesetih in osemdesetih letih prejšnjega stoletja) ter sežetih prispevkov za domače in tuje glasbene leksikone in enciklopedije do vrhuncev v vrsti tehtnih znanstvenih razprav in ne nazadnje več monografij ter znanstvenokri-tičnih izdaj starejšega notnega gradiva. Prav vse zaznamuje njegova predanost raziskovani tematiki in redka znanstvena akribija, ki jo je spremljalo tudi ažurno poznavanje v danem trenutku najnovejše svetovne muzikološke literature. Vedno je z velikim zanimanjem spremljal tudi nove poti in poglede muzikološke stroke. O njegovem delu v terminološki komisiji, ki se je redno sestajala okoli dve desetletji - rezultat je bil večinoma neobjavljen korpus slovenskih glasbenih izrazov - priča žal le tanek poskusni snopič Glasbeno terminološkega slovarja, ki ga je izdala Slovenska akademija znanosti in umetnosti leta 1983. Sivčevo odlično znanje nemškega jezika je botrovalo tudi promociji slovenske muzikologije v širšem evropskem prostoru, za katerega je na primer prevedel dve knjigi Dragotina Cvetka, in sicer Jacobus Gallus: Sein Leben und Werk (1972) in Die Musikgeschichte der Südslawen (1975). Njegova ljubezen je bila vedno glasba starejših obdobij, njegovo raziskovalno zanimanje pa je ubralo dve glavni smeri. Po eni strani se je ukvarjal z zgodovino opere in operne glasbe, čemur je posvetil svoj doktorat, ki je v skrajšani obliki izšel leta 1971 pri Slovenski matici pod naslovom Opera v Stanovskem gledališču v Ljubljani od leta 1790 do 1861. Leta 1981 je pripravil krajšo promocijsko dvojezično knjigo Dvesto let slovenske opere - Two Hundred Years of the Slovene Opera (1780-1980), predvsem pa je v slovenskem prostoru še vedno edina tovrstna publikacija njegova knjiga Opera skozi stoletja (1976). Sivčevo drugo, z operno tematiko nepovezano raziskovalno področje je bilo glasbena dediščina pozne renesanse in zgodnjega baroka, vezana na današnji slovenski prostor. V zakladnico slovenske in svetovne muzikološke literature je med letoma 1983 in 1998 prispeval štiri znanstvenokritične notne izdaje glasbenih del v Mariboru rojenega Daniela Lagkhnerja, v Ljubljani rojenega Jurija Prennerja ter tudi v Ljubljani delujočega protestantskega kantorja Wolfganga Stricciusa; vse v zbirki Monumenta artis musicae Sloveniae. O kompozicijskem stavku Stricciusa in Lagkhnerja je izdal tudi samostojni knjigi (1972 in 1982). Bil je prvi, ki je Slovencem in svetu razkril glasbo rojaka Prennerja. Njegova dela so domala v celoti še nepresežena in so še vedno aktualna klasična slovenska muzikološka literatura. Profesor Jože Sivec je s svojo predanostjo stari glasbi in zavzetostjo pri predavanjih znal prepričati in navdušiti svoje študente. O tem priča lepo število diplomskih, magistrskih in tudi doktorskih nalog, pod katere se je podpisal kot mentor. Vse, ki so se hoteli ukvarjati s staro glasbo, je na lep način umirjeno spodbujal in jim z nasveti pomagal. Če je bilo treba, se je tudi skoraj nečloveško potrudil, ko se je kdaj mudilo, samo da ne bi svojemu varovancu ali varovanki škodil. Na tak način je prav profesor Sivec spremljal tudi vse stopnje moje univerzitetne izobrazbe. Dragi profesor Jože Sivec, moj doktorski oče, me na moji poklicni poti še vedno spremlja in vedno se ga bom spominjala z velikim spoštovanjem do njegovega znanja in mile človeške plati. K. ŠTER » MARY MAGDALENE, THE APOSTOLA ... UDK 783.51"11/15" DOI: 10.4312/mz.53.1.9-53 Katarina Šter Muzikološki inštitut, Znanstvenoraziskovalni center Slovenske akademije znanosti in umetnosti Institute of Musicology, Scientific Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts Mary Magdalene, the Apostola of the Easter Morning: Changes in the Late Medieval Carthusian Office of St Mary Magdalene Marija Magdalena, apostola velikonočnega jutra: Spremembe v poznosrednjeveškem kartuzijanskem oficiju Marije Magdalene Prejeto: 10. oktober 2016 Sprejeto: 7. december 2016 Ključne besede: kartuzijani, gregorijanski koral, liturgija, oficij, oficij sv. Marije Magdalene IZVLEČEK V kartuzijanski liturgiji je Oficij Marije Magdalene doživel večje spremembe še potem, ko je bil že uveljavljen kot slovesni praznik z dvanajstimi berili. V matutinu so bili nekateri spevi premeščeni ali celo nadomeščeni z novimi spevi. Razprava se posveča podobi Marije Magdalene v novem in starem oficiju, tudi v primerjavi z liturgijo nekaterih drugih tradicij. S posebno obravnavo v nekaterih rokopisih korigirane prve antifone lavd, Maria stabat ad monumentum, odpira nova vprašanja, povezana z enotnostjo kartuzijanske liturgične tradicije in z odnosom med posameznimi rokopisi. Received: 10th October 2016 Accepted: 7th December 2016 Keywords: Carthusian order, Gregorian chant, liturgy, Divine Office, Office of St Mary Magdalene ABSTRACT The Office of Mary Magdalene is one of the rare offices of the Carthusian liturgy that was changed after it had been established as a solemn feast with twelve lessons. In Matins, several chants changed their position or were even replaced by new ones. This article examines the relationship between the earlier and the later Office of St Mary Magdalene. Later corrections in the Lauds first antiphon, Maria stabat ad monumentum receive some special attention since they open new questions concerning the unity of the Carthusian liturgical tradition, and a possible connection between individual Carthusian manuscripts. Introduction: Mary Magdalene as a saint Mary Magdalene is one of the rare saints for whom there is a source as authoritative as possible: she is a woman from the Bible, where she played an important role in the crucial event of the Christian faith - the resurrection of Christ. On the other hand, her biblical image was blurred, and from as early as the sixth century she was represented as a composite saint of three very probably different persons mentioned in the New Testament. The first was Mary, the sister of Lazarus and Martha of Bethany. The second was an unnamed sinner who washed the feet of Christ with her tears and dried them with her hair.1 And the third was Mary Magdalene, the woman from whom Jesus had driven seven demons and who was among his followers. She was present at the crucifixion and burial of Christ, and she was also one of the first witnesses of the events on Easter morning. All three images merged into one Mary Magdalene who was venerated as a single saint. In the West, her cult expanded largely in the eleventh and twelfth centuries and flourished especially in the thirteenth century. Until the sixteenth century her feast again became more obsolete.2 Later on, especially in Italy from the thirteenth century onward, it was the image of the repentant sinner, which was particularly emphasized in her cult. This may be connected with the representation of Mary Magdalene as an example of a penitent and pardoned person in the teaching of the mendicant orders.3 According to a ninth-century legend in the West, Mary Magdalene accompanied her brother Lazarus and sister Martha to Provence, where they preached the Gospel; it was also in Provence, where she lived in a cave as a repentant hermit. It is therefore not surprising that her cult was especially important in Marseilles, where Lazarus (the first bishop of Marseille, where he was martyred) and Martha were also celebrated.4 Despite her legend, Mary Magdalene did not receive special attention in Provence until the discovery of her relics in Saint-Maximin-la-Sainte-Baume (near Aix-en-Provence) in 1279, where she was supposedly buried.5 However, there was an earlier rival cult at the monastery in Vézelay in Burgundy. Only the papal bull in 1295 declared that the "true" relics were in St Maximin. There the cult was strongly promoted for political reasons (as the first witness of the resurrection, Mary Magdalene was a powerful saint, The author acknowledges that the article was written within the project Forms and Transformations of the Monastic Musical Traditions in Medieval Europe: Carthusian Plainchant in the Light of Comparison with Selected Liturgical Traditions (Z6-5562), which was financially supported by the Slovenian Research Agency (ARRS). The research was also enabled by the Swiss National Research Funds (SNF) with the International Short Visit Scholarship (ISV - IZK0Z1 167557) at the Schola Cantorum Basilensis. I would especially like to thank Dr Agnese Pavanello and Kelly Landerkin from the Schola Cantorum Basiliensis; they have kindly supported my scholarship application and helped me in many ways during my research. A big thank you also goes to Dr Elaine Hild for her language proofreading and comments on this article. 1 The Gospel acccording to John 11:2, however, connects this woman to Mary, Lazarus' and Martha's sister. Vulgata, "Biblia Sacra Vulgata," accessed October 9, 2016, https://www.biblegateway.com/. 2 Victor Saxer, Le culte de Marie Madeleine en Occident des origines à la fin du moyen âge, 2 vols (Auxerre: Société des Fouilles Archéologiques et des Monuments Historiques de l'Yonne; Paris: Librairie Clavreuil, 1959), 285-326. 3 Vassiliki A. Foskolou, "Mary Magdalene between East and West: Cult and Image, Relics and Politics in the Late Thirteenth-Century Eastern Mediterranean," Dumbarton Oaks Papers 65/66 (2011-2012): 271-272. According to Foskolou, the image of Mary Magdalene as a sinful woman was almost unknown in the Eastern tradition before the Crussades. 4 Lila Diane Collamore, "Aquitanian Collections of Office Chants: A Comparative Survey" (PhD diss., The Catholic University of America, 2000), 182-183. 5 Ibid., 183-184 and 71 f. (partly also after Saxer, see footnote 2 above). who attracted many pilgrims), and the relics played a large role in it. In the thirteenth century, there was yet another competitor for the relics of St Mary Magdalene: the monastery of St Lazaros in Constantinople.6 Mary Magdalene, venerated on July 22, was represented as a sinful woman justified by her love and faith, a picture of the Church and at the same time of the soul in its desire to detach from sin, as the opposition to the vain and self-important Pharisee Simon.7 As the first witness of the Easter event, she was also an apostola, a messenger to other apostles, and this is the role that she has regained again in the Roman Catholic Church less than a year ago.8 The Office of Mary Magdalene In their preface to the book The Divine Office in the Latin Middle Ages, Margot Fassler and Rebecca Baltzer stressed the importance of the Office sources, "the central-ity of Office sources to the study of medieval hagiography."9 Even if they have in mind mostly newly composed offices, connected to the developments of individual saints' cults, one could claim the same importance for the earlier, more traditional offices, which could also be subjected to certain changes, thereby presenting an altered or completely different image of an individual saint. Such cases stand out especially in the more stable and conservative liturgies which did not change easily or quickly. This is also the case in the Office of Mary Magdalene in the Carthusian liturgy of the late Middle Ages and the sixteenth century. The Office of Mary Magdalene presumably appears first in the Aquitanian antiphoner Paris 1085 (F-Pn lat. 1085),10 and thus predates the sources that were given by Saxer in his chapter on the Magdalenian cult in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.11 In Paris 1085, the saint did not have a proper office and the chants were borrowed mostly from the Common of Virgins and from the feast of the Assumption. There was a single nocturn for Matins.12 The case of the Mass for July 22 was similar: in many cases the 6 Foskolou, "Mary Magdalene between East and West," 285-289. 7 Saxer, Le culte de Marie Madeleine, 328. 8 On June 10, 2016, the liturgical memory of St Mary Magdalene, celebrated on July 22, was re-elevated to the level of a feast day and received a new preface "de apostolorum apostola." See Holy See Press Office, "The Liturgical Memory of Mary Magdalene Becomes a Feast, Like That of the Other Apostles, 10.06.2016," accessed June 30, 2016, https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/ en/bollettino/pubblico/2016/06/10/160610b.html; Aleteia, "Mary Magdalene, 'Apostle to the Apostles,' Given Equal Dignity in Feast," accesed September 30, 2016, http://aleteia.org/2016/06/10/mary-magdalene-apostle-to-the-apostles-given-equal-dignity-in-feast/. 9 Margot E. Fassler and Rebecca A. Baltzer, preface to The Divine Office in the Latin Middle Ages: Methodology and .Source .Studies, Regional Developments, Hagiography, ed. Margot E. Fassler and Rebecca A. Baltzer (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), ix. 10 James Grier, "The Divine Office at Saint-Martial in the Early Eleventh Century," in The Divine Office in the Latin Middle Ages: Methodology and .Source Studies, Regional Developments, Hagiography, ed. Margot E. Fassler and Rebecca A. Baltzer (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 180-181 and 192. - Only a list of the selected Carthusian manuscripts is given in the bibliography. The list of chants and digital images from other antiphoners used for the purposes of this research can be found mostly in the Cantus Database. Individual manuscripts will be cited in the footnotes when they are first mentioned. - F-Pn lat. 1085 is an Aquitanian antiphoner from St Martial of Limoges, tenth century. Cantus Database, "Cantus: A Database for Latin Ecclesiastical Chant," accessed October 7, 2016, http://cantusdatabase.org/source/374086/f-pn-lat-1085. 11 Saxer, Le culte de Marie Madeleine, 153-182 (esp. 159-160) and 169-170. 12 Grier, "The Divine Office at Saint-Martial," 180-181 and 192. chants from the common masses for the Virgins and Holy Women were used.13 The Carthusians also adopted - and kept - this tradition, in which chants from common offices were used for Mary Magdalene, in spite of new liturgical developments and regional influences regarding her cult. In the Middle Ages, many different offices for the feast of Mary Magdalene existed, and traditions were often mixed. Because of its Paschal connection, the feast sometimes received almost the same grade of festivity as Easter.14 Proper chants for Mary Magdalene's office, however, are a relatively late development. As Lila Collamore writes of the manuscripts in Corpus Antiphonalium Officii,15 Mary Magdalene's office only appears in manuscript B (D-Bas lit. 23, from Bamberg, twelfth century, antiphon Fidelis sermo et omni), manuscript L (I-BV V. 21, from San Lupo, Benevento, twelfth century; a full office), added at the end of manuscript R (CH-Zz Rh. 28, from Rheinau, thirteenth century), in manuscript D (F-Pn lat. 17296, from Saint-Denis, twelfth century), and manuscript S (GB-LBl add. 30850, from Silos, eleventh century).16 The main traditions of the newly composed offices for St Mary Magdalene from the eleventh and twelfth centuries were discussed by David Hiley, who stressed the richness of the repertory of Mary Magdalene's proper chants.17 It is understandable that none of the six large series of chants for Mary Magdalene defined by Hiley correspond to the Carthusian tradition where the chants from the common offices are used. Mary, the sister of Martha from Bethany, also plays a large role in the texts of the chant series researched by Hiley. The Aquitanian chant tradition (in a broader sense) is locally connected to the Carthusian tradition. As is the case with the Carthusians, some Aquitanian antiphoners drew their chants for Mary Magdalene from the Common of Virgins. There is the above-mentioned antiphoner Paris 1085, but Silos 9 (E-SI 9) draws Magdalene's Office primarily from the Common of Virgins as well. In Toledo 33.5 (E-Tc 33.5), the first series of Matins and Lauds antiphons is from the Common of Virgins; the second is proper to Mary Magdalene.18 Of the other Aquitanian manuscripts, Albi 44 (F-AI 44)19 and Toledo 44.1 (E-Tc 44.1)20 do not contain any reference to Mary Magdalene.21 For most of the Aquitanian sources, the Matins responsories as well as the Matins and the Lauds antiphons for Mary Magdalene22 do not correspond to the Carthusian sources, because several include proper chants for Mary Magdalene, many of which are not included in the Corpus Antiphonalium Officii.23 There is a small exception in Toledo 13 Saxer, Le culte de Marie Madeleine, 292. 14 Such was the custom in Utrecht. Ibid., 322-323. 15 For the main information on the manuscripts of the Corpus Antiphonalium Officii, see Cantus Database, accessed October 16, 2016, http://cantusdatabase.org/description. 16 Collamore, "Aquitanian Collections of Office Chants," 184. 17 David Hiley, "Early Cycles of Office Chants for the Feast of Mary Magdalene," in Music and Medieval Manuscripts: Paleography and Performance: Essays Dedicated to Andrew Hughes, ed. John Haines and Randall Rosenfeld (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2004). 18 Collamore, "Aquitanian Collections of Office Chants," 184. - Silos 9 is a monastic breviary from the Royal Monastery of Santo Domingo de Silos, twelfth or thirteenth century. Ibid., 69-73. 19 F-AI 44 is a gradual - antiphoner from the ninth century, Albi cathedral. Cantus Database, accessed October 7, 2016, http:// cantusdatabase.org/source/374102/f-ai-44. 20 E-Tc 44.1 is an antiphoner from the first half of the eleventh century, Sant Sadurni de Tavernoles. Cantus Database, accessed October 7, 2016, http://cantusdatabase.org/source/374061/e-tc-441. 21 Collamore, "Aquitanian Collections of Office Chants," 184. 22 Ibid., 188, Table 4.14 and Table 4.15. See also Saxer, Le culte de Marie Madeleine, 378 and 384. 23 Collamore, "Aquitanian Collections of Office Chants," 184. 44.1 and 44.2,24 which have Maria ergo unxitpedes as the fifth antiphon of Lauds: the same antiphon appears in the Vespers of the Carthusian office. In general, the majority of the Aquitanian sources give a set typical for the canons' cursus, which also appears in the Cluniac sources, in the Carmelite and the Dominican sources, as well as in the Spanish sources.25 The chant texts are dedicated mostly to the sinful woman who washed the feet of Jesus, and to the sisters Martha and Mary Magdalene, as could be expected from the sources of Provence where the cult of the three sibling saints (Mary, Martha, and Lazarus) was strong. Especially the latter subject does not correspond to the Carthusian use. Another tradition of possible comparison with the Carthusians is the tradition of Grandmont, where the feast was a part of the earliest calendar, but the office of the saint seems to be later because of the choice of the majority of the non-biblical texts (in all great responsories);26 as such, it is not comparable to the Carthusian tradition, which chose foremostly - if not only - biblical texts for the offices. Many similarities with the Carthusians, however, can be found in the earlier developments of the Cistercian tradition, which has also adopted the chants from the Paschal season and from the Common of Virgins; this tradition also shares with the Carthusians the not very common use of two Easter responsories for Mary Magdalene.27 The Office of St Mary Magdalene in the Medieval Carthusian liturgy Mary Magdalene might have been an important saint elsewhere and still she would not receive a proper office in the Carthusian liturgy, but it is more important that the Carthusians did celebrate her feast even if their Sanctorale was very small. Next to her being an example of the solitary eremitic life, which could inspire the Carthusians, one could find two main reasons for her feast being included in the Carthusian liturgy. Firstly, she was one of the rare biblical saints. Even if the Bible did not tell much about her, and even if there were several different images of her in the tradition, she was undoubtedly the most important witness of the Easter morning. Because the Carthusians used almost exclusively biblical texts in their liturgy, an immediate connection to the source of her office could be found in the Bible. Secondly, she was an important saint of the region. Provence was one of the main centres of her cult since it was believed that she had been living there, and especially one Carthusian monastery had its own reasons to celebrate Mary Magdalene with utmost devotion. The charterhouse Montrieux was located directly near Sainte-Baume, the place of Mary Magdalene's dwelling. The monastery possessed her relics (her bones, her hair, 24 E-Tc 44.2 is an antiphoner from the end of the eleventh century, Toledo cathedral. Cantus Database, accessed October 7, 2016, http://cantusdatabase.org/source/374062/e-tc-442. 25 This summary, also on the basis of different authors, is given by Collamore, "Aquitanian Collections of Office Chants," 184-185. 26 Alexander Zerfass, Das Antiphonar von Grandmont:Ein Beispiel eremitischer Reformliturgien im 11./12. Jahrhundert (Freiburg, Switzerland: Academic Press Fribourg, 2011), 64. 27 Alicia Scarcez, "The Proto-Cistercian Office for Mary Magdalene and Its Changes in the Course of the Twelfth Century," in Mary Magdalene in Medieval Culture: Conflicted Roles, ed. Peter V. Loewen and Robin Waugh (New York and London: Routledge, 2014), 55-68. and her rod), together with the relics of St Lazarus and St Anne. Mary Magdalene's connection with Sainte-Baume was first mentioned in a twelfth-century manuscript from Bern (Municipal Library, Ms. 133, fol. 1ro), containing Vita eremítica beatae Mar-iae Magdalenae, where her hermit's dwelling was described as being located "not far from Montrieux": "Explicit vita vel transitus beate Marie Magdalene. Spelunca ejus, in qua vixit solitaria xxx annis, dicitur esse episcopatu Massiliensi non longe ab heremo Montis Rivi."28 Saxer further retells a legend connected to the foundation of the charterhouse Montrieux in 1117.29 The founder of the charterhouse, an Italian nobleman, had made a pilgrimage to Sainte-Baume where he had made a vow to found a charterhouse in the region if he would get well. After that he founded Montrieux and became a monk himself.30 The time of the foundation of the monastery seems probable regarding the existing documents, but the story of an Italian nobleman might have been made up; the pilgrimages to Sainte-Baume were not yet popular in that time. However, for Saxer the legend could be "an echo of the Carthusian tradition,"31 but probably it was not only a result of the Carthusian endeavours. Because of Montrieux's connection to Marseilles and the saints of Marseilles, the story might have come from there, before it was exploited by the hermits of Montrieux.32 But even with such important relics in possession, there seemed to be no special liturgy for the feast of St Mary Magdalene in Montrieux. Vita eremítica had a large literary and even more general influence. Not only was Mary Magdalene represented as a model of eremitical life, she was also becoming a patron saint of many parishes, monasteries, and churches. For Montrieux, the vicinity of her cave and tomb could mean even more. If Mary Magdalene had been under the cross with Christ, before seing him rise from the dead, there could be been an analogy between her tomb and Christ's.33 The feast of three lessons According to Victor Saxer, there were three types of monastic offices of St Mary Magdalene. Among those, the Carthusians represent the most severe and restrained 28 Saxer, Le culte de Marie Madeleine, 131 and 209-210. On October 15, 1252, the main altar of the Charterhouse Montrieux was consecrated. It was dedicated to St Lazarus, "the first bishop of Marseilles." His bones were inserted into the altar, along with the relics of St Mary Magdalene and St Anne. The relics probably came from Provence and therefore had a connection with the Provençal tradition of Mary Magdalene's cult and with the legend of St Lazarus being the first bishop of Marseilles. The cult of St Anne is also of Provençal origin (thirteenth century). 29 The official website of the Carthusian order and the Wikipedia website of the Charterhouse Montrieux give 1137 as the date of the foundation of this charterhouse, and they do not mention the legend connected to Mary Magdalene; on the other hand the information that they give is very scarce. The author named as "J'aime le Var" mentions that the monastery in Montrieux was founded in 1117 and was affiliated to the Carthusian order in 1137. Wikipedia, "Chartreuse Montrieux," accessed October 6, 2016, https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartreuse_de_Montrieux; L'Ordre des Chartreux, "Chartreuse de Montrieux," accessed October 6, 2016, http://www.chartreux.org/fr/maisons/montrieux/index.php; J'aime le Var, "Chartreuse Notre-Dame de Montrieux (Méounes)," accessed October 6, 2016. https://www.facebook.com/media/ set/?set-a.428804883995553.1073741835.227613770781333&type-3. 30 Saxer, Le culte de Marie Madeleine, 131-132. 31 Ibid., 132. 32 Ibid., 151. 33 Ibid., 151-152. type,34 and - as was already seen above - they cannot be compared to most of the other monastic offices since in their office the feast never contained proper chants. The Cistercians were similarly severe at the beginning, but later they gave more festivity to the feast.35 Arthur A. King36 thought that the feast of Mary Magdalene was a later addition to the Carthusian calendar. However, Hansjakob Becker,37 Jacques Hourlier with Benoît Lambres,38 and Emmanuel Cluzet39 have assumed that it was a part of the original Carthusian liturgy, which would also be consistent with the study of John Wickstrom (who also stressed the fact that the Sanctorale offices for proper feasts originally borrowed their chants from the Common of Saints).40 In the calendar of the Great Charterhouse (Grande Chartreuse) from 1134, the feast had three lessons.41 Some time before 1174 it was celebrated with a Mass. Later - probably with the Customs of Dom Basile ca. 1170, but certainly after 1122 - it became a feast of twelve lessons with a convent Mass. After the compilation of the Carthusian customs Statuta Antiqua (1271) it became a solemn feast (festum candelarum, when two candles were lit at Vespers, Lauds, and at the convent Mass, in 1282);42 with Statuta nova (1368) it received a sermon. From 1917 the feast again had twelve lessons and a convent Mass, but it was not a solemnity.43 In the form with three lessons, the Office of Mary Magdalene did not have any proper psalmody in Matins and Vespers. It contained three responsories, (the second, the third and the fourth) from Easter Sunday: Dum transisset sabbatum (verse Et valde), Et valde mane (verse Mulieres), and Una sabbati (verse Et invenerunt), which were a part of the early Carthusian antiphoner;44 all of them recall the events of the morning of Christ's resurrection (see Table 1 below). According to Becker, such "double use" is rare, since these responsories, especially Una sabbati, are rarely found in the double role for Easter and Mary Magdalene.45 Even if it seems that all chosen responsories address the same topic, there is a subtle thematic progression 34 Ibid., 294-295, and 311. 35 Ibid., 295. See also Scarcez, "The Proto-Cistercian Office for Mary Magdalene." 36 Arthur Archdale King, Liturgies of the Religious Orders (London and New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1955), 24. 37 Hansjakob Becker, Die Responsorien des Kartäuserbreviers: Untersuchungen zu Urform und Herkunft des Antiphonars der Kartause (München: Max Hueber Verlag, 1971), 44. 38 Jacques Hourlier and Benoît du Moustier [Lambres], "Le Calendrier cartusien," Études grégoriennes 2 (1957): 158. Their source was not later than 1174, so the feast must have been a part of the Carthusian liturgy before that time. 39 Emmanuel Cluzet, Particularités du Sanctoral cartusien (Salzburg: Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik der Universität Salzburg, 1984), 31. 40 John B. Wickstrom, "The Antiphons adpsalmos of Carthusian Lauds," in Kartäuserliturgie undKartäuserschriftum, 1, ed. James Hogg (Salzburg: Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik der Universität Salzburg, 1988), 15 (footnote 22) and 16. 41 Because of this ranking, the feast did not have any proper psalmody in Matins and Vespers. Hansjakob Becker, Franz Ansgar, and Alexander Zerfass, Bruno von Köln und die Liturgie der Kartause: Rekonstruktion des Antiphonale Sancti Brunonis und Reproduktion der ältesten kartusiensischen Offiziumshandschriften (Salzburg: Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik der Universität Salzburg, 2015), 66. 42 Amand Degand, "Chartreux (Liturgie des)," in Dictionnaire d'archéologie chrétienne et de liturgie, 3/1, ed. Fernand Cabrol and Henri Leclercq (Paris: Letouzey et Ané, 1948), cols 1055 and 1058. 43 Hourlier and du Moustier, "Le Calendrier cartusien," 158. 44 Becker, Die Responsorien des Kartäuserbreviers, 290. 45 Becker, Ansgar, and Zerfass, Bruno von Köln, 51 and 66. Cantus Database gives nine sources which use Dum transisset as a responsory for Mary Magdalene, eight for Valde mane (the same sources as for Dum transisset, only one is missing), and none for Una sabbati. Cantus Database, accessed March 30, 2017, http://cantusdatabase.org/. suitable to the unfolding of Matins (which, before the end of the Middle Ages, or at least until the very late Middle Ages, was not sung in the middle of the night, but directly before Lauds). All responsories concentrate on the early hour of women's arrival in front of the tomb, in their bringing oil and spices to anoint the body of Christ (in a way making a parallel event to the sinful woman's anointing of Jesus' feet), but nevertheless Matins ends dramatically with their entrance into the empty tomb. From here, the Lauds antiphons continue with the story already given in the Matins antiphons. From the texts of these early office chants (see the texts of the selected chants from Table 1 below in Table 1 of the Appendix) we can see that the original Carthusian Night's Office for St Mary Magdalene was concerned primarily with Mary's role in the Easter events: with her coming to the tomb and searching for Christ, which ends with her mission to announce his resurrection to other disciples of Jesus, becoming the first apostola apostolorum. In both antiphons for the canticles Magnificat and Benedictus, which have very similar texts, she is shown as a sinful woman who washes Jesus' feet with her hair, but this does not seem to be a prevailing image of her. Matins Lauds Vespers R Dum transisset A Maria stabat R Et valde mane A Tulerunt dominum meum R Una sabbati A Scio quod Jesum qaeritis A Surgens Jesus mane A Ite nuntiate EA Mulier quae erat EA In diebus illis R = responsory; A = antiphon; EA = antiphon ad Magnificat or ad Benedictus Table 1: Original chants of the Carthusian Mary Magdalene Office of three readings.46 The solemn feast of twelve lessons Carthusian liturgy is famous for its stability and its very slow and reluctant development and expansion in comparison to other traditions. Therefore, in the relatively stable period of the Carthusian liturgy, between the conclusion of the Statuta antiqua (1271) and the beginning of the sixteenth century,47 not many new feasts and offices were added into the Carthusian liturgy. During this time, there were several changes and emendations in the field of music and some textual variants. But there were only few real liturgical changes. The Office of Mary Magdalene was, according to its new rank of solemnity, expanded to twelve lessons soon after Statuta antiqua, and it also 46 Becker, Ansgar, and Zerfass, Bruno von Köln, 66. 47 Degand, "Chartreux," col. 1058. received antiphons for Matins and Vespers.48 The original chants from the earliest layer of three lessons remained a part of the Office. The Easter responsories were given the important places at the end of the Nocturns. Other responsories were taken from the Common of Virgins (responsories 1-9) and were also used for the Assumption of Mary. (For the chants of the Office of Mary Magdalene in that time, with their texts, see Table 1 of the Appendix.)49 Application of the principle of Scripture (the biblical principle) and loyalty to the tradition - in spite of fashion and Carthusians' own connection to the powerful saint - were the main principles underlying the mode of expansion of the Office of Mary Magdalene. A newly composed office would have violated both principles, so use of the chants with biblical texts, possibly from the common offices, was a choice consistent with the spirit of the Carthusian Order. Thus, Mary Magdalene's story remains further connected to the Bible, especially to the Easter events. The three key responsories conclude each Nocturn with the events of the Easter morning. The Lauds antiphons with the "quem quaeritis" story and its conclusion (the mission of announcing the joyful message) are still the same. The newly introduced antiphons of the first Nocturn connect the washing of Jesus' feet by the sinful woman's tears with preparing of his body to be buried, which leads to the scene when the women arrive to the tomb early in the morning to anoint Christ's dead body. The antiphons of the second Nocturn develop this theme further: they are dedicated to the scenes at the tomb, where the women meet the angel, who calms their fears and asks them whom they are looking for. Jesus is not there anymore; he is arisen. and they are sent forth to announce this to his disciples. The antiphon of the third Nocturn has a text from the Song of Songs, which is also the main source of the non-Easter responsories of both first Nocturns, while the third Nocturn responsories mostly draw on the text from Psalm 44. The non-Easter responsories and short formulae are taken from the Common of Virgins; they were also used for the feasts of the Virgin Mary. Vespers then take the antiphons ad psalmos mostly from the first Nocturn of Matins (or vice versa). There is another antiphon ad Magnificat: Jesus comforts the sinful woman and tells her to go in peace. The Carthusian image of Mary Magdalene seen from their office chants at this stage was a mixture of biblical elements, which - as was believed at the time - tell the story of this biblical person. However, for the Carthusians the aspect of a repentant sinner seemed much less important than the aspect of the witness of the risen Christ. Their Paschal Magdalene got her other, non-Easter chants from the Common of Virgins. Here we can see parallels with the early Aquitanian office (Paris 1085), but even more with the early Cistercian office, where the resurrection scenes represented a structural basis 48 Many Carthusian antiphoners could be dated on the basis of their contents. Some feasts - such as Mary Magdalene and Corpus Christi - that had a more precise date of the introduction into the liturgy could be very helpful with that. However, Thomas Op de Coul has suggested that the Carthusians were not always very prompt in adding or inserting new feasts into the liturgical manuscripts, so dating of the manuscript on the basis of the inserted new feasts is not always reliable. Thomas Op de Coul, "How Were New Saints' Feasts Added to Liturgical Manuscripts? Uniformity in Three Dated Carthusian Graduals from the Low Countries," Études grégoriennes 41 (2014). Such was also the case with Grenoble 338 (from the twelfth century), which does not include musical notation, only texts. The feast of St Mary Magdalene was not a part of the original manuscript: it is not written on fol. 203v, where it should stand in the Sanctorale; instead of that, there is an inscription "marie magdalene quere in fine libri." 49 Becker, Die Responsorien des Kartàuserbreviers, 290. of the Office of Mary Magdalene, while the subjects such as the bride (connected to the texts of Song of Songs and Psalm 44) and anointing were instered among the resurrection chants.50 The Cistercians saw Mary Magdalene as the bride of Christ, but, because of the image of Mary Magdalene, they have chosen such texts from the Common of Virgins, which would avoid any allusions to the virginity of the saint.51 Some texts of the Cistercian tradition were the same as the Carthusian texts. The Cistercians, however, had some Paschal responsories and more antiphons from the Song of Songs, while the Carthusians had three Paschal responsories and antiphons in the first Nocturn of the feast, and next to that they had several Song of Songs responsories. On the other hand, both orders avoided connecting Magdalene with Martha and Lazarus of Bethany in the texts of their office chants. The later changes in the solemn feast of twelve lessons Even if the number of chants for the Carthusian Office for Mary Magdalene did not change later on, the sung items of the feast did. If we extend our timespan towards the end of the sixteenth century, we find a big change in the Office of Mary Magdalene. It is not a drastic change, but within the relatively stable context, where most of the other offices never changed, it is very significant. This change probably happened after the end of the fifteenth century or later; it could well have happened "after the Council of Trent, but very probably already earlier."52 The series of responsories for the Common of Virgins was replaced by the responsories for the Holy Women, although these two common offices share many chants.53 Additionally, the hymn for St Mary Magdalene was added - along with many others - in the breviary in 1593.54 Another date of orientation for this change was the introduction of the solemn feast of St Anne. Many manuscripts - such as Graz 7 - have "corrected" (or changed) the Office of St Mary Magdalene approximately at the time of the introduction of St Anne's Office.55 As a result of these changes, in Matins several responsories were moved to other positions, and four were even excluded from the office, replaced by new ones. The invitatory antiphon has been replaced by another. (See Table 2 below and columns 2 and 3 - "earlier" and "later chants" - in Table 2 of the Appendix.) 50 Scarcez, "The Proto-Cistercian Office for Mary Magdalene," 63 and 55-57. 51 Ibid., 59-62. 52 E-mail message to author by Dom Frančišek, Charterhouse Pleterje, November 12, 2016 (includes the text forwarded from Dom Jacques). 53 Becker, Die Responsorien des Kartduserbreviers, 290. 54 Degand, "Chartreux," cols 1063-1064. 55 Feast of St Anne (July 26) was a feast of three lessons, celebrated with the mass in some charterhouses before 1174. It was a feast of three lessons (without a Mass) for the whole order in 1400. Feast with a Mass was celebrated in the obedience of Avignon in 1405, and then in the whole order in 1412 [after the Schism, which brought many new changes also in the liturgy of the Order]. It became a chapter feast in 1554, and then a solemnity (festum candelarum) in 1569/1571 (for the conversi only until 1582). In 1917, it became a feast of twelve lessons with Mass again. Hourlier and du Moustier, "Le Calendrier cartusien," 158. Mary Magdalene - earlier chants Mary Magdalene - later chants Matins: invitatory antiphon Regem virginum Laudemus Deum nostrum [new chant] Matins: great responsories with verses (V) Vidi speciosam - V Viderunt illam Diffusa est gratia - V Dilexisti justitiam [changed position] Fulcite me floribus - V Adjuro vos Specie tua - V Diffusa est gratia [changed position] Surge propera - V Vox turturis Dilexisti justitiam - V Propter veritatem [changed position] Dum transisset sabbatum - V Et valde Dum transisset sabbatum - V Et valde Quam pulchra es - V Sicut vitta Fallax est gratia - V Data ei [new chant] Veni de Libano - V Hortus conclusus Accinxit fortitudine - V Lucerna pedibus [new chant] Diffusa est gratia - V Dilexisti justitiam Quam pulchra es - V Sicut vitta [changed position] Et valde mane - V Mulieres emerunt Et valde mane - V Mulieres emerunt Specie tua - V Diffusa est gratia Regnum mundi - V Eructavit cor meum [new chant] Dilexisti justitiam - V Propter veritatem Lauda filia - V Abstulit dominus [new chant] Offerentur regi virgines - V Specie tua Fulcite me floribus - V Adjuro vos [changed position] Una sabbati - V Et invenerunt Una sabbati - V Et invenerunt Table 2: Earlier and later chants of the Carthusian Mary Magdalene Office. When did this change appear in the sources? Earlier Carthusian manuscripts - until Graz 273 from the thirteenth century (Table 3 of the Appendix) - have only the original office of twelve lessons. The original office remains present in all checked Carthusian antiphoners from the fifteenth century. Unfortunately I was unable to see some manuscripts with responsories from the sixteenth century. The seventeenth-century sources, as would be expected, include only new versions of the office. But some manuscripts from as early as the end of the thirteenth century (such as Lyon 509, where the original invita-tory antiphon had been deleted, yet without another one to replace it) were changed.56 56 This is a very telling fact, testifying not only to the long life and use, but also to the good preservation of the Carthusian antiphoners, which were used mainly as memory aids - and not as books from which the monks would sing during the office - at least until the first half of the fifteenth century. Therefore, the earlier layer of chants is seen in many sources even if they contain the later office as a change or correction, and we find the new version being inserted into quite early manuscripts. New incipits could be written above the incipits of the invitatory and individual responsories by a later hand; the old ones could be erased or new folios might be inserted. In Graz 145, where the chants for the Office of Mary Magdalene come from the earlier layer, only the first two chants have been ruled out later, but the inscription by a later hand warns us about the change in the office: "Responsoria in Festo S: Marie Magdalene sunt alia qua hii notantur" (192r). By the invitatory Regem virginum in the same manuscript we find the inscription by a later hand: "Invitatorium sumitur ex hymnario, pagina 2da, supplementi antiphonaria" (191v).57 In terms of time and date, it is sometimes very difficult to prove what is a later addition. In Graz 18, the invitatory was written down by a later hand into an empty place (but perhaps there was no empty place there, only the old invitatory had been scratched out very well); the same hand also wrote down the incipits of the new responsories. In this antiphoner and in Graz 21, later additions are intertwined with the original layer of the manuscripts in such a manner that it is sometimes impossible to say if the "later" hand is only a hand of another contemporary scribe who took turns with the first scribe. One hand wrote the majority of chant texts and another one the majority of rubrics and some offices, as well as some individual chants or even individual words (or their corrections?) within the earlier chants. There are also manuscripts, which contain only the new offices, but still this does not always mean that these manuscripts contained the new tradition from the beginning. Graz 7, for example, gives only the new Office for Mary Magdalene, followed by the Office of St Anne written by the same hand, but both offices are additions on later folios, so perhaps there was an original Office of Mary Magdalene, which was a part of the earlier tradition. The new Office of St Mary Magdalene is a mixture of the traditional Carthusian office for this feast and of the Common of Holy Women, which is very much connected to the Common of Virgins, but has some special aspects to it. (See Table 2 of the Appendix.) The Paschal theme remains the firm basis of the office, with the same three Easter responsories at the end of each Nocturn. All the antiphons - excepting the invitatory antiphon - have also remained the same. There is the theme of the sinful woman washing Jesus' feet and thus preparing his body for the events of the Holy week, a strong parallel to the theme of the women coming to anoint Christ's dead body - only that here he is risen from the dead. Mary Magdalene is still never mentioned as Martha's or Lazarus' sister. The next important aspect of remaining true to one's tradition is the great respon-sory of the first Vespers. There the examined sources still indicate Fulcite me floribus, as was the case in the earlier office. (The Carthusians usually use the second great respon-sory of Matins to be used in the first Vespers, so in the new office they should take Specie tua instead, since this is the new second responsory of the office, consistent with the Common of Holy Women; in the case of St Anne, Specie tua is used as the great respon-sory of the Vespers.) The responsory Fulcite me floribus changed place from the second position in the earlier office to the one before last in the later office, but instead of it Vidi 57 There is no known supplement of this antiphoner, but this notice shows that such additional booklets or separate folios might have existed and were also one of the solutions to keep liturgical music manuscripts up to date. speciosam could have been used there to make a parallel with the Common of the Holy Women. (See Table 2 of the Appendix.) Vidi speciosam was the first responsory in the earlier Carthusian Office for St Mary Magdalene, so it seems that here the Carthusians had to choose between these two responsories and they have preserved Fulcite me flori-bus, perhaps because of its importance in the earlier office; the last responsories of each Nocturn were already defined, so this was the new position of the responsory. The popular image of the penitent sinful woman is a little more present in the new office. There is a new invitatory which stresses Mary Magdalene's conversion. There are four new responsories, taken from the Common of Holy Women, which in general also dictates the ordering of responsories. Even the remaining responsories from the Common of Virgins changed their positions following the Office of Holy Women. The only exceptions are the Easter responsories, with their firm positions at the ends of the Nocturns, and Fulcite me floribus. (See the later Office of St Mary Magdalene and the Office of St Anne in Table 2 of the Appendix.) One of the new responsories was not a part of the earlier Mary Magdalene's Office, even if it comes from the Common of Virgins: Lauda filia Sion, with the text taken from the Song of Songs, which can be found also in the Carthusian Office of Purification. Three other responsories, which do not appear in the Carthusian offices in earlier manuscripts, are Fallax est (Proverbs 31:30-31), Accinxit (Proverbs 31:17-18), and Reg-num mundi. The first two of these responsories praise the qualities of a good woman. The third one discusses the contempt of the world, contemptus mundi, for the sake of Jesus Christ's love - here the themes of penitence and Christ's bride are tightly intertwined, and both themes are very much connected to the image of St Mary Magdalene, as well as to the eremitic (dis)regard for the world. The responsories explicitly mentioning virgins were excluded from the new office (Offerentur regi). Some others from the Common of Virgins had never been a part of Mary Magdalene's Office (such is the case with Simile est regnum). Three other responsories with a bridal theme (Vidi speciosam, Surge propera, and Veni de Libano) were also excluded from the new office, but this does not seem to be specifically connected to Mary Magdalene. It was simply adjusting the new office to the Common of Holy Women. Even with this change, this does not seem to be a matter of utmost importance or a drastic change in the contents of the office. If one looks back in time towards the original office, and if one looks forward to the new office, the picture remains similar, only more details are intervowen into it. The main pillars of this office are the chants of the Paschal time. With some new chants, the new office perhaps got a little closer (but still not much) to the majority of the sources containing the feast of Mary Magdalene (when they use chants from the common offices for her). It was already mentioned that the chants from the Common of Virgins were used for her feast in some tenth- and twelfth-century sources of other traditions. In the Cantus Database, the invitatory Regem virginum, for example, could be found only in Paris 1085 or Vatican B.79 (I-Rvat SP B.79),58 as well 58 The manuscript Cittä del Vaticano (Roma), Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, San Pietro B.79, is an antiphoner containing the Old Roman repertory (cathedral cursus) from St Peter, twelfth century. Cantus Database, accessed October 7, 2016, http:// cantusdatabase.org/source/374084/i-rvat-sp-b79. as in the previously mentioned Carthusian source Notre Dame University lat. b. 4.59 The most stable layer of the Carthusian Mary Magdalene Office - the Easter responsories -could be found in the Cantus Database in other traditions for her feast as well, with the exception of Una sabbati.60 Some responsories - such as Fulcite me, Surge propera, or Vidi speciosam (the two latter were excluded from the new Carthusian version of the office) - are rarely to be found in use for this feast. The responsories Quam pulchra, Offerentur regi, and Veni de Libano (the two latter were also excluded from the new Carthusian version of the office of Mary Magdalene) were not to be found anywhere. The responsories Dilexisti, Specie tua, and Diffusa could be found more often. However, according to the present situation in the Cantus Database, the Office of Mary Magdalene never made use of the responsories Fallax est (there is only one result for this responsory in the Cantus Database with the version Fallax gratia est), Accinxit, and Lauda filia, while Regnum mundi with its "typical" penitent Magdalene topic of contemptus mundi was found quite often. The antiphon Maria stabat ad monumentum A much smaller place of correction in the Carthusian Office for Mary Magdalene -coincidentally discovered in (for now at least) two Carthusian antiphoners - is the Lauds antiphon Maria stabat ad monumentum. There Mary Magdalene is presented standing in front of the tomb, weeping; then she sees two angels dressed in white, sitting at the place where Christ's body was laid. As the sources show, this antiphon was primarily used on Thursday (Feria V) after Easter in the Carthusian as well as in other traditions. (Even if we cannot find them in Mary Magdalene's feast in other traditions, antiphons for Mary Magdalene in the Carthusian office are not unique to this tradition; they have been carefully borrowed from other liturgical occasions, mostly from the Paschal time.)61 The antiphon Maria stabat was probably a part of the Carthusian liturgy from the very beginning. It is supposed that in the earliest times of their liturgy, the Carthusians had only one antiphon adpsalmos for Lauds (the first one), because this antiphon was treated with some privileges in the Carthusian Divine Office.62 Wickstrom points out that the first antiphons of Lauds seem to take into account the principle of Scripture, but are less consistent with the principle of Order (which means ordering the chants after their scriptural order, grouping together the chants with the texts from individual parts of the Bible or individual biblical books, even chapters), perhaps because of the important role of the "common tradition" of their order.63 The following Lauds 59 For the description of the manuscript (Carthusian diurnal from Paris, after 1282), see David T. Gura, "Cod. lat. b. 4," in A Descriptive Catalogue of the Medieval and Renaissance Manuscripts of the University of Notre Dame and .Saint Mary's College (Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 2016). 60 For all results of this paragraph, see Cantus Database, accessed October 9, 2016; revisited February 28, 2017, http:// cantusdatabase.org/. 61 The unica antiphons are discussed by Cristina Bernardi, "Testimonianze liturgico - musicali delle certose venete: Antifonari dei secoli XV-XVII" (Università degli Studi di Padova, 2014), 59-61. 62 Wickstrom, "The Antiphons ad psalmos," 10. 63 Ibid. The concept of the four most important principles of the compilation of the Carthusian antiphoner was developed by Becker in his work Die Responsorien des Kartauserbreviers. antiphons are usually more consistent with the principle of the biblical order, but not in all the cases. There are three exceptions in the Sanctorale (regardless of whether they have their own proper chants or chants taken from elsewhere). Mary Magdalene, Holy Innocents, and All Saints are three Carthusian Sanctorale propers which lack the characteristics of the principle of Order in the Lauds antiphons, but otherwise the Carthusian proprium sanctorum follows the pattern of the scriptural ordering: "At least four of the five antiphons adpsalmos for Lauds are drawn from consecutive or neighbouring scriptural passages, and in most cases are to be found in the Gospel pericopes of the day."64 The feast of Mary Magdalene contains three antiphons from John's Gospel, followed by two from Mark's, a sequence which violates the principle of Order. But this arrangement, as Wickstrom describes it, is necessary for thematic unity: "To tell the story of the risen Christ's appearance to the repentant sinner requires this precise sequence of material."65 Wickstrom's finding is important since it shows that the Carthusians (or the Carthusian author(s) who had been in charge for the compilation of the antiphoner) did not follow their principles blindly, for the principles' sake, but were flexible when some deeper connection or a better reason was at stake; such was also the case with the hierarchy of saints in the Lauds antiphons for All Saints.66 Mary Magdalene is another example. Her story had to be told as a whole, in the sequence of events evolving in "real" time in which they happened. This was achieved better through the eyes of different Evangelists, rather than using only one Gospel, which could be silent on certain events connected with the most important Christian event, Christ's resurrection. Here, precisely the strong connection of the saint with the biblical events enabled the Carthusians to violate (or adjust) the biblical order. The order of events from the Lauds antiphons was repeated throughout the day in Daily Hours. It is therefore not only in Matins where we can see a careful thematic ordering of chants at work; this applies also to other offices. The first antiphon of Lauds has another function in this thematic continuity of the office: it is directly connected to the last "Magdalene-connected" chant of Matins, the responsory Una sabbati, which tells us about the entrance of the women into the tomb (but does not tell what they saw inside). The Lauds focus further on one of them, Mary Magdalene, exactly at the moment of her entrance into the tomb where she sees the angels in white and, in a metaphorical sense, the dark tomb of death and night turning into light of life and day. The Carthusian version of this seventh-mode antiphon text is as follows: "Maria sta-bat ad monumentum foris plorans et vidit duos angelos in albis sedentes ubi positum fuerat corpus Jesu alleluia." (Places of possible corrections in some manuscripts are marked bold.) In the case of the only Carthusian manuscript indexed in the Cantus Database, US-NDu lat. b.4, this antiphon is indexed with Cantus ID (CanID) 203019 and somehow imbedded under CanID 003705, but we do not have an image of the 64 Wickstrom, "The Antiphons ad psalmos," 15. 65 Ibid. Thematic unity was also the case in other instances when the Carthusians did not follow their own principles of compiling their antiphoner. 66 Ibid., 16. manuscript or a complete chant text.67 Two other studies, which mention this antiphon, number it with CanID 003705 (or CAO 3705).68 The differences between the texts may not be very large, but, as the Carthusian example will show, they are important. The exact text of CanID 003705 is: "Maria stabat ad monumentum plorans vidit angelos in albis sedentes et sudarium quod fuerat super caput Jesu alleluia." Minor variants of this text include "duos angelos," some others have one "angelum"; occasionally "et" also appears before "vidit." Another version of the text with the CanID 203019, which is used for the feast of Mary Magdalene, is as follows: "Maria stabat ad monumentum foris plorans dum ergo fleret inclinavit se et prospexit in monumentum et vidit duos angelos in albis sedentes unum ad caput et unum ad pedes ubi positum fuerat corpus domini Jesu." (Parts of the text which appear in the Carthusian version are marked bold.) Both texts are very similar, but there is one major difference between them: the face-cloth which had been on Jesus' head (John 20:7) is not mentioned here, since CanID 203019 follows only the lines 11 and 12 from the same Gospel chapter. CanID 003705, on the other hand, makes a logical leap from Mary's seeing the open tomb, the angels and the cloth in which the head was wrapped, so we know that the body is not there anymore and that something must have happened. However, Latin Vulgate (John 20:11-12), the origin of this antiphon's text, has the following words: "Maria autem stabat ad monumentum foris plorans dum ergo fleret inclinavit se et prospexit in monumentum et vidit duos angelos in albis sedentes unum ad caput et unum ad pedes ubi positum fuerat corpus Jesu."69 The Carthusian version does not jump from lines 11-12 to line 7, as CanID 003705 does; instead, it follows the Vulgate, although it omits some words and some parts of this short text. The ordering of the words is also exact. We are informed about the detail that there are two angels (there is only one angel in some other traditions, which is a deviation from the Vulgate text), but we do not get specifical information concerning where they are seated - the important thing is that they are sitting in the place where Jesus' body was laid. Comparison of the Gospel text with various traditions shows that the Carthusian version -despite omitting a large part of it - is more faithful to the Vulgate than either of the other versions. CanID 003705 mixes the texts from John 20:11-12 and 7, whereas CanID 203019 is much closer to the Vulgate; at the end, however, it adds the word "domini." In a manner characteristic to their own principles of compiling their antiphoner, the Carthusians chose the strictest Vulgate version, but in shortened form.70 From all the sources with available images listed in the Cantus Database, and from several other sources that I had at my disposal, the text identical to the Carthusian version appears in only one other source, in the Aquitanian antiphoner F-Pn lat. 1090 (end of the twelfth century, Marseilles), fol. 77v (Feria Vpost Pascha), which also has CanID 003705 given for this antiphon. This manuscript also has a very similar melody, 67 See also Cantus Database, accessed October 9, 2016; revisited February 28, 2017, http://cantusdatabase.org/ analyse?source=436173&feast=410865. 68 Hansjakob Becker, Das Tonale Guigos I.: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des liturgischen Gesanges und der Ars Musica im Mittelalter (München: Arbeo-Gesellschaft, 1975), 261; Bernardi, "Testimonianze liturgico - musicali," 322 and 375. 69 Vulgata, accessed October 3, 2016, http://biblehub.com/vul/genesisZ1.htm https://www.biblegateway.com/. 70 This is also one of the cases when the text incipit is not enough to distinguish different variants. different only at the end ("corpus Jesu alleluia"); otherwise the differences are minimal. (The Carthusian version has a punctum, where the other manuscript has a pes or clivis; see Music example 1 in the Appendix.) Unfortunately, two other promising Aquitanian sources such as the antiphoner F-Pn lat. 1085 (the first one with the chants of the Office of St Mary Magdalene, as was mentioned above), and a compilation from St Martial, F-Pn lat. 1250, only have an incipit of this chant (Feria V postPascha). All other non-Carthusian manuscripts that were checked for this antiphon, which they also have for Feria Vpost Pascha (E-Tc 44.2, fol. 95v, not very clearly readable; F-Pn lat. 12044, fol. 104r; CH-SGs 338, fol. 210; CH-SGs 391, 43; CH-E 611, fol. 94r; CH-Fco 2, fol. 111r; F-Pn lat. 15181, fol. 306r; F-Pn n. a. lat. 1411, fol. 101v; the antiphoner from Grandmont71) have CanID 003705, although there is a small variant ("angelum sedentem" instead of "angelos sedentes") in the Saint-Gall sources.72 The antiphon Maria stabat appears with some corrections of text and melody of the original layer in the same places in at least two Carthusian antiphoners. Even if one isolated variant or correction could always mean a scribal error, two such corrections in the same place in different manuscripts make too much of a coincidence. In Graz 273, the corrections appear both in Feria V post Pascha (fol. 122v) and in the feast of Mary Magdalene (fol. 244v; see Plate 1), while in Grenoble 418 the correction is clearly visible only in the feast of Mary Magdalene (fol. 3B65r). Later, both manuscripts were corrected according to the official Carthusian variant. The original text, although carefully erased in all cases, is discernible up to some point, but the original music is not clear anymore. Perhaps more than two Carthusian antiphoners contained corrections in Maria stabat (see Table 4 of the Appendix); but even if there were some doubtful places, it was not always possible to distinguish the original version since in some cases only the incipit is given for this antiphon. (Such is, for example, the case in Toledo 44.3.) Plate 1: Antiphon Maria stabat in Graz273, Office of St Mary Magdalene, fol. 244v (with permission). 71 The text of the antiphon can be found in Zerfass, Das Antiphonar von Grandmont, 222. 72 For the details about these manuscripts - with the exception of the antiphoner from Grandmont - see Cantus Database. The corrections in Graz 273 and in Grenoble 418 appear in the same places, on the words "ubi positum fuerat corpus Je[...]." Especially in Graz 273, it is possible to discern some words written under the corrected version, and because of some still-visible letters it is possible to say that these were "et sudarium quod" and "caput." Regarding the space for the words this could also be the case in Grenoble 418. Graz 273 gives us a further hint with the "wrong" beginning of the antiphon. This manuscript's version begins "Maria stabat ad monumentum plorans foris plorans." The first "plorans," however, is not notated, but it was not deleted or scratched out later. Maybe the version in the scribe's memory or in front of his eyes was the version which was more generally known or widely spread in the surrounding tradition: the CanID version 003705. The same antiphon appears in the office of the Easter week. Here the beginning in Graz 273 is a "correct" Carthusian version: "Maria stabat ad monumentum foris plorans"; the continuation, however, is corrected. Since at least in Graz 273 the Office of Mary Magdalene was probably added at the last minute (it is written at the end of the manuscript), we could assume that the Office of Mary Magdalene was taken from some other source (or this chant at least), but this would not explain the correction in the Easter-week antiphon. With this finding, many questions arise. Were there other Carthusian antiphoners that contained the CanID 003705 version of Maria stabat? And, if not, were the two manuscripts mentioned somehow connected, or did their scribes perhaps use the same exemplar?73 Why does the corrected antiphon appear twice in Graz 273 and only once in Grenoble 418 (it does not seem that there was another, first correction). Were their scribes in touch with other, non-Carthusian traditions? Could this correction say something about the time and location of where the manuscripts were written? Whatever was the story behind these corrections, in the end it was the Bible and the famous Carthusian liturgical unity that united all manuscripts in one version. The use of the variants from other traditions that were not so strictly biblical was forbidden without the approval of the General Chapter: "Moreover, let no one presume to emend the books of the Old and New Testament and those with which the divine offices are celebrated, without the agreement of the same [general] chapter, except with exemplars emended in our Order, unless in the judgment of the prior and prudent monks some clear error should be apparent."74 Next to these corrections in two manuscripts, it seems that some other Carthusian antiphoners received musical corrections on "fuerat," either on the first (Graz 273), or on the last note of the melisma (which makes a five-note group instead of four-note group). This might not seem an important case, but it is interesting that, for example, the melody in F-Pn lat. 1090 on this word is identical to the Carthusian melody without the "added" note b. 73 There are some other musical details connecting the two manuscripts, such as the original eighth psalm-tone intonation with the notes f-a-c (later corrected into g-a-c); but this intonation was rather common in the Carthusian antiphoners up to the fourteenth century. See Katarina Ster, "Variantna intonacija osmega psalmovega tona v kartuzijanski liturgicni tradiciji," De musica disserenda 7/2 (2011). 74 James Hogg's edition of the Consuetudines, from Belinda Egan, "The Carthusians and Textual Uniformity," in Los cartujos en Andalucia, 1, ed. James Hogg, Alain Girard, and Daniel le Blevec (Salzburg: Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik der Universität Salzburg, 1999), 189. This small and intriguing Maria stabat case must at this point remain a work in progress, but it definitely calls for further research. In addition to the variants in Maria stabat, there are some other textual variants between the antiphoners in the case of the Office of St Mary Magdalene. Such is the case of the antiphon Vespere autem sabbati, where Graz 273 and Graz 18 had a correction from "altera" Maria into "alia" Maria, which is the case in the majority of other Carthusian manuscripts (Lyon 509, Vienna 1791, Grenoble 19, and Graz 21). For a change, here we find a situation in which the Carthusian version differs from the Bible: in the text of Matthew 28:1 we find the word "altera."75 The comparisons of melodies from the Mary Magdalene Office would show further differences among the Carthusian antiophoners, similar to the differences found in other offices (small variants, sensitive places of melodies around the notes b and c, and minor corrections),76 but this surpasses the limits of this study and will have to be discussed elsewhere. However, the Carthusians have always prioritized textual uniformity more than musical uniformity - which is not surprising at all, considering how thoughtfully, efficiently and logically their texts were chosen or written and then compiled together. Conclusion Examining the changes in the Office of Mary Magdalene in the Carthusian liturgy turned out to be a different task than I have imagined previously. Instead of turning one's attention to the changeable things, it has brought in the foreground the things that do not change: the event of the resurrection and the important role that Mary Magdalene played in announcing it. In the Carthusian liturgy, there was but a slight thematic shift with the introduction of the chants from the Common of Holy Women, but - according to the sources examined - even these had no influence on the important chants such as the stable Easter responsories or the responsory Fulcite me floribus with its important position. Carthusian silence on certain topics in this office is also very interesting. They never introduced the figure of Martha, even if in the regional tradition she was venerated as the sister of Mary. Mary of Bethany was, like the contemplative hermits, a woman who chose "the better part," and who could be a model saint also for the Carthusians. But since the Carthusians wanted to keep their Sanctorale small, thematically homogeneous, and connected to the Temporale, the figure of Mary of Bethany never appeared. In the Office of St Mary Magdalene, several aspects of the saint are united in the Paschal-bridal connection. The events within one office unit unfold within time and space, and different office hours follow each other with some logical development, even if it is the custom in the Carthusian liturgy to repeat certain chants. The Prologue to the Carthusian antiphoner by Guigues, the fifth prior of the Grande Chartreuse, says: "The gravity of the eremitic institution does not allow that 75 Vulgata, accessed October 3, 2016, https://www.biblegatewaycom/passage/?search=Matthew+28%3A1&version=VULGATE. 76 Katarina Šter, "Dva kartuzijanska antifonarja iz 13. stoletja in vprašanje enotnosti kartuzijanskega liturgičnoglasbenega izročila," De musica disserenda 7/1 (2011), especially 30-33. long spaces of time be taken up by the study of the chant. For according to Jerome, any monk is rather to some degree a hermit; he has the duty not of a doctor, much less of a singer, but rather of a mourner, who laments either himself or the world, and tremblingly awaits the coming of the Lord."77 According to this, for Carthusians there was more to lament than to sing on this Earth. This was also the role of the penitent and eremitic Provençal Mary Magdalene, whom they probably knew well. But, on the other hand, this was exactly the same (and the most important) role that Mary Magdalene "lived" in their liturgy, from her preparation of Christ's body to be buried, to her coming to the grave, lamenting, searching, and finding, as the first and the chosen one, the risen Christ. Selected Carthusian Sources Only the selected Carthusian antiphoners are presented in the list below. All other sources included in the comparison in this paper can be found in the Cantus Database (with their textual incipits or complete texts, and in most cases also with links to the digital facsimile), and are therefore only shortly described in the footnotes appearing at the first mention of each manuscript. Bologna 202 [I-Bca A.202]: Bologna, Biblioteca comunale dell'Archiginnasio, Ms. A.202. Carthusian antiphoner, 15th century (exlibris unreadable). Graz 7 [A-Gu 7]: Graz, Universitätsbibliothek, Ms. 7. Carthusian antiphoner, ca. 1466 (Charterhouse Seitz/Zice). Accesed on the website of the University Library of Graz - Universitätsbibliothek Graz, Sondersammlungen. Graz 18 [A-Gu 18]: Graz, Universitätsbibliothek, Ms. 18. Carthusian antiphoner, ca. 1400 (Charterhouse Seitz/Zice). Accesed on the website of the University Library of Graz - Universitätsbibliothek Graz, Sondersammlungen. Graz 21 [A-Gu 21]: Graz, Universitätsbibliothek, Ms. 21. Carthusian antiphoner, beginning of the 15th century (Charterhouse Seitz/Zice). Accesed on the website of the University Library of Graz - Universitätsbibliothek Graz, Sondersammlungen. Graz 145 [A-Gu 145]: Graz, Universitätsbibliothek, Ms. 145. Carthusian antiphoner, ca. 1400 (Charterhouse Jurkloster or Seitz/Zice). Accesed on the website of the University Library of Graz - Universitätsbibliothek Graz, Sondersammlungen. Graz 273 [A-Gu 273]: Graz, Universitätsbibliothek, Ms. 273. Carthusian antiphoner, between 1271 and 1318 (Charterhouse Seitz/Zice?). Accesed on the website of the University Library of Graz - Universitätsbibliothek Graz, Sondersammlungen. Grenoble 19 [F-G 19 Rés.]: Grenoble, Bibliotheque municipal, Ms. 19 Rés. Carthusian antiphoner, ca. 1400 (Grande Chartreuse). Accessed in Pagella. 77 "Institutionis Heremitice gravitas not sinit longua in cantandi studiis temporum insumi spacia. Nam secundum Jeronimum monachus quilibet quanto magis hermita, non doctoris, quanto minus cantoris, sed plangentis habet officium, qui vel se vel mundum lugeat, et domini pavidus praestoletur adventum." The text (in a modernized Latin) is quoted after Becker, Responsorien des Kartduserbreviers, 183. The English translation above is given from Egan, "The Carthusians and textual Uniformity," 186. Grenoble 338 [F-G 338 Rés.]: Grenoble, Bibliothèque municipal, Ms. 338 Rés. Un-notated collection of Carthusian liturgical manuscripts, including a complete antiphoner, 12th century (Grande Chartreuse?).78 Grenoble 418 [F-G 418 Rés.]: Grenoble, Bibliotheque municipal, Ms. 418 Rés. Carthusian antiphoner, 14th century (Grande Chartreuse). Grenoble 467 [F-G 467 Rés.]: Grenoble, Bibliotheque municipal, Ms. 467 Rés. Carthusian tonary and an un-notated antiphoner, 12th century (Grande Chartreuse).79 . Grenoble 867 [F-G 867 Rés.]: Grenoble, Bibliotheque municipal, Ms. 867 Rés. Carthusian antiphoner, between 1222-1276 (Grande Chartreuse?).80 Lyon 509 [F-LYm 509]: Lyon, Bibliotheque municipal, Ms. 509. Carthusian antiphoner, after 1272 (Charterhouse Sainte-Croix-en-Jarez). Ljubljana fragm. II-1 [SI-Las fragm. II-1]: Ljubljana, Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica [National and University Library], fragm. II-1. Fragment from a Carthusian antiphoner, 15th century (Charterhouse Seitz/Žiče?). Notre Dame University b. 4 [US-Ndu lat. b. 4]: Notre Dame University, lat. b. 4. Carthusian diurnal, after 1282 (Charterhouse Vauvert-les-Paris).81 Paris 131 [F-Pn mus. Rés. Vmf. ms. 131]: Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France - Département des manuscrits, mus. Rés. Vmf. 131. Carthusian antiphoner, 1641 (unknown provenance). Accessed in Gallica. Paris D-16002 [F-Pn mus. D-16002]: Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France - Département des manuscrits, mus. D-16002. Carthusian antiphoner, between 1700-1770 (Grande Chartreuse). Accessed in Gallica. Paris 1520 [F-Pn mus. Rés. 1520]: Paris, Bibliotheque nationale de France - Département des manuscrits, mus. Rés. 1520. Carthusian antiphoner, 1654 (provenance unknown). Accesed in Gallica. St Pierre de Chartreuse 808 [F-SpCc 808 GC]: St Pierre de Chartreuse, Couvent de la Grande Chartreuse, Ms. 808. Carthusian antiphoner, 14th century (Grande Chartreuse). Toledo 44.3 [E-Tc 44.3]: Toledo, Archivo y Biblioteca Capitulares de la Catedral, Ms. 44.3. Carthusian antiphoner, before 1271 (Grande Chartreuse?). Vienna 1791 [A-Wn 1791]: Wien, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Ms. 1791. Carthusian antiphoner, ca. 1375 (Charterhouse Brno). 78 A facsimile of the antiphoner can be found in Becker, Ansgar, and Zerfass, Bruno von Köln, 107-153. 79 A facsimile of the antiphoner (without later additions) can be found in Becker, Ansgar, and Zerfass, Bruno von Köln, 155-208. 80 A facsimile of the manuscript can be found in Becker, Ansgar, and Zerfass, Bruno von Köln, 209-407. 81 A catalogue description can be found in Gura, "Cod. Lat. b. 4." The manuscript has already been included in the Cantus Database, accessed October 9, 2016; revisited February 28, 2017, http://cantusdatabase.org/; however, it does not yet appear among the fully described sources in the "Sources" search field. Bibliography Aleteia. "Mary Magdalene, 'Apostle to the Apostles,' Given Equal Dignity in Feast." Ac-cesed September 30, 2016. http://aleteia.org/2016/06/10/mary-magdalene-apostle-to-the-apostles-given-equal-dignity-in-feast/. Becker, Hansjakob, with Franz Ansgar and Alexander Zerfass. Bruno von Köln und die Liturgie der Kartause: Rekonstruktion des Antiphonale Sancti Brunonis und Reproduktion der ältesten kartusiensischen Offiziumshandschriften. Analecta Car-tusiana, 292. Salzburg: Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik der Universität Salzburg, 2015. Becker, Hansjakob. Die Responsorien des Kartäuserbreviers: Untersuchungen zu Urform und Herkunft des Antiphonars der Kartause. Münchner theologische Studien, 39. München: Max Hueber Verlag, 1971. Becker, Hansjakob. Das Tonale Guigos I.: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des liturgischen Gesanges und der Ars Musica im Mittelalter. Münchener Beiträge zur Mediävistik und Renaissance-Forschung, 23. München: Arbeo-Gesellschaft, 1975. Bernardi, Cristina. "Testimonianze liturgico - musicali delle certose venete: Antifonari dei secoli XV-XVII." PhD diss., Università degli Studi di Padova, 2014. Cantus Database. "Cantus: A Database for Latin Ecclesiastical Chant," and "Cantus Manuscript Database: Inventories of Chant Sources" (new version of the website in testing). Accessed September 2016-0ctober 2016, revisited February 2017. http:// cantusdatabase.org/, and http://cantus.uwaterloo.ca/. Collamore, Lila Diane. "Aquitanian Collections of Office Chants: A Comparative Survey." PhD diss., The Catholic University of America, 2000. Cluzet, Emmanuel. Particularités du Sanctoral cartusien. Analecta cartusiana, 99/3. Salzburg: Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik der Universität Salzburg, 1984. Degand, Amand. "Chartreux (Liturgie des)." In Dictionnaire d'archéologie chrétienne et de liturgie, 3/1, edited by Fernand Cabrol and Henri Leclercq, cols. 1045-1071. Paris: Letouzey et Ané, 1948. Egan, Belinda. "The Carthusians and Textual Uniformity." In Los cartujos en Andalucía, 1, edited by James Hogg, Alain Girard, and Daniel le Blévec, 185-199. Analecta cartusiana, 150. Salzburg: Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik der Universität Salzburg, 1999. Foskolou, Vassiliki A. "Mary Magdalene between East and West: Cult and Image, Relics and Politics in the Late Thirteenth-Century Eastern Mediterranean." Dumbarton Oaks Papers 65/66 (2011-2012): 271-296. Fassler, Margot E., and Rebecca A. Baltzer. Preface to The Divine Office in the Latin Middle Ages: Methodology and Source Studies, Regional Developments, Hagiography, edited by Margot E. Fassler and Rebecca A. Baltzer, vii-x. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Gallica. "Gallica, la Bibliotheque numérique de la BnF et de ses partenaires." Accesed September 2016-0ctober 2016, revisited March 2017. http://gallica.bnf.fr/. Grier, James. "The Divine Office at Saint-Martial in the Early Eleventh Century." In The Divine Office in the Latin Middle Ages: Methodology and Source Studies, Regional Developments, Hagiography, edited by Margot E. Fassler and Rebecca A. Baltzer, 179-204. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Gura, David T. "Cod. lat. b. 4." In A Descriptive Catalogue of the Medieval and Renaissance Manuscripts of the University of Notre Dame and Saint Mary's College, 161174. Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 2016. Hiley, David. "Early Cycles of Office Chants for the Feast of Mary Magdalene." In Music and Medieval Manuscripts: Paleography and Performance: Essays Dedicated to Andrew Hughes, edited by John Haines and Randall Rosenfeld, 369-399. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2004. Holy See Press Office / Sala stampa della Santa Sede. "The Liturgical Memory of Mary Magdalene Becomes a Feast, Like That of the Other Apostles, 10.06.2016." Accessed June 30, 2016. https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/en/bollettino/ pubblico/2016/06/10/160610b.html. Hourlier, Jacques, and Benoît du Moustier [Lambres]. "Le Calendrier cartusien." Études grégoriennes 2 (1957): 151-161. J'aime le Var [given as the author]. "Chartreuse Notre-Dame de Montrieux (Méounes)." Accessed October 6, 2016, revisited March 13, 2017. https://www.facebook.com/ media/set/?set=a.428804883995553.1073741835.227613770781333&type=3. King, Arthur Archdale. Liturgies of the Religious Orders. London and New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1955. Op de Coul, Thomas. "How Were New Saints' Feasts Added to Liturgical Manuscripts? Uniformity in Three Dated Carthusian Graduals from the Low Countries." Études grégoriennes 41 (2014), 65-86. L'Ordre des Chartreux. "Chartreuse de Montrieux." Accessed October 6, 2016. http:// www.chartreux.org/fr/maisons/montrieux/index.php. Pagella. "Pagella: Patrimoine Grenoblois en ligne." Bibliotheques municipales de Grenoble. http://pagella.bm-grenoble.fr/. Saxer, Victor. Le culte de Marie Madeleine en Occident des origines a la fin du moyen âge, 2 vols. Cahiers d'archéologie et d'histoire, 3. Auxerre: Société des Fouilles Archéologiques et des Monuments Historiques de l'Yonne; Paris: Librairie Clavreuil, 1959. Scarcez, Alicia. "The Proto-Cistercian Office for Mary Magdalene and Its Changes in the Course of the Twelfth Century." In Mary Magdalene in Medieval Culture: Conflicted Roles, edited by Peter V. Loewen and Robin Waugh, 51-74. New York and London: Routledge, 2014. Šter, Katarina. "Dva kartuzijanska antifonarja iz 13. stoletja in vprašanje enotnosti kar-tuzijanskega liturgičnoglasbenega izročila." ["Two Carthusian Antiphoners from the Thirteenth Century and the Question of the Uniformity of the Carthusian Liturgical Music Tradition."] De musica disserenda 7/1 (2011): 7-34. Šter, Katarina. "Variantna intonacija osmega psalmovega tona v kartuzijanski liturgični tradiciji." ["Variant Eighth-Psalm Tone Intonation in the Carthusian Liturgical Tradition."] De musica disserenda 7/2 (2011): 75-93. Universitätsbibliothek Graz - Sondersammlungen. "Digitalisierte Bestände." Accessed September 2016-October 2016, revisited March 2017. https://ub.uni-graz.at/de/ kontakt/oeffnungszeiten-standorte/sondersammlungen/digitalisierte-bestaende/. Vulgata. "Biblia Sacra Vulgata." Accesed September 20l6-0ctober 2016, revisited March 2017. http://biblehub.cOm/vul/genesis/1.htm; https://www.biblegateway.com/. Wickstrom, John B. "The Antiphons adpsalmos of Carthusian Lauds." In Kartäuserliturgie und Kartäuserschriftum, 1, edited by James Hogg, 7-33. Analecta cartusiana, 116/1. Salzburg: Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik der Universität Salzburg, 1988. Wikipedia. "Chartreuse Montrieux." Accessed October 6, 2016. https://fr.wikipedia. org/wiki/Chartreuse_de_Montrieux. Zerfass, Alexander. Das Antiphonar von Grandmont: Ein Beispiel eremitischer Reformliturgien im 11./12. Jahrhundert. Spicilegii Friburgensis subsidia, 23. Freiburg, Switzerland: Academic Press Fribourg, 2011. Appendix Table 1 (Appendix): Texts of the early Carthusian Mary Magdalene solemn Office (after 1282) The texts for the Office of St Mary Magdalene are taken from the chants in Graz 273 (fols 241v-246v); if there was a correction, only the corrected version is taken into account. Latin has been standardized and proper names have been capitalized. Punctuation is used only to indicate individual chant parts. If there is an asterisk (*), only an incipit of the chant is given in this place in the manuscript. However, due to the complete presentation of the Mary Magdalene Office texts in the Carthusian tradition, all the chants appear with the complete texts once. The missing parts of the texts have been taken from other parts of the manuscript (Common of Virgins, fols 234v-241v), or - in a few rare instances - from other Carthusian manuscripts (there is a case of a few words cut out from Graz 273 in the antiphon In diebus illis; these have been taken from Lyon 509). Other major liturgical occasions, where the same chants appear (for other feasts or within the same office) are also given; sometimes the indication about the ferial use (throughout the week) is missing in the manuscript and is therefore also not indicated in the table. - The numbering of differentiae is taken from Becker's monograph Das Tonale Guigos I.82 V1: first Vespers; M: Matins; L: Lauds; V2: second Vespers; P: Prime; T: Terce; S: Sext; N: None A: antiphon; EA: antiphon of Benedictus or Magnificat; I: invitatory antiphon; R: re- sponsory; V: responsory verse; RB: short responsory; W: versicle Liturgical occasions are named according to the Cantus Database.83 82 Becker, Das Tonale Guigos I. 83 Cantus Database, accessed September 15, 2016, http://cantusdatabase.org/. Chant The last version of the text in Graz 273 Text source Other liturgical uses in Graz 273 Mode Diff. Cantus ID First Vespers VI A Maria ergo* [unxit pedes Jesu et extersit capillis suis et domus impleta est ex odore unguenti.] Jo 12,3 Feria 2 Majoris Hebdomadae ( L EA) Marine Magdalenae ( M A 2; V2 A 1 ) 6,1 003699 VI R Fulcite me floribus* [stipate me malls. Quia am cire langueo.] Cant 2,5 Purificatio Mariae ( M R 12 ) Assumptio Mariae ( M R 2 ) Nativitas Mariae ( M R 2) Commune Virginum ( M R 2 ) Mariae Magdalenae ( M R 2 ) 1 600923 VI EA In diebus illis* - Can. Magnificat Lc 7,37-38 [Ad mandatum A 8; not in Graz 273J] Mariae Magdalenae ( M A 1; V2 EA ) 7,1 003224 Matins Matins - First Nocturn M I Regem virginum* [dominum venite adoremus.] - Ps. Venite [after Ps 94] Commune Virginum (M I) 5 001151 M A 1.1 In diebus illis* - Ps. Domine Deus noster Lc 7,37-38 Ad Mandatum ( A 8; not in Graz 275) Mariae Magdalenae ( VI EA V2 EA ) 7,1 003224 M A 1.2 Maria ergo unxit pedes Jesu et extersit capillis suis et domus impleta est ex odore unguenti. -Ps. Caeli enarrant Jo 12,3 Feria 2 Majoris Hebdomadae (L EA) Mariae Magdalenae ( VI A 1; V2 A 1) 6,1 003699 M A 1.3 Quid molesti estis huic mulieri opus enim bonum operata est in me. - Ps. Domini est terra Mt 26,10 Dominica in Palmis (M A Can) Mariae Magdalenae (V2 A 2 ) 1,3 004527 M A 1.4 Mittens haec mulier in corpus meum hoc un-guentum ad sepeliendum me fecit. - Ps. Eructavit Mt 26,12 Feria 6 de Passione ( V EA ) Mariae Magdalenae (V2 A 3J 1,1 003799 M A 1.5 Vespere autem sabbati quae lucescit in prima sabbati venit Maria Magdalene et alia Maria vide-re sepulchrum alleluia. - Ps. Deus noster Mt 28,1 Vigilia Resurrectionis ( V EA ) Mariae Magdalenae (V2 A 4) 8,1* 005371 c/> M 2 > 2 > O O > Ir-1 M M M O On 00 Chant The last version of the text in Graz 273 Text source Other liturgical uses in Graz 273 Mode Diff. Cantus ID MA 1.6 Et valde mane una sabbatorum veniunt ad mo numentum orto jam sole alleluia. - Ps. Magnus dominus Mc 16,2 Dominica Resurrectionis (L EA) 7,4 002728 M W 1 Diffusa est gratia in labiis tuis. - Propterea bene-dixit te Deus in aeternum. Ps 44,3 Purificatio Mariae (M W 1) Annuntiatio Mariae (M W 1) Assumptio Mariae (M W 1) Commune Virginum (M W 1) r 008014 M R 1.1 Vidi speciosam* [sicut columbam ascendentem desuper rivos aquarum cujus inaestimabilis odor erat nimis in vestimentis ejus. Et sicut dies verni circumdabant earn flores rosarum et lilia conval-lium.] Cant 2,13-14, 6; 5,12; 4,11; 2,1; Eccli 50,8 Assumptio Mariae (M R 1) Commune Virginum (M R 1) 3 007878 M V 1.1 Viderunt* [illam filiae Sion beatissimam praedica-verunt et reginae laudaverunt earn.] Cant 6,8 Assumptio Mariae (M V 1) Commune Virginum (M V 1) 3 007878b M R 1.2 Fulcite me floribus*[stipate me malls. Quia amore langueo.] Cant 2,5 Purificatio Mariae ( M R 12 ) Assumptio Mariae (M R 2 ) Nativitas Mariae ( M R 2) Commune Virginum (M R 2 ) Mariae Magdalenae ( VI R) 1 600923 M V 1.2 Adjuro [vos filiae Jerusalem si inveneritis dilec-tum ut annuntietis ei.] Cant 5,8 Purificatio Mariae (M V 12 ) Assumptio Mariae (M V 2 ) Nativitas Mariae ( M V 2) Commune Virginum (M V 2 ) Mariae Magdalenae ( VI V) 1 600923a M R 1.3 Surge propera* [arnica mea et veni jam enim hiems transiit imber abiit et recessit. Flores appa-ruerunt in terra.] Cant 2,10-12 Assumptio Mariae (M R 3J Commune Virginum (M R 2 ) 8 602630 M V 1.3 Vox* [turturis audita est in terra nostra ficus pro-tulit grossos suos.] Cant 2,12-13 Assumptio Mariae (M V 3J Commune Virginum (M V 2 ) 8 602630a 2 d N W o tr-1 O C/> N td O g 2 d on n O tr-1 O O n > tr-1 > 52 d > tr-1 tr-1 Chant The last version of the text in Graz 273 Text source Other liturgical uses in Graz 273 Mode Diff. Cantus ID M R 1.4 Dum transisset* [sabbatum Maria Magdalene et Maria Jacobi et Salome emerunt aromata. Ut venientes unguerent Jesum alleluia alleluia.] Mc 16,1 Vigilia Resurrectionis ( V R ) Dominica Resurrectionis (M R 2 ) 4 006565 M V 1.4 Et valde* [mane una sabbatorum veniunt ad mo numentum orto jam sole.] Mc 16,2 Vigilia Resurrectionis ( V V) Dominica Resurrectionis (M V 2 ) 4 006565a Matins - Second Nocturn M A 2.1 Et dicebant ad invicem quis revolvet nobis lapi-dem ab ostio monumenti alleluia alleluia. - Ps. Benedixisti Mc 16,3 Feria 4 tempore paschali (L EA) 8,1* 002697 M A 2.2 Et respicientes viderunt revolutum lapidem erat quippe magnus valde alleluia. - Ps. Fundamenta Mc 16,4 Feria 5 tempore paschali (L EA ) 3,5 002718 M A 2.3 Respondens autem angelus dixit mulieribus noli-te timere scio enim quod Jesum quaeritis alleluia. - Ps. Cantate I Mt 28,5 Dominica Resurrectionis (L A 4) 8,1 004630 M A 2.4 Jesum qui crucilixus est quaeritis alleluia non est hie surrexit enim sicut dixi [!] vobis alleluia alleluia. - Ps. Dominus regnavit exsultet Mt 28,5-6 Dominica Resurrectionis (L A 5 J 8,1 003484 M A 2.5 Jesum quaeritis non est hie sed surrexit recor-damini qualiter locutus est vobis cum adhuc in Galilaea esset alleluia. - Ps. Cantate II Lc 24,5-6 Feria 6 tempore paschali (L EA ) 8,1(*) (003483;) M A 2.6 Cito euntes dicite discipulis quia surrexit dominus alleluia. - Ps. Dominus regnavit irascatur Mt 28,7 Dom. Resurrectionis (M A Can) Feria 7 tempore paschali (L EA9 001813 M W 2 Specie tua et pulchritudine tua. - Intende prospe-re procede et regna. Ps 44,5 Purificatio Mariae (M W 2 ) Annuntiatio Mariae (M W 2 ) Assumptio Mariae (M W 2 ) Commune Virginum (M W 2 ) r 008201 c/> M 2 > 2 > O O > Ir-1 M M M O On 00 0\ Chant The last version of the text in Graz 273 Text source Other liturgical uses in Graz 273 Mode Diff. Cantus ID MR 2.1 Quam pulchra es* [arnica mea quam pulchra es et decora oculi tui columbarum. Absque eo quod intrinsecus latet.] Cant 4,1 Assumptio Mariae ( M R 6 ) Commune Virginum ( M R 4 ) 4 007461 M V 2.1 Sicut vitta* [coccínea labia tua et eloquium tuum dulce.] Cant 4,3 Assumptio Mariae ( M V 6 ) Commune Virginum ( M V 4 ) 4 0074612a MR 2.2 Veni de Líbano* [sponsa mea veni de Libano veni. Coronaberis de capite Amana et de vertice Sanir et Hermon de cubilibus leonum de monti-bus pardorum.] Cant 4,8 Assumptio Mariae ( M R 7 ) Commune Virginum ( M R 5.) 4 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Cp Cp Cp up Cp M V 2.2 [H]ortus* [conclusus soror mea sponsa [h]ortus conclusus fons signatus.] Cant 4,12 Assumptio Mariae ( M V 7 ) Commune Virginum ( M V 5.) 4 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Cp Cp Cp up Cp MR 2.3 Diffusa est gratia* [in labiis tuis. Propterea bene-dixit te Deus in aeternum.] Ps 44,3 Assumptio Mariae ( M R 4 ) Commune Virginum ( M R 6 ) 4 006446 M V 2.3 Dilexisti [justitiam et odisti iniquitatem.] Ps 44,8 Assumptio Mariae ( M V 4 ) Commune Virginum ( M V 6 ) 4 006446b MR 2.4 Et valde* [mane una sabbatorum veniunt ad mo numentum. Orto jam sole alleluia.] Mc 16,2 Dom. Resurrectionis ( M R 3J 1 006676 M V 2.4 [Mulieres emerunt aromata ut venientes ungue-rent Jesum.] Mc 16,1 Dom. Resurrectionis ( M V 3J 1 006676d? Matins - Third Noctam M A3 Dum esset rex in accubitu suo nardus mea dedit odorem suum. - Can. Audite nie - Can. Gaudens - Can. Non vocaberis ultra Cant 1,11 Commune Virginum ( M A 3; V2 A 3J 3,4 002450 M W 3 Adducentur regi virgines post eam. - Proximae ejus afferenter tibi. Ps 44,15 Purificatio Mariae ( M W 3J Annuntiatio Mariae ( M W 3J Assumptio Mariae ( M W 3J Commune Virginum ( M W 3J r 800008 2 d N « O tr-1 O C/> « N td O g « 2 d on n O tr-1 O O n > tr-1 > ÏZ d > tr-1 tr-1 Chant The last version of the text in Graz 273 Text source Other liturgical uses in Graz 273 Mode Diff. Cantus ID MR 3.1 Specie tua* [et pulchritudine tua. Intende prospe-re procede et regna.] Ps 44,5 Assumptio Mariae (M R 8) Commune Virginum (M R 7) 8 007680 M V 3.1 Diffusa [est gratia in labiis tuis propterea bene-dixit te Deus in aeternum.] Ps 44,3 Assumptio Mariae (M V 8) Commune Virginum (M V 7) 8 007680a MR 3.2 Dilexisti justitiam* [et odisti iniquitatem propterea. Unxit te Deus Deus tuus oleo laetitiae.] Ps 44,8 Assumptio Mariae ( M R 11) Commune Virginum (M R 8) 3 006450 M V 3.2 [Propter veritatem et mansuetudinem et justitiam.] Ps 44,5 Assumptio Mariae ( M V 11) Commune Virginum (M V 8) 3 006450a M R 3.3 Offerentur regi virgines* [domino post earn proxi-mae ejus offerentur tibi. In laetitia et exultatione.] Ps 44,15-16 Assumptio Mariae (M R 12 ) Omnium Sanctorum ( M R 11) Commune Virginum (M R 9) 1 007312 M V 3.3 Specie* [tua et pulchritudine tua intende prospe-re procede et regna.] Ps 44,5 Assumptio Mariae (M V 12 ) Omnium Sanctorum ( M V 11) Commune Virginum (M V 9) 1 007312ze MR 3.4 Una sabbati* [valde diluculo venerunt mulieres ad monumentum alleluia. Portantes quae parave-rant aromata alleluia alleluia.] Lc 24,1 Dom. Resurrectionis (M R 4) 8 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ cp Cp Cp >ip Cp M V 3.4 [Et invenerunt lapidem revolutum a monumento et ingressae non invenerunt corpus Jesu.] Lc 24,2-3 Dom. Resurrectionis (M V 4) 8 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ LAI Maria stabat ad monumentum foris plorans et vidit duos angelos in albis sedentes ubi positum fuerat corpus Jesu alleluia. - Ps. Dominus regna-vit Jo 20,11-12 Feria 5 p. Pascha (L EA) Mariae Magdalenae (P A) 7,1 003705 L A 2 Tulerunt dominum meum et nescio ubi posue-runt eum si tu sustulisti eum dicito mihi alleluia et ego eum tollam alleluia. - Ps. Jubílate Deo Jo 20,13 and 15 Feria 5 p. Pascha ( V EA) Mariae Magdalenae (T A) 7,3 005232 c/> M 2 > 2 > O O > Ir-1 M M M O "-ä O Chant The last version of the text in Graz 273 Text source Other liturgical uses in Graz 273 Mode Diff. Cantus ID L A 3 Scio quod Jesum quaeritis crucifixum surrexit alleluia. - Ps. Deus Deus meus Mt 28,5-6 Feria 2 post Pascha (L A 1) Dominica 4 post Pascha ( L A 1) Dominica post Ascensionem ( H A ) 7,5 004833 L A 4 Surgens Jesus mane prima sabbati apparuit pri-mo Mariae Magdalene de qua ejecerat septem demonia alleluia. - Ps. Benedicite Mc 16,9 Feria 2 p. Oct. Pasch. (L EA) Mariae Magdalenae (S A) 8,1(*) 005075 L A 5 Ite nuntiate fratribus meis alleluia ut eant in Ga-lilaeam ibi me videbunt alleluia alleluia alleluia. - Ps. Laudate Mt 28,10 Dom. Resurrectionis (V2 EA) Mariae Magdalenae (N A) 4,1 003462 LRB [Adjuvabit earn Deus vultu suo. - Deus in medio ejus non commovebitur.] Ps 45,6 Commune Virginum ( L RB) r 006042 LW [Audi filia et vide et inclina aurem tuam. - Et obli-viscere populum tuum et domum patris tui.] Ps 44,11 Commune Virginum ( L W ) r 007955 LEA Mulier quae erat in civitate peccatrix attulit ala-bastrum unguenti et stans secus pedes Jesu lacri-mis coepit rigare pedes ejus et capillis capitis sui tergebat. - Can. Benedictus Lc 7,37-38 Feria 5 de Passione ( L EA ) 8,1(*) 003822 Daily Hours PA Maria stabat* Jo 20,11-12 Feria 5 p. Pascha (L EA) Mariae Magdalenae (L A 1) 7,1 003705 TA Tulerunt dominum* Jo 20,13 and 15 Feria 5 p. Pascha ( V EA) Mariae Magdalenae (L A 2) 7,3 005232 SA SurgensJesus* Mc 16,9 Feria 2 p. Oct. Pasch. (L EA) Mariae Magdalenae (L A 4) 8,1(*) 005075 NA Ite nuntiate fratribus* Mt 28,10 Dom. Resurrectionis (V2 EA) Mariae Magdalenae (L A 5 ) 4,1 003462 2 d N « O It-1 O c/> « N td O Pd g « 2 d on n O I:-1 O O n > Ir-1 > d > Ir-1 Ir-1 Chant The last version of the text in Graz 273 Text source Other liturgical uses in Graz 273 Mode Diff. Cantus ID Second Vespers V2 Al Maria [ergo]* - Ps. Dixit dominus Jo 12,3 Fer II Maj. Hebd. (L EA) Marine Mngdnlenne ( VI A 1; M A 2 ) 6,1 003699 V2 A2 Quid molesti estis* - Ps. Laudate Mt 26,10 Dominica in Palmis (M A Can) Marine Mngdnlenne (M A 3J 1,3 004527 V2 A3 Mittens haec mulier* - Ps. Laetatus sum Mt 26,12 Feria 6 de Passione ( V EA ) Marine Mngdnlenne (M A 4) 1,1 003799 V2 A4 Vespere autem sabbati* - Ps. Nisi Dominus Mt 28,1 Vigilia Resurrectionis ( V EA ) Marine Mngdnlenne (M A 5 ) 8,1* 005371 V2 RB Audi filia et vide* [et inclina aurem tuam. - Et obliviscere populum tuum et domum patris tui.] Ps 44,11 Commune Virginum ( V RB) r 006141 V2 W Adjuvabit earn Deus vultu* [suo. - Deus in medio ejus non commovebitur.] Ps 45,6 Commune Virginum ( V W) r 007934 V2 EA Dixit autem Jesus ad mulierem fides tua te salvam fecit vade in pace. - Can. Magnificat Lc 7,50 Feria 5 de Passione ( V EA ) 3,5 201293 V2 EA2 In diebus illis mulier [quae erat] in civitate pec-catrix ut cog[novit quod] Jesus recubuit in domo Simonis leprosi attulit alabastrum unguenti et stans retro secus pedes domini Jesu lacrimis coe-pit rigare pedes ejus et capillis capitis sui tergebat et osculabatur pedes ejus et unguento unguebat. - Can. Magnificat Lc 7,37-38 Ad mandatum ( A 8; not in Graz 273J Marine Mngdnlenne ( VI EA M A 1) 7,1 003224 c/> M 2 > 2 > O O > Ir-1 M M M O On Table 2 (Appendix): Earlier and later Carthusian Office of St Mary Magdalene with comparable offices (Matins) (For the meaning of individual abbreviations, see Table 1 of the Appendix.) The incipits of the chants from the Office of St Mary Magdalene that have been replaced by other chants or have changed their position within the office (invitatory antiphon and the Matins responsories), are typewritten bold; so are the comparable chants in other offices. Stable Matins chants with Easter themes are marked with a light shade in the table, the Matins antiphons with the subject of the sinful woman showing the transition to the subject of the preparation of Christ's body for his burial are marked with darker shade. Chant Graz 273 Commune virginum Graz 273 Earlier Matins chants for Mary Magdalene Graz 7 and Graz 18 Later Matins chants for Mary Magdalene Graz 7 Matin chants for St Anne (later addition) Matins: antiphons and i>ersicles M I Regem virginum dominum venite adoremus Regem virginum dominum venite adoremus. Laudemus Deum nostrum in conversione Mariae Magda-lenae. Laudemus Deum nostrum in confessione beatae Annae. M A 1.1 Haec est quae nescivit thorum in delicto habebit fructum in respectione animarum sanc-tarum. In diebus Ulis mulier quae erat in civitate peccatrix ut cognovit quod Jesus recubuit in domo Simonis leprosi attulit alabastrum unguenti et stans retro secus pedes domini Jesu lacrimis coepit rigare pedes ejus et capillis capitis sui terge-bat et osculabatur pedes ejus et unguento unguebat. In diebus illis mulier quae erat in civitate peccatrix ut cognovit quod Jesus recubuit in domo Simonis leprosi attulit alabastrum unguenti et stans retro secus pedes domini Jesu lacrimis coepit rigare pedes ejus et capillis capitis sui terge-bat et osculabatur pedes ejus et unguento unguebat. Haec est quae nescivit thorum in delicto habebit fructum in respectione animarum sanc-tarum. M A 1.2 O quam pulchra est casta generatio cum claritate. Maria ergo unxit pedes Jesu et extersit capillis suis et domus impleta est ex odore unguenti. Maria ergo unxit pedes Jesu et extersit capillis suis et domus impleta est ex odore unguenti. O quam pulchra est casta generatio cum claritate. M A 1.3 Dum esset rex in accubitu suo nardus mea dédit odorem suum. Quid molesti estis huic mulieri opus enim bonum operata est in nie. Quid molesti estis huic mulieri opus enim bonum operata est in me. Laeva ejus sub capite meo et dextera illius amplexabitur me. M A 1.4 Specie tua et pulchritudine tua intende prospéré procédé et régna. Mittens haec mulier in corpus meum hoc unguentum ad sepeliendum me fecit. Mittens haec mulier in corpus meum hoc unguentum ad sepeliendum me fecit. Specie tua et pulchritudine tua intende prospere procede et regna. M A 1.5 Adjuvabit eam Deus vultu suo Deus in medio ejus non com-movebitur. Vespere autem sabbati quae lucescit in prima sabbati venit Maria Magdalene et alia Maria videre sepulchrum alleluia. Vespere autem sabbati quae lucescit in prima sabbati venit Maria Magdalene et alia Maria videre sepulchrum alleluia. Adjuvabit eam Deus vultu suo Deus in medio ejus non com-movebitur. c/> M 2 > 2 > O O > It-1 M M K M O On "-î O Ix Chant Graz 273 Commune virginum Graz 273 Earlier Matins chants for Mary Magdalene Graz 7 and Graz 18 Later Matins chants for Mary Magdalene Graz 7 Matin chants for St Anne (later addition) MA 1.6 Sicut lilium inter spinas sic arnica mea inter filias. Et valde mane una sabbato-rum veniunt ad monumentum orto jam sole alleluia. Et valde mane una sabbato-rum veniunt ad monumentum orto jam sole alleluia. Dum esset rex in accubitu suo nardus mea dedit odorem suum. M A 2.1 Sicut malus inter ligna silva-rum sicut dilectus meus inter filios. Et dicebant ad invicem quis revolvet nobis lapidem ab ostio monumenti alleluia alleluia. Et dicebant ad invicem quis revolvet nobis lapidem ab ostio monumenti alleluia alleluia. Nigra sum sed form osa filia Jerusalem ideo dilexit me rex et introduxit me in cubiculum suum. MA 2.2 Laeva ejus sub capite meo et dextera illius amplexabitur me. Et respicientes viderunt revo-lutum lapidem erat quippe magnus valde alleluia. Et respicientes viderunt revo-lutum lapidem erat quippe magnus valde alleluia. Trahe me post te in odorem curremus unguentorum tuo-rum oleum effusum nomen tuum. MA 2.3 Surge aquilo et veni auster perfla [h]ortum meum et fluent aromata illius. Respondens autem angelus dixit mulieribus nolite timere scio enim quod Jesum quaeri-tis alleluia. Respondens autem angelus dixit mulieribus nolite timere scio enim quod Jesum quaeritis alleluia. Surge aquilo et veni auster perfla [hjortum meum et fluent aromata illius. MA 2.4 Pulchra es et decora filia Jerusalem terribilis ut castrorum acies ordinata. Jesum qui crucifixus est quae-ritis alleluia non est hie sur-rexit enim sicut dixi [!] vobis alleluia alleluia. Jesum qui crucifixus est quaeritis alleluia non est hie surrexit enim sicut dixit vobis alleluia alleluia. Pulchra es et decora filia Jerusalem terribilis ut castrorum acies ordinata. M A 2.5 Vidi speciosam sicut colum-bam et circumdabant earn flores rosarum et lilia conval-lium. Jesum quaeritis non est hie sed surrexit recordamini quali-ter locutus est vobis cum ad-huc in Galilaea esset alleluia. Jesum quaeritis non est hie sed surrexit recordamini quali-ter locutus est vobis cum ad-huc in Galilaea esset alleluia. Vidi speciosam sicut colum-bam et circumdabant earn flores rosarum et lilia conval-lium. M A 2.6 Revertere revertere Sunamitis revertere revertere ut intuea-mur te. Cito euntes dicite discipulis quia surrexit dominus alleluia. Cito euntes dicite discipulis quia surrexit dominus alleluia. Revertere revertere Sunamitis revertere revertere ut intuea-mur te. MA 3. Inventa bona margarita dedit omnia sua et comparavit earn. Dum esset rex in accubitu suo nardus mea dedit odorem suum. Dum esset rex in accubitu suo nardus mea dedit odorem suum. Inventa bona margarita dedit omnia sua et comparavit earn. 2 d N W O tr-1 O C/> N td O 2 d on n O tr-1 O O n > tr-1 > 52 d > tr-1 tr-1 u č X O e S S -o J3 -8 ^ ä S N .iS u iS « ta O S ^ s ^ C N 2 - .s 0 i/I -8 (S u C C s CÜ ta N ^ u ■8 M iS Ü5 ia - S - u u (S P H I s J ! « ™ s o w s i 0 o U C s -C u 3 m 3 2 B -G rt O Ü rt -S rt o v: <3 S 0 3 ^ ■ U ■8 X ss a ^ s «J 23 a o 3 0 1_¡ ti S3 § d rt n , u "to T3.2Cg r^ rt ^ > O N ti) O Pd g 2 d C/i n O i-^ O O n > > 52 d > It-1 It-1 v/1 Chant Graz 273 Commune virginum Graz 273 Earlier Matins chants for Mary Magdalene Graz 7 and Graz 18 Later Matins chants for Mary Magdalene Graz 7 Matin chants for St Anne (later addition) MR 2.2 Diffusa est gratia in labiis tuis. Propterea benedixit te Deus in aeternum. Veni de Líbano sponsa mea veni de Libano veni. Corona-beris de capite Amana et de vertice Sanir et Hermon de cubilibus leonum de monti-bus pardorum. [excluded from the new office] Accinxit fortitudine lumbos suos et roboravit brachium suum gustavit et vidit quia bona est negotiatio ejus. Non extinguetur in node lucerna ejus. [new responsory in the office] Accinxit fortitudine lumbos suos et roboravit brachium suum gustavit et vidit quia bona est negotiatio ejus. Non extinguetur in node lucerna ejus. M V 2.2 Dilexisti justitiam et odisti iniquitatem. [Hjortus conclusus soror mea sponsa ortus conclusus fons signatus. Lucerna pedibus meis verbum tuum et lumen semitis meis. Lucerna pedibus meis verbum tuum et lumen semitis meis. MR 2.3 Specie tua et pulchritudine tua. Intende prospere procede et regna. Diffusa est gratia in labiis tuis. Propterea benedixit te Deus in aeternum. [change of position] Quam pulchra es arnica mea quam pulchra es et decora oculi tui columbarum. Absque eo quod intrinsecus latet. [changed position] Quam pulchra es arnica mea quam pulchra es et decora oculi tui columbarum. Absque eo quod intrinsecus latet. M V 2.3 Diffusa est gratia in labiis tuis propterea benedixit te Deus in aeternum. Dilexisti justitiam et odisti iniquitatem. Sicut vitta coccínea labia tua et eloquium tuum dulce. Sicut vitta coccinea labia tua et eloquium tuum dulce. M R 2.4 Dilexisti justitiam et odisti iniquitatem propterea. Unxit te Deus Deus tuus oleo leti-tiae. Et valde mane una sabbato-rum veniunt ad monumen-tum. Orto jam sole alleluia. Et valde mane una sabbato-rum veniunt ad monumen-tum. Orto jam sole alleluia. Veni electa mea et ponam in te thronum meum. Quia con-cupivit rex speciem tuam. M V 2.4 Propter veritatem et mansue-tudinem et justitiam. Mulieres emerunt aromata ut venientes unguerent Jesum. Mulieres emerunt aromata ut venientes unguerent Jesum. Specie tua et pulchritudine tua intende prospere procede et regna. C/> ^ M 2 > 2 > O O > Ir-1 M M M O On 3> Chant Graz 273 Commune virginum Graz 273 Earlier Matins chants for Mary Magdalene Graz 7 and Graz 18 Later Matins chants for Mary Magdalene Graz 7 Matin chants for St Anne (later addition) MR 3.1 Offerentur regi virgines domino post earn proximae ejus offerentur tibi. In laetitia et exuitatione. Specie tua et pulchritudine tua. Intende prospere procede et regna. [change of position] Regnum mundi et omnem ornatum saeculi contempsi propter amorem domini mei Jesu Christi. Quem vidi quem amavi in quem credidi quem dilexi. [new responsory in the office] Regnum mundi et omnem ornatum saeculi contempsi propter amorem domini mei Jesu Christi. Quem vidi quem amavi in quem credidi quem dilexi. M V 3.1 Specie tua et pulchritudine tua intende prospere procede et regna. Diffusa est gratia in labiis tuis propterea benedixit te Deus in aeternum. Eructavit cor meum verbum bonum dico ego opera mea regi. Eructavit cor meum verbum bonum dico ego opera mea regi. MR 3.2 Induit me dominus vesti-mento salutis et iindumento laetitiae circumdedit me. Et tamquam sposnam decoravit me corona. Dilexisti justitiam et odisti iniquitatem propterea. Unxit te Deus Deus tuus oleo leti-tiae. [change of position] Lauda filia Sion laetare et exulta filia Jerusalem quia dominus rex in medio tui. Non timebis malum ultra, [new responsory in the office] Lauda filia Sion laetare et exulta filia Jerusalem quia dominus rex in medio tui. Non timebis malum ultra. M V 3.2 Deduxit me super semitas jus-titiae propter nomen suum. Propter veritatem et mansue-tudinem et justitiam. Abstulit dominus judicium tuum avertit inimicos tuos. Abstulit dominus judicium tuum avertit inimicos tuos. M R 3.3 Lauda filia Sion laetare et exulta filia Jerusalem quia do-minus rex in medio tui. Non timebis malum ultra. Offerentur regi virgines domino post earn proximae ejus offerentur tibi. In laetitia et exuitatione. [excluded from the new office] Fulcite me floribus stipate nie malls. Quia amore langueo. [changed position] Vidi speciosam sicut colum-bam ascendentem desuper rivos aquarum cujus inaes-timabilis odor erat nimis in vestimentis ejus. Et sicut dies verni circumdabant earn flores rosarum et lilia convallium. M V 3.3 Abstulit dominus judicium tuum avertit inimicos tuos. Specie tua et pulchritudine tua intende prospere procede et regna. Adjuro vos filiae Jerusalem si inveneritis dilectum ut annun-tietis ei. Viderunt illam filiae Sion be-atissimam praedicaverunt et reginae laudaverunt earn. 2 d N « o tr-1 O C/> « N td 0 g « 2 d on n 0 tr-1 O O n > tr-1 > ÏZ d > tr-1 tr-1 -J Chant Graz 273 Commune virginum Graz 273 Earlier Matins chants for Mary Magdalene Graz 7 and Graz 18 Later Matins chants for Mary Magdalene Graz 7 Matin chants for St Anne (later addition) MR 3.4 Simile est regnum caelorum decern virginibus quae accipi-entes lampades suas. Exierunt obviam sposo et sponsae. Una sabbati valde diluculo venerunt mulleres ad mo numentum alleluia. Portantes quae paraverant aromata alleluia alleluia. Una sabbati valde diluculo venerunt mulleres ad mo numentum alleluia. Portantes quae paraverant aromata alleluia alleluia. Fulcite me floribus stipate me malls. Quia amore langueo. M V 3.4 Prudentes autem virgins ac-ceperunt oleum in vasis suis cum lampadibus. Et invenerunt lapidem revolu-tum a monumento et ingres-sae non invenerunt corpus Jesu. Et invenerunt lapidem revolu-tum a monumento et ingres-sae non invenerunt corpus Jesu. Adjuro vos filiae Jerusalem si inveneritis dilectum ut ainiun-tietis ei. C/> M 2 > 2 > O O > Ir-1 M M M O 39 Source Date Folio / Page Early office Correction Later office only Grenoble 338 -texts only 12th century 210v ( later hand, not a part of the original manuscript) Yes / / Grenoble 467 -texts only 12th century Does not contain the feast / / / Grenoble 867 1222-1276 139r-141v Yes / / Toledo 44.3 Before 1271 104v Yes / / Graz 273 After 1272 241v-246v Yes / / Lyon 509 After 1272 191r-194r Yes Yes / Grenoble 418 14th century 3B6lv-3B66r Yes (most likely) Yes ( written over the in some parts almost invisible earlier office) / St Pierre de Chartreuse 808 14th century 197v-200r Yes Yes (invitatory only; the re-sponsories might be written on the first page) / Vienna 1791 Ca. 1375 167r-169r Yes Yes / Grenoble 19 Ca. 1400 B232v-B235r Yes Yes / Graz 18 Ca. 1400 200v-203r Yes Yes ( invitatory by a later hand, responsories by a later hand written over the original incipits; the original layer is not always visible) / Graz 145 Ca. 1400 191v-192r Yes Yes / Graz 21 Early 15th century 192r-193r Yes Yes / (Ä M 5" ^ M 2 > 2 > O O > tr-1 M ÏZ M M o On Table 4 (Appendix): The antiphon Maria stabat in the Carthusian sources Version: The official Carthusian version is as follows: "Maria stabat ad monumen-tum foris plorans et vidit duos angelos in albis sedentes ubi positum fuerat corpus Jesu alleluia." - The words where corrections occur in some manuscripts are typewritten bold. /: The feast (with the antiphon) is missing in the source. S: The chant contains a musical correction. Source Date Easter (EA Bene-dictus) Version Mary Magdalene (Ps. Dom. regnavit) Version Grenoble 338 - texts only 12th century 193v Correction on "corpus", perhaps on "positum" 211r Official version Grenoble 467 - texts only 12th century 40r-41v Official version / / Toledo 44.3 13th century (beginning) 71r Official version 104v Incipit only Grenoble 867 1222-1276 94v Official version 140v Official version Graz 273 After 1272 122v Corrections on "ubi positum" and "corpus" 244v Corrections on "ubi positum" and "corpus" Lyon 509 After 1272 125v Official version 193r Official version Grenoble 418 14th century 1B212r Official version 3B65r Corrections on "ubi positum" and "corpus" St Pierre de Chartreuse 808 14th century 122ar Official versiona) S 199v Official ver-sionb) S Vienna 1791 Ca. 1375 110v Official version 168v Official ver-sionc) S Grenoble 19 Ca. 1400 B116r Official version B234r Official version Graz 18 Ca. 1400 127r-127v Official versiond) S 202r-202v Official version Graz 145 Ca. 1400 127v-128r Official version 192r Textual incipit only Graz 21 Early 15th century 127r Official versione) S 192v Textual incipit only Graz 7 15th century 129r Official version 225v Textual incipit only Source Date Easter (EA Bene-dictus) Version Mary Magdalene (Ps. Dom. regnavit) Version Bologna A.202 15th century 104v Incipit only 138r Incipit only Ljubljana fragm. II-1 15th century 117r-119r / 118r Incipit only Paris 131 1641 151r-151v Official version 269r-269v Official version Paris 1520 1654 pp. 267268 Official version 450 Incipit only Paris D-16002 1700-1770 p. 254 Official version p. 439 Official version a) Even if this is an official version of the text, there is a small musical correction on "fuerat"; note "b" was added at the beginning of the last syllable of the word, which is also the case in the corrected versions elsewhere. b) Probably there is a small musical correction on "fuerat (note "b" added at the beginning of the melisma of the last syllable). c) Some notes are not clearly readable, but probably not because of the correction - even if some notes were deleted, the first version was identical to the official Carthusian melody. d) The first note of the last syllable of "fuerat" might have been added, but it is not possible to prove that. e) Perhaps there was a musical correction on "fuerat." Music example 1 (Appendix): Antiphon Maria stabat ad monumentum A-Gu 273 F-Pn lat. 1090 F-Pn lat. 12044 CH-Fco 2 F-Pn n.a.lat. 1411 «L — - •. • - = Ma-ri-a sta-bat ad mo-nu-men-tum fo- ris plo-rans (j,.----- • . • - *. . . Ma-ri-a sta-bat ad mo-nu-men-tum fo- ris plo-rans .----- ^^ Ma-ri-a sta-bat ad mo-nu-men-tum plo-rans «, v: Cook, Nicholas and Pople, Anthony, ur.. The Cambridge history of twentieth-century music (Cambridge etc.: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 191. 5 Danuser, Hermann, »Die Musik des 20. Jahrhunderts«, Neue Handbuch der Musikwissenschaft, Hg. C. Dahlhaus, zv. 7 (Laaber: Laaber-Verlag, 1984), 141. Cit. po Borut Loparnik, »K vprašanju glasbenega ekspresionizma in avantgarde«, 379, op. 7. 6 Botstein, »Modernism«. Oxford music online - Grove music online. razvojno manj pomembnih ekspresionizmih [...] z zgodovinskega stališča nezadostna..« Historični pregledi 20. stoletja dokazujejo, da je povzročila in še povzroča obilo težav, pravi, čeprav jo je starejša periodizacija bolj implicirala kot utemeljila. Implicirala zlasti s poskusom, »da bi po vzorcu prejšnjih tudi v 20. stoletju dognala premočrtnost slogovnega napredka', se pravi zaporedje korelativnih stopenj dogajanja, ki so razložljive z estetsko abstrakcijo. Ta je nemara kajpak predpostavljala obstoj enovitega glasbenega prostora - našla pa ga je le v skupnih izhodiščih ter ustrezni kulturni ravni ,zgodo-vinskih' narodov, med katerimi so že od baroka nastajale slogovne spremembe in dopolnitve«« Da se je ta proces v 19. stoletju osredotočil na nemško območje, je samo dokazovalo odločujočo vlogo Schonbergovega kroga, meni Loparnik. Toda evropski glasbeni prostor že dokaj pred koncem 19. stoletja ni bil več enovit, pojasnjuje. »Prve posežejo v njegovo integriteto nacionalne šole, nevarnost, čeprav le obrobno in le za nemško dominacijo, pa zasluti ta ideologija ,evropske' samozadostnosti komaj ob prvih estetskih nasprotovanjih, ki dozorijo z Musorgskim in Debussyjem, zunaj wagnerjanstva ali po njem. A celo njihova opozorila ne pomagajo ,zgodo-vinskim' kulturam, najmanj nemški, do spoznanja, da je temeljna preobrazba evropskega glasbenega prostora že močno napredovala. V njih vidijo le boj za nacionalno prvenstvo.««8 Vse osrednje smeri »oblikovanja Nove glasbe 20. stoletja je [...] rodilo radikaliziranje ideje,napredova-nja kompozicijskih sredstev', ki seje razvila vzporedno z vero v moč zgodovinskega napredka««, ugotavlja tudi Matjaž Barbo. »Na Zahodu se je v krogu darmstadtskih ustvarjalcev izoblikovalo prepričanje, da je tisto, kar je v kompozicijsko-tehničnem zgodovinsko nujno, hkrati tudi estetsko ustrezno. Temeljno formulo, ki so jo po postopnem prizadevanju, da bi odvrgli pezo ideološke ustreznosti in dosegli ustvarjalno avtonomijo, prevzeli tudi glasbeniki na Vzhodu, je oblikovalo zgodovinsko filozofsko mišljenje Theodorja W. Adorna. Premise njegove zgodovinske filozofije so izhajale iz pojmovanja mitizirane ,ene', osrednje zgodovine. Po Adornu je gibalno silo zgodovine (ki je sedaj samo nadomestila skladatelja v vlogi subjekta zgodovine) predstavljala ,tendenca gradiva' kot središčna kategorija glasbenega razvoja. Zgodovina kot kronologija kompozicijskih tehnik je namesto zapisovanja zaporedja umetniških del merila korake tehničnega napredka.««9 7 Borut Loparnik, »K vprašanju glasbenega ekspresionizma in avantgarde«, Nova revija VI, št. 58-60 (1987): 375. 8 Prav tam, 376. 9 Matjaž Barbo, »>Zgodovinskost> skladateljskega opusa Uroša Kreka«, Muzikološki kolokvij ob 75-letnici skladatelja in akademika prof. Uroša Kreka. Zbornik referatov, Bilten Slovenskega muzikološkega društva. Posebna številka, ur. Tomaž Faganel (Ljubljana: Slovensko muzikološko društvo in Slovenicum, 1997), 21. Po Dahlhausovem mnenju je imelo to za posledico, da »'zgodovine niso oblikovala estetsko posrečena dela, [...], temveč je bilo nasprotno od zgodovine na določen način odvisno, kaj bo priznano kot estetsko ustrezno: delo ali pa tudi koncept oz. proces.'«10 Kako se je adornovska miselnost odražala na ravni kompozicijske tehnike in v glasbenem zgodovinopisju, tudi lahko beremo pri Barbu. Diktat gradiva je vzpostavljal diktat tehnike, katere premene so v 20. stoletju sestavljale zgodovino. Glasbeno zgodovinopisje 20. stoletja si je za mero pri presoji tehtnosti del našega časa jemalo zgodovinsko upravičenost kompozicijskih tehnik in skladateljskih konceptov.11 O problematiki sinonimnega pojmovanja modernizma in avantgardizma, ki inova-tivnost štejeta za estetsko kategorijo, vse zunaj tega skrajnega pojmovanja pa uvrščata med neaktualno in nesodobno, že uvodoma, kot nekakšen povod za svojo razpravo z naslovom Quis contra nos? (Med modernizmom in avantgardizmom), zapiše Igor Grdina: »Modernizem in avantgardizem sta se v velikih debatah o umetnosti, ki so v ,pred-porabniškem' delu 20. stoletja predstavljale izjemno pomembna presečišča osebnega oziroma skupinskega interesa na eni ter javnega mnenja na drugi strani, neredko pojavljala kot sorodni - ali celo sinonimni - tipološki oznaki. Kadar sta bila pojma uporabljena v zgodovinski perspektivi, sta se jasno razlikovala: avantgarda je pokrivala' dogajanje po prvi svetovni vojni, modernizem pa v času fin de siecla in v drugi polovici 20. stoletja. Pojma v osnovi pokrivata' odvračanje od preteklosti, inovativnost pa štejeta za neizogibno estetsko kategorijo z izrazito pozitivno konotacijo. Njuno (delno) sovpadanje je najbrž zasluga - oziroma krivda futurizma, ki je sleherni pojav zunaj svojega nebrzdanega toka doživljal kot neaktualni pasatizem. Koncepcija zabsolutizirane inovacije najbrž ne more imeti analitičnega posluha za nič zunaj sebe.«12 Kasneje v prispevku Grdina o »adornovski zmoti« tudi jasno spregovori in poudari zlasti Adornovo razmerje do Stravinske-ga, ko pravi, da je Adorno v Filozofiji nove glasbe »brezkompromisen zagovornik heretičnega' napredka in neusmiljeni kritik discipliniranega' stilnega standarda sodobnosti. Schonberga je brez najmanjšega pridržka konceptualiziral v okviru, ki bi ga mogli označiti za avantgardističnega, medtem ko je Stravinskega odpravil kot ustvarjalca v referenčnem prostoru recepcijsko dovolj široko sprejemljivega in tržno učinkovitega aktualizma, se pravi modernizma.«13 O problematičnih posledicah »adornovske zmote« in nasilne drže »adornovcev«, ki jih Grdina kar najostreje obsodi, svojo razpravo pa zaključi z radikalno, ironično, celo »militaristično« obarvano primerjavo: 10 Carl Dahlhaus, »Geschischte und Geschichten«, Die Musik der fünfziger Jahre (Mainz: Schott [etc.], 1985), 10. Cit. po Barbo, »>Zgodovinskost> skladateljskega opusa Uroša Kreka«, 22. 11 Prav tam, 22. 12 Igor Grdina, »Quis contra nos? (Med modernizmom in avantgardizmom)«, Kontinuiteta in avantgarda - med tradicijo in avantgardoj = The Continuity of the Avant-Garde - Between the Tradition and New Challenges. 19. slovenski glasbeni dnevi 2004, Primož Kuret, ur. (LJubljana: Festival Ljubljana, 2005), 78. 13 Prav tam, 80. »Toda Adornovo tlačenje življenjske empirije v shemo dialektičnega determinizma je dalo zelo problematičen rezultat, ki utegne biti toliko in toliko let pozneje globlje pomenljiv samo za občudovalce njegove pameti. Brezsramni modernizem gospodi-na Stravinskega se je namreč lepega dne polastil celo Schonbergovega avantgardiz-ma in ga iz titanskega, v vertikalo usmerjenega Napredka preobrazil v element svoje horizontalne Restavracije! Še huje pa je to, da utegne individualizem - ki je v Ador-novi dialektiki negativitete morebiti edini pozitivni izraz subjektivitete - v povezavi z avantgardizmom voditi naravnost h kakemu d'Annunziu. [...] Prav tako ne gre izgubljati izpred oči še nečesa: položaj v Nemčiji ne more biti merilo za ves svet - pa čeprav nam o tem pridigajo takšne avtoritete, kot so Schonberg (s ,centuristično' izjavo o glasbenem prvenstvu), Adorno (ki je bil prepričan v nemožnost poezije po Auschwitzu) ali Heidegger (z dogmo o svoji materinščini kot edinem novoveškem filozofskem jeziku). Navsezadnje lahko v obdobju po d'Annunziu kdorsižebodi v imenu katerega koli MI svetu oznani svoj eliminacionistični QUIS CONTRA NOS?«14 Posledično je »adornovska zmota« med drugim vplivala tudi na pojmovanje tonal-nosti in modernizma. Z njo se ukvarja Andrew Timms, ki vidi posledico in problem »umišljene zgodovinske konstrukcije«, kot jo imenuje, v tem, da se modernizem še vedno prepogosto povezuje z enim samim aspektom glasbe - z atonalnostjo.15 Podobno ugotavlja Peter Franklin: »'Regressive' adherence to tonality versus progressive' exploitation of dissonance and atonality was the most used formula. That was before postmodernist historiography encouraged us to think again: to re-examine a work like Palestrina and conservative polemics of its composer, which were manifestly as significant historically' as the works and ideas we have chosen subsequently to cherish, for whatever estimable reasons.«16 Določena sinhrona logika tistih, ki so enačili glasbeni modernizem z atonalnostjo, dodekafonijo pa s koncem zgodovine tonalnosti, je odrinjala in pripeljala do razporejanja ostalih slogov in gibanj (kot sta npr. neoklasicizem in surrealizem) okrog samo-oklicanega mainstrima in vsebuje »a not-so-secret diachronic scheme, which validates their own position at the vanguard of history,« ali drugače:»the theory of modernism that centres itself on atonality tends to project an organicist model of history based on the, developement' of tonality. [...] The history that tends to result from consideration of the ideas proposed so far is a lurid tale, and in stylistic terms the underlaying generator of this narrative remains, essentially, the twists and turns of tonality as an organizing power in music.«17 14 Prav tam, 81. 15 Andrew Timms, »Modernism's moment of plenitude«, The modernist legacy: essays on new music, Björn Heile, ur. (Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate, 2009), 13. 16 Franklin, »Between the wars: traditions, modernisms, and the ,little people from the suburbs'«, 187. 17 Timms, »Modernism's moment of plenitude«, 15. Zgodovina je torej, z današnjega zornega kota, potrdila vzpone in padce tonalnosti kot pomembno urejevalno moč v glasbi, saj kombinacija tonalnosti in modernosti še vedno ostaja gravitacijsko središče glasbene zgodovine, ugotavlja Timms.18 Povezovanje modernizma z atonalnostjo je »omejeno« ne le zato, ker ignorira potencialno historično raznovrstnost, vendar zato, ker nas prepričuje, da modernizem naznanja konec zgodovine glasbe. Žal se je izkazalo, da gre za problematično pot filozofije glasbene zgodovine z bolečim koncem, meni isti pisec in ugotavlja: »The latent Adornian historical trajectory of this theory is not hard to discern: eventually, this rupture becomes so acute (in Schoenbergian expressionism, one assumes) that extreme formalisms (for example, dodecaphony) are required to return a sense of verifiable formal objectivity to music. So that we have it: an entire philosophy of music history, and one which is distressingly abstract and familiar.«19 Na »adornovsko zmoto« naletimo tudi pri obravnavi neoklasicizma in »modernističnega klasicizma« oz. »klasicističnega modernizma« - pojmov, ki ju Danuser predlaga tet vpeljuje prav zaradi omenjenega pojava. Pravi, da je bil »klasicistični modernizem«, kot eden najbolj vplivnih fenomenov glasbene zgodovine v prvi polovici 20. stoletja, po krivici odrinjen kot nasprotni pol »radikalnega modernizma« s pejorativ-no oznako »neoklasicizem«, in se sprašuje, če ni bil celo del tega ter poziva k ponovni definiciji.20 Vrednotenje v okviru predsodka o dveh antagonističnih vrednostih - čistega »klasičnega« ideala na eni strani in čistega »modernističnega« na drugi strani ne vzdrži več, pravi.21 O Schönbergovi in Adornovi »manipulaciji« v zvezi z neoklasicizmom piše tudi Handwörterbuch der musikalischen Terminologie: »Mit Blick auf Srawinsky benutzt vor allem Th. W. Adorno die Vokabel Neoklassizismus zur Benennung eines restaurativen und reaktionären musikalischen Ausdruckskonzepts.« (Bandur, 1994, 2). Schönberg je svoje ironično posmehovanje iz neoklasicizma neposredno izrazil že v svojih Treh satirah za mešani zbor op. 28 s formulacijami kot so »klassische Vollendung, streng in jeder Wendung [...]: das ist der neue Stil«, pri čemer je v predgovoru jasno zapisal, da razume pojem predvsem v smislu retrospektivne usmeritve k predhodnim glasbenim 18 Prav tam, 24. 19 Prav tam, 22-23. 20 »In establishing the category of aesthetic of modernism, musical historiography (whih has since 1950 been dominated by the avantgarde) has brushed aside mojdernist classicism - one of the most influential phenojmena of musical history in the first half of the twentieth century - by means of the pejorative label ,neoclassicim'. Both the concepts comprised under ,modernist classicism' are of widereaching importance for the history of culture and art in Europe and beyond. In music, classicism exerted its influence from the eighteenth century to the twentieth, whereas modernism did so in nineteenth and the twentieth. Their relationship in the twentieth century leads one to ask whether the,dassical' branch of contemporay musical culture is better undestood as opposed to radical mojdernism, or as part of it. If this question is to be answered, both basic concepts must be defined differently and mojre precisely then usual.« Hermann Danuser, »Rewriting the past: classicisms of the inter-war period«. The Cambridge history of twentieth-century music, Nicholas Cook and Anthony Pople, ur. (Cambridge etc.: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 282-283. 21 »'Classicism' needs to be prised away from the prejudices that have crushed it under the mutually antagonistic values of a pure classical ideal on the one hand, and a pure mojdernist one the other. [...] These evaluations, which on both side are developed from,pure'stances, do nojt stand up any more.« Prav tam, 282. slogom.22 V notici Hirn und Genie (7. 4. 1928) se posmehuje novim pojavom v dvajsetih letih - folklorizmu, ritmu, antiromantiki, novemu klasicizmu in novi stvarnosti.23 Prav tako pejorativno razlaga pojem novega klasicizma kot »kopijo stila« Anton von Webern.24 V enakem slabšalnem pomenu je izraz uporabljal Adorno v svojih številnih kritikah po letu 19 2 5.25 Konec dvajsetih let je prvič poskušal zaokrožiti teorijo o moderni glasbi. Okrog pojmov »neoklasicizem« in »klasicizem« je spletel socio-kulturno, politično in glasbeno nadvse zapleteno pomensko polje, ocenjuje Bandur.26 Za moderno glasbo je tako Adorno označil le Schönbergov krog.27 Tudi Timms izpostavi anahro-nistično pojmovanje neoklasicizma kot »klasičnega«, ko pravi, da posvetiti pozornost le končni točki historične sheme, v kateri se tonalnost z »najvišje« razvojne točke premakne do »krizne«, je tveganje, da spregledamo osupljiv način, kako je ta najvišja točka oblikovana.28 Modernizem, avantgardizem, tradicionalizem Definicija »modernizma«, kakršna je prevladovala do nedavna, v postmodernizmu pa bila deležna začetka temeljite prenove, je bila po Botsteinovem mnenju posledica temeljnega prepričanja med generacijami skladateljev po letu 1900, da morajo sredstva glasbenega izraza v 20. stoletju ustrezati unikatnemu in radikalnemu značaju časa. Primernost izraza za opis zgolj koherentnega in od ostalega dogajanja izoliranega gibanja je bila postavljena pod vprašaj šele s sočasno uvedbo izraza »postmodernizem«, ki se je nanašal na glasbo, umetnost in ideje zadnje četrtine stoletja, ter bil reakcija na tako pojmovani »modernizem«. Beseda »modernizem« je bila skozi vse stoletje vir polemik in analiz, čeprav se ohlapno nanaša na raznolike glasbene sloge, njene številne niti 22 Sämtliche Werke, Abt. V, Reihe A, Bd. 18: Chorwerke I, Mainz u. Wien 1980, 66. Cit. po Markus Bandur, »Neoklassizismus«. Handwörterbuch der Musikalischen Terminologie. Ordner IV: M-O., Heins Heinrich Eggebrecht in Albrecht Riethmüller, ur. (po l. 1999) (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1994), 19. 23 M. Hansen, Arnold Schönberg (Kassel, New York: Bärenreiter, 1993), 192. Cit. po: prav tam, 19. 24 Brief an H. Jone, 6. 8. 1928, cit. po: prav tam, 19. 25 »Seine polemische Anspielungen auf den Schlagwortcharacer verbinden sich schon früh mit diskreditierenden Epitheta, die jegliche andere mus. Auffasung neben der Schoenbergs als beliebig, unecht, seicht, kunstgewerblich und oberflächlich darstellen sollen. In Adornos Äußerungen fließen zudem typische und im weitesten Sinne einer gesellschaftkritischen Einstellung zugehörige Formulierungen ein, die insbesondere mit Vokabeln wie .positiv', offizieller Optimismus', Ideologie', , Ulk', ,pseudoobjektiv' und stabilisiert' auf spezifisch gesellschaftliche Begriffsinterpretation verweisen.« Prav tam, 20. 26 »Leicht läßt sich der Umkreis der stabilisierten Musik - der... Schoenberg, auch mit der Zwölftontechnik; weiter vor allem Alban Berg und Anton Webern nicht zugezählt werden dürfen - überschauen. Sie scheidet sich in zwei große Gruppen, die hier, grob schematisch, die klassizistische und die folkloristische heißen mögen. Soziologisch ist der Klassizismus als die Form der Stabilisierung in den fortgeschritteneren, rational aufgehellteren Staaten zu verstehen ...« Die stabilisierte Musik, unpubl. Ms. 1928, cit. po: prav tam, 20. 27 »Grob läßt sich [die mus. Produktion im engeren Sinn] schematisieren: ihr erster Typ [...], als ,moderne' Musik der allein ernstlich chokierende, wird wesentlich von Arnold Schömberg und seinen Schule vertreten [...]. Dem zweiten Typ rechnet Musik zu, die die Tatsache der Entfremdung, als ihre eigene Isolierung und als Individualismus', erkennt [...] Insofern diese Musik [...] im Bilde eine nichtexistente, objektive' Gesellschaft oder, nach ihrer Intention,, Gemeinschaft' zitieren möchte, mag sie Objektivismus heißen. Zum Objektivismus zählt [...] der Neoklasizis-mus, [...] der Folklorismus.« Zur gesellschaftlichen Lage der Musik (Zs. Für SozialforschungI, 1932, 108). Cit. po: prav tam, 20. 28 »To pay attention only to the endpoint of the historical scheme in which tonality movesfrom highpoint to crisis is to risk overlooking the striking way in which the high point itself - this moment of plenitude of Western classical music, that fanciful historical construction that, in Danile Chua's words, is ,a style that has been anachronistically and erroneously named as ,Classical' - is configured. Moreover, it is only when the shape of this history is considered as a whole that the problems of modernism can be adequately understood.« Timms, »Modernism>s moment of plenitude«, 19. pa povezuje le skupni dvom v historični kontekst, iz katerega izhaja.29 Na kratko in na splošno omenjeni avtor pojasni modernizem z besedami: »A term used in music to denote a multi-faceted but distinct and continuous tradition within 20th-century composition. It may also refer to 20th-century trends in aesthetic theory, scholarship and performing practice.«30 O modernizmu z današnjega zornega kota, ki je postal »obsežen« kot nikoli prej in v katerega lahko danes vključimo denimo tudi Ravela, Elgarja, Nielsena, Poulenca in Puccinija, saj je pretirano povezovanje modernizma z dodekafonijo in atonalnostjo popustilo, pa Andrew Timms zapiše: »On this more recent view, modernism has became warm and inclusive as never before; it is possible today to contemplate Ravel, Elgar, Nielsen, even Poulenc and Puccini as modernists in a way that one doubts would have been possible in the 1970s or 1980s, as the old drive towards atonality and than dodecaphony is increasingly rejected or recast as just one privileged stylistic development amongs so many others. In this sense, the fortunes of modernism are on the up: increasingly recognizing it for the broad cultural moment that it surely was, musicology seems at last to have configured it in a way that will match (in popularity if not style) the modernisms of the visual and literary arts.«31 Griffiths na kratko in zelo splošno označi modernizem kot »a current of compositional thought and practice characterized by innovation.« Kot ideja in izraz se je pojavil, pravi, v drugi dekadi 20. stoletja v povezavi s Pomladnim obredjem (1913), s Schonber-govim premikom v atonalnost (okrog 1908), z glasbo italijanskih futuristov in ruskih sledilcev Skrjabina ter z Busonijevim Osnutkom nove estetike glasbe (1907). Vendar poudarja, da kljub novim upom in prizadevanjem, ki so se rodili istočasno, ni bilo enotne motivacije ali pogleda nanj.32 Zanimivo in za pričujočo temo pomembno je dejstvo, ki ga navaja Botstein, da se je okrog leta 1933 pojavilo pet različnih smeri modernizma: 1) druga dunajska šola s Schonbergom in njegovimi sledilci, zlasti Bergom in Webernom; 2) francosko-ruska 29 »Modernism is a consequence of the fundamental conviction among successive generations of composers since 1900 that the means of musical expression in the 20th century must be adequate to the unique and radical character of the age. The appropriateness of the term to describe a coherent and discrete movement has been underscored by the currency of the word 'postmodern', which refers to the music, art and ideas that emerged during the last quarter of the century as a reaction to Modernism. The word 'Modernism' has functioned throughout the century both polemically and analytically; although it is applied loosely to disparate musical styles, what links its many strands is a common debt to the historical context from which it emerged.« Botstein, »Modernism«. Oxford music online - Grove music online. 30 Prav tam. 31 Timms, »Modernism's moment of plenitude«, 18. 32 »Although so many new hopes and endeavours were born at the same time, there was no unanimity of motivation or outlook. For some composers, for instance Varese and the Futurists, new musical means were necessary at a time when human life was being revolutionized by electricity, by motor transport, and indeed by Revolution, for there was a strong belief in artistic modernism in some quarters in the new USSR. For others, new techniques were needed for expressive purposes, to intensify and characterize images more sharply (Schoenberg), or to venture into transcendence (Skryabin). The new might also be a means of rediscovering the primitive (Stravinsky) or a necessary advance, part of the progress inherent in the great tradition (as was Schoenberg>s stated view).« Griffiths, 2007-2016(II). os, s prevlado Stravinskega; 3) nemški ekspresionizem z Busonijem in mladim Hinde-mithom; 4) nacionalni modernizmi, z Ivesom v Ameriki, Bartokom na Madžarskem, Szymanowskim na Poljskem, Janačkom in Martinujem v povojni Češkoslovaški, Carlo-som Chavezom v Mehiki itd.; 5) eksperimentalizem, značilen za Habo, Vareseja in Cowella, ki je vodil k uporabi mikrotonalnosti, ambientalnim zvokom, strojem in fasci-naciji z ne-zahodnjaškimi glasbami in tehnologijo. Še bolj zanimiva za našo razpravo pa je Botsteinova ugotovitev, da so bile značilnosti teh smeri pogosto v delih nekaterih skladateljev združene. Mnogi zgodnji modernisti, kot so Stravinski, Bartok in Szyma-nowski so odkrili radikalna in modernistična sredstva v ljudski glasbi in predmoderni-stičnih tradicijah.33 Vendar - čeprav je omenjenih pet tipov kontinuirano definiralo modernizem do konca stoletja, je imela nova dunajska šola največji vpliv. Če je modernizem dunajske šole v poznih dvajsetih in v tridesetih letih izgubljal moč, se je to spremenilo po drugi svetovni vojni z novo generacijo skladateljev, ki so začeli »znova« na temelju najnaprednejše glasbe Schonberga, Stravinskega, Weberna in Vareseja. Vendar obdobje hitre spremembe ni trajalo dolgo - le dobro desetletje, učinek pa je bil tokrat trajen, ugotavlja Griffiths, in sicer v delih skladateljev, ki so se orientirali po modernistih iz let po 1910 ter iz petdesetih let.34 Kasneje, v sedemdesetih letih, je »dunajski modernizem« počasi izgubljal na pomenu in bil ob naraščajočem pluralizmu, množični in popularni kulturi ter prevladi tehnologije potisnjen na rob, da je končal le kot eden od tekmujočih smeri 20. stoletja, ne pa njegov prevladujoči glas.35 Zanimiv, sodoben in realno sprejemljiv pogled na modernizem podaja Erik Chris-tensen.36 Med različnimi potmi glasbenega modernizma izpostavlja dve osrednji med njimi. Prvo imenuje konstruktivni modernizem, drugo pa pluralistični modernizem ter ju opiše takole: »A well-known track is the constructive modernism initiated in the dodechaphonic works of Arnold Schoenberg and Anton Webern, an continued after World War II in the early serialist works [...]. A fundamental idea in this works is to relate every note to a well-defined principle of musical construction. It is the composer's intention to create unity and coherence. An alternative track in 20th century music is pluralistic modernism, characterized by the composer's intention to display diversity and discontinuity. «37 Konstruktivni modernizem reagira z vztrajanjem na umetniškem redu in enovitosti tako, da zamenja koherenco, ki je bila prej zagotovljena s tradicijo, s skladateljevim lastnim kreativnim izumom, pravi. Nasprotno se pluralistični modernizem odziva z iznajdbo umetnosti, ki odseva, poudarja in komentira pestrost ter nekoherentnost tega sveta. Raznolikost zvočnih virov, emocij, socioloških in kulturnih odnosov, historičnih 33 Botstein, »Modernism«, Oxford music online - Grove music online. 34 Paul Griffiths, »Modernism«, Oxford music online - The Oxford companion to music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007-2016). 35 Prav tam. 36 Eik Christensen, »Interruption, surprise, disturbance, interference - a pluralistic track in musical modernism«. Glasba in družba v 20. stoletju = Music and society in the 20th century. Slovenski glasbeni dnevi 1998, Primož Kuret, ur. (Ljubljana: Festival, 1999), 42. 37 Prav tam, 42. ter slogovnih referenc tako sestavlja različne aspekte pluralističnega modernizma v glasbi, meni Christensen. Potem navede nekaj tipičnih primerov slednjega in sicer: Central park in the dark (1906) Charlesa Ivesa, Parade (1917) Erika Satieja, Credo in US (1942) Johna Cagea, Poème électronique (1958) Edgarja Varèseja, Aventures (1962) Gyorgyja Ligetija in Forbidden fruit (1987) Johna Zorna.38 Z omenjeno definicijo Christensen podpira našo tezo o polislogovnosti oziroma slogovnem pluralizmu večjega dela glasbe 20. stoletja ter o raznoliki, »več obsegajoči« smeri t. i. modernističnega klasicizma oziroma klasicističnega modernizma. O modernizmu, avantgardizmu in tradicionalizmu so se razpisali tudi nekateri slovenski muzikologi in zgodovinarji, ki pojme med sabo jasno ločujejo ter jim odmerjajo ustrezen prostor in pomen. Razliko med avantgardizmom in modernizmom zelo dobro opiše Grdina, ko pravi, da je »avantgardizem fragment, ki si ne dela utvare o svoji zaključenosti oziroma dokonča-nosti - vendar se kljub temu nima za nekaj pomanjkljivega. Mogli bi ga označiti za uverturo v dramo prihodnosti, o kateri pa nihče ne ve, kakšna bo. [...] Avantgardizem je potemtakem svojevrstna ambasada nikoli ujemljive prihodnosti v nenehno spremenljivi sedanjosti. Vedno je odprt v nadaljevanje, nikoli pa v dopolnitev. Inovativ-nost je zanj ključna estetska vrednota, medtem ko z izkušnjo pravzaprav nima česa početi. Klasika je v avantgardističnem referenčnem okviru povsem nezanimiv pojem: premore samo informativno dimenzijo, saj per negationem definira njegov življenjski prostor.«39 Modernizem, ki mu prav tako ne moremo zanikati estetske inovativno-sti, čeprav se ta izraža na drugačen način, pa je »na drugi strani [...] celovit ter v sebi in svetu ciljno zaključljiv oziroma izpolnjiv objekt. [...] Estetsko inovativnost ima le za svojo glavno značilnost oziroma lastnost, medtem ko je treba njegove vrednote iskati v območju ekspresivizma in komunikacije. [...] Modernizma si ni mogoče predstavljati kot amorfne mase pomena in smisla. Prav nasprotno: gre za globoko reflektiran duhovnozgodovinski pojav, ki se ne sramuje zagovarjati lastne koncepcije sveta.«40 Nazorno opiše avantgardizem, ta »zavesten estetski preboj« v novo, v primerjavi z modernizmom kot »smerjo oziroma trajnejšim razvojnim tokom«, tudi Borut Lopar-nik, ko pravi, da avantgarda »zanika sleherno relevanco preteklih vrednot in niti ne hlini, da jih nadaljuje. Njeno izhodišče je brezizhodna omrtvelost, v katero je ustvarjalca prignala stiska na duhovnem razpotju; prepričana je, da je umetnost zadušil zgodovinski spomin. Vsakršna vez z obstoječim je zato nemogoča - možen je le popoln prelom, zavesten preboj v nov (nedotaknjen) ustvarjalni prostor.« Z odkritjem takšnega prostora se avantgarda šele pričenja, pravi, z njim udejani svoj historičnorazvojni smisel: je torej estetska revolucija, šokanten in militanten izbruh, povrhu z očitnimi, navadno tudi poudarjenimi socialnimi političnimi ali/in nacionalističnimi konotacija-mi. Njena estetska pozornost, ki ni vedno prvenstvena, je docela zaposlena z vprašanji gradiva, ujeta je v probleme osvobojenega prostora. Zato se avantgarda 38 Prav tam, 43-50. 39 Grdina, »Quis contra nos? (Med modernizmom in avantgardizmom)«, 78. 40 Prav tam, 79. »dogaja kot zunajslogovni pojav, nikoli kot smer ali trajnejši razvojni tok. Zato se tudi konstituira le na dva načina: bodisi z raziskovanjem' neznanega gradiva (kakor je npr. italijanski futurizem eksperimentiral z zvokom) bodisi z novim, ,zu-najzgodovinskim, strukturiranjem znanega gradiva (kot kaže npr. Schonbergova metoda).«41 Razmerje med modernizmom in tradicionalizmom, ki drug drugega potrjujeta v medsebojnem odnosu, razloži Grdina »nekako takole: čeprav se današnjost lahko pohvali z lastnim zvenom in barvo, se da njeno modernost slišati oziroma opaziti samo na ozadju zaznavanja ter zavedanja včerajšnjosti. [...] Tako se modernizem in tradicionalizem v medsebojnem stiku vzajemno definirata, saj - za razliko od klasike ali avantgardizma - nista transhistorična, ampak na zgodovinsko konkretnost navezana pojma. Pri njunem medsebojnem razmerju pa ne gre misliti samo na negiranje, temveč tudi na proces dopolnjevanja, razširjanja, intenziviranja. [...] Predstava o zgodovini kot nenehnem napredovanju ima v takšnem odnosu med včerajšnjostjo in današnjostjo eno najtrdnejših opor.«42 Zato tradicije vsekakor »ne kaže enačiti s ,starim', saj je sestavljena iz nenehnih prelomov s tradicionalnim. Seveda pa ostaja odprto vprašanje [...] ali, kdaj, v kolikšni meri in na katerih ravneh so ti prelomi prepoznavni kot vredni,« meni Leon Štefanija.43 Vendar tradicije ne gre enačiti niti s »klasičnim«. Saj se klasičnost v prvi vrsti nanaša »na časovno nezamejene kakovostne značilnosti glasbenega stavka«, kot so zrelost, splošna razumljivost in pretenzija po odličnosti. Nasprotno je treba iskati»podobne ,zbirne' pojme za avantgardnost v merilih, ki se nanašajo na časovno zamejena kakovostna odstopanja določenega pojava, na korak naprej od domnevno ustaljenih normativov.«44 Ti nenehni prelomi s tradicionalnim se zato izražajo v težavnosti določitve novega v Novi glasbi. »Novo« se namreč izraža v glasbi na popolnoma različen način, pojasnjuje Rudolph Stephan: v novih kompozicijskih tehnikah, v novih uporabah starih kompozicijskih tehnik, v novem estetskem pristopu, v novem določilu smisla itd. »Tehnično«, »estetsko« in »družbeno«, občasno celo »svetovnonazorsko«, igrajo ob tem pomembno vlogo in lahko v vsakem trenutku postanejo odločilen kriterij. Opazovanje samo enega od pomembnih dejavnikov daje nenatančno ali celo izkrivljeno sliko, razumevanje vseh, vsaj do neke mere, pa je po Stephanovem mnenju, žal, nemogoče.45 41 Loparnik, »K vprašanju glasbenega ekspresionizma in avantgarde«, 378. 42 Grdina, »Quis contra nos? (Med modernizmom in avantgardizmom)«, 79. 43 Leon Stefanija, »Nova stvarnost 1920. let in glasba: med potrebnim, možnim in smiselnim«. Glasba v dvajsetih letih 20. stoletja = Music in the twenties of the twentieth century. 23. slovenski glasbeni dnevi = 23rd Slovenian Musical Days, Ljubljana, 21.-24. IV 2008, Primož Kuret, ur. (Ljubljana: Festival Ljubljana, 2009), 76. 44 Prav tam, 70-71. 45 Rudolph Stephan, Das musikalisch Neue und die Neue Musik (Mainz: B. Schott's Söhne, 1969), 47. Kratka zgodovina (dunajskega) modernizma Zanimivo je namreč, kako se je v zgodovini pojmovanja modernizma vedno bolj ožil njegov časovni in geografski okvir ter vedno bolj pomikal v prihodnost, dokler ni obveljal le za oznako radikalne inovacije novodunajske šole in njenega nadaljevanja po drugi svetovni vojni. Sprva je »modernizem« veljal za historični fenomen med letoma 1883 in 1914, kot opisuje Botstein v Grove music online. Pred Wagnerjevo smrtjo je bil izraz sinonim za vse »novo«, »nedavno« in »sodobno«, zato je za časa Wagnerja označeval široko paleto glasbe s pripovedno funkcijo in zunajglasbeno vsebino nasproti absolutni glasbi. V zadnjem desetletju 19. stoletja so izraz uporabljali za hvalo in grajo postwagnerjanske glasbe, ki je eksperimentirala z obliko, tonalnostjo in orkestracijo. V instrumentalni glasbi se je tedaj »moderno« nanašalo na simfonično pesnitev in obsežna dela z masivnim zvočnim aparatom in novimi instrumentalnimi učinki, ki evocirajo ideje in čustva. Okrog 1900 je beseda na splošno označevala vse »novo«. Čeprav so izraz »moderen« v zgodovini pogosto uporabili v povezavi z Mahlerjem, Debussyjem, R. Straussom in Skr-jabinom, so bili ti štirje skladatelji kasneje priznani zgolj kot predhodniki modernizma 20. stoletja, njegovi predstavniki pa Busoni, Schonberg, Schreker in Stravinski.46 Slednji so pozornost posvetili temeljiti prenovi kompozicijskih sredstev 19. stoletja, koncepta in prakse tonalnosti, regularnega ritma, zvoka in strukturiranja obsežnih skladb. Modernost je zahtevala razbitje uveljavljenih konvencij, pričakovanj, kategorij, meja in omejitev ter odločno iskanje novega. To je povzročilo nenehno iskanje novih sistemov organizacije tonske višine kot alternativo za tonalnost in novih glasbil kot rezultat tehnološkega napredka.47 Čeprav pripovedne zmožnosti glasbe niso bile popolnoma odrinjene pri prvi generaciji modernistov, so glasbena sredstva in strategije glasbene reprezentacije doživele drastične spremembe, vstran od neposredne aluzije in korelacije z zunanjostjo k »notranjosti« in k bolj višjim (vzvišenim) paralelizmom, kot je postavil Schonberg. V glasbi je za tedanje pojmovanje tako potekal »zgodnji modernizem« vzporedno z ekspresionizmom v poeziji, dramatiki in slikarstvu. Bil je tudi pod vplivom mističnega entuziazma in filozofije (teozofije) zgodnjega 20. stoletja, kot tudi orientalskega ekso-ticizma, primitivizma in simbolizma v poeziji. Prvič je postal kot poseben historični fenomen stvar javne debate pred prvo svetovno vojno, kot rezultat nekaj škandaloznih in kontroverznih glasbenih dogodkov med letoma 1908 in 1913.48 Busoni je leta 1907 objavil Osnutek nove estetike glasbe, v kateri je zagovarjal progresivni razvoj glasbenega gradiva in metod kompozicije, Schonberg pa je v Harmonielehre (1911) predstavil »emancipacijo disonance« in »razširjene tonalnosti«, razlaga Botstein.49 Čisto proti 46 »1912 Strauss was viewed as having turned away from Modernism; Mahler died in 1911, Skryabin in 1915 and Debussy in 1918. Busoni, Schoenberg, Schreker and Stravinsky were recognized before 1914 as the first proponents of 20th-century Modernism.« Botstein, »Modernism«. Oxford music online - Grove music online. 47 Prav tam. 48 To sta bili dunajska in berlinska premiera Schonbergovih del (zlasti Drugega godalnega kvarteta in Pierrot lunaire), pariška premiera Pomladnega obredja Stravinskega (na kateri je bil prisoten Debussy) in t. i. »škandalozni« dunajski koncert leta 1913 z deli skladateljev Schonbergovega kroga, pri obeh zadnjih omenjenih je morala posredovati celo policija. Prav tam. 49 Prav tam. koncu prve svetovne vojne sta bili ideja modernizma in debata o njem marsikomu že napoti, zlasti v znamenitih Pfitznerjevih pamfletih Futuristengefahr (1917) in Die neue Ästhetik der musikalischen Impotenz: ein Verwesungssymptom? (1920). S Pfitznerjem, permanentim povezovalnim členom med politiko in estetiko, je bila sprožena debata o modernizmu, ki mu je pomagala definirati smer za večino stoletja. Soočeni z odporom publike in kritikov so njegovi nasprotniki razvpito obsodili arbitrarni radikalizem ter prelom s preteklostjo in tradicijo, razlaga Botstein. Prva svetovna vojna je bila tako odločilna za razvoj »dunajskega modernizma«, njegova predvojna pot je bila »obranjena« in »opravičena«. Radikalno zanikanje objektivnih estetskih norm s pomočjo skrajne glasbene inovacije (opustitve tonalnosti) in neizprosnega »iztrebljanja« tradicionalnih elementov iz glasbe sta bila legitimen »odgovor« na iracionalnost in krutost sodobnega življenja. Vendar se je odpor do celotnega 19. stoletja in predvojnega ekspresionizma kmalu za tem pojavil z neoklasicizmom, ki pa je iskal navdih za novo sprva v glasbi 18. stoletja. Zanimivo je, da je bilo splošno zavračanje vseh oblik romantizma med obema vojnama skupno neoklasicizmu in »dunajskemu modernizmu« oziroma Schönbergo-vemu 12-tonskemu sistemu.50 Predvojne politične debate okrog modernizma so postale veliko bolj odločilne po vojni, opozarja Botstein, saj je postal »modernizem« med obema vojnama povezan s progresivno radikalno levičarsko politiko. Namreč, sredi tridesetih let je konservativna, antimodernistična kompozicijska estetika postala del uradne doktrine fašizma in sovjetskega komunizma pod Stalinom. Nacistična ideologija in sovjetski konstrukt socialističnega realizma sta napadala »modernizem« kot antina-cionalistični, nenaravni, elitistični, degeneriran, judovski, tuj in subverziven. Tudi ruski modernizem dvajsetih in tridesetih let (Nikolaj Roslavets, Aleksander Mosolov in mladi Šostakovič) je bil zadušen leta 1936, obsojen buržoaznega individualizma in praznega formalizma. Kar je bilo ključno v zgodbi o »dunajskem modernizmu«, pa je dejstvo, da sta mu tesna povezava med fašizmom in totalitarizmom ter reakcionarno glasbeno estetiko kot tudi silovita ideološka kampanja proti njemu, podelila unikatno in prestižno mesto v tridesetih letih, pa tudi še po drugi vojni, vendar v obratnem sorazmerju z uspehom pri publiki.51 Kot rezultat njegova političnega pomena in etičnega prizvoka je dominiral med skladatelji poznih štiridesetih, petdesetih in šestdesetih let, v času še trajajočega šoka okrog holokavsta in Hirošime, zato sta uspevala postwebernovska serialnost in eks-perimentalizem, ugotavlja Botstein. V tem kontekstu se je pojavil T. W. Adorno (ki je študiral pri Bergu in Steuermannu) kot najvplivnejši povojni teoretični odvetnik »modernizma«. Osredotočil se je na Schönberga in njegovo šolo, ki jo je imel za edino pravo in zgodovinsko veljavno progresivno šolo kompozicije. Za razliko od Schönberga je izpustil Stravinskega in Bartoka (ki nikoli nista popolnoma opustila okvirov tonalnosti) kot »napačen« odziv na modernost. Po njegovem je glasba morala slediti svoji resnični zgodovinski logiki, izpolniti svojo politično in etično funkcijo, se upirati nazadnjaškim navadam publike - fetišistični rabi glasbe z naraščajočim kapitalizmom in institucionaliziranim fašizmom (kot so npr. zanj bili Tin Pan Alley, jazz, Hollywood, Broadway in klasična glasba s standardnim repertoarjem na radiu in v koncertnih dvoranah). 50 Prav tam. 51 Prav tam. Konflikt z neizobraženo publiko je bil Adomu dokaz za glasbeno avtentičnost »modernizma«. Schonberga je imel z njegovo serialno tehniko za pravega preroka 20. stoletja. Za »moderniste« je bila masovna publika irelevantna za presojanje, zato so »modernistično« glasbo namerno izolirali in ji podelili status elitne glasbe. Po letu 1945 so implikacije Webernove glasbe (dodekafonija, kratke oblike, transparentne teksture, prefi-njena zvočnost, fragmentacija, eksperimenti s trajanjem tonov in tišino kot elementom punktualizma) ne le definirale dediščino dunajskega »modernizma«, ampak ga tudi naredile pomembnega kot takega. Celo Stravinski in Copland sta bila motivirana za uporabo serialne tehnike v svoji glasbi.52 Zanimivo je, da Christensen Ivesa in Satieja brez pridržkov uvršča med moderniste, kar je dokaz o prenovljenem, popolnoma drugačnem pojmovanju modernizma med sodobnimi premišljevalci: »As indicated by the works of Ives and Satie, pluralistic modernism can be traced back to the beginning of the 20th century as a track parallel to the track of constructive modernism. It may even be traced further back, to the quotation practise in Mahler's symphonies.«.53 Posledice »adornovske zmote« v slovenskem zgodovinopisju Slovenska glasbenozgodovinska literatura ni ob splošno razširjenem »ador-novskem« sindromu nobena izjema. Ideja »napredka« je bila vodilna gonilna sila družbe in osrednja značilnost »Zeitgeista« 20. stoletja. Težnja po dohitevanju koraka s sodobniki zunaj naših meja, zlasti pa t. i. glasbene avantgarde, je postala tudi del prizadevanj skladateljev manjših in nacionalno šele prebujajočih se narodov, ki so začeli graditi pot svoje lastne tradicije kasneje kot stoletja vodilni narodi. Tudi pri nas se posledice »adornovske« miselnosti odražajo predvsem v (neustreznem?) pojmovanju neoklasicizma, posledično pa tudi modernizma in tradicionalizma v slovenski glasbi. Neoklasicistična, pa tudi druga modernistična dela slovenskih skladateljev, ki imajo še kaj skupnega s tonalnostjo ali z romantičnim izrazom, so prepogosto uvrstijo med tradicionalna. Ob prebiranju glasbenozgodovinskih oz. glasbenoanalitičnih monografij, člankov, razprav in kritik najdemo takšno pojmovanje na vsakem koraku, zato navedimo le nekaj naključnih in zgolj ilustrativnih primerov. Če prevetrimo s tega zornega kota, denimo, monografijo Novejša glasba v Sloveniji Nialla O'Loughlina, naletimo na številne primere posplošenih označb skladateljev in njihove glasbe, ki so plod omenjene miselnosti. Predvsem so z besedo »tradicionalna« označena neoklasicistična dela tudi tistih 52 Messiaen je pripomogel k vzpostavitvi francoskega ekspresionističnega vpliva, francosko-ruska smer se je razvila v neoklasicizem po vzoru šole Nadie Boulanger, nemški, italijanski in francoski modernisti (Henze, Hartmann, Dallapicola, Sockhausen, Boulez, Maderna, Pousseur, Nono in Berio) ter udeleženci modernističnih festivalov iz poznih štiridesetih, petdesetih in šestdesetih v Darmstadtu, Donaueschingenu pa so sledili poti, ki sta jo začrtala Schönberg in druga dunajska šola, s slednjo pa so bila »oplojena« tudi najnovejša dogajanja preko luže in v Evropi (eksperimentalizem, konceptualizem, radikalni minimalizem, nove oblike notacije, aleatorika, elektronska glasba itd.). Prav tam. 53 Christensen, »Interruption, surprise, disturbance, interference - a pluralistic track in musical modernism«, 48. skladateljev, ki jih avtor izrecno ne imenuje npr. »neoklasicistični simfoniki« v posebnem poglavju.54 Podobno pri Klemenčičevem pregledu glasbene umetnosti Slovenije od začetkov do danes zasledimo »modernizem« kot idejni tok in »neoklasicizem« kot slogovno usmeritev šele po letu 1945. Obdobje 1945-1995 je namreč razdeljeno na »9. Neoklasicizem in ekspresionizem« ter »10. Modernizem s postmodernizmom«55, pred tem pa so slogovne tendence prve polovice 20. stoletja obravnavane kot »5. Romanti-ka«,56 »7. Impresionizem«57 ter »8. Ekspresionizem in nova stvarnost«.58 Zato nam je slovenska zgodovinopisna literatura predvsem v oporo, da lahko določenim opisom elementov kompozicijskega stavka že obravnavanih slovenskih del sledimo kot indicem, ki jih potem preverimo s slušno zaznavo ali partituro, ter poskušamo ugotoviti, zakaj „točno gre". Brez dvoma je v njej, seveda, tudi množica ugotovitev, ki so popolnoma verodostojne in v neizmerno pomoč nadaljnjemu raziskovanju. Te problematike pri Slovencih se je na neki način dotaknil, med drugimi, tudi Marijan Lipovšek, ko je zapisal, da smo se »v našem glasbenem življenju navadili, da gledamo na osebe in na dogodke s stališča prvenstva. Venomer namreč ugotavljamo, kdo je najboljši, ne da bi se zavedali, da je to precej otročje. Govoriti o absolutnem prvenstvu med skladatelji se ne da, čeprav smo tudi v dnevnem časopisju že čitali taka mnenja. To so vprašanja, ki so nam sploh odmaknjena in jih ne moremo reševati kar z ugibanji in s fantaziranjem. Če ima kdo primat v tehničnem mojstrstvu, je na drugi strani veliko vprašanje, če ga ima tudi v vsebinski intenziteti in v usmerjenosti svojih skladb.«59 O vsesplošnem sindromu, ki je bil prisoten tudi na Slovenskem, kjer smo dela ocenjevali in razvrščali izključno glede na njihovo avantgardnost zaradi gole fascinacije »napredka«, a brez ustrezne kritičnosti, piše tudi Grdina in poda dva primera: »Sicer pa je Filozofija nove glasbe najbrž že ob svojem rojstvu zavezujoča edino za ljudi, ki jih je fasciniral nimb avantgardizma. [...] Ampak avantgarde ne obdaja samo avreola - sčasoma se je preobrazila v pravi mit. Kot nedokončljiva in vedno v prihodnost odprta fakticiteta je za kaj takega še posebej primerna. [...] Na Slovenskem to lepo dokazuje recepcija pesniškega opusa Srečka Kosovela: njegove vrhunske impresionistične pesmi so v strokovnjaškem ,slovarju pravšnjosti' že lep čas zasenčene z eksaltiranimi ekspresionističnimi vizijami katastrofe in s t. i. konstruktivističnimi lepljenkami. Še bolj značilna pa je zgodba najbolj slavljene-ga predstavnika glasbene avantgarde po I. svetovni vojni - Marija Kogoja. Kdor si je vzel čas in se je poglobil v njegovo rokopisno zapuščino, ki se hoče po vsej sili razglasiti za veliko dediščino, ve, da njegovim delom ni v prid, če se jih izvaja tako, kot so zapisana. [...] Pri avantgardizmu se kritičnost očitno neha: ostaja samo 54 Niall O'Loughlin, Novejša glasba v Sloveniji. Osebnosti in razvoj (Ljubljana: Slovenska matica. 2000), 108. 55 Ivan Klemenčič, Musica noster amor. Glasbena umetnost Slovenije od začetkov do danes. Antologija na 16 zgoščenkah s spremno knjižno publikacijo (Ljubljana: Znanstvenoraziskovalni center SAZU, Slovenska akademija znanosti in umetnosti, 2000), 197. 56 Prav tam, 113. 57 Prav tam, 163. 58 Prav tam, 177. 59 Marijan Lipovšek, »Slavko Osterc«, Slovenska glasbena revija I, št. 2, Glasbeno-knjižni del (jan 1952): 43. fascinacija. Sodobnost prihodnosti sredi današnjosti se pač ne more pohvaliti z merili. Lahko ima samo interes(e).«60 Omenjeno »navado« na temelju »adornovske« miselnosti pri nas opisuje Matjaž Barbo, ko pravi, da je tudi v slovenskem glasbenem zgodovinopisju zaslediti podobno težnjo po opredeljevanju posameznih uveljavljajočih se kompozicijskih ,zgodovinotvor-nih' konceptov. »Tako smo navajeni označevati modernistični odklon v Novo glasbo, ki naj bi po logiki historičnega napredovanja' brez prekinitve zamenjal socrealistične tendence kot vnovičen vstop slovenske glasbe v zgodovino', oz. ,dohitevanje' sodobnih evropskih tokov in s tem novo vzpostavitev estetsko relevantnega kompozicijskega sistema. [...] V vmesnem, nekako zgodovinsko praznem'prostoru ostajajo pri takem opazovanju ustvarjalci petdesetih let in tisti, ki so jim bili tuji ideali uveljavljajoče se Nove glasbe.«61 Tovrstne posledice »adornovske« miselnosti so bile odločilne za marsikaterega skladatelja, zlasti za tiste, ki so jih zaradi njihovega, sicer zmernega modernizma, raziskovalci pejorativno označili kot »tradicionaliste« ter »odložili« njihovo analitično obravnavo za poznejše čase. Razmišljanje pod omenjenim vplivom je bilo prav tako ključnega pomena pri oblikovanju splošne glasbeno-kulturne klime na Slovenskem v 20. stoletju in miselnosti določenih skladateljskih krogov, glasbenih kritikov, zgodovinarjev, pri rasti in razvoju mlade slovenske muzikološke stroke ter, ne nazadnje, pri prenašanju zgodovinskega znanja iz generacije v generacijo. Saj je šlo pri nas »za ločevanje med skladatelji, ki so pisali Novo glasbo, in tistimi, ki je niso. Prve so v tem času [petdeseta], pa tudi še pozneje, imenovali ,sodobne'. Izraz ni pomenil sočasnosti, temveč so ga uporabljali v pomenu edino relevantne estetske paradigme časa. Vsi, ki v ta krog niso sodili [...], so tako posledično veljali za ,nesodobne', to pa je v tistem času pomenilo negativno estetsko oznako.«62 Problematika posledic »adornovske« miselnosti pri nas zadeva tudi razumevanje in definicijo pojmov kot so »modernizem«, »neoklasicizem«, »tradicija«, »klasika«, »nova tonalnost«, »svobodna tonalnost«, »atonalnost«, in podobno. Še danes nimamo namreč za glasbo, ki je nastala v območju med funkcionalno tonalnostjo in atonal-nostjo ustrezne terminologije, saj sta »svobodna tonalnost« in »nova tonalnost« preohlapni in zavajajoči. Nenavadno je, namreč, modernističnemu skladatelju priznati »mogoče tudi nekatere modernistične prvine« v zadnjem obdobju skladateljevega ustvarjanja, »neoklasicistične in neobaročne zglede« v osnovi pejorativno povezovati s »prevzemanjem na slepo« in zunaj modernizma, »srednjo pot« pa razumeti kot 60 Grdina, »Quis contra nos? (Med modernizmom in avantgardizmom)«, 81-82. 61 Barbo, »>Zgodovinskost> skladateljskega opusa Uroša Kreka«, 22. 62 Prav tam, 24. »klasično«.63 To so paradigme, ki bi zahtevale daljšo pojmoslovno razpravo z namenom razjasnjevanja nedorečenosti, dvoumnosti, nesporazumov in nejasnosti v pojmovanju slogov, modernizma ter nekaterih ključnih glasbenoteoretskih izrazov, ki zadevajo številne in raznolike kompozicijske rešitve v glasbi 20. stoletja. Šele, ko se bo pogled na tovrstne idiome tudi zunaj naših meja popolnoma zbistril, bodo dobile glasbenotehnične metode, tehnike in slogovne tendence tega časa tudi svojo ustrezno terminologijo. S tem prispevkom smo želeli v luči postadornovske miselnosti le opozoriti na nevarnosti in pasti povzemanja slogovnih in zgodovinopisnih oznak ter spodbuditi k »prenovljenemu« pogledu na glasbo slovenskih modernistov, katerih raziskovanje naj bi temeljilo predvsem na podrobnejših analizah njihovih notnih zapisov. Bibliografija Bandur, Markus. »Neoklassizismus«. V: Eggebrecht, Heins Heinrich in Riethmüller, Albrecht (po l. 1999), ur.. Handwörterbuch der Musikalischen Terminologie. Ordner IV: M-O. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1994. Barbo, Matjaž. »'Zgodovinskost' skladateljskega opusa Uroša Kreka«. V: Faganel, Tomaž, ur.. Muzikološki kolokvij ob 75-letnici skladatelja in akademika prof. Uroša Kreka. Zbornik referatov. Bilten Slovenskega muzikološkega društva. Posebna številka. Ljubljana: Slovensko muzikološko društvo in Slovenicum, 1997, 21-26. Botstein, Leon. »Modernism«. Oxford music online - Grove music online. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007-2016. Obiskano 1. 12. 2015. http://www.oxfordmusicon-line.com.ezproxy.lib.ukm.si/subscriber/article/grove/music/40625?source=omo_ gmo&source=omo_t237&source=omo_t114&q=modernism&article_section=all&s earch=article&pos=1&_start=1#firsthit. Butler, Christopher. »Innovation and the avant-garde, 1900-20«. V: Cook, Nicholas and Pople, Anthony, ur.. The Cambridge history of twentieth-century music. Cambridge etc.: Cambridge University Press, 2004, 69-89. Christensen, Erik. »Interruption, surprise, disturbance, interference - a pluralistic track in musical modernism«. V: Kuret, Primož, ur.. Glasba in družba v 20. stoletju = Music and society in the 20th century. Slovenski glasbeni dnevi 1998. Ljubljana: Festival Ljubljana, 1999, 42-50. Cook, Nicholas and Pople, Anthony, ur.. The Cambridge history of twentieth-century music. Cambridge etc.: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Danuser, Hermann. »Rewriting the past: classicisms of the inter-war period«. V: Cook, Nicholas and Pople, Anthony, ur.. The Cambridge history of twentieth-century music. Cambridge etc.: Cambridge University Press, 2004, 260-285. Franklin, Peter. »Between the wars: traditions, modernisms, and the ,little people from the suburbs'«. V: Cook, Nicholas and Pople, Anthony, ur.. The Cambridge history 63 Prim. Gregor Pompe, »Violinske skladbe Matija Bravničarja in vprašanje ,klasičnosti' v glasbi 20. stoletja«, Matija Bravničar (1897-1977), Tematska publikacija Glasbeno-pedagoškega zbornika Akademije za glasbo v Ljubljani, zv. 9, Darja Koter, ur. (Ljubljana: Akademija za glasbo Univerze v Ljubljani, 2008), 67-85. of twentieth-century music. Cambridge etc.: Cambridge University Press, 2004, 186-209. Grdina, Igor. »Quis contra nos? (Med modernizmom in avantgardizmom)«. V: Kuret, Primož, ur.. Kontinuiteta in avantgarda - med tradicijo in avantgardo = The Continuity of the Avant-Garde - Between the Tradition and New Challenges. 19. slovenski glasbeni dnevi 2004. Ljubljana: Festival Ljubljana, 2005, 78-83. Griffiths, Paul. »Modernism«. Oxford music online - The Oxford companion to music. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007-2016. Obiskano 1. 11. 2015. http://www.oxfordmu-siconline.com.ezproxy.lib.ukm.si/subscriber/article/opr/t114/e4473?source=omo_ gmo&source=omo_t237&source=omo_t114&q=modernism&article_section=all&s earch=article&pos=2&_start=1#firsthit. Klemenčič, Ivan. Musica noster amor. Glasbena umetnost Slovenije od začetkov do danes. Antologija na 16 zgoščenkah s spremno knjižno publikacijo. Ljubljana: Znanstvenoraziskovalni center SAZU, Slovenska akademija znanosti in umetnosti, 2000. Lipovšek, Marijan. »Slavko Osterc«. Slovenska glasbena revija I, št. 2, Glasbeno-knjižni del (jan 1952): 42-44. Loparnik, Borut. »K vprašanju glasbenega ekspresionizma in avantgarde«. Nova revija VI, št. 58-60 (1987): 374-379. O'Loughlin, Niall. Novejša glasba v Sloveniji. Osebnosti in razvoj. Ljubljana: Slovenska matica, 2000. Pompe, Gregor. »Violinske skladbe Matija Bravničarja in vprašanje ,klasičnosti' v glasbi 20. stoletja«. V: Koter, Darja, ur.. Matija Bravničar (1897-1977). Tematska publikacija Glasbeno-pedagoškega zbornika Akademije za glasbo v Ljubljani. Zv. 9. Ljubljana: Akademija za glasbo Univerze v Ljubljani, 2008, 67-85. Štefanija, Leon. »Nova stvarnost 1920. let in glasba: med potrebnim, možnim in smiselnim«. V: Kuret, Primož, ur.. Glasba v dvajsetih letih 20. stoletja = Music in the twenties of the twentieth century. 23. slovenski glasbeni dnevi = 23rd Slovenian Musical Days, Ljubljana, 21.-24. IV. 2008. Ljubljana: Festival Ljubljana, 2009, 40-49. Stephan, Rudolph. Das musikalisch Neue und die Neue Musik. Mainz: B. Schott's Söhne, 1969. Timms, Andrew. »Modernism's moment of plenitude«. V: Heile, Björn, ur.. The modernist legacy: essays on new music. Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate, 2009. SUMMARY In the paper, we examine one of the key findings of foreign musicologists on the hitherto prevailing notion of music history as being an inadequate and unrealistic construct. We provisionally designated it an "Adornian mistake". Its impact on the understanding of compositional-technical and stylistic phenomena in the music of the 20th century, as well as its musical terminology and historiography, has been extensive and widespread. It has also in- fluenced the understanding of musical modernism, musical avant-garde, neoclassicism, "New tonality", extended tonality, atonality, traditionalism, etc., which is increasingly being addressed by the authors of the current musical-historical literature. It is not so important that Slovenian musicologists and music historians fell victim to the aforementioned "mistake", however, it does reinforce the presence of this extensive and widespread historiographic - nationally and ideologically constructed - phenomenon. The consequences of the "Adornian mistake" are likewise present within our own (inadequate) understanding of neoclassicism, hence also of modernism and traditionalism in Slovenian music. Neo-classicist and other modernist works by Slovenian composers, which contain the remains of tonality or romantic expression, are all too frequently being identified as traditional. Those who equated musical modernism with ato-nality and understood dodecaphony as a closure of the history of tonality, were driven by a certain synchronous logic, which set aside and brought a rearrangement of other styles and movements (as, for example, neoclassicism and surrealism) of the self-proclaimed mainstream of the Second Viennese School. Hence Hermann Danuser introduces the term "modernist classicism" or "classicist modernism", which was, in his opinion, one of the most significant phenomena in the music history of the first half of the 20th century, and was unjustly suppressed as being the opposite pole of the "radical modernism", with a pejorative designation "neoclassicism". Moreover, he speculates whether the latter could be considered to be a part of "radical modernism", thus he calls for a redefinition of the term modernism. According to Leon Botstein, five distinct strands of modernism appeared around 1933: 1) the Second Viennese School with Schonberg and his followers, especially Berg and Webern; 2) the French-Russian axis with Stravinsky being dominant; 3) German Expressionism with Busoni and young Hindemith; 4) national modernisms with Ives in USA, Bartok in Hungary, Szymanowski in Poland, Janâcek and Martinû in postwar Slovakia, Carlos Châvez in Mexico, etc.; experimentalism, which was characteristic for Hâba, Varese and Cowell, and led to the use of microtonality, ambient sound and fascination with non-western music and technology. Even more interesting is Botstein's conclusion, that within particular works of composers, some of the characteristics of these strands are frequently combined. Many of the early modernists, such as Stravinsky, Bartok and Szymanowski, discovered radical and modernist methods of composition within folk music and pre-modernist traditions. Interestingly, a novel and more acceptable concept of musical modernism is offered by Erik Christensen, who, among many others, highlights two central directions: the first is termed constructive modernism, the other pluralistic modernism. Constructive modernism stubbornly persists in the realm of art and oneness in such a way that it substitutes coherence, previously constituted by tradition, with the composer's own creative invention. In contrast, pluralistic modernism reacts with the invention of art by reflecting, emphasizing and commenting on the diversity of this world. In his view, the pluralistic modernism in music encompasses a variety of sound sources, emotions, sociological and cultural frameworks, historical and stylistic references. Thus, he readily places Ives and Satie among modernists, which confirms a re-established notion of modernism among current scholars, quite different from the one that previously prevailed. UDK 78.071.2:78.038.6 DOI: 10.4312/mz.53.1.143-164 Urška Rihtaršič Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana Med telesom in razumom. Izvajalec klasične glasbe v postmodernizmu Between Body and Mind. Classical Music Performer in the Postmodern Era Prejeto: 18. oktober 2016 Sprejeto: 7. december 2016 Ključne besede: romantični virtuoz, modernistični virtuoz, postmoderni virtuoz IZVLEČEK Obstajajo trije idealni tipi (Max Weber) izvajalca zahodne klasične glasbe. Ti tipi opredeljujejo njegov odnos do drugih akterjev glasbene prakse - skladatelja, glasbenega dela in publike. Romantičnemu virtuozu glasba predstavlja sredstvo, prek katerega navdušuje občinstvo s svojo osebnostjo in telesnostjo. Nasprotno pa morata osebnost in telesnost modernističnega virtuoza ostati čim bolj skriti, da se lahko v polnosti izrazi glasbeno delo (Lydia Goehr), ki je plod intelektualnega dela skladatelja. Postmoderni virtuoz skladno z značilnostmi dobe kombinira lastnosti prej obstoječih tipov (pastiš, palimpsest), poleg tega pa ga bistveno opredeljuje vpetost umetnosti v sistem poznega kapitalizma in postmoderna izguba specifičnosti estetske izkušnje (Fredric Jameson). Received: 18th October 2016 Accepted: 7th December 2016 Keywords: romantic virtuoso, modern virtuoso, postmodern virtuoso ABSTRACT There are three ideal types (Max Weber) of a western classical music performer. These types describe the performer's relationship to composer, musical work and audience. The romantic virtuoso uses music as a means to impress audiences with his personality and corporeality. On the contrary, personality and corporeality of the modernist virtuoso must remain hidden in order to highlight the musical work (Lydia Goehr), which is the result of the composer's intellectual work. In accordance with the general features of postmodern era, the postmodern virtuoso combines and mixes characteristics of previously existing types (pasticcio, palimpsest). This type is also highly defined by the incorporation of postmodern art into the system of late capitalism and the postmodern loss of the specificity of aesthetic experience (Fredric Jameson). Uvod Ustvarjanje glasbe je družbena dejavnost. Družbene specifike vplivajo na značilnosti v glasbi in hierarhična razmerja v glasbi odslikavajo socialna razmerja. Zahodno družbo je v vseh njenih zgodovinskih oblikah zaznamovala stroga hierarhizacija, kar se odraža tudi v strukturi glasbe in glasbene prakse. V kar preveč očitni obliki se takšna hierarhizacija kaže v zgradbi in prostorski formaciji simfoničnega orkestra. Manj očitne, a ravno tako pomembne odnosne pozicije pa se oblikujejo med skladateljem, glasbenim delom, izvajalcem in občinstvom. Raziskovanje razmerij med akterji glasbene prakse nam tako lahko pove veliko o strukturi družbe, v kateri so se tovrstna razmerja oblikovala, ter o položaju umetnosti in glasbe znotraj nje. V pričujočem prispevku se bom zgoraj omenjenemu kavzalnemu razmerju približala z nasprotne strani. Prek analize socialnih in kulturnih specifik, ki so bistveno vplivale na razvoj in družbeno pozicijo umetnosti in glasbe, bom poskušala določiti in razložiti položaj izvajalca zahodne klasične glasbe v razmerju do drugih akterjev glasbene prakse. Pri tem se bom osredotočila na izvajalca kot solista in kot člana komornih zasedb; odnosom v orkestru se ne bom posvečala. Specifika zahodne klasične glasbe Številni sociologi in etnomuzikologi kot eno osnovnih karakteristik zahodne glasbene kulture navajajo delitev na avtorstvo in izvedbo oz. opozicijo med formalno strukturo in njeno zvočno realizacijo.1 V ekstremnih primerih tovrstnega ločevanja je zvočna realizacija razumljena zgolj kot ,nujno zlo', prek katerega se razkrije čista struktura glasbenega dela. Opozicijo dodatno zaostruje v zahodni družbi tradicionalno prisoten kartezijanski dualizem, ki predpostavlja ločevanje človeške entitete na duh (oz. razum; v glasbenem kontekstu je produkt razuma formalna struktura dela) in telo (inferiorno razumu; v glasbenem kontekstu je nujno povezano z izvedbo). Poljski fenomenolog Roman Ingarden je glasbeno delo opredelil kot intencionalni objekt. V trenutku kreacije vse faze objekta simultano obstajajo v razumu skladatelja, katerega intencionalnost definira identiteto objekta.2 Izvedba tako v nobenem primeru ne more biti konstitutivni del objekta, saj gre pravzaprav za njegovo destrukcijo oz. časovno porazdelitev realno hkrati-obstoječih elementov. Enako po Ingardnu drži za partituro - notacija ni nikoli dovolj specificirana, da bi lahko v polnosti izrazila intencionalni objekt.3 Ingardnov intencionalni objekt predstavlja skrajni primer, ki pa naj služi za ilustracijo temeljnega razcepa zahodne klasične glasbe, torej razcepa na avtorstvo in izvedbo. Tega je v veliki meri omogočil šele razvoj notne pisave, ki je glasbo ločila od 1 Paul Theberge, Any sound you can imagine: making music/consuming technology (Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press., 1997), 189; Charles Keil in Steven Feld, Music grooves (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press., 1994), 55; Jože Vogrinc, Popularna godba. Eseji o poslušanju (Maribor: Subkulturni azil, 2012), 31. 2 Daniel Leech-Wilkinson, »The changing sound of music: approaches to studying recorded musical performances« (http://www. charm.rhul.ac.uk/studies/chapters/intro.html, 10. 3. 2016), 2-11. 3 Prav tam. izvajalčevega telesa.4 Vendar pa je bila vloga notacije sprva predvsem deskriptivna -partitura ni predstavljala prostora komponiranja, pač pa je služila predvsem kot opora spominu, torej kot prostor zapisovanja v praksi že obstoječih glasbenih idej. Tudi, ko je notacija postala preskriptivna, pa cilj še ni bilo ustvarjanje fiksnih glasbenih objektov oz. glasbenih del. Še v 16. stoletju partitura ni bila končni cilj skladateljskega dela, pač pa predvsem tehnični pripomoček, s katerim je skladatelj »načrtoval vloge, ki jih je bilo treba izvesti«.5 Do 17. stoletja je bilo veliko podrobnosti izvedbe prepuščenih interpretu - od izvedbe generalbasa pa do relativne svobode pri improvizaciji melodičnih linij. Vse do 18. stoletja je bila tudi zahodna klasična glasba, kakor večina drugih glasb, predvsem performativna umetnost.6 Skladatelji so kot končni rezultat svojega kompozicijskega procesa dojemali izvedbo. Kadar je bilo izvedb ene skladbe več, je vsaka posamezna izvedba predstavljala svojevrsten fenomen - posledično so se lahko v določenih podrobnostih precej razlikovale. Še v 19. stoletju je Gioacchino Rossini predstavljal tip skladatelja, »čigar dela so v funkciji čim bolj prepričljive glasbene izvedbe. Tej se seveda lahko v konkretni produkciji prilagajajo, izvajalec pa je pri tem relativno svoboden«.7 Takšno prilagajanje je tudi posledica slave, ki so jo v tistem času dosegali virtuozni izvajalci - ravno ti so bili pogosto razlog, da je občinstvo množično obiskovalo operne predstave in koncerte. Rossinijevski tip skladatelja pa najde svojo močno opozicijo v Ludwigu van Beethovnu - njegova dela predstavljajo »nespremenljive spomenike, katerih interpretacija je vedno le v funkciji razlage nedotakljivega dela«.8 Prepričanje, da naj bi zapisani tekst v celoti določal interpretacijo, pa v resnici ni novo. Že Aristotel je v Poetiki idejni obliki eksistence umetnosti pripisoval prednost pred njeno realizacijo.9 Prav Beethovnova pozna dela, ki jih je skladatelj napisal v obdobju popolne oglušelosti, tako predstavljajo »ideal tovrstnega platonističnega vrednotenja glasbe« - Beethoven je doživljal glasbo kot »čisto idejo in sploh ni potreboval fizikalnega zvoka kot njenega nujno nepopolnega posnetka«.10 Z razvojem preciznejše notacije je skladatelj pridobival vse bolj ekskluzivno odgovornost za detajle v kompoziciji, hkrati pa mu je natančno zapisovanje omogočilo, da je bil vse manj vključen v proces izvedbe svojih del. Ker so bile skladbe natančno notirane, jih je moral izvajalec tudi natančno izvesti. Tako je bila ustvarjena in utrjena vloga skladatelja kot ustvarjalnega genija, hkrati pa je prihajalo do razvrednotenja vloge glasbenika inštrumentalista oz. poustvarjalca.11 Klasična glasba se je v zahodnih kulturah pozicionirala kot intelektualna dejavnost, ki jo z ustvarjanjem glasbenih del poganjajo skladatelji. Partitura, ki je v prejšnjih stoletjih predstavljala zgolj prostor zapisa že obstoječe glasbene praske ali pripomoček za komponiranje, od 18. stoletja naprej 4 Jacques Attali, Hrup: esej o politični ekonomiji glasbe (Ljubljana: Maska, 2008), 19. 5 Prav tam, 219. 6 Lydia Goehr, The imaginary museum of musical works: an essay in the philosophy of music (Oxford: Clarendon Press., 1992), 178. 7 Matjaž Barbo, Pomen v glasbi in glasba v pomenu (Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete, 2015), 48. 8 Prav tam. 9 Jože Vogrinc, »Aristotelova teorija filma«, Filmska komedija, ur. Zdenko Vrdlovec, ur. (Ljubljana: Revija Ekran, 1989), 168. 10 Vogrinc, Popularna godba, 33. 11 Theberge, Any sound you can imagine, 178. simbolizira glasbo samo.12 Čeprav se je občinstvo tradicionalno navduševalo nad vir-tuoznostjo izvajalcev, pa je danes partitura tista, ki je simbolizirala trajen in posledično višje vrednoten umetniški izraz. Pri tem gre za posledico nekaterih družbenih dogajanj, ki so vzpostavile skladatelja in glasbeno delo kot superiorno izvajalcu. Vstop umetnosti v kapitalistični sistem in razvoj romantične virtuoznosti Pred 18. stoletjem sta v zahodnem svetu družbeni pomen glasbene prakse in njena legitimacija izhajala iz funkcije, ki jo je glasba opravljala v kontekstu drugih družbenih institucij, predvsem religioznih in aristokratskih. Te so lahko odločale o njeni vsebini, obliki in pogojih produkcije. Umetniki večinoma niso ustvarjali iz lastnega vzgiba, pač pa so bili popolnoma integrirani v cerkveno ali aristokratsko okolje. Tradicionalna družba tako ni poznala pojma umetnikove subjektivnosti13 in kadar so glasbena dela izdajali v notni obliki, se na prvi strani ni pojavilo skladateljevo ime, pač pa priložnost oz. oseba, za katero je bilo delo napisano. Za ,lastnika' glasbe se tako ni štel njen avtor, pač pa je pripadala tistemu, ki je delo naročil.14 Obdobje po letu 1800 pa na področje umetnosti prinese radikalno spremembo. Z vzponom meščanskega razreda in posledičnim razmahom kapitalističnega trga postane tudi umetniška proizvodnja vpeta v načela tržne ekonomije. Umetnost se tako osvobodi zunanje legitimacije, a hkrati postane podrejena logiki profita in konkurenčnosti. Osebni odnos, značilen za razmerje med umetnikom in njegovim mecenom se umakne anonimnemu svobodnemu tržišči, ki je zasnovano na logiki profita in konku-renčnosti.15 Meščanstvo, ki je z nakupom vstopnic financiralo novo rojeno koncertno dejavnost, je imelo posledično moč določati njeno obliko in vsebino. Ker je hlepelo po spektakularnosti in pompoznosti, ki bi simbolizirala njegovo novo pridobljeno družbeno in politično moč, je morala biti tudi glasba vse bolj spektakularna in pompozna. Orkestri so postajali večji in notranje vse bolj diferencirani, inštrumenti so se razvijali v smeri večjega zvočnega volumna in posledično težjega obvladovanja, pojavili so se zvezdniški virtuozi.16 Virtuozni recital, ki ga je leta 1840 v Londonu ,izumil' Franz Liszt,17 obuja v klasični glasbi dolgo izgubljeno in zatajevano povezavo s telesnostjo in ritualnostjo. Lawrence Kramer po vzoru Mihaela Bahtina izvore virtuoznosti in zvezdništva išče v predmoder-nih festivalskih praksah, pri katerih še ni jasne ločnice med izvajalci in gledalci - vsi udeleženci so hkrati virtuozi in njihovi oboževalci. S poblagovljenjem glasbe se je romantični virtuoz ločil od publike, s čimer je postal recital družbeno regulirana verzija 12 Leech-Wilkinson, »The changinh sound of music«, 2-3. 13 Aleš Debeljak, Na ruševinah modernosti: institucija umetnosti in njene zgodovinske oblike (Ljubljana: Znanstveno in publicistično središče, 1999), 23. 14 Barbo, Pomen v glasbi in glasba v pomenu, 41. 15 Debeljak, Na ruševinah modernosti, 27, 40, 79. 16 Jacques Attali, Hrup: esej o politični ekonomiji glasbe (Ljubljna: Maska, 2008), 69. 17 Goehr, Imaginary museum of musical works, 240. festivala.18 Dejstvo, da je za obisk recitala potrebno plačati vstopnico in da je dogodek podrobno načrtovan, pa ne zmanjšuje njegovega učinka, ampak zgolj povečuje občutek ritualnosti in ločenosti od vsakdanje rutine. V tem kontekstu je cilj virtuoznega nastopa predvsem množična katarza, ki jo na koncu dosežeta tako virtuoz kot njegovo občinstvo.19 Skupna katarza je mogoča, ker se občinstvo popolnoma poistoveti z virtuozom, kar potrjujeta tako psihoanalitična teorija20 kot tudi pred kratkim izvedene nevro-psihološke študije. Kalifornijska univerza UCLA je potrdila obstoj živčnega procesa, ki so ga poimenovali mirroring (zrcaljenje). V procesu zrcaljenja naši nevroni oponašajo dogajanje v svoji okolici, kar vpliva tako na fizični kot tudi emocionalni živčni sistem. Če vidimo nekoga, ki se nasmehne, se bodo sprožili živci, povezani s smejalnimi mišicami, pa tudi možganski živci, povezani z občutkom sreče. Empatija je torej vgrajena v človeški nevronski sistem in proces zrcaljenja omogoča identifikacijo z virtuozom, saj lahko dejansko občutimo boj in zmagoslavje glasbenika na odru.21 Romantični virtuozi so se zavedali pomembnosti lastnega telesa pri komunikaciji z občinstvom. Prototip romantičnega virtuoza Franz Liszt je telesne geste, ki so sicer nujno potrebne za proizvajanje zvoka na klavirju, še dodatno dramatiziral, do klaviature pa je vzpostavljal skoraj erotični odnos. Na koncertnih turnejah se je zanašal na tri atribute, vse tesno povezane z njegovo telesnostjo: značilen in prepoznaven kostum, rokavice, ki jih je pred začetkom koncerta odvrgel, da so si jih oboževalci lahko prisvojili kot trofejo in spomin ter lase, ki so mu med igranjem vihrali okrog glave.22 Romantični virtuoz je torej glasbo izkoriščal kot sredstvo, s katerim je dokazoval svojo superiornost in tako navduševal množice, svojo javno podobo pa je gradil na poudarjeni telesnosti. Nasproti pa mu je stopila kultura, ki je pod vplivom ločevanja na avtorstvo in izvedbo ter koncepta glasbenega dela (glej naslednje poglavje) glasbo dojemala vse bolj kot intelektualno, in ne kot telesno dejavnost. Ni torej presenetljivo, da je bil romantični virtuoz v klasičnem kontekstu hitro označen za ,šarlatana', ki sta mu pomembni zgolj hitrost in tehnika, virtuozni recital pa za popularni spektakel, primerljiv s cirkuško predstavo.23 V kontekstu resne glasbe je takšen tip virtuoza postal neprimeren - svoje mesto pa je uspešno našel v popularni kulturi. Elitizem, ideologija Werktreue in razvoj modernistične virtuoznosti Meščanstvo, ki je sprva sestavljalo enoten družbeni sloj, se je v 19. in 20. stoletju notranje jasno diferenciralo. Na eni strani so bili srednji in višji meščanski sloji, ki so jih zaznamovale funkcije »pridobitništva in gmotnega lastništva«, na drugi strani pa je stala 18 Lawrence Kramer, »The virtuoso body; or, the two births of musical performance«, Critical Musicological Reflections, ur. Stan Hawkins (Burlington: Ashgate, 2012), 242. 19 Kramer, »The virtuoso body«, 238. 20 Za psihoanalitično razlago virtuoznega nastopa glej Kramer, »The virtuoso body«, 238-239. 21 David Byrne, How music works (Edinburgh, London: Canongate, 2013), 342. 22 Kramer, »The virtuoso body«, 238-239. 23 Goehr, Imaginary museum of musical works, 233. intelektualno-umetniška elita, ki je zastopala »funkcije kulture, duha in izobrazbe«.24 Slednja je svojo pozicijo začela razumevati kot »superiorno glede na banalne zakonitosti profita ter mehanizme ponudbe in povpraševanja«,25 kakršnim so se po uspešno prilagajali tudi nekateri umetnosti fenomeni, kot sta popularni roman in romantični virtuoz. Romantika je torej na glasbenem področju zaslužna tako za izoblikovanje ideala romantičnega virtuoza, ki postavi temelje za vzpostavitev koncepta zvezde,26 kot tudi za nasprotujoče ,moderno' razumevanje umetniških del, ki izražajo »radikalni odmik od popularnosti in množičnega občinstva«.27 Ta se v polnosti uresniči v obdobju visokega modernizma, ko se kot ključna estetska kriterija uveljavita individualnost in novost, kot posledica pa naraščata intelektualizem in kompleksnost umetniških postopkov. Umetnost tako postaja dostopna vse ožjemu krogu izobraženih posameznikov. Dokler je glasbo opredeljevala zunanja legitimacija, je bilo glasbeno ustvarjanje razumljeno kot obrtniško delo. Tako komponiranje kot igranje inštrumentov sta bili predvsem obrtniški spretnosti. Danes avtonomne umetnosti, ki jih opredeljuje predvsem estetska funkcija, jasno ločujemo od obrtniških izdelkov, ki so sicer lahko lepi, a je njihova glavna značilnost uporabnost. Ko se je glasba osvobodila zunanje legitimacije, se je pojavila potreba po trajnejših produktih, ki bi bili primerljivi z drugimi umetniškimi artefakti npr. s slikami, kipi ali z romani in ki bi jih bilo mogoče analitično preučevati. Tako je bil ustvarjen koncept glasbenega dela. Po Lydii Goehr so glavne značilnosti koncepta glasbenega dela naslednje: a) je edinstvena in zavestno ustvarjena kompozicija; glavni cilj glasbene aktivnosti je proizvesti glasbeno delo, b) materializira in ohranja se v obliki partiture, c) kot zaključena forma obstaja že pred svojo izvedbo, pa tudi če izvedbe sploh ni ali če je izvedb več.28 Omenjeni koncept danes regulira celotno glasbeno prakso in z njo povezane pojme - biti resen glasbenik pomeni ustvarjati ali poustvarjati glasbena dela. Lydia Goehr govori o konceptualnem imperializmu in trdi, da je bila po letu 1800 celotna glasbena zgodovina rekonstruirana na način, da je ustrezala prevladujočemu konceptu glasbenega dela?9 Ko glasba postane striktno intelektualna dejavnost, mora biti cilj izvedbe glasbenih del razkrivanje njihove formalne strukture in skladateljevih idej, ki se skrivajo v njej. Ker je glasbeno delo edinstven in zavesten produkt ustvarjalnih sil skladateljskega genija, mora biti njegova izvedba natančna reprodukcija notnega teksta, v katerem je materializirano. Posledično je prepovedana kakršnakoli improvizacija ali samovoljno okraševanje, ki sta v preteklih obdobjih predstavljala osnovo glasbene izvedbe; izvajalec postane neviden služabnik dela, ki ga mora izvesti z največjo natančnostjo in spoštovanjem. Novo razmerje med skladateljem, delom in izvajalcem se izraža v ideologiji 24 Aleš Debeljak, Postmoderna sfinga (Celovec-Salzburg: Wieser, 1989), 61. 25 Prav tam. 26 Attali, Hrup, 70. 27 Debeljak, Postmoderna sfinga, 59. 28 Goehr, Imaginary museum of musical works, 118. 29 Goehr, Imaginary museum of musical works, 121, 245. Werktreue (zvestoba delu), to je prepričanje, po katerem so izvajalci in izvedbe del podrejeni delom in njihovim skladateljem.30 Ideologijo najustrezneje razloži Wagner-jev citat: Največja zasluga izvajalca, virtuoza, je čista in popolna reprodukcija skladateljeve misli... Pred nas mora namreč stopiti čisto reproducirano glasbeno delo, nikoli pa moteča individualnost izvajalca.31 V tradiciji zahodne klasične glasbe so romantične virtuoze nadomestili modernistični virtuozi, katerih naloga je bila razumski pristop k izvedbam oblikovno in har-monsko vse zahtevnejših del modernizma. Ker v center zanimanja stopa glasbeno delo, je najboljša izvedba tista, ki razkrije čim več dela in čim manj izvajalca. V kontekstu modernistične glasbe je izvajalec pogosto razumljen celo kot moteč element, saj njegova osebnost lahko pomeni oviro pri sprejemanju glasbenih del kot avtonomnih objektov.32 Telesnost, nujno povezana z izvedbo del, je pogosto razumljena kot nepotreben vizualni dražljaj, ki lahko nastopa kot motnja strukturiranemu poslušanju, nujno potrebnemu za razumevanje kompleksnih modernističnih kompozicij. Če je romantičnemu virtuozu bistvena poudarjena telesnost, pa mora pri modernističnem virtuozu ta ostati kar se da skrita, v ospredje stopa razum. Modernistični virtuoz lastno individualnost podreja glasbenemu delu in skladateljevim idejam, njegovi telesni gibi pa so omejeni izključno na geste, nujno potrebne za ustvarjanje zvoka.33 Česa nas je naučila izkušnja akuzmatike Težnja po popolni kontroli in izključevanju inštrumentalista, kot vmesnega člena med skladateljem in poslušalcem, je nekatere skladatelje vodila v elektronski studio. Ko je zvok generiran s pomočjo elektronskih naprav, izgubi še zadnje povezave s človeško telesnostjo, ki jim je bil zavezan v okvirih akustične glasbe. Skladbe za magnetofonski trak in elektronsko sintezo zvokov zaznamujeta tehnokratskost in izjemna racionalistič-nost, rezultat pa so fiksne studijsko producirane skladbe. Posledično glasba postane »izključen privilegij skladatelja«,34 hkrati pa je izgubljen fizični stik med glasbenikom in njegovim inštrumentov, ki je stoletja predstavljal temelje glasbene prakse in inovacije. Z izgubo telesne povezave med glasbenikom in inštrumentom pa so izgubljene tudi nekatere bistvene lastnosti, ki sicer zaznamujejo glasbeno prakso - »spontanost, dialog, odkrivanje in skupinska interpretacija«.35 Elektronska glasba na ta način nadaljuje v zahodni kulturi in glasbi dolgo prisotno tradicijo ločevanja telesa in razuma in jo deloma celo zaključuje. Obstaja namreč smer, ki je popolnoma izključila človeško prezenco tudi iz koncertnega konteksta - musique 30 Prav tam, 231. 31 Richard Wagner v John R. Pippen, »Toward a Postmodern Avant-Garde: Labour, Virtuosity, and Aesthetics in an American New Music Ensemble«, Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository, 116. Obiskano 6. 1. 2016, http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=3698&context=etd. 32 Prav tam, 118. 33 Prav tam, 119. 34 Roger Sutherland, Nove glasbene perspektive. Evropska in ameriška avantgarda v glasbi 20. stoletja (Ljubljana: Lud Šerpa, 2009), 205. 35 Prav tam. acousmatique oz. akuzmatična glasba. Termin izhaja iz grške besede akusmatikoi, ki »je označevala tiste Pitagorove učence, ki so zaradi boljše koncentracije svojega učitelja poslušali za zaveso in ga torej niso videli«.36 Namen takšnega poslušanja je bila slušna koncentracija brez motečih vizualnih dražljajev. Pri akuzmatični glasbi poslušalci ne vidijo oz. ne morejo najti izvora zvoka. S pretrganjem vseh referencialnih zvez so ustvarjeni idealni pogoji za reducirano poslušanje,37 to je način poslušanja, pri katerem je vsa pozornost usmerjena na značilnosti in karakteristike zvoka. Z elektronsko glasbo je zahodna klasična glasba dobila možnost, da dokončno zadosti vrednotam kartezijanskega dualizma in popolnoma izključi človeško telo iz ustvarjalnega konteksta - glasba se je lahko realno vzpostavila kot kristalizacija čistega razuma oz. ideje. A če nas je akuzmatična glasba česa zares naučila, je to najbrž dejstvo, da je človeška prezenca v glasbenem kontekstu še kako pomembna. Razloge za to je potrebno iskati v prepletu glasbene tradicije in sodobne glasbene prakse. Glasba kot performativna dejavnost je mnogo starejša od konceptov notnega zapisa, skladatelja, glasbenega dela in koncerta. Pravzaprav je zahodna klasična glasba edina, ki takšne koncepte sploh striktno ločuje. Pogled v sodobne popularne zvrsti in v glasbe drugih kultur nam pokaže, da je bistvo glasbene dejavnosti živo izvajanje, pri katerem ima proces muziciranja prednost pred formalno strukturo dela. Glasbena dejavnost je tako rezultat zvočnih, vizualnih in socialnih interakcij. Kot performativna dejavnost je glasba globoko zakoreninjena tudi v kulturnem kapitalu poslušalcev zahodne klasične glasbe in težko je pričakovati, da bodo pripravljeni sprejeti popolno odsotnost človeške prezence, torej živega izvajanja glasbe, v koncertnem kontekstu. Drugi razlog izhaja iz dejstva, da sodobno kulturo »vsestransko obvladuje vizualno in podoba«.38 Medijski teoretik Marshall McLuhan trdi, da se je pod vplivom razsvetljenstva in znanstvene revolucije naša kultura iz akustično-orientirane preobrazila v vizu-alno-orientirano. Po Michaelu Benamouju pa prav performativnost predstavlja glavno značilnost postmoderne kulture.39 Zato se počutimo udobno z glasbeniki, fiksiranimi na odru pred nami, neprijetno pa, kadar izvora zvoka ne moremo videti ali identificirati. Naša kultura očitno preferira vidne zaznave in tudi če si tega ne priznamo, so ob obisku koncerta vizualne informacije pomembne vsaj toliko kot zvočne. Prek vizualnega stika občinstvo vzpostavlja empatične povezave z izvajalcem (mirroring), hkrati pa mu fizične geste glasbenikov pomagajo predvideti nadaljnji potek zvočnih dogodkov. Kadar je izvajalec odsoten, kot v akuzmatični glasbi, je občinstvo prikrajšano za velik del informacij. V nasprotju z modernistično ideologijo, ki je želela izvajalca narediti čim bolj neopaznega, da bi se lahko v polnosti izpostavilo glasbeno delo, postmodernizem ponovno odkriva izvajalca, ki ni zgolj medij prenosa glasbenih idej med skladateljem in poslušalcem, pač pa bistveno prispeva k formaciji in percepciji le-teh. V postmoder-nizmu so se pojavili nekateri kompozicijski slogi, ki nasprotujejo konceptu glasbenega 36 Gregor Pompe, Novi tokovi v glasbi 20. stoletja (Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete, 2014), 213. 37 Christoph Cox in Daniel Warner, Audio culture: readings in modern music (New York, London: Continuum, 2007), 66. 38 Fredric Jameson, Kulturni obrat. Izbrani spisi opostmoderni (Ljubljana: Studia humanitatis, 2012), 123. 39 Philip Auslander, »Postmodernism and performance«, The Cambridge Companion to Postmodernism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., 2004), 99. dela, kot ga je definirala Lydia Goehr. Nastala ,dela' ne predpostavljajo podrejenega izvajalca (modernističnega virtuoza), pač pa ga - nasprotno - deloma celo vključujejo v ustvarjalni proces. Gre za odprte oz. nedoločene glasbene forme, ki jih filozofa Umberto Eco in Gilles Deleuze povezujeta s splošnimi karakteristikami sodobne kulture. Če je tradicionalni koncept ,zaprtega dela' zrcalil družbe, ki jim dominirata newtonska fizika in ideja Boga, pa odprte forme izražajo nedeterminiranost kvantne fizike in sveta, ki se je osvobodil teološke dominacije.40 Odprta forma v glasbi tako predstavlja izziv modernističnemu dojemanju izvajalca kot podrejenega skladatelji in glasbenemu delu. Izvajalec v (sodobni) muzikologiji Kot je bilo povedan na začetku, zahodno klasičnoglasbeno prakso bistveno opredeljuje razcep na avtorstvo in izvedbo. Od leta 1800 se je izvajalec zahodne klasične glasbe lahko vzpostavil kot romantični virtuoz, virtuozni zvezdnik, ki navdušuje široke množice, ali kot modernistični virtuoz, podrejen izvajalec glasbenih del. Verjetno pa je jasno, da v realnosti ne moremo najti izvajalcev, ki bi jih lahko definirali kot izključno romantične ali modernistične virtuoze. Termina tako uporabljam kot idealna tipa, ki kljub poimenovanju nista nujno vezana zgolj na specifična zgodovinska obdobja. Po Maxu Webru sociologija za razliko od zgodovine, ki »si prizadeva za vzročno analizo in oceno individualnih, kulturno pomembnih dejanj, tvorb [...] in osebnosti«, tvori »pojme v obliki tipov in išče splošna pravila dogajanja«.41 Idealni tip ustvarimo z »enostranskim stopnjevanjem enega ali več gledišč«,42 posledično pa takšna tvorba ne more biti v celoti prisotna v resničnosti. Realne tipe ocenjujemo in razvrščamo glede na bližino posameznim idealnim tipom. Ideali tip romantičnega virtuoza se ni skladal z vse bolj elitistično pozicijo moderne umetnosti in je bil z vidika muzikologije hitro pregnan v območje popularne kulture. Modernistični virtuoz pa kot izvrševalec v partituri zapisanih navodil izvajalec ni bil razumljen kot pomemben člen pri formaciji glasbenega pomena - ta je potekala na eni strani v razumu skladatelja in na drugi strani v razumu poslušalca. Niti romantična niti modernistična virtuoznost tako nista predstavljali predmeta zanimanja muzikološke znanosti, ki se je ukvarjala predvsem s skladatelji in njihovimi deli. V zadnjih desetletjih pa so se pojavile skupine muzikologov, ki opozarjajo na kompleksno pozicijo glasbenih izvajalcev in na odnos muzikologije do tega vprašanja. Eden tistih, ki svoj raziskovalni fokus obračajo prvenstveno na izvajalca, je britanski muzikolog Daniel Leech-Wilkinson. Po njegovem mnenju je muzikologija pogosto videla svojo edino povezavo z izvajalci v dajanju navodil in zapovedi, kako je potrebno neko delo izvesti. Muzikolog v tem kontekstu nastopa kot nosilec znanja in vedenja, ki si ga je pridobil s poglobljeno analitično in zgodovinsko študijo glasbenih del. V realnosti pa je način, kako je glasba zvenela v konkretni izvedbi, vedno vplival na njeno 40 Cox in Warner, Audio culture, 165. 41 Max Weber, »Temeljni sociološki pojmi«, Kompendijsocioloških teorij, Frane Adam in Matevž Tomšič, ur. (Ljubljana: Študentska založba, 2004), 67. 42 Kurt Blaukopf, Glasba v družbenih spremembah. Temeljne poteze sociologije glasbe (Ljubljana: Studia Humanitatis, 1993), 155. koncepcijo v muzikologiji. Leech-Wilkinson prek proučevanj posnetkov dokazuje, da se je s spreminjanjem izvajalske prakse vzporedno spreminjal tudi način pisanja o glasbi.43 Trdi, da nas izvajalci lahko naučijo stvari, ki so prav tako zanimive in resnične kot tiste, do katerih pripeljejo muzikološke analize. Kot primer si oglejmo Leech-Wilkinsonovo analizo sprememb v znanstvenem pisanju o Schubertovih samospevih, ki so jih povzročile predhodne spremembe v njihovi izvajalski interpretaciji. Na predvojnih posnetkih Schubertovi samospevi zvenijo kot enostavne pesmi, v katerih glasba ilustrira površinsko vsebino besedila - gre za preprosto in direktno ekspresijo v besedilu očitno prisotnih emocij. Muzikološki komentarji samospevov se osredotočajo predvsem na pravilno in konstantno razmerje med klavirjem in vokalom; vsebinsko se dogaja natančno to, kar opisujejo besede. Schubert je v muzikoloških zapisih iz tega obdobja opisovan kot sramežljiv in naiven skladatelj, ki z melodičnimi postopi natančno opisuje besedilo skladbe. Po drugi svetovni vojni pa se je pod vplivom splošne družbene klime, razočaranja nad človeško naravo in doživetjem vojnih grozot način izvajanja samospevov spremenil. Izvedbe Schubertovih samospevov naenkrat zaznamujejo »eksplozivni sforzandi, močne kon-sonance, občasni zdrsi med posameznimi tonskimi višinami«,44 v katerih se zrcali vpliv Freudove teorije nezavednega. Vendar pa mora preteči še nekaj desetletij, preden se podoba Schuberta spremeni tudi v muzikološki literaturi. Šele v sedemdesetih letih lahko najdemo pisne interpretacije Schubertovih samospevov, ki glasbo opisujejo v kontekstu drame in notranjega boja protagonistov. Predvidevamo torej lahko, da poglobljena psihološka interpretacija Schubertovih samospevov ne bi bila mogoče brez predhodne spremembe v izvajalski praksi. Posledično lahko trdimo, da je vpliv izvedbenih tradicij na muzikologijo intenzivnejši kot obratni vpliv.45 Za razliko od tradicionalnega zahodnega dojemanja glasbe, ki kot bistvo glasbene prakse razume ustvarjanje notiranih glasbenih del, se za večino izvajalcev in tudi za nekatere muzikologe glasba dogaja predvsem v performativnem kontekstu. Leech-Wilkinson navaja več razlogov, ki zagovarjajo posvečanje izvajalcem in njihovemu delu v kontekstu muzikološke znanosti. Prvi in najočitnejši razlog izhaja iz dejstva, da do glasbe dejansko ne moremo dostopati drugače, kot prek izvedbe. Tudi, kadar beremo partituro, jo izvajamo v svojih mislih. Kadar si zamislimo določeno delo, si ne zamislimo njegove partiture, pač pa njegovo zvočno realizacijo - izvedbo, ki pa je vedno podvržena trenutnim izvedbenim tradicijam. Izvedba torej nepovratno oblikuje in zaznamuje našo percepcijo in razumevanje glasbenih del.46 Po Leech-Wilkinsonu glasbeno delo ne more obstajati kot objekt, pač pa zgolj kot proces. Preostali razlogi so povezani z razvojem snemalnih tehnologij in s posledično sočasno dostopnostjo več različnih izvedb istega dela. Njihova raznolikost dokazuje, da obstaja mnogo interpretacij istega notnega teksta in da glasbeno delo torej ne more obstajati kot fiksna objektivna entiteta. Posledično tudi ne moremo trditi, da obstaja neka idealna izvedba dela, ki bi bila 43 Daniel Leech-Wilkinson, »Musicology and Performance«, 791. Obiskano 10. 3. 2016, http://www.rilm.org/historiography/leech. pdf. 44 Prav tam, 800. 45 Prav tam, 800-803. 46 Leech-Wilkinson, »The changing sound of music«, 2'23. točno taka, kot si jo je zamislil skladatelj. Takšno prepričanje se sklada tudi s postmo-dernistično teorijo pluralnosti resnic, ki jo zagovarja francoski teoretik postmoderniz-ma Jean-François Lyotard. Več izvedb istega dela je lahko enako kompetentnih.47 Vse več sodobnih muzikoloških raziskav se osredotoča tudi na izvajalčeve vizualne signale in njihovim vplivom na poslušalca. Teresa Vila Verde poudarja, da živa izvedba glasbe nikoli ni samo zvočni, pač pa vedno tudi vizualni dogodek.48 Posledično bi bilo po njenem potrebno vizualno dimenzijo glasbenega dogodka iz omejenega nabora glasbenih gest razširiti na celoten oder, torej vključiti gledališkost v glasbeno ustvarjanje. Eden od postmodernih postopkov, ki jih v tem kontekstu predlaga Vila Verde, je uporaba koreografije. John Pippen je takšno uporabo analiziral na primeru ameriške skupine eighth blackbird, ki se posveča predvsem izvajanju glasbe iz obdobja modernizma in postmodernizma. Uporaba koreografije pomeni jasen odmik od modernističnih idealov zakrivanja izvajalca, saj poudarja predvsem vizualni aspekt koncertnega nastopa. S pomočjo koreografije želi eighth blackbird približati sodobno glasbo širšemu spektru poslušalcev. Z dodajanjem vizualnih elementov v koncertni ritual, torej prakso, ki se je v obdobju modernizma usmerila v striktni intelektualizem, želijo glasbeniki ustvariti izkušnjo, razumljivo sodobnemu občinstvu, ki ga opredeljuje predvsem vizualnost kulture. Njihovi premiki po odru in telesne geste služijo kot ilustracija glasbenega dogajanja oz. kot vizualna reprezentacija glasbenih odnosov. Uporaba vizualnih stimulansov predstavlja »izziv modernističnim vrednotam interiornosti in avtonomije, značilnim za tradicijo klasične glasbene izvedbe«.49 V glasbenem kontekstu je vizualnost pogosto tretirana kot del postmoderne površinskosti, v kontrastu z modernističnim poudarjanjem notranje subjektivnosti.50 Številni glasbeni kritiki so tako izrazili močno nasprotovanje takšnim pristopom - Mark Swed je uporabo koreografije označil za »nadležno« in »way too cute (vse preveč ljubko)«.51 Jasno je, da se uporaba koreografije ne sklada s še vedno prevladujočim hierarhičnim modelom, po katerem je glasbeno delo pomembnejše od izvajalca. Pippen pa je prek pogovorov s člani skupine eighth blackbird prišel do zanimivega zaključka. Čeprav je koreografija uporabljena predvsem z namenom zadostiti postmodernističnim idealom dostopnosti, v resnici izhaja iz modernističnih principov. Glasbeniki sami sebe dojemajo kot podrejene glasbenim delom in tako poudarjajo, da koreografija vedno nastopa v »interesu glasbenega dela«, da torej zgolj poudarja ideje, ki so »že prisotne v glasbi«.52 Uporaba koreografije je torej za člane skupine eighth blackbird legitimna zgolj v okvirih, v katerih prinaša dodatno razlago glasbenega poteka - dokler izhaja »iz glasbene resnice« in »iz glasbe same«.53 Celo, ko je izvajalec izpostavljen in nedvomno prisoten, torej ostaja podrejen idejam skladatelja in glasbenega dela. 47 Prav tam, 2-38-40. 48 Teresa Vila-Verde, »Assessing the importance of visual/theatrical features in the perception of music by an audience, using sociological tools«, International Symposium on Performance Science, 148. Obiskano 15. 5. 2016, http://www.performancescience. org/ISPS2007/Proceedings/Rows/28VilaVerde.pdf. 49 Prav tam, 131. 50 Prav tam. 51 Swed v: prav tam, 125. 52 Prav tam, 128. 53 Prav tam. Postmodernizem — teoretsko ozadje Uveljavitev termina postmodernizem postavljamo v šestdeseta leta prejšnjega stoletja, kot umetnostna smer pa se vzpostavi v trenutku, ko modernistične forme, ki jih je Adorno videl kot »zadnji branik pred neznosno banalnostjo in skomercializiranostjo družb«,54 zasedejo institucionalizirani prostor galerij, koncertnih dvoran in muzejev ter se na ta način iz nekdaj subverzivnih in bojevitih stilov preobrazijo v etablirano meščansko kulturo.55 Kot osnovno determinanto postmodernih slogov Fredric Jameson navaja smrt subjekta oz. avtonomne individualne monade. V visokem modernizmu sta jedrna družina kot osnovna družbena celica in tekmovalnost klasičnega kapitalizma predpostavljala izrazito individualiziran subjekt, ki se je v umetnosti izražal kot fetiši-zacija novosti in unikatnega sloga. Korporativni kapitalizem pa s porastom birokratizacije povzroči zlom visokomodernistične ideologije individualne osebnosti, kar na umetnostnem področju prinese konec inovacije in obračanje v preteklost.56 Jameson kot reprezentativni postmoderni umetnostni postopek tako navaja pastiš, ki nadomesti modernistično parodijo. Pastiš je »prazna ironija« in »nevtralna praksa takšne mimikrije, brez skrivne motivacije parodije, brez satiričnega vzgiba, brez smeha, brez vsaj latentnega občutka, da nekje obstaja nekaj normalnega, nekaj, v primerjavi s čimer je to, kar imitiramo, komično«.57 Bistvo, ki ga Jameson ponuja v svojih analizah, pa je razumevanje, da pri postmo-dernizmu pravzaprav ne gre zgolj za specifičen umetnostni slog, pač pa za kulturno dominanto. Pri tem se nasloni na osnovno tezo dela Pozni kapitalizem, v kateri avtor Ernest Mandel razvoj kapitalizma opiše v treh temeljnih momentih: tržni kapitalizem, monopolna stopnja oz. stopnja imperializma in postindustrijski kapitalizem - za slednjega Jameson predlaga poimenovanje multinacionalni oz. potrošniški kapitalizem, asociira pa ga s sintagmama družba medijev in družba spektakla. Mandelovi strukturi je kompatibilna Jamesonova tripartitna shema realizem - modernizem - post-modernizem.58 Za Jamesona je postmodernizem predvsem »poskus teoretizacije specifične logike kulturne produkcije«59 multinacionalnega kapitalzma, ki ga zaznamuje ekspanzija kapitala na do tedaj avtonomna področja. Kot rezultat tovrstne ekspanzije nastopi dediferenciacija predhodno ločenih družbenih sistemov - tržna logika neustavljivo prodira na področje kulture, po drugi strani pa je vse, »tudi blagovna produkcija in spekulativne finance, postalo kulturno«.60 Tradicionalna specifičnost estetskega in kulture je zabrisana, saj se kultura razširi po vsem družbenem polju.61 Aleš Debeljak es-tetizacijo vsakdanje izkušnje vidi predvsem kot posledico propadlega oz. le delno uresničenega projekta zgodovinskih avantgard - konstruktivizma, futurizma, nadrealizma 54 Primož Krašovec, »Kultura in finančni kapitalizem v pozni postmoderni (Spremna študija)«, Kulturni obrat. Izbrani spisi o postmoderni, 1983-1998 (Ljubljana: Studia humanitatis, 2012), 233. 55 Prav tam; Jameson, Kulturni obrat, 8. 56 Jameson, Kulturni obrat, 13. 57 Prav tam. 58 Fredric Jameson, Postmodernizem (Ljubljana: Društvo za teoretsko psihoanalizo, 2001), 38. 59 Jameson, Kulturni obrat, 47. 60 Prav tam, 93. 61 Prav tam, 136. in dadaizma. Avantgarde so zavračale ravno tisto opozicijo med umetnostjo in vsakdanjim življenjem, ki je predstavljala temelj legitimacije romantične in modernistične umetnosti kot avtonomnega področja. S prevpraševanjem ločnice med umetnostjo in vsakdanjim življenjem so si avantgarde prizadevale za osvoboditev umetnosti od omejitev žanrov, oblik, materialov in strok ter njeno integracijo v vsakdanje življenje.62 Posledično so zavračale samo institucijo umetnosti, torej referenčni okvir, »znotraj katerega poteka ritmično menjavanje slogov«.63 Do prenosa avtonomne umetnosti v tkivo vsakdanjega življenja je zares prišlo, toda le v izredno razvodeneli enačici, in sicer skozi estetiziranje vsakdanje izkušnje. Umanj-kala pa je odgovarjajoča družbena preobrazba. Slednje ni bilo mogoče uresničiti zaradi krepitve korporativnega sponzorstva posredniških ustanov, ki je pripeljalo v vsepovsod prisotno privatiziranje in komercializacijo meščanske javne sfere. Korporativno gospostvo nad proizvodnjo, distribucijo in recepcijo umetnosti je skoraj povsem izkoreninilo razliko med javnim in zasebnim iz moderne tradicije ter s tem spremenilo muzeje, založniške hiše, galerije, univerze in druge ustanove v orodja perifernega političnega nadzora.64 Prav v kontekstu medsebojnega prepletanja vsakdanjega življenja in umetnosti je potrebno razumeti tudi Jamesonovo interpretacijo Heglovega ,konca umetnosti'. Pri tem se avtor osredotoči na dva od Heglovih številnih trojnih modelov - na model gibanja duha, ki na poti do absolutnosti prečka tri stopnje: religijo, umetnost in filozofijo, znotraj tega pa na model napredka umetnosti od simbolne in klasične do romantične. Romantika naj bi prinesla konec umetnosti in primat filozofije kot »zgodovinskega samozavedanja absolutne sedanjosti«.65 Na prvi pogled so Heglova predvidevanja katastrofalno napačna, saj ravno z romantiko in modernizmom, ki ji sledi, umetnost doseže enega svojih največjih razcvetov, hkrati pa Hegel in nemški idealisti predstavljajo vrhunec, a tudi zaključek velikih in absolutnih filozofskih sistemov, katerih avtoriteto v modernizmu spodkopavata razvoj naravoslovnih ved in vse intenzivnejše kritike »abstrakcije in instrumentalnega uma, ki jih je navdihovalo izkustvo industrijskega mesta«.66 Modernistična umetnost se v tem kontekstu formira kot alternativna pot do Absolutnega in kot »najvišja oblika v kateri se resnica prebija v bivanje«.67 A Jameson v koncu romantike kljub temu vidi nekaj, kar bi lahko imenovali ,konec umetnosti' - da bi ta konec prepoznali, pa moramo vključiti Kantovi kategoriji Lepega in Sublimnega in predpostaviti, da je bistvo modernistične umetnosti doseganje Sublimnega, torej nekakšna transestetika, ki umetnost vidi kot sredstvo in način približanja Absolutnemu.68 Heglov ,konec umetnosti' je tako konec umetnosti kot Lepega, ki pa ga ne nadomesti filozofija, pač pa Sublimno. Lepo še obstaja, a zgolj kot okrasje, ki pa nima dostopa do resnice in Absolutnega - Peter Bürger vztrajanje Lepega identificira kot obstoj dekorativne umetniške produkcije. Konec modernizma Jameson razume kot »razpustitev 62 Debeljak, Na ruševinah modernosti, 142. 63 Prav tam, 145. 64 Prav tam, xix 65 Jameson, Kulturni obrat, 97. 66 Prav tam, 104. 67 Prav tam. 68 Prav tam. razmerja med umetnostjo in Absolutom«.69 Ta drugi ,konec umetnosti', ki je konec umetnosti kot Sublimnega, zaznamuje izginjanje velikih avtorjev (J. Joyce, M. Proust, Le Corbusier, L. Mies van der Rohe, A. Schönberg) in njihovo nadomeščanje z velikimi teoretiki (J. Baudrillard, J. Lacan, R. Barthes, J. Derrida, G. Deleuze). Prav pojav Teorije kot nečesa, »kar je bilo najprej le dodatek tradicionalni literaturi, nato pa se je razširilo po disciplinah vse od filozofije do antropologije in od lingvistike do sociologije« razume Jameson v smislu »heglovskega preseganja umetnosti s filozofijo«.70 Teorija izhaja iz estetike, a jo hkrati tudi konstituira. V postmodernizmu torej Teorija prevzame funkcijo Sublimnega, medtem ko umetnost »opusti iskanje Absoluta ali resnice in se redefinira kot izvor čistega ugodja in zadovoljitve«.71 Umetnost v postmodernizmu torej zaznamuje nazadovanje k starejšemu kulinaričnemu in dekorativnemu statusu. Bistvo postmoderne umetnosti torej ni v umetnostnih postopkih - ti so pravzaprav v veliki meri prevzeti iz predhodnih obdobij. Specifika postmoderne umetnosti izhaja iz spremembe njenega mesta v kulturi - iz nazadovanja v dekorativno funkcijo, iz izgube avtonomnosti ter vpetosti v tržna razmerja potrošniškega kapitalizma. Takšna umetnost ni več sposobna zavzeti kritične distance do sistema, pač pa le reproducira obstoječa razmerja in s tem krepi logiko potrošniškega kapitalizma.72 Prispevek Fredrica Jamesona k razumevanja postmodernizma in postmoderne umetnosti je dvojen. Z interpretacijo Heglovega ,konca umetnosti' nam pomaga razumeti izgubo subverzivnega avtonomnega statusa, ki ga je kot pot k Absolutnemu in iskalka resnice uživala modernistična umetnost, ter posledično nazadovanje postmoderne umetnosti v funkcijo dekoracije. Z razumevanjem postmodernizma kot kulturne dominante oz. kulturne logike poznega kapitalizma pa razloži dediferenciacijo posameznih družbenih področij, ki rezultira tako v estetizaciji vsakdanjega življenja kot tudi v izgubi specifičnosti estetske izkušnje, hkrati pa omogoča prenos izvorno tržnih strategij v polje umetnostne produkcije. V tem kontekstu velja razumeti tudi pogosto opevano postmoderno brisanje ločnice med visoko umetnostjo in popularno kulturo. Koncertni ritual in njegove spremembe v postmodernizmu Glasbeni tekst zaznamujejo kompozicijske zakonitosti in inherentne glasbene značilnosti obdobja, v katerem je bil ustvarjen. Med strokovnjaki pa še vedno ni prišlo do konsenza o tem, do kolikšne mere zgodovinski kontekst določa tudi posamezno izvedbo. Glasbeni teoretik Heinrich Schenker je tako na prehodu iz 19. v 20. stoletje trdil, da glasbena tekstura sama po sebi nakazuje ustrezno interpretacijo in da so nepotrebne celo dinamične oznake v notnem tekstu.73 Če tonske višine, ritem in harmonija ter njihova medsebojna razmerja natančno določajo interpretacijo, mora biti ta enaka, ne glede na družbene okoliščine izvedbe. Popolnoma nasprotno pozicijo zavzema 69 Prav tam, 105. 70 Prav tam, 106. 71 Prav tam, 107. 72 Prav tam, 29. 73 Mine Dogantan-Dack, »Artistic research in classical music performance: Truth and politics«, Parse journal #1: Judgement, 33. Obiskano 2. 3. 2016, http://parsejournal.com/issue/17. sodobna violinistka Patricija Kopačinska, ki izvedbo definira kot osebno srečanje med interpretom, glasbenim delom, skladateljem in družbenim kontekstom. Interpretacija klasičnega koncertnega repertoarja mora tako nujno vključevati vplive sodobnosti, saj se le na ta način lahko izognemo brezsmiselnemu ponavljanju vedno enakih izvedb. Za Kopačinsko je vsaka izvedba fenomen suigeneris, njene značilnosti pa so pogojene tudi s prostorsko akustiko posameznih dvoran ter z lokalnim kulturnim kontekstom: »V Amsterdamu lahko Mozarta igram bolj svobodno, kot v Salzburgu. Spet drugače pa v nerealnih belih nočeh finskega Khuma«.74 Gre za izrazito postmoderen pristop, ki pa se deloma navezuje na romantični interpretacijski ideal, ki ga Gregor Pompe poimenuje aktualizirajoči tip interpretacije. Ta starejše notne tekste skuša »prilagoditi glasbenim danostim in okusu sočasnosti«.75 Poleg tega Pompe ločuje še tradicionalistično interpretacijo, ki »slepo sledi interpretacijskemu izročilu in se ne sprašuje ne o zvestobi preteklosti ne o modni aktualnosti«76 in najmlajši interpretacijski pristop - historično izvajalsko prakso, katerega glavni cilj je avtentičnosti izvedbe. A zatakne se že pri sami definiciji avtentičnosti - naj bi ta »prinesla interpretacijo skladbe, kakšno si je želel skladatelj ali naj bi se čim bolj približala izvedbi, kakršna je bila značilna za čas nastanka del«?77 Za Kopačinsko je resnično ,historična' izvedba tista, ki v današnjem občinstvu vzbudi enaka čustva, kot jih je ob prvi izvedbi. Če je bilo Vivaldijevo občinstvo osup-njeno spričo njegove drzne virtuoznosti, takšne osuplosti danes zagotovo ne bomo dosegli z uporabo enakih sredstev.78 Že dejstvo, da obstajajo različne interpretacijske tradicije in nešteto različnih interpretacij, napeljujejo na domnevo, da vsako izvedbo zahodne klasične glasbe bistveno zaznamujejo tri determinante: a) notni tekst, katerega preciznost je odvisna od obdobja, v katerem je bil napisan in izdan, b) zgodovinski izvedbeni kontekst, ki določa preferiran tip interpretacije in c) osebnost izvajalca, od katere je odvisno, koliko se bo izvajalec podredil notnemu tekstu in družbeno preferi-ranemu tipu interpretacije. Ne glede na to, kateri tip interpretacije oz. katero kombinacijo tipov izvajalec izbere, pa ga vedno determinira sama struktura koncertnega rituala. Klasični koncert, kakršnega poznamo danes, se je razvijal v obdobju romantike in modernizma ter ga posledično opredeljujejo splošne in glasbene vrednote teh obdobij. Poleg tega pa je koncertna praksa ohranila tudi nekatere povezave z zgodnjo obredno funkcijo, ko je bila glasba striktno ločena od vsakodnevne rutine in običajnosti.79 Nekateri teoretiki, npr. Stephen Cortell, tako opisujejo klasični koncert kot serijo ritualnih praks, ki vzpostavljajo kontrast med koncertom in vsakodnevno življenjsko rutino. Vse, od nakupa vstopnic in posebne tišine v dvorani do uvodnega aplavza, prispeva k tvorbi občutka ritualnosti - tako za nastopajoče kot za poslušalce. John Pippen po Cortel-lu in antropologu Victorju Turnerju ločuje tri faze rituala: preliminalno, liminalno in postliminalno. Preliminalna faza predstavlja simbolično ločitev rituala od vsakdanjega 74 Patricija Kopačinska, »My kitchen«. Obiskano 15. 5. 2016, http://patriciakopatchinskaja.com/mykitchen.html. 75 Gregor Pompe, »'Modernost' in historična izvajalska praksa«. Obiskano 15. 5. 2016, http://www.sigic.si/odzven/modernost-in-historicna-izvajalska-praksa. 76 Prav tam. 77 Prav tam. 78 Kopačinska, »My kitchen«. 79 Goehr, Imaginary museum of musical works, 157. življenja. Običajno se dogaja v preddverju koncertne dvorane, ko občinstvo še ne vidi izvajalcev. Liminalna oz. osrednja faza koncertnega rituala je povezana z dvema temeljnima konceptoma glasbenega modernizma: konceptom dela in strukturiranim poslušanjem. V tej fazi se običajne socialne vloge povsem podredijo osrednjima vlogama izvajalca oz. poslušalca. Postliminalno oz. zaključno fazo koncerta predstavljata končni aplavz in priklon nastopajočih, s katerim je aplavz formalno sprejet, ter njihov odhod iz odra. Namen zaključne faze je vrniti udeležence nazaj v vsakdanje življenje in socialne vloge.80 Tako oblikovan ritual v kombinaciji s fizično ločenostjo koncertnih dvoran iz okoliškega konteksta (običajno gre za »prostore znotraj prostorov«81) predstavlja kontekst, v katerem lahko dojemamo glasbeno delo kot avtonomen umetniški artefakt.82 Pri koncertu klasične glasbe gre torej običajno za kombinacijo kanoniziranih glasbenih del, ki so bila napisana v obdobjih klasicizma, romantike in modernizma, ter koncertnega rituala, ki izraža elitistične težnje 19. in 20. stoletja. Kako lahko takšna kombinacija nagovori postmoderno občinstvo? John Pippen je v iskanju morebitnih postmodernih značilnosti sodobnega klasičnega koncerta analiziral koncerte ameriške skupine eighth blackbird. Pippen navaja številne prijeme, ki zadostujejo post-modernim težnjam po dostopnosti in približanju klasične glasbe širšemu občinstvu - poleg že omenjene uporabe koreografije tudi organiziranje pred- in pokoncertnih pogovorov z ustvarjalci in strokovnjaki ter izvedba koncertov na prostem. Manj formalno vzdušje želijo glasbeniki poudariti tudi z uporabo sproščenih koncertnih oblačil. Tradicionalno so bila črna oblačila glasbenikov namenjena skrivanju njihove individualnosti, saj le-ta ni smela motiti prezentacije glasbenega dela. Uporaba barvnih in manj formalnih oblačil pa torej nakazuje na dve težnji: poudarjanje lastne identitete in razbijanje stereotipov o formaliziranosti klasičnih koncertnih dogodkov.83 Kljub temu pa Pippen zaključuje z ugotovitvijo, da tovrstne postmoderne strategije predstavljajo zgolj okvir koncertnim ritualom, ki v svojem notranjem bistvu ostajajo zavezani modernistični logiki.84 Odgovor na vprašanje - ,Ali je klasični koncertni ritual lahko postmoderen?' - mora biti torej nikalen. Čeprav je bila glasbena kompozicija v obdobjih romantike, modernizma in postmodernizma podvržena radikalnim spremembam, pa je po drugi strani koncertni ritual ves čas ostajal relativno nespremenjen. Mine Dogantan-Dack razloge za to vidi predvsem v globoko zakoreninjeni ideologiji glasbenega dela, ki funkcijo klasičnega koncerta vidi predvsem v prenosu skladateljevih idej poslušalcem.85 Tudi kadar poslušamo dela, ki so prinesla vprašanje o samem ontološkem bistvu glasbe, kot je npr. sklada Johna Cagea 4:33, lahko še vedno jasno prepoznavamo tradicionalne kategorije, kot so koncert, koncertna dvorana, skladatelj, izvajalec in publika. Vsi materialni izzivi, ki jim je bila podvržena glasbena sintaksa (emancipacija disonance, zavrnitev tonalnosti, nove forme in inštrumenti), torej niso prinesli nikakršnih formalnih sprememb v odnosu med skladateljem, notiranim glasbenim delom in izvajalcem. 80 Pippen, »Toward a Postmodern Avant-Garde«, 184-190. 81 Prav tam, 133 82 Prav tam. 83 Pippen, »Toward a postmodern avant-garde«, 89, 92, 165, 84 Prav tam, 196. 85 Dogantan-Dack, »Artistic research in classical music performance«, 32. Koncertna dvorana nedvomno ostaja ideološki prostor, ki implicira koncepte kot sta avtonomija glasbe in intelektualizem. Poskus definicije postmoderne virtuoznosti Na pozicijo izvajalca klasične glasbe bistveno vplivata splošno dojemanje umetnosti in njene značilnosti v specifični zgodovinski dobi. Poskus definicije postmodernega virtuoza bo torej predvsem poskus poiskati povezave med postmodernizmom kot kulturno logiko poznega kapitalizma in spremembami v poziciji izvajalca klasične glasbe v postmoderni. Po Fredricu Jamesonu postmoderno umetnost zaznamujeta izguba avtonomnosti, ki nastopi kot posledica estetizacije vsakdanjega življenja ter njeno nazadovanje v funkcijo dekorativnega. Klasična glasba mora danes na trgu tekmovati s številnimi oblikami umetnostne in zabavne produkcije in si posledično ne more več privoščiti elitizma, ki jo je iz takšnih ali drugačnih razlogov zaznamoval v preteklih obdobjih. V povezavi z anti-elitizmom postmoderne klasičnoglasbene scene John Pippen uvede koncept friendly virtuosity (prijateljska virtuoznost), ki ga definira kot »utelešenje nasprotij med postfordistično postmodernostjo in vrednotami klasične glasbe«.86 Bistvena značilnost prijateljske virtuoznosti je želja po ponovnem približanju klasične glasbe širšemu občinstvu, za doseganje tega pa glasbeniki uporabljajo promocijske strategije, ki so bile do pred kratkim povezane s profitnimi korporacijami. Za tovrstno obravnavanje izdelkov in oseb sociolog Adam Arvidsson uporablja koncept branding.87 V postmodernizmu v center glasbene prakse torej ponovno stopa identiteta posameznega izvajalca ali skupine izvajalcev in sicer kot znamka (brand) - ta postaja pomembnejša od produkta samega. Po Jeanu Baudrillardu današnje blago nima več materialne, pač pa predvsem znakovno vrednost88 in tudi sodobni izvajalec klasične glasbe obstaja predvsem kot znamka. Klasični koncert danes tako ni več zgolj dogodek, na katerem se predstavljajo izvajalci (kot pri romantičnem virtuozu) ali glasbena dela (kot v primeru modernističnih virtuozov), pač pa jih glasbeniki dojemajo tudi kot priložnost za trženje lastne blagovne znamke.89 Aleš Debeljak opozarja na sodobno zlitje družbenih vlog umetnika in poslovneža ter na »incestuozni stik kapitala in umetnosti, ki je zbujal strah v obdobju romantike in posmeh v modernizmu«.90 Podobno Primož Krašovec ugotavlja, da je nova kultura predvsem »podjetniška kultura«.91 Svoje ,prijateljskosti' pa izvajalci ne izkazujejo zgolj na koncertnem odru. Tradicionalna virtuoznost (tako romantična kot modernistična) je bila usmerjena v perfekcijo koncertnih nastopov, medtem ko je moralo ostati trdo delo, potrebno za njihovo doseganje, skrito. Nasprotno pa postmoderni izvajalci s publiko delijo tudi pripravo na koncerte in druge izkušnje zunaj koncertnih dvoran - za takšno aktivnost so zelo primerni 86 Pippen, »Towards a postmodern avant-garde«, 18. 87 Slovenska ustreznica znamčenje obstaja kot marketinški, ne pa tudi kot sociološki pojem - termin zato uporabljam v originalni obliki; prav tam, 50. 88 Pompe, Novi tokovi, 239. 89 Prav tam, 56. 90 Debeljak, Na ruševinah modernosti, 188. 91 Krašovec, »Kultura in finančni kapitalizem v pozni postmoderni«, 246. internetni portali kakršna sta Facebook in YouTube?2 Objavljanje poročil in posnetkov vaj bistveno vpliva na približanje izvajalcev in njihovega dela. Če sta tako romantični kot modernistični virtuoz gradila podobo, ki je do občinstva zavzemala določeno mero distance in vzvišenosti (na kar nakazuje tudi prostorska separacija nastopajočih in občinstva v modernističnem koncertnem ritualu), pa postmoderni virtuoz izraža tendenco po približanju publiki - tako v koncertnem kontekstu kot tudi izven njega. Zaključek Cilj raziskave je bil potrditi obstoj idealnega tipa, ki bi ga poimenovali postmoderni virtuoz, in opredelitev njegovih karakteristik. Izkazalo pa se je, da takšen domnevno obstoječi tip jasno zrcali značilnosti dobe, ki ga oblikuje. Pri sodobnem izvajalcu klasične glasbe namreč ni moč prepoznati svojevrstnih lastnosti, ki bi jih lahko uporabili za definicijo postmodernega virtuoza kot idealnega tipa. Skladno s splošnimi lastnostmi postmoderne postmoderni virtuoz tvori nekakšen kolaž oz. palimpsest93 lastnosti prej obstoječih tipov. Prepoznamo lahko oglaševanje sodobnih glasbenikov kot romantičnih virtuozov, ki posedujejo nadčloveške glasbene sposobnosti, ki so pripravljeni presegati zvrstne meje in zabavati občinstvo, a hkrati težijo k čim zvestejšim interpretacijam glasbenih tekstov.94 Povedali pa smo, da sta romantični in modernistični vir-tuoz idealna tipa, ki v realnosti ne obstajata, in da realne tipe vrednotimo glede na to, koliko se približajo določenemu idealnemu tipu. Torej so izvajalci že v obdobjih pred postmoderno lahko kombinirali lastnosti obeh idealnih tipov. Kaj torej idealni tip postmodernega virtuoza sploh ločuje od prej obstoječih realnih tipov? Gre za kombinacijo lastnosti, ki vse po vrsti izhajajo iz osnovne determinante umetnosti v postmoderni, torej njene vpetosti v kapitalistični tržni sistem. Kot blago mora klasična glasba na sodobnem trgu tekmovati z drugimi oblikami umetnostne in zabavne produkcije in si posledično ne more več privoščiti elitizma, ki jo je zaznamoval v obdobju modernizma. Postmoderni virtuoz tako nastopa in se trži kot znamka (brand), njegov cilj pa se je čim bolj približati širokim množicam poslušalcev (antielitizem, friendly virtuosity/ prijateljska virtuoznost). Zahodno klasičnoglasbeno prakso v obdobju postmoderne zaznamujejo številna nasprotja. Na eni strani se še vedno vzpostavlja kot elitistični fenomen (dediščina legitimacije s strani cerkve in dvorov ter modernistične intelektualne naravnanosti) in prek ohranjanja tradicionalne strukture koncertnega rituala prispeva k dojemanju glasbe kot striktno razumske dejavnosti, ki ji dominira koncept glasbenega dela. Kot taka navidezno zavrača sodelovanje v kulturni industriji, saj naj bi le tako lahko ohranila avtonomijo in ,kritično negativnost' (Adorno). Po drugi strani pa si klasični glasbeniki elitistične pozicije ne morejo več privoščiti, saj na trgu tekmujejo s številnimi drugimi 92 Pippen, »Towardsa postmodern avant-garde«, 101. 93 Aleš Debeljak razliko med modernizmom in postmodernizmom vidi kot razliko med kolažem in palimpsestom. Če so za kolaž »kot privilegirano metodo modernizma značilne jasno ohranjene in zato razvidne karakteristike različnih izoliranih, a med seboj povezanih tujih in avtorskih elementov, pa pri palimpsestnem prosevanju različnih plasti ni več mogoče reči, kaj je avtorsko in kaj prisvojeno«; Debeljak, Postmoderna sfinga, 104. 94 Pippen, »Towars a postmodern avant-garde«, 64. oblikami umetnostne in zabavne produkcije. Poleg tega postmoderna klasičnoglasbe-na praksa pod vplivi splošnega poblagovljenja in performativne naravnanosti postmoderne družbe izraža težnje po široki dostopnosti in ponovnem vključevanju telesnosti. Romantične, modernistične in postmoderne težnje se vedno znova znajdejo v ostrem nasprotju, izvajalci pa morajo na individualni ravni reševati strukturne napetosti družbe (Beck). Celotno breme uspeha, »tako uspeha posameznega glasbenika kot uspeha klasične glasbe v celoti«,95 pade na ramena posameznika. Naloga postmodernega virtuoza je, da nasprotja uspešno razreši in poišče ustrezno pozicijo med telesom in razumom. Bibliografija Adorno, Theodor W. Uvod v sociologijo glasbe. Ljubljana: Državna založba Slovenije, 1986. Althusser, Louis et al. Ideologija in estetski učinek. Ljubljana: Cankarjeva založba, 1980. Arvidsson, Adam. Brands: Meaning and value in media culture. London, New York: Routledge, 2011. Attali, Jacques. Hrup: esej o politični ekonomiji glasbe. Ljubljana: Maska, 2008. Auslander, Philip. V živo: uprizarjanje v mediatizirani kulturi. Ljubljana: Mestno gledališče ljubljansko, 2007. Auslander, Philip. »Postmodernism and performance«. The Cambridge Companion to Postmodernism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Bahn, Curtis et al. „Physicality and Feedback: A Focus on the Body in the Performance of Electronic Music", 2011. Obiskano 10. 3. 2016. http://www.hass.rpi.edu/public_ html/bahnc2/Activities/writings/physicality_feedback.pdf. Barbo, Matjaž. Pomen v glasbi in glasba v pomenu. Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete, 2015. Barbo, Matjaž. Obča muzikologija. Ljubljana: Filozofska fakulteta, 2004. Beck, Ulrich. Družba tveganja: na poti v neko drugo moderno. Ljubljana: Krtina, 2009. Blaukopf, Kurt. Glasba v družbenih spremembah. Temeljne poteze sociologije glasbe. Ljubljana: Studia humanitatis, 1993. Byrne, David. How music works. Edinburgh, London: Canongate, 2013. Cox, Christoph in Daniel Warner. Audio culture: readings in modern music. New York, London: Continuum, 2007. Crossley, Nick. The social body. Habit, identity and desire. London: SAGE, 2001. Debeljak, Aleš. Postmoderna sfinga. Celovec-Salzburg: Wieser, 1989. Debeljak, Aleš. Na ruševinah modernosti: institucija umetnosti in njene zgodovinske oblike. Ljubljana: Znanstveno in publicistično središče, 1999. Dognatan-Dack, Mine. »Artistic research in classical music performance: Truth and politics«. Parse journal #1: Judgement, 2015. Obiskano 2. 3. 2016. http://parsejournal. com/issue/1/. 95 Ibid., 58. Eco, Umberto. »The poetics of open work«. V Audio culture: readings in modern music, ur. Christoph Cox in Daniel Warner. New York, London: Continuum, 2007. Emmerson, Simon. Living electronic music. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007. Goehr, Lydia. The imaginary museum of musical works: an essay in the philosophy of music. Oxford: Clarendon press, 1992. Heaton, Roger. »Contemporary performance practice and tradition«. V Music Performance Research vol. 5, 2012. Obiskano 15. 5. 2016. http://mpr-online.net/Issues/ Volume%205%20[2012]/Heaton.pdf. Hennion, Antoine. »As fast as one possibly can: virtuoso, a truth of musical performance?«. Critical Musicological Reflections. Stan Hawkins, ur.. Burlington: Ashgate, 2012. Hudej, Franc. »Dualizem duše in telesa«. V Teorija in praksa let. 50, 3-4. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za družbene vede, 2013. Jameson, Fredric. Postmodernizem. Ljubljana: Društvo za teoretsko psihoanalizo, 2001. Jameson, Fredric. Kulturni obrat. Izbrani spisi o postmoderni, 1983-1998. Ljubljana: Studia humanitatis, 2012. Keil, Charles in Steven Feld. Music grooves. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press., 1994. Kopačinska, Patricija: »My Kitchen«. Obiskano 15. 5. 2016. http://patriciakopatchinska-ja.com/mykitchen.html. Kramer, Lawrence. »The virtuoso bofy; or, the two births of musical performance«. Critical Musicological Reflections. Stan Hawkins, ur.. Burlington: Ashgate, 2012. Krašovec, Primož. »Kultura in finančni kapitalizem v pozni postmoderni (Spremna študija)«. Kulturni obrat. 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Electronic Thesis amd Dissertation Repository. Paper 2446, 2014. Obiskano 6. 1. 2016. http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=3698&context=etd. Pompe, Gregor. Postmodernizem in semantika glasbe. Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete, 2011. Pompe, Gregor. »'Modernost' in historična izvajalska praksa«, 2011. Obiskano 15. 5. 2016. http://www.sigic.si/odzven/modernost-in-historicna-izvajalska-praksa. Pompe, Gregor. Novi tokovi v glasbi 20. stoletja. Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete, 2014. Sutherland, Roger. Nove glasbene perspektive. Evropska in ameriška avantgarda v glasbi 20. stoletja.Ljubljana: LUD Šerpa, 2009. Theberge, Paul. Any sound you can imagine: making music/consuming technology. Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, 1997. Vila Verde, Teresa. »Assessing the importance of visual/theatrical features in the perception of music by an audience, using sociological tools«. International Symposium on Performance Science, 2007. Obiskano 15. 5. 2016. http://www.performancesci-ence.org/ISPS2007/Proceedings/Rows/28VilaVerde.pdf Vogrinc, Jože. »Aristotelova teorija filma«. Filmska komedija. Zdenko Vrdlovec, ur.. Ljubljana: Revija Ekran, 1989. Vogrinc, Jože. Popularna godba. Eseji o poslušanju. Maribor: Subkulturni azil, 2012. Weber, Max. »Temeljni sociološki pojmi«. Kompendij socioloških teorij, ur. Frane Adam in Matevž Tomšič. Ljubljana: Študentska založba, 2004. SUMMARY Western classical music is largely defied by the distinction between authorship and performance i.e. between formal structure of the musical work and its realisation in sound. This distinction was made possible by the invention of notation and several cultural processes that shaped the position of a classical music performer as inferior to the composer and the musical work. Before 1800, musical practice was defined by its function - it was either in service of the church or the court. With the rise of the bourgeoisie and capitalism art became a commodity, subdued to the laws of the capitalist market. In order to survive on the market, classical musician had to satisfy the needs of the audience for spectacle and pompousness. This is the birthplace of the romantic virtuoso, who treats music as a means to impress the audience with his musical skills and personality. Romantic virtuosos were highly aware of the importance of their bodily gestures and general appearance. The bourgeoisie, which was originally a unified social class, became internally stratified by the late 19th and early 20th century. In the context of the intellectual elite, which represented the ideals of culture, knowledge and education, the romantic virtuoso was quickly associated with a charlatan, inappropriate for performing serious music. This was also the time when the work-concept emerged. Lydia Goehr defines work-concept by the following characteristics: a) it is a unique and consciously created composition, b) it can be materialized in score and c) it exists independently of its (potential) performances. When music is considered to be an intellectual activity, its performance must focus on revealing the formal structure of the work and the composer's ideas behind it, while the identity of the performer and his corporeality must remain hidden. This type of performance, in which the musician's body movements and expressions are very limited, is associated with a new type of performer - the modernist virtuoso. Romantic and modernist virtuosos are what Max Weber would call ideal types. The goal of this research was to confirm the existence of the ideal type called the postmodern virtuoso and to describe his characteristics. But as it turns out, the postmodern virtuoso clearly reflects the features of an era that shapes him. Instead of forming own characteristics, he rather combines and mixes features of previously existing types. The contemporary classical music performer is highly defined by the incorporation of postmodern art into the system of late capitalism and the postmodern loss of the specificity of aesthetic experience (Fredric Jameson). In the postmodern era art is a commodity. Therefore, marketing strategies that were originally designed to sell products of profit-oriented corporations are now often used to sell art and artists. The postmodern virtuoso exists mainly as a brand. As a commodity, classical music must compete with other forms of art and entertainment production and can therefore no longer afford to take an elitist position typical for the art of the late romanticism and modernism. If the romantic and modernist virtuosos always presented themselves as separated from the crowd, the postmodernist virtuoso tries to be as close to the audience as possible - in the context of a concert and outside of it. In spite of all postmodern tendencies, contemporary classical music practice still maintains rather strong connections with its romantic in modernist traditions. The ritual structure of a classical music concert contributes to the understanding of music as an intellectual activity, defined by concepts such as composer, performer, audience and musical work. Therefore, the postmodern classical music performer stands in a complex position. On the one hand, he is defined by the strict modernist hierarchical structures and commitment to the Werktreue ideology. On the other hand, under the influence of postmodern culture, he is forced to brand himself as a stage personality and market himself accordingly. The main task of the postmodern virtuoso is to find a proper balance between traditional ideals and contemporary tendencies -a proper position between body and mind. UDK 159.924:78:373.2.016 DOI: 10.4312/mz.53.1.l65-183 Branka Rotar Pance Akademija za glasbo, Univerza v Ljubljani Academy of Music, University of Ljubljana Ema Igličar Samostojna razikovalka/Independent researcher Students' Musical Creativity and the Role of Teachers - a Study of Compositions Written for the Music Olympiad Glasbena ustvarjalnost učencev in vloga učiteljev - študija skladb, napisanih za Glasbeno olimpijado Prejeto: 26. oktober 2016 Sprejeto: 7. december 2016 Ključne besede: glasbena ustvarjalnost, učitelji, vrednotenje, Glasbena olimpijada, analiza IZVLEČEK Ustvarjalnost je predmet raziskav na različnih področjih. Prispevek je osredinjen na glasbeno ustvarjalnost ter na vlogo učitelja pri njenem spodbujanju in razvijanju pri posameznikovem glasbenem razvoju. Izpostavlja pomen vrednotenja glasbenih idej, ustvarjalnega procesa in končnih produktov. Glasbena olimpijada vključuje predstavitev avtorskih skladb učencev. V raziskavi smo analitično ugotavljali značilnosti skladb, napisanih in izvedenih na prvih treh slovenskih glasbenih olimpijadah. Received: 26th October 2016 Accepted: 7th December 2016 Keywords: musical creativity, teachers, evaluation, Music Olympiad, analysis ABSTRACT Creativity is the focus of research in various areas. The present paper focuses on creativity in music and the role of the teacher in stimulating and developing it in an individual's musical development. It highlights the importance of evaluating musical ideas, the creative process and final products. The Music Olympiad involves a presentation of competitor's own compositions. In the research, we analysed the characteristics of the compositions written for and performed at the first three Slovene Music Olympiads. Introduction Research of creativity is in the domain of several sciences and arts. Therefore, its definitions are varied and multilayer. The common characteristics found in all definitions of creativity are connected with creating something new, original, applicable or suitable for a determined task.1 As Sternberg2 points out, creativity, on one hand, involves specific elements of a certain area, hence requiring specific knowledge, while on the other hand, some of its elements are common to various areas of activity. Furthermore, he believes that, up to a certain extent, creativity can be measured, developed and stimulated. The natural and social environments, offering possibilities and challenges to create, play an important role in this respect.3 Creativity is positively influenced by freedom, independence, suitable time framework, necessary to create, good examples, stimulation of originality, freedom of criticism and a set of norms in which innovation is valued while failure is not fatal.4 Multidirectional consideration of creativity is inherent of music as well. Oblak points out, that musical art is based on the "triplicity of musical creativity": creation of new musical works (production), musical performance (reproduction) and musical perception (reproduction in an internal, subjective conception).5 Similarly, Deliege in Richelle6 claim that music differs from other arts in the fact that the performer is in the role of a mediator passing a musical work from the composer to the audience. However, according to Burnard,7 the previously mentioned threefold concept including the composer, performer and listener does not suffice to present the complexity of production, reproduction, reception as well as circulation and interaction between the listeners, performers and creators. Odena in Welch8 point out that traditional concepts of creativity focus primarily on the products of creation, consequently taking into account especially composers who established themselves through their work. Newer concepts, on the other hand, focus on the creative processes, putting creative thinking in the forefront. Webster defined creative thinking in music as "a dynamic 1 Paul E. Torrance, Guiding creative talent (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, US: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962). Anton Trstenjak, Psihologija ustvarjalnosti (Ljubljana: Slovenska matica, 1981). Vid Pečjak, Misliti, delati, živeti ustvarjalno (Ljubljana: DZS, 1987). Teresa M. Amabile, Creativity in Context (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996). Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, "A Systems Perspective on Creativity," in Handbook of creativity, ed. Robert J. Sternberg (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 313-335. Robert J. Sternberg, Todd I. Lubart, "The concepts of creativity: Prospects and paradigms," in Handbook of creativity, eds. Robert J. Sternberg (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 3-15. Breda Oblak, "Vpogled v značilne raziskave o ustvarjalnem učenju na področju glasbe," Glasbeno-pedagoški zbornik Akademije za glasbo, no. 3 (2000): 55-66. Irene Deliege, Geraint A. Wiggins, ed., Musical creativity: Multidisciplinary research in theory and practice. (Hove: Psychology Press, 2006). 2 Robert J. Sternberg, " The Nature of Creativity," Creativity Research Journal, no.1 (2006): 87-90. 3 Jan Makarovič, Antropologija ustvarjalnosti (Ljubljana: Nova revija, 2003). 4 Mark A. Runco, "Creativity," Annual Review of Psychology, no. 55 (2004): 657-687. 5 Breda Oblak, "Umetnost je ustvarjalnost: vzgoja za umetnost je vzgoja za ustvarjalnost," Glasba v šoli, no.1-2 (2002): 5. 6 Irene Deliege, Marc Richelle, "Prelude. The spectrum of musical creativity," in Musical creativity:Multidisciplinary research in theory and practice, eds. Irene Deliege and Geraint A. Wiggins (Hove: Psychology Press, 2006), 1-6. 7 Pamela Burnard, Musical Creativities in Practice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012). 8 Oscar Odena, Graham Welch, "Teachers' perceptions of creativity," in Musical creativity: Insightsfrom Music Education Research, Oskar Odena, ed. (London, New York: Routledge, 2012), 29-50. mental process that alternates between divergent (imaginative) and convergent (factual) thinking, moving in stages over time",9 and presented its complexity in his Model of creative thinking in music which includes elements of the entire creative process and its products. In connection with creative thinking he pointed out five directions worthy and necessary to explore: » (1) emphasis on the role of musical imagination and musical imagery, (2) theoretical modeling of the creative process, (3) new approaches to the measurament of creative aptitude, and (4) systematic observation of creative behavior, often in natural settings...../5/ the use of computers and sound tehnology as tools for recording and stimulating creative thought.«10 Since the model applies to adults as well as children, it is useful for teachers in developing strategies to stimulate students' creativity, and for researchers who study creative processes, products, personalities, environment and recognition of creativity by the public. Students' Musical Creativity and the Role of Teachers Kokotsaki and Newton11 highlight the definitions by researchers who understand musical creativity as a "learnable and teachable high-level skill" the development of which is supported by learning, practicing and experience. They point out that in music education, students will only be creative "if teachers are able to nurture and support their creative thinking and encourage creative behaviour".12 In connection with music education learning strategies, Philpott13 emphasises students' active contact with music through listening, performing and creative activities which represent the basis for music learning. On the other hand, the learned musical contents are also expressed through those basic music activities, including musical creativity. Thus, active learning is in the forefront. Since it occurs in situations similar to reality, we call it authentic learning.14 Leading the students through the creative process, in which musical ideas are developed into compositions or the other creative product is a special challenge for teachers. They need to know the nature and development of creativity and be good observers and strategists of the learning process which require adaptation of procedures to each individual student or a group of students.15 Music teachers have to have a positive attitude towards creativeness and have to know the components of the creative process. They have to create a positive learning environment and be constant researchers 9 Peter Webster, "Creativity as creative thinking," Music Educators Journal, no. 9 (1990): 28. 10 Ibid., 23. 11 Dimitra Kokotsaki, Douglas, P. Newton, "Recognizing creativity in the music classroom," International Journal of Music Education, no.4 (2015): 491-508. 12 Ibid., 492. 13 Chris Philpott, "Strategies for teaching and learning in the music classroom:approaches to listening, composing, performing and appraising," in Learning to Teach Music in the .Secondary School, Chris Philpott, ed. (London, New York: Routledge, 2001), 83-103. 14 Ada Holcar, "Kako preverjati in ocenjevati glasbene dosežke?" in Posodobitve pouka v gimnazijski praksi. Glasba, Ada Holcar, ed. (Ljubljana: Zavod RS za šolstvo, 2010), 42-46. 15 Ema Igličar, Ustvarjalnost glasbeno nadarjenih učencev. Primer: Glasbena olimpijada (Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, Akademija za glasbo, 2014). and explorers themselves. They must not hinder students with excessive guidance, but rather provide support.16 When it comes to creativity, teachers are perceived as role models. With their musical imagination, creative models and improvisation, they enable students to experience musical creativity in a positive way, stimulating their curiosity and encouraging exploration of sounds, development of musical ideas, expressive performance and transfer of musical experience and concepts into other media. Creative activities have to be planned very carefully in terms of objectives, content, method and organisation (learning forms, time frames for solving the tasks, preparation of necessary materials, presentation of results). Teachers have to define very clearly the purpose and objectives of creative processes and musical products as achievements of musical creativity. They also need to decide which tasks should be solved individually, in pairs or groups. Individual efforts give greater satisfaction to students with bigger interest. When solving a creative task, an individual is fully activated in the cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains, and does not have to adapt to others. Once a creative process is finished and a musical product created, the latter passes from subjective to objective, i.e. changes ownership. Upon its presentation to the public, it is evaluated by the audience (teacher, class-mates, audience at a performance, where a work is presented). Solving tasks in groups enables generation of numerous musical ideas, some of which are then selected by the group, while others are omit-ted.17 Students learn together and from each other. Evaluating Creative Ideas, Processes and Products Evaluating the achievements of creative activities is a particular challenge for music education teachers. Already at the stage of planning a creative activity, teacher has to consider the ways of monitoring it and the learning procedures. In relation to formative evaluation, Adams18 points out that in the process of solving creative tasks, teachers should listen to students, their questions and considerations. At the same time, teachers should monitor their own thoughts, reactions and responses to students' questions. This highlights the importance of teacher's reflections on teaching and the teaching strategies used. Teacher's feedback should be given during the creative process, as well as after the presentation. It should be encouraging, but also contain objective criticism with guidelines for further work and improvement. However, even in this respect, the question regarding the relation between new, unconventional approaches and the use of musical knowledge in new conceptual context remains open. In both, formative and summative assessment it is important to assume holistic approach which includes not only the cognitive but also emotional-motivational, social 16 Valentin Bucik, "Pomoč psihologa vzgojiteljem in učiteljem pri delu z nadarjenimi učenci: nekaj izhodišč in priporočil" in Posvetovanje: Podpora psihologa učiteljem in vzgojiteljem pri delu z nadarjenimi, Mojca Juriševič and Polona Gradišek, eds. (Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta, 2013), 9-26. 17 Pauline Adams, "Assessment in the music classroom," in Learning to Teach Music in the Secondary School, eds. Chris Philpott (London, New York: Routledge, 2001), 163-176. 18 Adams, "Assessment in the music classroom," 166-167. and physical-motional domains. Outlining the basic criteria for the assessment of creative music achievements, Sicherl Kafol highlights the level of originality, accordance of musical parameters, aesthetic evaluation, student's interest and engagement.19 Holcar Brunauer20 points out the importance of encouraging and including students' self-evaluation and peer-evaluation into the assessment processes, as this motivates students and adds to their positive attitude towards assessment and music itself. In summative assessment, which is part of the established system in educational environment, it is important that students do not perceive the attributed grade as an indicator of their creative abilities, but rather as part of their achievement in the learning continuum. To the largest possible extent, creative achievements should be evaluated in connection with the performance of the created work. Musical Creativity as Part of the Music Olympiad Music Olympiad is a competition intended for primary and secondary school students with talent for and interest in music.21 They can study at the same time in music school or take private music lessons. They are prepared by the music teacher - mentor from the general school. The competition is divided into two categories, based on the contestants' age: in Category 1 there are students aged 12-14 (primary school) and in Category 2 students aged 15-18 (secondary school). The concept of a Music Olympiad was developed in Estonia in 2002. The first International Music Olympiad was organised in Tallinn in 2012. The following ones have been organised biennually.22 In Slovenia, we have so far organised and carried out five national Music Olympiads.23 The Music Olympiad is a complex competition which includes various musical activities. Each contestant passes through three parts of the competition. They include an oral, written and a-vista test (Part I); singing performance (Part II) and performance of authorial composition (Part III). The competition is judged by a jury of professional musicians of different specialisations (composers, teachers of singing, higher education teachers - special education teachers, music education teachers).24 Each part of 19 Barbara Sicherl Kafol, Izbrana poglavja iz glasbene didaktike (Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta, 2015). 20 Ada Holcar Brunauer, "Preverjanje in ocenjevanje znanja v luči sodobnih pristopov k učenju in poučevanju," in Izzivi razvijanja in vrednotenja znanja v gimnazijski praksi. Glasba, Ada Holcar Brunauer and Inge Breznik, eds. (Ljubljana: Zavod RS za šolstvo, 2013), 15-23. 21 The aims of the Music Olympiad are: • "To strengthen the position of music education as a creative subject in national curricula. • To create motivation and offer musically talented young people opportunities for artistic self-expression at international level. • To widen opportunities for composing music (participants can use vocal and acoustic musical instruments as well as various electro-acoustical instruments and audio-visual multimedia. • To develop musical literacy as a prerequisite for creative activities." The aims of the Olympiad, 2012, accessed on October 7, 2016, http://imuo.edicypages.co m/about. 22 In 2014, the second International Music Olympiad took place in Riga (Latvia) and the third one was organised in Klaipeda (Lithuania) in 2016. 23 Annual Slovene Music Olympiad in March 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016 took place at the Academy of Music, University of Ljubljana. 24 Branka Rotar Pance, "Creating Space and Supporting Musically Gifted Students through Music Olympiad," in Contemporary approaches to music teaching and learning, Barbara Sicherl Kafol, ed. (Saarbrücken: Lambert, 2015), 223-237. the competition has a set of assessment criteria and distribution of points clearly defined. The total amount is 100 points. In Part I, a contestant can achieve the maximum of 40 points in the written test and 10 in the a-vista test. The maximum score for singing performance (Part II) is 20 points, while for original composition and its presentation (Part III), it is 30 points.25 The Music Olympiad is particularly valuable because it includes and encourages musical creativity of students. In the last part of the competition, the contestants present themselves as performers of their own compositions. They can be composed for voice, acoustic or electro-acoustic instruments, or for audiovisual and multimedia performance. It can be a song for solo voice or vocal ensemble (unaccompanied or with accompaniment), a piece for an instrument or instruments, or a composition using electro-acoustic, audiovisual or multimedia performance. The original piece of music is performed live at a public concert or, in case of compositions for multimedia, from a pre-recorded source. Other singers and instrumentalists can be used for the performance. The composed music must be the original production of the participant (pre-existing lyrics may be used). The participants perform an original piece of max. 3 minutes, prepared beforehand. At the national level, the jury assesses the created and presented original compositions based on the following criteria: originality; rhythmic, melodic and harmonic structure; compositional structure; choice of performers; use of interpretation markings in the notation; accordance between the content and the title; overall impression of the performance.26 The Study Research Aim, Methodology, Data Gathering and Data Analysing Procedures We carried out a study aimed at looking into the characteristics of the compositions which were created and presented by the competitors at the first three Slovene Music Olympiads in both chategories (2012-2014). Altogether, 93 original compositions were created and presented. We were interested in what their common characteristics were and how their originality was shown. First, we analysed all compositions in terms of their general characteristics related to the topic, performers and genre, together with short notes about their creation written by the authors. Then we selected the 32 compositions which we used to carry out a detailed analysis of musical parameters such as structure, meter, melody, harmony, 25 Contestants who achieve 85 to 100 points receive a golden award, while a silver award is given to those who attain 70 to 84 points. Everybody else is awarded bronze. There are also two special prizes, for the best authorial composition - awarded by the Society of Slovene Composers, and for the best singing performance - awarded by the Society of Slovene Voice Teachers. 26 Branka Rotar Pance, "Glasbena olimpijada - spodbuda in izziv za glasbeno nadarjene učence in dijake," in Spodbudno učno okolje: ideje za delo z nadarjenimi v osnovni šoli, Mojca Juriševič, ed. (Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta, 2014), 73-84. form and notation. Our selection was based on the rank attributed to them by the six-member jury.27 However, we also considered different genres. In the study, we used descriptive method and musical analysis method. Sample Purposive sampling was used in the study. The first three Music Olympiads were attended by contestants (N=93) from ten Slovene regions. They were prepared by 34 teachers-mentors (26 primary-school teachers and 8 secondary-school teachers). Of these, 6 primary-school teachers participated in all three Music Olympiads. Figure 1: The number of contestants of the first three Slovene Music Olympiads in relation to categories. As it is evident from the Figure 1, the contestants of the first three Slovene Music Olympiads (SMO) were prevailingly primary-school students (89.2%), competing in Category 1. Since teachers usually teach the same students for several years, they are able to follow their musical path and, consequently, they are also more committed as mentors. They prepare individualised work programmes which include preparation for the SMO. Music teachers report that the interest in the SMO in some primary schools is so big that they have to organise school Olympiads where they choose the best contestants for participation in the SMO, as each mentor can only register up to three students from one school. The number of secondary-school students competing at the SMO was symbolic (10.8%). In most secondary schools, music education is a compulsory subject only in the first year, during which teachers barely get to know their students. Therefore, the small participation of secondary-school students in the competition is in a way a reflection of the status of music education in the secondary school curricula. 27 Among the six jurors of each competition, there were two established Slovene composers with experience in teaching / mentoring young (future) composers. Results and Interpretation The results of the analysis of all original compositions (N=93) in terms of their general characteristics showed that most of the contestants' compositions had programme titles (95%). ■ External stimuli ■ Internal stimuli ■ Unspecified Figure 2: Topics of compositions with programme titles - all three SMOs. Programme music 1st SMO 2nd SMO 3rd SMO f % f % f % External stimuli 17 49,0 13 48,0 14 53,8 Internal stimuli 13 37,0 7 26,0 10 38,5 Unspecified 5 14,0 7 26,0 2 7,7 Total 35 100 27 100 26 100 Table 1: The number (f) and percentage (%) of programme compositions according to the incentives for their creation and individual Music Olympiads. The ideas for most of these compositions came from external and internal stimuli28. Apart from the titles, short descriptions of the creation of compositions, written by 28 Examples of titles: .Sunset (Sončni zahod), Storm (Nevihta), Bird Flight (Ptičji let), Spring Dance (Pomladni ples), Breese (Vetrič), Lullaby (Uspavanka), Fantasies (Sanjarije), Whispering (Šepetanje), Big Heart (Veliko srce), Believe in Yourself (Verjemi vase), Me and You (Jaz in ti). Archive of the Slovene Music Olympiad (2012-2014). Arhiv Slovenske glasbene olimpijade (2012-2014). Ljubljana: Zveza glasbene mladine Slovenije. their authors and submitted upon the application, reveal their contents.29 The notes also indicate the level of musical knowledge and experience used in the composing process.30 A few compositions were inspired by the instruments the contestants played31 or felt particular affinity towards.32 Only a small part (5%) of the compositions were absolute music. Their titles were connected with their compositional forms,33 but also with the compositional approach and method of playing34. In all three Slovene music Olympiads, compositions for solo instruments prevailed, and among them, compositions for piano were in majority (34%). Others were compositions for flute, trumpet, tube, marimba, accordion, guitar, electric guitar. In the second largest group, there were compositions in which human voice had the main role, accompanied usually by one and, in rare cases, two instruments (25%). The most frequent accompanying instrument was the piano, while in individual compositions, guitar, bas guitar, drums, oboe and trombone were used as accompanying instruments. As regards music for small groups, most compositions were duos,35 trios36 and quartets.37 In the case of chamber groups, the compositions surprised with the varied and sometimes also unconventional selection of instruments. 29 "I was going through books with poems and I came across a collection of poems for children by Srečko Kosovel Child and a Sunflower (Otrok s sončnico). I recalled reading it at school. I love nature. I feel very nice in the warm sun, watching and listening to birds... So, I just dwelled upon the text for a while and then started creating a melody, slowly but decisively. Once the melody was there, I started working on the accompaniment. I consulted my mentor, but I also used my knowledge from music school. I decided to sing the first and second strophes successively. Then an instrumental part comes, which is followed by another strophe." Ibid. 30 Example: "Dream (Sanje) is written in the 4/4 time. The tempo marking is moderato. It is written for piano. It consists of an introduction, theme, its repetition and a conclusion in truplets. Chromatic tones are used." Ibid. 31 A contestant wrote about her composition Little Fantasy for Trumpet and Piano (Mala fantazija za trobento in kla vir): "I draw a lot of inspiration from Mozart - hence the title of my composition. I played his Fantasy at the last year's piano competition. There is some resemblance in a few little details between his composition and mine. I incorporated a little part of a song by Queen that I like very much. In my composition, the piano is joined by the trumpet - the sound of which I find the most beautiful, majestic, angelic of all the instruments... " Ibid. 32 In the description of his composition Taridaridam-pam, the contestant wrote: "This is a composition for a jazz combo and a string instrument (in my case the cello) or two. The inspiration for it came from two concerts I attended, one by Christian Howes who is known for using violin in contemporary jazz music, and the other was the Friedrich Gulda's cello concert in jazz style, written for cello and wind orchestra. I also like experimenting with various rhythms, in this case I used the 10/8 time, and with atonal chords and melody lines. I wrote the composition for my brother - we play together in a duo - in order to "push" him a little towards jazz music." Ibid. 33 For example: Theme and Variations in G-major, Etude for Carinet, Little Etude, Little Fantasy for Trumpet and Piano. Ibid. A description of one of the compositions: "I wanted to write an etude - I was not concerned with its length - in which I would use a motive that had been in my head for quite some time. I wrote the main melody, but at the same time, I already had ideas for the beginning and end. When I had the draft version I started considering the ways of playing. At first, I played the entire composition in legato, but I wanted to include other types of articulation. I started playing the main melody in staccato, to highlight it better and I thought this articulation suited the melody well. Then I polished up the composition by changing a few chords, adding or omitting certain parts and including some new ideas that I had. I entitled it Little Etude, because it is a short composition which you can use to practice your technique, but at the same time I enjoy its melody every time I play it. Ibid. 34 A contestant wrote: "Nephesh, which in Hebrew means ,soul' is my 'compositional debut'. It is a Jewish improvisation, so some intervals now and then might surprise you. I play it differently every time, as I have (intentionally!) defined only the framework of the composition, while the rest is left to inspiration and the atmosphere of the moment." Ibid. 35 Ensembles: Flute duo; trumpet duo; clarinet duo; guitar duo; flute and violin; cello and electric guitar. 36 Ensembles: piano trio; string trio; 2 violins and piano; saxophone, cello and piano. 37 Ensembles: violin, cello, flute, piano; cajon, flute, violin, guitar. Piano ■ Vocals + other instruments ■ Solo instrument ■ Chamber music Figure 3. Classification of original compositions according to performers - all three SMOs. Figure 4: Classification of original compositions related to genre - all three SMOs. Analysis showed that 75.8% of the compositions belonged to the category of art music, 22% to the category of popular music, and only 2.2% were written in the style of the Slovene folk heritage. Analysis of the above mentioned descriptions showed that some of them included parameters which we later used in our detailed analysis of selected compositions: structure, meter, melody, harmony, form and notation.38 38 Examples: "Variations are written for solo violin in B-major, however, they modulate a few times. Besides the prevailing 9/8 time, the 2/4 time also occurs. I wanted to keep the composition simple and easy to remember. I hope I succeeded." "You and Me is my second composition. Its character is happy, light and optimistic. The lyrics have three strophes and it is about happiness, love and joy I feel for my darling. It is a monosectional composition for three-part singing without accompaniment." Ibid. Example number 1: Neža Nahtigal, Morning (Jutro). Author: Neža Nahtigal Title: Morning (Jutro) Mentor / School: Jasmina Žagar / OŠ Notranjski odred Cerknica General presentation 1. Category Category 1 (primary school) 2. Rank attributed to by the jury 1st place 3. Final rank of the contestant at the Music Olympiad 2 nd place 4. Topic Programme music: external and internal stimuli: nature and emotions 5. Performers String trio: cello and two violins Parameters for a detailed analysis of the selected original composition 1. Meter and Rhythm 3/4 time and 2/4 time (bars 55 to 66) 2. Musical Form A + B + C + D + A The composition has four different sections, the first one is repeated at the end. These sections do not represent any classical musical form. Through developmental form, the author avoids traditional forms, movements and periods. 3. Structure Three-part composition 4. Melody a) Range: 1st violin: d1 - h3 2 nd violin: g - g3 Cello: C - c1 The ranges used are suitable. b) Structure of the line: The line is diatonic. Each part also contains altered tones (Eb, C#, G#, Ab) C) Phrasing: In accordance with the harmony. 5. Harmony a) Basic tonality: Parts A and B: G major, part C: C major, part D: A minor b) Classification of cadences: Perfect: V - I (2x) Imperfect: ii° - I (3x) Half cadence: I - V (1x) c) Modulation: G — C — Am e) Tonicization: V/V, V/ii 6. Quality of notation a) Means: Use of music notation software b) Marks: dynamics, agogics (rhythm), articulation. 7. Overall impression The composition has a developmental form, with four separate parts. Harmonic progression is varied, modulations into two new tonalities occur, tonicization is used. In the notation and in the performance, the author makes great contrasts in dynamics, rhythmical elements and articulation. Table 2: Example of detailed analysis of the composition Morning (Jutro) by Neža Nahtigal.39 39 Neža Nahtigal described the composition Morning (Jutro) with the following words: Detailed analysis of the selected compositions (N=32) showed that 53.1% were in the 4/4 time. Proportions of other times were smaller. Changes in times in the course of a composition were often used. As regards the rhythm itself, there were no particularities. We noticed only a few errors in its notation. Most competitors used musical forms they were already familiar with: sectional forms, rondos, variations and strophic form with refrain. However, in several cases there were partial deviations from classical forms, some of which were a sign of original approach to constructing the composition. Most compositions were categorised as tonal. In terms of harmony, we were able to find simple harmonic movements (use of tonic, subdominant and dominant cords, complemented with cords of all the other degrees of the scale) as well as some specific ones (harmonic parallelism, quartal chords, jazz chord sequences, simple form of neo-tonality with tonal centres, traces of modes and modal chords). We were interested in whether the contestants' music was handwritten or they used computer programmes. We looked into the quality of the notation, in terms of correctness as well as the use of interpretation marks. The majority of the compositions (69.8%) were written with the use of music notation software. Only around a quarter of them were handwritten. Four original compositions were recorded with the use of multimedia and then played at the Music Olympiad. Most of the interpretation marks found in the scores were related to the dynamics and tempo. There were also individual cases where marks for the agogics and articulation were used. Conclusions In the Music Olympiad, as in working with creative students in general, the role of the teacher - mentor is crucial. With the right encouragement and guidance, young musicians can achieve good creative results, despite they lack theoretical knowledge. Analysis of the compositions showed that individual pieces reflected a true sense of form, content and even compositional technique. A nice, elaborated notation does not improve a composition. However, if a contestant invests genuine creative effort into their work, this will usually result also in a responsible and precise notation. By writing down their musical ideas, contestants learn a lot, even if they require some help by their mentors. Therefore, the results of the present analysis can be useful for teachers - mentors. They should, among other things, encourage students' sensitivity for the title of their composition - whether it is in accordance with the character of the composition. Also, teachers should encourage students to avoid well known templates and rather try to structure their compositions as originally as they can. The Music Olympiad involves talented students with interest in music. Teachers have to work with these students, following a tailor-made programme and looking for "At the beginning there is a gentle melody, representing my first impression as I wake up into a nice, sunny morning: the birds are singing, the air smells of dew, the flowers are opening up. Suddenly, I am overcome by the everyday concerns (bar 55). I am thinking: I have to study maths today; I will be interrogated tomorrow. My aunt is sick. When I come from school, I will have to start practicing my violin immediately...'. Then I close my eyes and calm down (from bar 62 on): I can do all this. I just have to make an effort and believe in myself and I will make it!' I take my school bag and step into a lovely spring morning (the initial melody repeats)." Ibid. the right way to steer and lead students who want to realise their musical ideas in their own original compositions. They have to provide advice and guidelines supported by new musical knowledge, while at the same time letting the students plan and carry out their musical ideas freely. Supported by teachers, students go through authentic creative process the final product (original composition by the student) of which is publi-cally presented and evaluated. Analysis of handwritten notations of the compositions showed that students used the learned musical contents in their creations. However, many elements used that could be explained in theoretical and compositional terms, were the result of students' intuition and experimentation. Quite a few musical ideas surprised with their originality, particularity and novelty. Even though the Music Olympiad opens the questions regarding musical competitions and their relations to creativity, it puts more emphasis on the opportunity and possibility of creative expression and public performance in an encouraging environment than to the final result (gold, silver or bronze award) itself. Therefore, we can conclude that to the participants, the Music Olympiad can represent an incentive to their further musical creativity. Our research focused on musical analysis of the created compositions. Its purpose was not to analyse the influence of various factors on the previous musical knowledge of contestants (e.g. encouraging family environment, parallel education in music schools or other forms of organised learning, participation in choirs, instrumental ensembles, etc.). Additional insight into the work of teachers-mentors and their strategies in supporting and steering the creative process which results in a product - original composition - could be obtained with a special questionnaire and an analysis of the data gathered by it. We believe that the results represent a good starting point for further research and application in schools in order to promote musical creativity in young people and demonstration of their complex musical knowledges. Bibliography Adams, Pauline. "Assessment in the music classroom." In Learning to Teach Music in the Secondary School. Edited by Philpott, Chris. London, New York: Routledge, 2001, 163-176. Amabile, Teresa M.. Creativity in Context. Boulder: Westview Press, 1996. Archive of the Slovene Music Olympiad (2012-2014). Arhiv Slovenske glasbene olimpi- jade (2012-2014). Ljubljana: Zveza glasbene mladine Slovenije. Bucik, Valentin. "Pomoč psihologa vzgojiteljem in učiteljem pri delu z nadarjenimi učenci: nekaj izhodišč in priporočil." In Posvetovanje: Podpora psihologa učiteljem in vzgojiteljem pri delu z nadarjenimi. Edited by Juriševič, Mojca and Gradišek, Polona. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta, 2013, 9-26. Burnard, Pamela. Musical Creativities in Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. "A Systems Perspective on Creativity." In Handbook of creativity. Edited by Sternberg, Robert J.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999, 313-335. Deliege, Irene and Wiggins, Geraint A., ed.. Musical creativity: Multidisciplinary research in theory and practice. Hove: Psychology Press, 2006. Deliege, Irene and Richelle, Marc. "Prelude. The spectrum of musical creativity. " In Musical creativity: Multidisciplinary research in theory and practice. Edited by Deliege, Irene and Wiggins, Geraint A.. Hove: Psychology Press, 2006, 1-6. Holcar, Ada. 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POVZETEK Raziskovanje ustvarjalnosti je domena različnih znanosti in umetnosti. Skupne značilnosti, razvidne v definicijah ustvarjalnosti, se povezujejo z ustvarjanjem nečesa kar je novo, izvirno in uporabno. Na ustvarjalnost ugodno vplivajo svoboda, samostojnost, ustrezen časovni okvir, dobri zgledi, spodbujanje izvirnosti, svoboda kritike in norme, v katerih so inovacije cenjene, neuspeh pa ni usoden. Večsmerna obravnava ustvarjalnosti je lastna tudi glasbenemu področju. Tradicionalni koncepti so osredinjeni k ustvarjalnim produktom in upoštevajo predvsem uveljavljene skladatelje in njihova dela. Novejši koncepti namenjajo pozornost ustvarjalnim procesom in postavljajo v ospredje ustvarjalno mišljenje v glasbi. Preučujejo se tudi ustvarjalna osebnost, vloga okolja in pomen družbenega priznavanja ustvarjalnih dosežkov. Razvoj glasbene ustvarjalnosti je podprt z učenjem in z izkušnjami, zato imajo učitelji veliko vlogo pri njenem spodbujanju. Poznati morajo značilnosti ustvarjalnega procesa ter z ustreznimi strategijami voditi učence pri oblikovanju lastnih glasbenih zamisli. Spodbujajo njihovo radovednost, zvočno raziskovanje in razvijanje glasbenih idej, doživeto poustvarjalno izražanje ter transfer glasbenih doživetij in predstav v druge medije. Učitelji morajo dejavnosti na področju ustvarjanja skrbno načrtovati s ciljnega, vsebinskega, metodičnega in organizacijskega vidika. Zelo jasno morajo opredeliti namen in cilje kreativnih procesov in dosežkov glasbene ustvarjalnosti. Tako pri formativnem kot pri sumativnem preverjanju in ocenjevanju ustvarjalnih dejavnosti je pomembno, da vrednotenje temelji na občutljivo izoblikovanih kriterijih. Nanašajo se na raven izvirnosti, skladnosti glasbene gradnje, uporabo že usvojenih glasbenih znanj, estetsko vrednotenje, učenčev interes in angažiranost. Raziskava se nanaša na slovensko glasbeno olim-pijado, ki se jo udeležujejo glasbeno nadarjeni in za glasbo zainteresirani učenci. Na tekmovanje jih pripravljajo glasbeni učitelji -mentorji s splošnih šol. Tekmovalci se poleg reševanja pisnega testa z vključenimi poslušalskimi primeri in pevskega nastopa predstavijo kot ustvarjalci. Napišejo lastno skladbo, ki jo nato sami ali v sodelovanju z drugimi izvajalci na glasbeni olimpijadi tudi izvedejo. V raziskavi smo preučili značilnosti 93 skladb, napisanih in predstavljenih na prvih treh Slovenskih glasbenih olimpijadah (2012-2014). Večina skladb (95 %) je imela programske naslove, ki smo jih analizirali v povezavi s kratkimi vsebinskimi opisi, podanimi s strani njihovih avtorjev. Ideje za nastanek skorajpolovice programskih skladb (45 %) so izvirale iz različnih zunanjih vzgibov. 31 % skladb je v naslovih in predstavitvenih besedilih tekmovalcev izražalo notranje vzgibe njihovega nastanka. Posamezni tekmovalci so skladbe napisali zaradi ljubezni do posameznega inštrumenta. S področja absolutne glasbe je bil zastopan zelo skromen delež skladb (5 %). Iz njihovih naslovov je bilo razvidno, da so ustvarjalci izhajali predvsem iz poznavanja glasbenih oblik, kompozicijskih postopkov in načinov izvajanja. Največji delež skladb je bil napisan za klavir (34 %) in za druge solistične inštrumente (18 %). Četrtina skladb (25 %) je bila napisana za vokal in spremljavo enega ali dveh inštrumentov. 23 % skladb je bilo napisanih za različne inštrumentalne komorne sestave. Na primeru skladbe Jutro Neže Nahtigal smo predstavili parametre podrobne analize 32 izbranih skladb glede na metrum in ritem, obliko, fakturo, melodijo, harmonijo, kakovost notnega zapisa, glasovno ustreznost in splošni vtis o izvirni skladbi tekmovalca. Rezultati so pokazali, da so tekmovalci pri ustvarjanju skladb izhajali tako iz svojih glasbenih znanj kot eksperimentiranja in intuitivnega snovanja. Marsikatera glasbena zamisel je presenetila s svojo izvirnostjo, drugačnostjo in novostjo. UDK 78:328(497.4)"2015/16" DOI: 10.4312/mz.53.1.185-202 Boštjan Udovič Fakulteta za družbene vede, Univerza v Ljubljani Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana Music as a means of statecraft: the example of ceremonial sessions of the National Assembly Glasba kot element državništva: primer slavnostnih sej Državnega zbora Prejeto: 17. oktober 2016 Sprejeto: 7. december 2016 Ključne besede: glasba, Državni zbor, slavnostne seje, državništvo IZVLEČEK Članek analizira položaj in funkcije glasbe na slavnostnih sejah Državnega zbora Republike Slovenije. Avtor v članku ugotovi sledeče: (a) slavnostne seje Državnega zbora vedno vključujejo glasbene točke; (b) glasba na slavnostnih sejah je namenjena predvsem podpiranju slovesnosti, ni pa pomembna njena estetska funkcija; (c) v Državnem zboru obstaja posvetovalno telo predsednika Državnega zbora, ki 'izbira' glasbene izvajalce, izbor glasbe pa je prepuščen potem izvajalcem. Na podlagi povedanega avtor zaključi, da glasba na slavnostnih sejah Državnega zbora nima funkcije krepitve državništva, ampak se (z)oži v zabavno funkcijo. Received: 17th October 2016 Accepted: 7th December 2016 Keywords: music, National Assembly, ceremonial sessions, statecraft ABSTRACT The article analyses the role and position of music at ceremonial sessions of the National Assembly of the Republic of Slovenia. It outlines three main findings: (a) ceremonial sessions of the National Assembly are largely accompanied by a musical programme; (b) music is used at ceremonial sessions of the National Assembly in some sort of supporting (cultural) role; (c) the group in charge of events, which is the chief advisor to the parliamentary speaker on the choice of music for ceremonial sessions, mainly chooses the performers, while the choice of programme is greatly left to the musicians themselves. Based on these findings, the article concludes that music is not used in the National Assembly as a means of strengthening statecraft, but above all in its function of entertainment. Introduction It is extremely hard to say something new about the role of music in everyday life, particularly if we try to conceptualise it using the ten functions1 that - at least theoretically - set the framework of understanding and discussing music. However, if we wish to explore the relationship between music and statecraft (or its broader component, politics), we often encounter two facts that cannot be neglected. First, the examination of the relationship between music and statecraft is branded by some sort of inherent fear of sacrilege, as the subject of the relationship between music and statecraft/politics quickly brings out associations with Nazi Germany, where music was an important supporting pillar of the regime. But the second fact is even more troubling: most statesmen and politicians are unaware or not aware enough of the significance and power of music, that is the power that Cooke2 describes as the power of emotions. Because political decision makers are unaware of this, they leave the choice of music to others, apolitical decision makers, who then decide on their own - of course within their own limitations - what music will be performed at a particular state ceremony, which is supposed to be intended above all for strengthening statecraft. From all this, we can see that music has a great mobilising power, but it also has a high identification and identity potential. This raises questions whether political decision makers (a) realise the power of music, (b) wish to use this potential to increase their power, and (c) whether they are consistent in the use music for their political goals, meaning that music should always be chosen to reflect the statecraft messages that they or the state they rule project on the inside (for their citizens) and on the outside (for the international community).3 These three points set the framework for the discussion in this article. However, this article does not wish to discuss the relationship between music and statecraft only theoretically, but also to test the findings in practice. To this end, we chose to analyse three past ceremonial sessions of the National Assembly of the Republic of Slovenia: the session held on 23 June 2015 to mark Statehood Day, the session of 23 December 2015 marking Independence and Unity Day, and the session celebrating the 25th anniversary of the proclamation of independence / Statehood Day that was held on 24 June 2016. All three sessions are among the "most important" ceremonial sessions, since they were held to celebrate the two most important holidays related to Slovenia's independence. This is also the main reason they were chosen for this analysis. The reason for choosing ceremonial sessions over state ceremonies4 was that the latter get more attention and are often (critically?) analysed, while ceremonial sessions of the National Assembly are rarely assessed or analysed. Considering that the National Assembly is the highest democratically and directly elected body, we think the choice of music here should also be strongly related to strengthening statecraft. 1 Alan P. Merriam, Antropologija glasbe (Ljubljana: Znanstveno in publicistično središče, 2000), 167. 2 Deryck Cooke, The Language of Music (London: Oxford University Press, 1959), x. 3 The idea that music cannot be state-bordered is elaborated in Matjaž Barbo, "Referential contexts of early Slovenian symphonic music," Muzikološkizbornik 49, 2 (2013): 33-39. 4 For an analysis of the role of music at state ceremonies, see Leon Stefanija, "Music and state ceremonies in Slovenia after 1991," in Music identities on paper and screen, Mirjana Veselinovic-Hofman, ed. (Belgrade: Faculty of Music, 2014), 341-347. The article attempts to test the following two hypotheses: H1: Decisions about music at ceremonial sessions are not made by deputies or the speaker of the National Assembly, but rather by other National Assembly staff. H2: The choice of music is made in line with the script for the event. The choice of musicians thus comes after an initial draft scenario. If the first hypothesis is confirmed, this proves that political decision makers (within the framework of the National Assembly) do not see music as a means of strengthening statecraft and that only its function as entertainment is in focus. Similarly, the second hypothesis tests whether priority in planning ceremonial sessions is given to all other cultural aspects, and music is only an addition. The research questions and hypotheses will be explored by analysing primary and secondary sources, and the conclusions will be supplemented with semi-structured in-depth interviews (with the National Assembly speaker and staff). The information from the interviews will be used to shed light on some of the issues that may not be accessible or evident in primary and secondary sources. The article consists of two parts. The first part presents a theoretical framework for examining the relationship between statecraft and music, and the second part analyses the three selected ceremonial sessions. It closes with a discussion and a conclusion summarising the key findings, evaluating the hypotheses and outlining the directions of possible further research. The theoretical framework: Music as a means of statecraft The relationship between music and statecraft depends on the methodological approach to analysing this relationship. Udovic5 determines three methodological approaches relating music to statecraft. The first approach sees both activities as completely discrete, the second defines them as a dependent and independent variable, and the third - the most relevant one for this analysis - regards music as a tool for developing, practicing and strengthening statecraft. In this relationship, music is merely a tool used by political decision makers for reaching their political goals. Music itself has no meaning here, what is important are its functions6 or rather its use for achieving a particular result. However, to be able to determine how music can be used as a means of statecraft, we must first define statecraft. One of the simplest definitions of statecraft is that it is the skilful management of state affairs7. It is therefore a process of political players affecting, through their actions, the forming, performing and functioning of state policy. Anderson8 expands this perspective, highlighting that the key to understanding the concept of statecraft is that political decision makers perform an activity that requires skills, techniques and appropriate 5 Boštjan Udovič, Glasba in državništvo: metodološki pristopi (Sečovlje: draft, 2016a). 6 Alan P. Merriam, Antropologija glasbe (Ljubljana: Znanstveno in publicistično središče, 2000). 7 Oxfordov slovar angleškega jezika (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015). 8 Charles W. Anderson, Statecraft: Introduction to Political Choice and Judgement (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1977), vii. judgement, all of which leads to the desired goal (i.e. greater power). Anderson's definition was further developed by Baldwin9, who believes that the developing and management of statecraft is particularly important in foreign policy. This means that by practicing and strengthening statecraft political decision makers are sending messages to the domestic and foreign public. For the domestic public, statecraft is important for enhancing cohesion among citizens, while it is used on the outside to reaffirm a particular image of a particular country to improve its position in the international community. Statecraft is thus a sort of softened policy of prestige, which has developed through centuries and comes with a certain amount of inherent superiority,10 or sometimes even has a negative connotation. But unlike policy of prestige, statecraft carries a positive connotation. Instead of superiority, maybe even nationalism, it aims at patriotism, and the key to defining it is the state (not necessarily the nation!)11, which today is the basis for entering international relations. As such, statecraft is defined by soft power12. And exactly here we can see another dividing line between statecraft and policy of prestige. While statecraft is based on soft power, policy of prestige combines both soft and hard power13. Since statecraft is a result of a positive approach to enhancing a country's reputation, it cannot be pursued using relational power or coercion (as in the case of policy of prestige; cf. Belgium's policies in Congo or similar examples), but rather through structural power or activities that create a favourable environment for improving one's reputation at home and in the international community. The above indicates that statecraft is not set up and upheld through direct influence, but above all by shaping the environment in which a country functions. This means that the main source for strengthening statecraft is the ideology or the value system of the state and its citizens14. The more this value system corresponds with the value system of political decision makers, the greater the potential reach of statecraft. And vice-versa, the more the value system of the state and its citizens diverges from the value system of political decision makers, the lower their chances of strengthening their position. All of this highlights two crucial conditions for using music to strengthen statecraft: first, that political decision makers are aware of the potential of music for developing and strengthening statecraft; and second, that this awareness is accompanied by willingness for action, which means that political decision makers actually decide they wish to use music to develop and strengthen political statecraft. If any of the two elements is missing, the conditions will not be met for music to be used as a means of developing and strengthening political statecraft (see Figure 1). 9 David Baldwin, Economic Statecraft (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), 8. 10 Examples can be seen in some of the names nations use for themselves, like the French mission civilisatrice, the English empire on which the sun never sets, the German die Kultur, the Croatian Bog i Hrvati, the Serbian Nebeski narod, etc. 11 Ludim L. Pedrosa, "The Joropo in Venezuela's Musical Modernity: Cultural Capital in Jose Clemente Laya's Sonata Venezolana," Muzikološkizbornik 52, 2 (2016): 55. 12 Joseph S. Nye, Soft power (New York: Public Affairs, 2004); Joseph S. Nye, The powers to lead (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); Ana Bojinovic Fenko, ed., Mehka moč v zunanji politiki in mednarodnih odnosih: študije aktualnih primerov (Ljubljana: Založba Fakultete za družbene vede, 2014); Anja Fabiani, Mehka moč in voditeljstvo (Ljubljana: Založba Fakultete za družbene vede, 2015). 13 David Baldwin, Economic Statecraft (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985); Gordon Craig and Alexander George, Force and statecraft: diplomatic problems of our time (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990). 14 Karmen Salmič Kovačič, "Svobodi naproti Demetrija Žebreta v presečišču socialističnega realizma in zmernega modernizma," Muzikološki zbornik 50, 1 (2014): 43-45. Music as an inde- pendent activity Political decision No decision or makers are conscious unaware of the NO role of music -► No action Conscious YES Political decision makers are aware of the role of music Figure 1: The relationship between music, awareness of its potency and its use. (Source: Based on Boštjan Udovič, Glasba kot sredstvo državništva (Sečovlje: Draft, 2016b). The model presented above has one deficiency. It assumes that a conscious decision to use music as a means of political statecraft is enough for political decision makers to also achieve the desired effect that is development of statecraft and their positioning within it. But this assumption is inaccurate. To achieve the desired goals, one further step is needed, working proactively not only with awareness of the role of music but also by choosing music that can strengthen statecraft and the position of political decision makers within it. In other words, not every music is appropriate for pursuing and strengthening statecraft, and its applicability for this purpose depends on the social and political circumstances, as well as whether a particular music/song has an ideological stigma or not15. Below, we take a look at three examples of music that would not be appropriate for pursuing and strengthening statecraft in Slovenia. The song Moja domovina (My Homeland) was published in 1943 in a collection titled Domovini (To the Homeland). The lyrics are explicitly patriotic. However, because it came out in 1943 in this particular collection (along with four other (Home Guard) marching tunes), but especially because it was regularly sung by members of the Home Guard (anti-Partisan militia), it was considered a Home Guard anthem. In 15 Leon Štefanija, "La nationalité en musique: la 'Slovénité' de la musique slovène et son domaine," in Création musicale et nationalismes dans le Sud-Est européen, ed. Georges Kokkonis (Paris: Association Pierre Belon: De Boccard, 2007a); Jernej Weiss, "Tomčeva Stara pravda in spor s političnimi oblastmi," in Radovan Gobec (1909-1995), ed. Darja Koter (Ljubljana: Akademija za glasbo, 2010a); Gregor Pompe, "Ideologija v glasbi in ideologija o glasbi," in Ideologije v slovenskem jeziku, literaturi in kulturi: zbornik predavanj, ed. Aleksander Bjelčevic (Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete, 2012). this context, the author of this article has been informed16 of an event from the late 1990s when a choir in the Primorska Region (W and SW Slovenia) rebelled against the conductor, who wanted them to sing this song at a local ceremony. The chorists refused to sing a song that would "glorify the collaborators of the occupier". The song is informally still considered an "anthem of the Home Guard". This means that using it at state ceremonies, even if the song itself bears no ideological content and is merely patriotic, would surely raise strong disapproval and would be considered ideological.17 Example no. 1: Moja domovina.18 On the occasion of Slovenia's public holiday Resistance Day (27 April) in 2013, the "Pinko Toma2ic" Partisan Choir from Trieste staged a concert in the Sto2ice sports arena in Ljubljana. The choir sang songs of resistance and revolution, but the most controversial point was when the prime minister of the time, Alenka Bratusek, was caught on camera singing along with the song Bandiera rossa (Red Flag). Political adversaries reproached her with glorifying Communism by singing the song and straying away from the values of the European Union. Some media even inflated the story to the extent that the prime minister was said to have been called by Brussels to answer questions about the event. Which of course was not true.19 Nevertheless, we can conclude that this song would also bring out certain negative feelings with a particular group of Slovenian citizens, which makes it inappropriate for strengthening statecraft. Example no. 2: Bandiera rossa.20 16 More information about this can be obtained from the author. 17 It is also evident that the song is connected to the Slovenian political right from the fact that it is most often performed at ceremonies organised by the Slovenian Democratic Party (SDS). A recent such example was a rally held in the square opposite from the parliament building in Ljubljana on 2 April 2016. 18 We can see that the post-WWII authorities had no real issue with the song Moja domovina, who quotes a letter by Pavle Kalan, the secretary of the Slovenian Composers Association, to the Commission for Recognition of Artist Status at the Council for Culture and Education, which says the following about Alojzij Mav (and the song Moja domovina): "We cannot give more specific information about the life and activities of Mav during the last war, and we think it would be best to leave this question to the relevant authorities. However, asfar as we know, Mav was never an active member of the white guard The song 'Moja domovina: was composed a few years before the war in Belgrade to Serbian lyrics, and this version is supposedy still being performed. During the war, Mav only added Slovenian lyrics, which - to our judgement - has no specific political or propaganda edge. As far as we know, members of the Home Guard would sing it in the streets, just as they sang many other, especially Slovenian folk songs. [...] Regarding the 5 songs in the collection Domovini, we could similarly say that - with the exception of only one [the song Domobranci - author's note] - they do not carry any specific i^rk of a political agenda or propaganda [...] Nevertheless, we certainly cannot ignore the fact that the said collection emerged during the occupation, when all positive elements in our cultural circles kept silent [as part of a Communist resistance-ordered boycott of all cultural activity that started in December 1941 - author's note], so the emergence of such collections cannot be condoned." (Leon Stefanija, "Totalitarnost režima in glasba: iz arhiva Društva slovenskih skladateljev v petdesetih letih 20. stoletja," in Muzikološke razprave: in memoriam Danilo Pokorn, ed. Nataša Cigoj Krstulovic, ed. Tomaž Faganel, ed. Metoda Kokole (Ljubljana: Založba ZRC SAZU 2004), 142. 19 As is evident from the personal correspondence of the author with Alenka Bratušek's public relations advisor Danaja Kek, available with the author. 20 The song that is now known as Bandiera rossa or sometimes Avantipopolo was originally actually not a revolutionary song. The original text was drawn up in the 1870s and comes from the Italian republican movement. Before their march on Rome, Italian republicans used a red flag as their symbol for the unification of Italy. Hence the title Bandiera rossa, which means a red flag. Originally, the song glorified republicanism, which can also be seen from the lyrics: "Avanti popolo con la riscossa, bandiera rossa, bandiera rossa, avanti popolo con la riscossa, bandiera rossa, bandiera rossa. Bandiera rossa la trionfera, Almost anyone who grew up in Slovenia knows the song Tam, kjer murke cveto (Where Nigritellas Blossom) by the Avsenik Brothers Ensemble (written by Ferdinand Souvan - Ferry), one of the most famous Slovenian Oberkrainer songs, which was played on the national radio almost every Sunday at lunch time up until the 1990s. However, only after Slovenia declared independence in 1991 did people start wondering more what was meant by one of the verses: "Ti dolina zelena, s krvjo prepojena, predraga" (You, my dearest green valley, soaked with blood). Some interpreted it as symbolism for those who died for freedom, others said it was about the civil war between the WWII Partisan resistance and the Home Guard militia. None of this has ever been formally confirmed. But despite the song's continuing popularity, using it for the highest state ceremonies would stir divisions, and particularly it would not strengthen statecraft. Example no. 3: Tam, kjer murke cveto.21 The selected examples show how many aspects can affect whether a particular song/music is appropriate for strengthening statecraft or not. Even if there is nothing "wrong" with all three presented songs themselves, their historical/ideological or text-based connotation means they would lead to divisions instead of unity (and strengthening statecraft). This makes them inappropriate for use at important state events/ ceremonies. The structure of ceremonial sessions of the National Assembly22 Ceremonial sessions of the National Assembly have two particular characteristics: they are "less exposed" because they take place in the National Assembly (the grand viva la repubblica, viva la repubblica, bandiera rossa la trionfera, viva la repubblica, la liberta." The melody is a combination of two (humorous) folk love songs that were catchy and quickly merged to form a new song with new lyrics. The currently known lyrics of the song only came in 1908, when the lyrics to the two melodies were rewritten by Carlo Tuzzi. But the newer version of the lyrics was not used for long. Already with the outbreak of World War I, a new version of the lyrics to Bandiera rossa arose stressing that Italians would conquer all others. This "new" song, which started in Trieste and Trento, was taught in Milanese schools as soon as 1915. The lyrics went: "Abbasso l'Austria e la Germania, e la Turchia in compagnia, abbasso i vili che fan la spia, in favore degli oppressor. Viva l'ltalia e le cento citta, Trento e Trieste si raggiungera. L'eroico Belgio col nobil russo, frenato ha limpeto di Barbarossa or tutto e sorto il mondo civile e Attila vile si schiaccera. E tutto il mondo intero allor godra l'amor, la pace e la liberta." After the war, Fascists sang their own lyrics to the melody of Bandiera rossa while marching on Rome: "Avantipopolo alla riscossa, ai comunisti si rompe l'ossa." In the 1960s, neo-fascists used the following lyrics: "Avantipopolo alla riscossa, dei comunisti vogliam le ossa, dei socialisti vogliam lapelle, per far salsicce e mortadelle." Another version came in the 1970s when it was sung by workers at a washing machine timer factory staging a strike against their director (Cesare Bermani, "La lunga storia di un inno popolare, di origine repubblicana e garibaldina," accessed May 23, 2016, http://www.brianzapopolare.it/sezioni/cultura/20030515_bandiera_rossa_storia.htm). 21 The Avsenik Brothers Ensemble first performed the song in 1956. The locals of their home village Begunje believe the verse "ti dolina zelena, s krvjo prepojena " refers to the events that happened in this part of the Gorenjska Region during the German occupation in WWII. "According to what has been published so far, Germans jailed and tortured Slovenian patriots in this [...] infamous prison [the Katzenstein castle - author's note] and shot many of them as hostages in the nearby park and at the mouth of the Draga valley [...]. A total of849prisoners were killed, and six hostages were only sixteen years old." (Biserka Karneza Cerjak, "Zgodba o Avsenikovi pesmi Tam, kjer murke cveto," Reporter, July 20, 2015, 47-49). 22 The main sources for this part of the analysis were interviews with Katarina Ratosa, the chief of staff of the National Assembly speaker, and the speaker's undersecretary Ana Jesenko, and access to the scripts for ceremonial sessions in 2015 and 2016. The interviews were conducted on 28 May 2016. hall) and are only televised on the parliamentary channel of the public broadcaster RTV Slovenia, while they are also greatly limited both in terms of duration and budget. The limited duration is a result of the fact that they are held one hour to one hour and a half before state ceremonies,23 and the limited budget comes from the principle of doing the most with as little money as possible. On average, such a session costs (performers' fees, short buffet, etc.) between 1,000 EUR and 2,000 EUR.24 As is evident already from the sums, ceremonial sessions are very economical. Ceremonial sessions usually follow the same framework. The invited guests begin to assemble half an hour before the session. Seats in the hall are reserved for deputies, members of the European Parliament and the Government, while other invited guests get seats on the balcony.25 Fifteen minutes before the start of the session, flagbearers enter the hall.26 While deputies and invited guests assemble, the Supreme Court president, the Constitutional Court president, the president of the National Council, the prime minister and the president of the republic enter the National Assembly.27 Both court presidents and president of the National Council are, in accordance with protocol, escorted into the hall, while the prime minister and the president of the republic are escorted to the office of the National Assembly speak-er.28 Two minutes before the ceremonial session starts, the seats for those presiding are taken by the deputy speakers of the National Assembly and the secretary general. A gong sound calls the invited guests to quiet down and take their seats. At the exact time of the start, the president, the speaker and the prime minister are accompanied into the hall by the state protocol service. The president and the prime minister take their seats next to the already seated presidents of the Constitutional and Supreme Court and the National Council, while the speaker takes his or her own regular chair and begins chairing the ceremonial session. When the speaker of the National Assembly takes his or her place, the ceremony starts with (a) a salute by flagbearers and then the anthem of the Republic of Slovenia in June, or (b) the anthem of the Republic of Slovenia in December, in both cases without introduction. After the anthem,29 the speaker of the National Assembly officially opens the ceremonial session, greets all the attendees30 and invites the honorary 23 This means the ceremonial session can only last up to around 35 minutes, so that the attendees can also attend the state ceremony that follows. 24 In the past, ceremonial sessions had bigger budgets, but the 2008 economic crisis has also left a mark in this area. 25 The balcony has 106 seats, and some additional seats may be installed in the lobby of the balcony. 26 Flagbearers only attend the ceremonial session marking Statehood Day. They were first invited to attend a ceremonial session in June 2012. 27 They are seated in the front row of the hall on special seats, designed by architect Jože Plečnik, which are only put there for ceremonial sessions or other ceremonies, e.g. condolence sessions. 28 It is a common misconception that the priority line means the president comes first, then the prime minister and only then the speaker. This is false. According to the Slovenian Constitution and the rules of protocol, the line of protocol is as follows: president of the republic, National Assembly speaker, prime minister, National Council president, Constitutional Court president, Supreme Court president and former president(s) of the republic (Article 2 of the Decision laying down protocol rules; Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia 23/2012). 29 According to Article 20 of the Act Regulating the Coat-of-Arms, Flag and Anthem of the Republic of Slovenia and the Flag of the Slovene Nation, the anthem may be performed instrumentally, sung or both (Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia 67/94). 30 Each speaker can decide on their own form of opening greetings, but the National Assembly speaker always greets the guests seated in the special chairs by naming them and others in a more general way. speaker31 to address the session. The address is followed by a cultural programme, consisting of either only musical pieces or a combination of musical and literary/theatrical performances. After the cultural programme, the speaker of the National Assembly thanks the performers and the attendees. The ceremonial session is thereby concluded, and this is followed by a photo opportunity for the highest state figures in the lobby of the grand hall of the National Assembly. Analysis of the cultural programmes of ceremonial sessions32 As outlined in the introduction, this part of the article brings an analysis of the cultural programmes of three ceremonial sessions of the National Assembly on the occasions of: Statehood Day (24 June 2015), Independence and Unity Day (23 December 2015) and the 25th anniversary of the proclamation of independence / Statehood Day (24 June 2016). At the ceremonial session in June 2015, the cultural programme consisted of two parts: the musical part and the theatrical and literary one. The musical part was provided by the Mixed Youth Choir Nauportus Musica33 from Vrhnika, led by composer and conductor Jaka Jerina. The theatrical and literary part was prepared by 3rd year theatre students at the Ljubljana Secondary School for Preschool Education and Gymnasium, and their mentors Mojca Dimec and Barbara Žefran.34 Apart from the national anthem, the choir Nauportus Musica performed the following two songs: Da lipa ma ke bej na je35 and Dajte, dajte.36 The cultural programme at the December 2015 ceremonial session only consisted of music. The National Assembly invited the RTV Slovenia Children's Choir.37 After the national anthem, the choir, led by Anka Jazbec and accompanied on the piano by Klemen Golner, sang three more songs: Kaj delajo palčki pozimi,38 Vse naše pravljice39 and Bratovščina sinjega galeba.40 This year's June ceremonial session was more festive than in the previous years, which can be attributed to the fact that Slovenia celebrated the 25th anniversary of its independence. Music had an exceptionally important position throughout the programme, starting with the arrival of guests, who entered the National Assembly 31 The honorary speaker can be the speaker or deputy speakers of the National Assembly. If the address is delivered by the speaker him or herself, there is of course no invitation to address the session, only an introduction. 32 The analysis is mostly based on interviews because the available minutes only state the decisions that were taken. 33 The choir Nauportus Musica is a young choir, established in 2014 on the initiative of Jaka Jerina. According to his own explanation, the choir brings together individuals with a desire to sing. It covers a diverse programme, from Slovenian folk songs, to artistic compositions and Negro spirituals. 34 The students performed a theatrical rendition of the poem Stoli (Chairs) by Ervin Fritz. 35 This is a Slovenian folk song from the valley of Resia, Italy, arranged by Ambrož Čopi, the winner of this year's Prešeren Prize, the most prestigious award in culture in Slovenia. 36 Dajte, dajte is a Slovenian folk song from Istria that is heard very often on stages in Slovenia. The choir Nauportus Musica performed one of the most popular arrangements, by Aldo Kumar. 37 The children's choir of the national broadcaster RTV Slovenia was established in 1957 on the initiative of Janez Bitenc. 38 Composed by Tomaž Habe to a text by Neža Maurer. 39 Composed by Jani Golob to a text by Dušan Velkaverh. 40 Composed by Marijan Vodopivec to a text by Tone Pavček, and arranged by Patrik Greblo. building to the tunes played by the Marching Band of the Ivan Kaučič Culture Association from Ljutomer. The orchestra was placed on the balcony of the grand salon, overlooking Republic Square (above the main gate of the parliament building). However, the orchestra did not only play at the arrival of guests to the National Assembly, but also performed two pieces in the hall before the official opening of the session, and they also played when the guests were leaving the National Assembly for Congress Square, where the state ceremony honouring the 25th anniversary of the proclamation of independence took place. But the marching band was not the only musical part of the ceremonial session. For this year's ceremonial session, the National Assembly invited representatives of Slovenian associations in all four neighbouring countries.41 First, all the guest performers sang the national anthem together, conducted by Matjaž Barbo, after which each group presented its own programme. Pupils from the Slovenian music school in Trieste and the Emil Komel Slovenian Centre for Musical Education in Gorizia (Italy) performed the song Mili kraj.42 Members of the Raba Region Youth Association (Hungary) performed two folk songs on the accordion, Micika vpungradi and Kauli stola, and recited the poem Pesem Porabju (To the Raba Region). Members of the Triglav Culture Association from Split, Croatia, did not perform a musical piece, but a short scene from a fairy tale by Gianni Rodari About a grandfather who could not tell fairy tales. The Youth Choir JAMzi of the ICS ZMAJ Culture Association from Klagenfurt, Austria, conducted by Eduard Oraže, presented a "Medley of three valleys" in the dialects of the valleys Rož (Rosental), Zilja (Gailtal) and Podjuna (Jaunstein). The medley consisted of the songs To ja nsščir kann vi, Miedvad ss je tresu and VPlibsrci, v jormaci. After the four performances, the speaker of the National Assembly, who also held the address at the session, invited the guests to the lobby of the grand hall for a photo opportunity and a buffet. Above, we have seen that musicians of different profiles were invited to form the cultural programme, and the music they performed at the ceremonial sessions was also diverse. Apart from what has been said, an analysis of the three ceremonial sessions shows a certain absence of music that would serve state-building purposes and would speak to all citizens, or music that would serve as a basis for pursuing and strengthening statecraft. A review of the programmes of other events in the National Assembly (that are not part of this analysis)43 also reveals that musicians of completely different profiles performed at these events, and that the musical genres also vary greatly. The only common feature of all the events in the National Assembly is that the performing musicians are mostly choirs.44 41 According to the interviewees, a group of the National Assembly speaker's staff discussing the ceremonial session came up with an idea to invite younger representatives of the Slovenian minority from the four neighbouring countries (Austria, Croatia, Italy and Hungary). The idea was first brought before the event organisation group for approval and then presented to the speaker, who was thrilled with it. As he told the author of the article, he finds it very important symbolically to include Slovenians living abroad into the preparation of ceremonial sessions of the National Assembly. 42 A composition for high voices, flute, violin and cello, composed by Patrick Quaggiato to a text by Andrej Praprotnik. 43 E.g. ceremonies marking culture holidays, Reformation Day and International Women's Day, or exhibition openings accompanied by musical programmes. 44 An exception to this rule was, for example, the condolence session for France Bučar, the first National Assembly speaker, which featured a brass quintet of the Slovenian Police Orchestra. Interviewees explained that one of the reasons for the decision Who decides on the music The first question for the interviewees was who decides who to invite to perform at a ceremony. The interviewees explained that normally the speaker of the National Assembly was the one to decide on all events of protocol in the National Assembly. Nevertheless, the speaker is supported by a (working) Group for Events, which on average meets every two months to discuss all the requests for exhibitions and events. Here, the interviewees explained that the group only has a consultative role, and that the final decision is always taken by the speaker, while the implementation is up to the speaker's chief of staff. With respect to performers at the ceremonial sessions, the interviewees explained that the National Assembly has certain limitations that need to be taken into account. The first such limitation is space. Ceremonial sessions take place in the grand hall of the National Assembly. Performers usually stand on the right side (from the perspective of the speaker). This area has enough space for around 30 people. The second limitation are the expenses. The National Assembly tries to be economical in organising its sessions and ceremonies. The third limitation is the question of acoustics. Internal documents of the National Assembly indicate that the question of acoustics limits the choice of musical performances the most. As audio-video technicians of the National Assembly stress,45 it is "easiest" to hold a ceremonial session when the music is performed by singers / a choir, and harder (and more expensive) if the music is instrumental, also because of live television and radio transmissions. The standard procedure of choosing music and musicians The process of choosing who will perform starts with a list of possible "candidates". The interviewees said that the National Assembly often receives proposals and suggestions for different musicians, while some are proposed by members of the expert group. All of these are listed as possible "candidates" for performing at ceremonial sessions. The event group then discusses the candidates. When they agree on a shortlist of potential candidates, they contact them to check if they are ready, available and able to perform under the limitations (explained above). Along with the talks on whether the group is ready to perform, the musical programme is also discussed. Here, the interviewees stressed that the only "limitation" for the programme is that the songs, if sung, must be in Slovenian.46 According to the interviewees, this is because it would be inappropriate for the National Assembly as the highest democratically elected body to have songs performed in a foreign language. This is the only limitation with regard to the programme and is presented to all candidates in advance. Apart from the language to mostly invite choirs and not soloists was that the speaker of the National Assembly had been criticised for poor soloist performances of the national anthem and that it should not have been performed by a soloist in the first place, etc. Moreover, soloist performances have proven to be problematic for live transmissions from ceremonial sessions due to audio and video limitations. 45 The information comes from documents obtained from the office of the National Assembly speaker. 46 It is due to acoustic conditions that ceremonial sessions have been accompanied mainly by vocal music for years. limitation, there are, however, two additional informal recommendations. The first one is that the song/composition should be appropriate for a celebration and should thus have a "merry character" (rather than being a sad song), while the second one is that the song/composition should not be too long.47 Musicians are meanwhile usually free to choose the musical genre and propose the songs/music they wish to perform. At this point, I wished to see to what extent they were in fact free to choose. I reminded the interviewees of the controversy from June 2013 regarding the song Ocenas hlapca Jerneja (The Bailiff Yerney's Prayer).48 The media wrote at the time that the "song choice was censored because they wanted a lighter genre", and the conductor of the KGBL choir that performed at the session even said:49 [As an artist, I] find it a bigger problem than the prayer or the servant [in the title] being unacceptable for the National Assembly that they expect from us a "lighter genre" at an important holiday to make their celebration more entertaining. It seems they cannot judge and recognise artistic value. They close the door to works that rank in the very top of choral music in terms of quality both with the text and the music. They push away content, the essence - here is where I see the problem in this rejection. The interviewees stressed that there was no censorship, and that when the programme that the KGBL choir was to sing was presented they only suggested that the choir may want to choose a song that would be more suitable for the holiday, which is supposed to be a happy occasion. Furthermore, they pointed out that no one in the National Assembly ever denied the artistic value of the song, and that it was only a well-intended suggestion. One of the reasons for this suggestion was also that the National Assembly had been subject to criticism before that the songs performed at ceremonial sessions were too artistic and therefore "unlistenable" and inappropriate for such a ceremony.50 Since the groups performing at the three analysed ceremonial sessions were different, the interviewees were asked whether there were any criteria when they choose adult performers, children or youth groups. The answer was that there is no special criterion, but they try to vary among different kinds of groups at different ceremonial sessions, so that the same type of group does not perform twice in a row. This practice 47 This is purely pragmatic, since the ceremonial session of the National Assembly is followed by a state ceremony to which all the attendees of the ceremonial session are also invited. Because the guests must be able to say goodbye and reach Congress Square (in June) or the Cankarjev dom culture and congress centre (in December) on time, the goal is for the ceremonial session of the National Assembly to be short enough not to delay the state ceremony. 48 Composed by Karol Pahor to a text by Ivan Cankar. 49 Ksenija Hočevar, "Oče naš hlapca Jerneja je ogledalo časa," Družina, July 7, 2013, accessed June 26, 2016, https://www.druzina. si/ICD/spletnastran.nsf/clanek/%C2%BBocenas-hlapca-jerneja-je-ogledalo-casa%C2%AB. 50 This example clearly shows how problematic the relationship between the aesthetics of music and its functional use can be. If the most important factor is the aesthetics of music, it is clear that the performer should be completely free in the choice of programme or musical pieces to be performed. But on the other hand, if we consider that the use of music is intended for its function of entertainment or for validating a particular social and economic situation, then it is understandable that whoever orders the music will also have certain "rights" in its selection, and of course certain "duties" as well. Likewise, there are certain "rights" and "duties" for the performer, who must assume that already the invitation to perform expresses a certain level of respect and desire for a reciprocal relationship. has formed through the years, since some criticism had also come about the same type of group being invited for two consecutive sessions (e.g. adult choirs or children's choirs). In this respect, I also asked them whether there was any preference for any particular type of choir (mixed, men's or women's). They quoted the technical staff in the audio-video department of the National Assembly saying that male voice choirs are most preferable with respect to acoustic aspects, followed by mixed choirs. Female voice choirs are rarely invited, especially because of the high pitch (in combination with the acoustics in the hall), since their performance would not sound as good on TV as in real life - due to no fault of theirs, but because of structural limitations. And this would be unjust to them. When asked who makes the final decision on the programme that is performed at ceremonial sessions, the interviewees said it was the speaker or the speaker's office with his or her consent. No decision is taken without the approval of the speaker, who can also change any proposal made by the event group, since the purpose of all proposals is only to serve as a basis to help the speaker decide and only gain legitimacy if he or she decides so. Nevertheless, the interviewees explained that it has not happened recently that the speaker would change, wish to change or argue with a proposal made by the event group. This piece of information was also important so that I could inquire directly with the current Speaker of the National Assembly, Milan Brglez, about the importance of music and his personal view on the selection of music and its value added at ceremonial sessions.51 He told me he was aware of the significance and power of music, but that he was also aware of the external structural limitations. He added that the event group had advised him extremely well so far, so he had not objected to their decisions. However, it is sometimes a problem if the event group is not familiar with a particular musical group either or if a particular group does not live up to the trust of the event group or his own trust. He further noted that there had been another group, apart from the known case of Ocenas hlapca Jerneja, that informally claimed they had been censored because his office (with his approval) suggested they change one song that may not have been appropriate for a festive event like a ceremonial session marking Statehood Day or Independence and Unity Day. According to the speaker, ceremonial sessions should lead to unity not divisions,52 so they should stress what people have in common rather than their differences. Consequently, music performed at ceremonial sessions should also unite all people regardless of their different worldviews. He added that he therefore thinks that the music at such events should bear some sort of enthusiasm or pride, so he personally prefers more "joyous" songs - also because of the national character that tends to see things as gloomier than they really are. Moreover, he said that ceremonial sessions and state ceremonies should be happy events that fill people with pride, but above all they should unite and highlight the positive character of what is being celebrated. Here, he stressed 51 The conversation took place on 13 June 2016. 52 This view means that the speaker understands the music at ceremonial sessions in the function of a contribution to the continuity and stability of culture, which also partly corresponds with the function of social integration (cf. Alan P. Merriam, Antropologija glasbe (Ljubljana: Znanstveno in publicistično središče, 2000), 179). it was important for music to underline "Slovenianness",53 which he believes is the factor that can bring together all citizens. Discussion and conclusion The analysis of the selected ceremonial sessions of the National Assembly has shown four key findings. First, political decision makers in the National Assembly are hardly aware, if at all, of the potential of music for bringing forward a message. At ceremonial sessions, music mostly plays the role of entertainment, and it is not used in the function of symbolic representation, the function of enforcing conformity to social norms, or the function of validation of social institutions54. The lack of awareness of the potential of music as a means of strengthening a political position or statecraft is also reflected in the fact that political decision makers - in this concrete case the National Assembly speaker at a given time - mostly leave the selection of music and musicians to the event group, which is designed as a consultative body. Such a context in fact transforms the event group from a consultative into a decision-making body. On the other hand, the speaker, who is implicitly entrusted the power to decide on the content of ceremonial sessions independently, de facto becomes a function that (merely) approves the decisions of the event group. With such an attitude, the speaker gives up the opportunity to use music as a means of developing, practicing and strengthening statecraft. The second finding shows that in the entire context of ceremonial sessions music is seen as a means of making the event livelier and is reduced to its entertainment function, while its other functions are less prominent. This can be seen from different factors, including the disagreements about The Bailiff Yerney's Prayer, as well as the interviewees stressing how they suggest to performers to sing "happy songs" or songs with a "positive message". Music at ceremonial sessions is thus used to evoke positive emotions. In this sense, it has a very clear function, but this has little to do with strengthening the image of the state, statehood or statecraft. 53 He interpreted "Slovenianness" here as music that highlights the diversity of Slovenian regions, as well as music that highlights love for the homeland. For the importance of the national in music, cf. Matjaž Barbo, "Glasba kot trpno-tvorni del slovenske družbe," Muzikološki zbornik 27 (1991): 77-85; Matjaž Barbo, "'Slovenski duh' kot poetska kategorija," Muzikološki zbornik 29 (1993): 33-38; Matjaž Barbo, "Referential contexts of early Slovenian symphonic music," Muzikološki zbornik 49, 2 (2013): 33-39; Nataša Cigoj Krstulovic, "'Glasba za rabo' kot družbenozgodovinski pojav v drugi polovici 19. stoletja na Slovenskem," De musica disserenda III, 1 (2007): 65-76; Nataša Cigoj Krstulovic, "Nacionalni in transnacionalni vidiki glasbe: študija primera zgodnje recepcije Dvorakovih del na Slovenskem," Muzikološki zbornik 51/1 (2015): 97-114; Stane Granda, "Glasba in narodna zavest," De musica disserenda III, 1 (2007): 47-54; Ivan Klemenčič, "Slovenska glasbena identiteta znotraj srednjeevropske," Muzikološki zbornik 46, 2 (2010): 25-36; Tatjana, Markovic, "Narrations of a nation: Montenegrin self-representation through (re) construction of cultural memory," Muzikološki zbornik 51, 2 (2015): 139-148; Aleš Nagode, "Prokrustova postelja nacionalizma in nove poti do razumevanja glasbene preteklosti Slovenije," Muzikološki zbornik 51, 1 (2015): 9-20; Gregor Pompe, "Ideologija v glasbi in ideologija o glasbi," in Ideologije v slovenskem jeziku, literaturi in kulturi: zbornik predavanj, ed. Aleksander Bjelčevic (Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete, 2012), 77-82; Eva Sedak, "Sudbina nacionalnih historiografija u globalnom kontekstu," De musica disserenda VIII, 2 (2012): 7-19; Leon Stefanija, "Relativna avtonomija glasbe: Primer Ljubljanskega dnevnika 1951-1961," De musica disserenda III, 1 (2007b): 87-100; Leon Stefanija, "Music and state ceremonies in Slovenia after 1991," in Music identities on paper and screen, ed. Mirjana Veselinovic-Hofman (Belgrade: Faculty of Music, 2014), 341-347; Jernej Weiss, "Hans Gerstner in koncept nacionalne glasbene kulture," De musica disserenda VI/2 (2010b): 55-70; Act Regulating the Coat-of-Arms, Flag and Anthem of the Republic of Slovenia and the Flag of the Slovene Nation, Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia 67/94. 54 Alan P. Merriam, Antropologija glasbe (Ljubljana: Znanstveno in publicistično središče, 2000), 178-179. The third finding of the analysis is that the consultative body, the event group, first chooses the musicians and only then deals with the musical programme. Further questions as to how the selection of the musical programme is made once again confirmed that the main objective of decision makers is to look for "positive emotions", while they focus less on the concrete musical pieces. We can summarise that the key to the selection who will perform at a ceremonial session are the musicians not the music. And musicians are chosen based on prior "good experience of others" or a "good performance at other events", after which they are almost completely free to choose the actual musical pieces to be performed. The only criterion musicians need to meet is that the music should have certain "Slovenian characteristics" (the language must be Slovenian, but it can be in dialect if a song is from a particular region) and must be "positive".55 The fourth finding about the music and musical groups is that the event group chooses who will perform based on structural limitations of the grand hall of the National Assembly. According to the interviewees, the hall has two limitations that always need to be considered: the space available for the musicians and the acoustics. The space is limited to "up to 30 people", but the issue of acoustics is much more limiting, putting preference on vocal music, while the conditions are less favourable for instrumental music. All of the above indicates that music has a "subordinate role" at ceremonial sessions of the National Assembly, in the sense that it is only there to support the script, in which the central role is reserved for the honorary speaker addressing the attendees and viewers. Music therefore brings no value added in itself. Nevertheless, a review of available scripts for ceremonial sessions confirms that music is still an important part of ceremonial sessions. As previously noted, it is used at all ceremonial sessions, while other forms of art like poetry recitals are more of an exception. Therefore, we can reject our second hypothesis that the choice of music is a result of a clearly defined script, since the exact opposite is true. Musicians are chosen first and then the music, and only then the script is formed. This is why it is extremely hard to speak of a clear and consistent approach to script preparation, since every script is different because they depend on what is the centrepiece of a particular ceremonial session. Summing up the key findings, we can ascertain that the awareness about the potential of music for strengthening statecraft among political decision makers in the National Assembly - the speaker and others who may influence the speaker's decision - is absolutely too low. This is reflected particularly in the fact that the selection of music and musicians is left to the event group, and that political decision makers almost never disagree with the group's decisions. The analysis shows more than clearly that there is no deliberate decision on using music for developing, practicing and strengthening statecraft. There are certain structural obstacles, but they could be overcome if the approach were clear and consistent. But since it is none of these things, the system simply runs on empty. What should be done to move from this standstill? Not much. A strategy would need to be devised, changing the way decisions are made. Political decision makers (all of them, not just the speaker) should determine the fundamental 55 Here, we must stress that the genre (popular, folk, choir composition, etc.) is irrelevant. messages they want convey to their fellow citizens through ceremonial sessions. And these should then be backed with appropriate music. But this would require decision makers who are aware and understand that today a country's prestige is increased mainly by using soft power. And music, which can serve as an effective tool of statecraft, is more than appropriate for such tasks. Bibliography Act Regulating the Coat-of-Arms, Flag and Anthem of the Republic of Slovenia and the Flag of the Slovene Nation. Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia 67/94. Anderson, Charles W. Statecraft: Introduction to Political Choice and Judgement. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1977. Baldwin, David. Economic Statecraft. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985. Barbo, Matjaž. "Glasba kot trpno-tvorni del slovenske družbe." Muzikološki zbornik 27 (1991): 77-85 Barbo, Matjaž. "'Slovenski duh' kot poetska kategorija." Muzikološki zbornik 29 (1993): 33-38. Barbo, Matjaž. "Referential contexts of early Slovenian symphonic music/Referenčni konteksti zgodnje slovenske simfonične glasbe," Muzikološki zbornik 49, 2 (2013): 33-39. Bermani, Cesare. 2003. La lunga storia di un inno popolare, di origine repubblicana e garibaldina. Accessed May 23, 2016. http://www.brianzapopolare.it/sezioni/cultu-ra/20030515_bandiera_rossa_storia.htm. Bojinovic Fenko, Ana, ed.. Mehka moč v zunanji politiki in mednarodnih odnosih: študije aktualnih primerov. Ljubljana: Založba Fakultete za družbene vede, 2014. Cigoj Krstulovic, Nataša. "'Glasba za rabo' kot družbenozgodovinski pojav v drugi polovici 19. Stoletja na Slovenskem." De musica disserenda III, 1 (2007): 65-76. Cigoj Krstulovic, Nataša. "Nacionalni in transnacionalni vidiki glasbe: študija primera zgodnje recepcije Dvorakovih del na Slovenskem." Muzikološki zbornik 51, 1 (2015): 97-114. Cooke, Deryck. The Language of Music. London: Oxford University Press, 1959. Craig, Gordon and George, Alexander. Force and statecraft: diplomatic problems of our time. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990. Decision laying down protocol rules. Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia 23/2012. Fabiani, Anja. Mehka moč in voditeljstvo. Ljubljana: Založba Fakultete za družbene vede, 2015. Granda, Stane. Glasba in narodna zavest. De musica disserenda III, 1 (2007): 47-54. Hočevar, Ksenija. "Oče naš hlapca Jerneja je ogledalo časa". Družina, July 7, 2013. https://www.druzina.si/ICD/spletnastran.nsf/clanek/%C2%BBocenas-hlapca-jerneja-je-ogledalo-casa%C2%AB. Interview with the Head of the Cabinet of the Speaker of the National Assembly mag. Katarina Ratoša. Ljubljana, May 28, 2016. Interview with the Counsellor in the Cabinet of the Speaker of the National Assembly mag. Ana M. Jesenko. Ljubljana, May 28, 2016. Karneža Cerjak, Biserka. Zgodba o Avsenikovi pesmi Tam, kjer murke cveto. Reporter 20. julij 2015, pp. 47-49. Klemenčič, Ivan. "Slovenska glasbena identiteta znotraj srednjeevropske." Muzikološki zbornik 46, 2 (2010): 25-36. Markovic, Tatjana. "Narrations of a nation: Montenegrin self-representation through (re)construction of cultural memory." Muzikološki zbornik 51, 2 (2015): 139-148. Merriam, Alan P.. Antropologija glasbe. Ljubljana: Znanstveno in publicistično središče, 2000. Nagode, Aleš. "Prokrustova postelja nacionalizma in nove poti do razumevanja glasbene preteklosti Slovenije." Muzikološki zbornik 51, 1 (2015): 9-20. Nye, Joseph S.. Soft power. New York: Public Affairs, 2004. Nye, Joseph S.. The powers to lead. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Oxfordov slovar angleškega jezika. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. Pedrosa, Ludim L. "The Joropo in Venezuela's Musical Modernity: Cultural Capital in Jose Clemente Laya's Sonata Venezolana." Muzikološki zbornik 52, 2 (2016): 51-72. Pompe, Gregor. "Ideologija v glasbi in ideologija o glasbi." In: Aleksander Bjelčevic, ed.. Ideologije v slovenskem jeziku, literaturi in kulturi: zbornik predavanj. Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete, 2012, 77-82. Salmič Kovačič, Karmen. "Svobodi naproti Demetrija Žebreta v presečišču socialističnega realizma in zmernega modernizma." Muzikološki zbornik 50, 1 (2014): 39-49. Sedak, Eva. "Sudbina nacionalnih historiografija u globalnom kontekstu." De musica disserenda VIII, 2 (2012): 7-19. Stefanija, Leon. "Totalitarnost režima in glasba: iz arhiva Društva slovenskih skladateljev v petdesetih letih 20. stoletja." In: Nataša Cigoj Krstulovic, Tomaž Faganel and Metoda Kokole, ed.. Muzikološke razprave: in memoriam Danilo Pokorn. Ljubljana: Založba ZRC SAZU 2004, 135-146. Stefanija, Leon. "La nationalité en musique: la 'Slovénité' de la musique slovene et son domaine." In: Georges Kokkonis, ed.. Création musicale et nationalismes dans le Sud-Est européen. Paris: Association Pierre Belon: De Boccard, 2007a, 21-59. Stefanija, Leon. "Relativna avtonomija glasbe: Primer Ljubljanskega dnevnika 19511961." De musica disserenda III, 1 (2007b): 87-100. Stefanija, Leon. "Music and state ceremonies in Slovenia after 1991." In: Veselinovic-Hofman, Mirjana, ed.. Music identities on paper and screen. Belgrade: Faculty of Music, 2014, 341-347. Udovič, Boštjan. Glasba in državništvo: metodološki pristopi. Draft, 2016a. Udovič, Boštjan. Glasba kot sredstvo državništva. Draft, 2016b. Weiss, Jernej. "Tomčeva Stara pravda in spor s političnimi oblastmi." In: Darja Koter, ed.. Radovan Gobec (1909-1995). Ljubljana: Akademija za glasbo, 2010a, 75-86. Weiss, Jernej. "Hans Gerstner in koncept nacionalne glasbene kulture." De musica dis-serenda VI, 2 (2010b): 55-70. POVZETEK Članek analizira pomen, položaj in funkcijo/e glasbe na političnih prireditvah. Avtor v analizo vzame slavnostne seje Državnega zbora, ker meni, da so te seje izjemno pomembne za oblikovanje političnega državništva. V tej analizi avtor ugotavlja tri zadeve. Prvič, kdo odloča o izboru glasbe na slavnostnih sejah Državnega zbora; drugič, kako se glasba izbira ter kateri so ključni parametri, ki morajo biti upoštevani, da je določena glasba izbrana; in tretjič, kakšno funkcijo vrši glasba znotraj slavnostnih sej Državnega zbora. Ugotovitve, do katerih avtor pride, so naslednje: glasbo (uradno) izbira predsednik Državnega zbora, se pa na tem zanaša na predloge skupine za dogodke. Ta skupina predloge oblikuje ne na podlagi glasbe, ampak na podlagi izvajalcev. Najprej se tako izbere izvajalec, šele nato se odločevalci in svetovalci pogovarjajo o glasbi, ki naj bi se izvajala na slavnostnih sejah. Iz tega izhaja, da je funkcija glasbe na slavnostnih sejah podpornega značaja, kar pomeni, da slavnostno sejo, nima pa znotraj nje osrednje pozicije. V tem kontekstu se avtor sprašuje, kako to vpliva na oblikovanje državništva, sploh glede na to, da je na slavnostnih sejah prisoten diplomatski zbor. Ugotovitev, s katero avtor članek zaključuje, je, da je na podlagi analize nemogoče trditi, da je glasba uporabljena kot sredstvo krepitve državništva. Te njene funkcije se (tako) premalo zavedajo tako politični odločevalci, kar posledično vodi do tega, da je glasba izjemno zanemarjena v izgradnji političnega prestiža v Sloveniji. UDK 784.4(497.1/.7)"20":316.7:339 DOI: 10.4312/mz.53.1.203-215 Ana Petrov Fakulteta za medije in komunikacijo, Univerza Singidunum, Srbija Faculty of Media and Communications, Singidunum University, Serbia Yugonostalgia in the market: Popular music and consumerism in post-Yugoslav space Jugonostalgija na trgu: popularna glasba in potrošništvo v post-jugoslovanskem prostoru Prejeto: 12. oktober 2016 Sprejeto: 7. december 2016 Ključne besede: post-jugoslovanski glasbeni trg, jugoslovanska popularna glasba, Jugoslavija, jugonostalgija, potrošništvo IZVLEČEK Članek se ukvarja s post-jugoslovansko popularno glasbo in jugonostalgijo. Z dotično tematiko se ukvarjam tako, da pokažem, kako v kompleksnem post-jogoslavanskem prostoru vznikne nov glasbeni trendi - trend, ki se poslužuje kulture spominjanja na Jugoslavijo v namen, da bi nastal izdelek, ki bi namara bil zanimiv za post-jugoslovanski trg. Razpravljam o odzivih občinstva na takšen trg. Received: 12th October 2016 Accepted: 7th December 2016 Keywords: post-Yugoslav musical market, Yugoslav popular music, Yugoslavia, Yugonostalgia, commercialization ABSTRACT This article deals with the post-Yugoslav popular music and Yugonostalgia. I elaborate on the issue, showing how in the complex post-Yugoslav space a new trend in the musical market appeared - a trend of using the culture of remembrance of Yugoslavia in order to make the products that might be interesting for the post-Yugoslav market. I discuss the reactions of the audience to such market. Introduction We are together because we sing some songs together, not as us, the Serbs, the Croats, the Muslims, and the Slovenes, but just as us, the people who sing those songs together after everything [...J.1 After the fall of the socialist Yugoslavia, in the era of new technologies and the Internet, numerous complex sorts of remembrance of Yugoslavia have appeared, most of them taking place in the Internet spaces. It can be argued that certain cyber Yugoslavia(s) appeared in copious discussions on the remembrance of Yugoslavia such as those related to certain you tube links showing videos from Yugoslav era, as well as many Facebook pages and groups. The remembering of the past can happen through the emotional engagement of sharing the same culture, so that the collectivities are made in a concrete space, at a certain time, as a result of listening to the same music or discussing the same issues, watching the same film or consuming other Yugoslav product. Unlike the similar events at the territory of former Yugoslavia that happen alive (such as concerts and similar public events), the same act in the context of the virtual culture can serve as a tool for obtaining the imaginary pre-war Yugoslav collectivities, as well as a means for overcoming the post-Yugoslav political issues. This kind of virtual belonging has been engaged in the tendencies both to keep Yugoslav cultural space and to blur new post-Yugoslav divisions in the context of actual post-Yugoslav conflicted societies.2 Thus, the audience appears to be realized both in actual and virtual space and can refer to the actual (physical, material) audience, and the audience that is created virtually through social networking. Through sharing of common cultural memories, reconnecting of the collectives happens.3 One of the manifestations of cyber (post)Yugoslav spaces refers to the issue of nostalgia and the symbols of Yugoslavia in contemporary post-Yugoslav societies. Even though there are many divergent kinds of nostalgia as a cultural phenomenon, as well as different approaches to it, one specific sort of this phenomenon is related to the usage of Yugoslav symbols or even the actual word "Yugoslavia", sometimes seeming to be justified solely for the commercial reasons, i.e. to draw attention to certain (musical) products. I will here elaborate on this issue, showing how in the complex post-Yugoslav space a new trend in the musical market appeared - a trend of using the culture of remembrance of Yugoslavia in order to make the songs that might be appealing to the post-Yugoslav market. After discussing general characteristics of Yugonostalgia, I will focus on the question: has Yugoslavia and Yugonostalgia become popular features of post-Yugoslav musical market? Can Yugonostalgia be in fact commercialized and worn, just as easy as the earrings in a shape of Yugoslavia, sold in the Museum of History of Yugoslavia in Belgrade? Is there any difference between wearing Yugoslavia as 1 The statement given by the musician Goran Bregovic in December 2014 on Radio Television Vojvodina. 2 Ana Petrov and Lada Stevanovic, "The State of Cyborg Citizens: The After-life of Yugoslavia in the Internet Space," in Deep Archaeology, edited by Ana Petrov and Anita Stojnic, forthcoming. 3 See: Ana Petrov, "Popular Music and Producing Collectivities: The Challenges of Audience Research in Contemporary Musicology," Musicology 18 (2015): 99-113; Ana Petrov, "The Songs We Love to Sing and the History We Like to Remember: Tereza Kesovija's Come Back in Serbia," Southeastern Europe 39/2 (2015): 192-214. an accessory and thinking about it nostalgically while listening to the music that was made after the dissolution of Yugoslavia but has references to the country? Drawing on the mentioned audience research, I deal with the issue from the perspective of the virtual audience reception of the specific musical products. Yugonostalgia: an emotion, an ideology, a theoretical issue There is an extensive amount of research debating the concept of Yugonostalgia. Being highly controversial and contradictory, the term itself can be generally understood as "nostalgia for Yugoslavia" and for the lost "golden age". However, its usage is multifarious and ambiguous. Regarding musical practices in post-Yugoslav spaces, Yugonostalgia can refer to the capacity of (Yugoslav) music to construct and (reinterpret the Yugoslav past. Certain authors have a more critical approach to the Yugoslav musical past, interpreting it as manipulation with the nostalgic memories. The past (Yugoslav) experiences - initially very familiar and strongly felt - are lost, but constantly return to trouble the stable boundaries, representing something that challenges and resists the (spatial and temporal) dichotomies. Yugonostalgia can be manifested in space, time, and persons.4 Furthermore, it can generally said that it appears to be as an emotion (recognized in the reactions), promulgated or rejected ideology (manifested in the discourses), and a product (since it can be commodified and can sell emotions and ideologies, mostly through the souvenirs produced in post-Yugoslav time and space, but referring to Yugoslavia).5 Theoretically, the problem in dealing with nostalgia seems to be in the approaches that tend to present simplified and one-sided interpretations of the phenomenon. It has often been argued that it is: 1. a regressive and passive phenomenon, opposed to the supposedly progressive post-Yugoslav capitalist societies, and thus often commercialized; 2. a feature with an emancipatory potential that functions like opposition towards nationalist paradigm in post-Yugoslav societies, often spontaneous. However, it is rarely claimed that it might be a combination of the approaches - in both cases the emotion and the ideology can equally be subdued to the process of commercialization. Having in mind the mentioned, I here argue that: Yugonostalgia functions as an integral part of the (music) market. I draw on an extensive research dealing with divergent kinds of nostalgia (the so called post-socialist and post-communist being the 4 For an overview of the approaches to Yugonostalgia see, for instance, Claire Bancroft, "Yugonostalgia: The Pain of the Present," Indipendent Study Project (ISP) Collection. Paper 787, 2009, accessed on March 28, 2015, http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/ isp_collection/787; Monica Palmberger, "Nostalgia Matters: Nostalgia for Yugoslavia as Potential Vision for a Better Future," Sociologija 4 (2008): 355-370; Tanja Petrovič, "The Territory of the Former Yugoslavia in the Mental Maps of Former Yugoslavs: Nostalgia for Space," Sprawy Narodowosciowe, Seria Nova. Zeszyt 31 (2007): 263-273. For the critique of the concept see: Zala Volčič, "Yugonostalgia: Cultural Memory and Media in the Former Yugoslavia," Critical Studies in Media Communication 24/1 (2007): 21-38; Zala Volčič, "Neither "East" nor "West": The Past and present Life of Yugoslav Identity," in Rules and Roles: Fluid Institutions, Hybrid Roles, and Identities in East European Transformation Processes (1989-2005), edited by P. Kabakchieva and A. Kiossev (Sofia: University of Sofia, 2009), 251-266. 5 One of the most typical examples of the above mentioned process seems to be evident in one specific sort of Yugonostalgia - in Titostalgia. Mitja Velikonja, Titostalgija (Beograd: XX vek, 2010). most common but not the only one),6 in which it has been discussed upon the usage of allegedly personal feelings for selling products, music being very common one. Yugoslavia sells? Yugoslavia and Yugonostalgia in the market Together with the disintegration of Yugoslavia, the music market did not disintegrate completely. Continual consuming of the Yugoslav and post-Yugoslav music, as well as the concerts of former Yugoslav stars led to a blurring of newly made (and supposedly clear) borders between national music practices and markets. The borders, however, were actually never that clear and strict. The porousness of the musical boundaries within the successor states stems from the institutional infrastructure inherited from Yugoslavia. Even though in Yugoslavia republican markets functioned independently, inter-republican ties were essential for the success of major artists. This, moreover, has been a pattern replicated in the post-Yugoslav time in the form of artists' returns to the concert stages of their political adversaries.7 At the same time, it seems that the post-Yugoslav market lacks the organisation and interconnectedness, so that the musicians have been trying to draw attention to themselves and to make a sense of continuity with previous Yugoslav market using various strategies, the reference to Yugoslavia (including the actual word "Yugoslavia") being one of them. I will point to two representative and recent examples, both from 2015: two songs, one performed by Ana Bebic and Zeljko Vasic, and other by Amadeus band,8 both entitled Yugoslavia, and both actually have nothing to do with Yugoslavia itself. Namely, Yugoslavia here stands for a metaphor for lost love, a love relationship that was broken up, just like Yugoslavia. In Ana Bebic and Zeljko Vasic's duet, whole text refers to the relationship, with no reference to Yugoslavia or Yugoslav past. However, the love story is connected to the former country in the refrain, where it is stated: We used to be an example for others, but fatal destiny happened to us Life is war and peace and there are no rules in it Our love is broken just like Yugoslavia.9 The actual word "Yugoslavia" is then repeated a few times, making an impression that the song itself is completely devoted to the country, which is apparent from the reactions of the virtual audience who in fact expected more concrete relations to the country itself. In fact, the complete discussion related to the link with the song is devoted to Yugoslavia, its qualities, supposedly better past, but also, the reasons for the 6 Tonya K. Davidson, Ondine Park, Rob Shields, eds., Ecologies of Affect. Placing Nostalgia, Desire, and Hope (Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2011). 7 Catherine Baker, "The Politics of Performance: Transnationalism and its Limits in Former Yugoslav Popular Music, 1999-2004," Ethnopolitics 5/3 (2006): 275-293. See also: Ana Petrov: Jugoslovenska muzika bezJugoslavije. Koncerti kao mesta secanja (Beograd: Fakultet za medije i komunikacije, 2016). 8 The musicians are representatives of a new post-Yugoslav pop scene in Serbia, popular in recent years, especially in the case of Amadeus band, which music belongs to the genre that is in between pop and folk, thus being present especially in the scene in diaspora where the band has regularly performed. 9 The video is available on the link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8yrwurahAQs, accessed January 5 2017. dissolution of the country and the wars. In Amadeus band's song, the word "Yugoslavia" is used in almost the same fashion, since it is stated that "our love was beautiful just like old Yugoslavia".10 There is, furthermore, another playing with Yugoslav symbols in the text, for instance, the eyes of the ex girlfriend are blue as Adriatic and her soul is like Macedonia; Sarajevo, Zagreb and Belgrade cannot sleep now, everyone from Vardar to Triglav knows that the couple is not together anymore (which is a reference to the unofficial Yugoslav anthem Jugoslavia that opens with a verse "From Vardar to Triglav"). However, the singer also has a line: "everything is flat to Kosovo to me with whom you are now", which means that he is not afflicted anymore. The focus is in the refrain, just like in the first example. It is stated: Sarajevo, Zagreb, nor Belgrade aren't sleeping We are not together anymore and the whole city is talking about that Everyone from Vardar to Triglav should know that we are not together anymore Everything is flat to Kosovo to me with whom you are now. Furthermore, both of the mentioned songs also use Yugoslav symbols in the videos. In the first mentioned song, the dancers are wearing the hats and scarps that were a part of the pioneer uniforms in the socialist Yugoslavia.11 The second song's video is realised in between a segment from Yugoslav national anthem Hej Sloveni, and a quotation by Josip Broz Tito, in which he points out that "all of the republics would be nothing if they aren't united in Yugoslavia". The video starts as if it was a part of the newsreel Filmske novosti,12 and ends suddenly with an (unexpected and almost inexplicable) explosion. 10 The video is available on the link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kN5rrayhrQI, accessed January 10 2017. 11 An important segment of Yugoslav politics was the pioneer culture. Founded in 1942 in Bihac, Bosnia and Herzegovina, at the 1st Congress of the United Alliance of Anti-Fascist Youth of Yugoslavia, the Pioneer Alliance of Yugoslavia had its origin in World War II and the National Liberation Movement. For the first eight years it was tied to the youth organisation, but then it was put under the jurisdiction of the newly established Council of the Pioneer Alliance and the republican and federal organisations for the care and upbringing of children. Throughout the socialist period all first graders at the age of six or seven were admitted to the organisation and stayed members until the seventh grade, when at the age of thirteen or fourteen they entered the Alliance of Socialist Youth. As pioneers, children were active through the sections in elementary schools and took part in different activities. A few times a year, on state holidays, anniversaries and special events, children would wear their pioneer uniforms of regular dark blue trousers or skirts and white shirts or blouses. The symbols and the idea of such an organisation found direct inspiration in the Soviet pioneers, a fact which made some want to disband the pioneer organisation after the Yugoslav-Soviet split in 1948. However, the Pioneer Alliance survived and was active until the late 1980s. On the pioneers and socialist ideology see Igor Duda, Danas kadapostajem pionir: Djetinjstvo i ideologija jugoslavenskoga scjcijalizma (Zagreb: Srednja Europa, 2015). 12 The Yugoslav newsreel company Filmske novosti (Film News) was founded on 20 October 1944, on the day when Belgrade was freed in World War II, as a film section within a department of the National Liberation Army of Yugoslavia. Initially they worked under the name Zvezda film as a 'state economical firm for production of documentaries and newsreel' (Kosanovic 2004), until 1950 when the company was renamed Centralni studio Filmskih novosti (Central Studio of Film News). Filmske novosti succeeded in producing a regular weekly national film journal which contained several reports. Filmske novosti can be seen as one of the prominent propaganda mechanisms which promoted the cult of labour, the narratives of Partisan struggle and the ideology of 'brotherhood and unity'. It featured reports from different spheres of social life, including political news, building infrastructural projects and new industrial capacities, as well as information on cultural and sport events and general reports on everyday and leisure activities. Filmske novosti also included relevant news from abroad, both filming reports on trips made by Yugoslav politicians, sportspersons and other relevant presenters and engaging in international collaborations. Srdan Atanasovski and Ana Petrov, "Carnal Encounters and Producing Socialist Yugoslavia: Voluntary Youth Labour Actions on the Newsreel Screen," Studies in Eastern European Cinema, 6/1 (2015): 21-32. The songs are obviously done with a simple idea to provoke the reactions with the reference to Yugoslavia. Yugonostalgia is here directly addressed and expected from the audience, since it is obviously counted on the possibility that the word "Yugoslavia" itself can bring attention. Additionally, the visual texts are also explicit, with pioneers and divergent segments from popular culture, such as disco and folk dancers, incorporated in a dialog happening in an elevator in the video of the first song, and actual archive materials in the second video, mostly representing Tito. It is rather clear that we are here dealing with a specific manifestation of Yugonostalgia and specifically the manipulation of Yugonostalgia, the one that is used with the aim to address nostalgic people and to intrigue the audience, possibly the younger generation that could be assumed to be the consumers of such songs. This kind of visibly commercial usage of the very word "Yugoslavia", which has obviously somehow become a brand that can sell a music product, can also be labelled as a phenomenon that Mitja Velikonja calls neo-nostalgia, a nostalgic practice that plays with stereotypes of socialist Yugoslavia, but does not (necessarily) correlate with actual reactions of the audience.13 Moving on to the issue of consuming such products by the audience, the most relevant feature to mention is that the comments on the mentioned videos are sometimes opposite of what one would imagine it was expected by the songs' and videos' producers. Despite the transparent effort to attract potentially Yugonostalgic audience with the reference to Yugoslavia and its past, the Yugoslavia catchy word did not actually always work, for various reasons, and especially regarding the first song. I would highlight two most common arguments for the mentioned statements. On one hand, the usage of one word just in order to bring attention to the song is too transparent way of playing with the Yugoslav past, although there were comments stating that playing with the word "Yugoslavia" makes the song somewhat intriguing. However, the critical remarks were prevalent. As it is stated in one commentary: People think that they can just put the word Yugoslavia and that would be enough for a song to be interesting.14 Some even clearly stated: "I listened to the song because of the title, it simply drew my attention". On the other hand, the song did attract the attention of a collectivity of people that could be labelled (and sometimes they did it themselves) as "genuine" Yugoslavs: the people who identify themselves with certain aspects of the life in socialist Yugoslavia and connect their life experiences with the symbols related to Yugoslavia. Some of them clearly declared: "I admit, I am a Yugoslav". Additionally, they sometimes have specific expectations from Yugoslav and post-Yugoslav music. They expressed their disagreement with the commercial usage of the Yugoslav past, since they simply expected more of the song entitled Yugoslavia. Hence, it is also argued that: 13 Mitja Velikonja, "Rock'n'retro: novi jugoslavizam u savremenoj slovenačkoj popularnoj muzici," in Nebeska Jugoslavija, edited by Ivan Čolovic (Beograd: XX vek, 2015), 67-175. 14 All of the comments here listed are available with the link with the song in question: accessed January 5, 2017, https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=8yrwurahAQs. The socialist Yugoslavia was a good country, people lived normally and the music was of higher quality, and this kind of commercialization is disrespecting. Furthermore, it is stated that such songs point to the fact that "new generations cannot understand how music market used to be developed". It is also noted that it is "regretful that this kind of music propaganda can be used in order to supposedly promote the socialist system". Thus, the intention to provoke the attention of the audience with a simple reference to Yugoslavia was mostly seen through, so that the songs were regarded as being of such a low quality "even to use the word Yugoslavia, let alone represent the country itself". It is also very symptomatic that the people tried to "defend" the Yugoslav music itself, claiming that such songs should not use the reference to the country in which the music of high quality was made. Even the examples are listed, from very divergent genres, such as: EKV, Sarlo Akrobata, Toma Zdravkovic. However, it would be misleading to generalize and conclude that there are no other discourses apart from the one on the love towards Yugoslav culture and the regret about the end of Yugoslavia, as well as those referring to popular culture and the high quality of Yugoslav popular music. The discourse on the war, the national separation and even hate, is also possible to locate. Thus, in the world of these virtual citizens there are also reminders that post-Yugoslav divided territory is real and it corresponds to the symbolic boundaries among the people, which is evident in plentiful comments about the Serbs who "always regret about the past, unlike the others", and also the comments about the responsibility for the dissolution of the country. A part of the discussion was even realised as statements and replies about pros and cons of Yugoslavia and socialist system. Still, the prevailing were the reactions concerning the commercialisation of the remembrance on Yugoslavia and the comments regarding the actual music in Yugoslavia. It can be concluded that even the audience itself agreed that the intention to provoke the potential listeners and viewers with the word "Yugoslavia" was transparent, banal, too commercial and market oriented, and thus futile. The second video appears to be rather provocative referring the discussion about the Yugoslav past itself, not just the Yugoslav music and popular culture in general, possibly due to its original archive materials and the national anthem, since there were plenty comments that reveal regretting that Yugoslavia broke up.15 The concept of brotherhood and unity is also mentioned.16 In fact, most of the comments, unlike the first mentioned song, refer to Yugoslavia, not to the song, nor the supposedly banal usage of the name of the former county. In other words, in the virtual space of the comments, there is one symptomatic phenomenon; namely, it is not discussed about certain vague emotional space, such as "our youth", "our past", "our love" (which is often 15 The comments on the video video available on the link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kN5rrayhrQI, accessed January 10, 2017. 16 Ideals upon which the society in the socialist Yugoslavia rested were the ideology of brotherhood and unity ('bratstvo i jedinstvo'), among divergent nationalities and national minorities in the country, the cult of labour and the legacy of the Partisan struggle, all of which were connected to the idea of creating a "new man", a young person who creates, propagates and embodies the ideas of the new socialist state in his/her daily life. See, for instance, Ivana Dobrivojevic, "Izmedu ideologije i pop kulture. Život omladine u FNRJ 1945-1955," Istorija 20. veka 1 (2010): 119-132. the case when Yugonostalgia is in question),17 but rather the actual Yugoslavia, bringing the chat to the manifestation of a clearly expressed Yugonostalgia verbalised in the regrets about the past times. Another symptomatic feature is to be seen in divergent dialect of the language formerly known as Serbo-Croatian or Croato-Serbian, that is, the official language in Yugoslavia. Thus, it can be concluded that manifested Yugonostal-gia is not one-sided, but is rather collectively constructed by the virtual audience that comes from different parts of former country. For instance, it is stated: "What a country Yugoslavia used to be. Why was such a beautiful country destroyed?" As answers to the comment, it is stated that "there are no such similar nations in the world as the ones that used to live together in Yugoslavia". The people in this virtual conversation clearly stated that they are from divergent parts of former Yugoslavia, as well as that they are young, never had lived in Yugoslavia, and similar. Despite the mentioned fact, they claimed to be regretful about the dissolution of Yugoslavia. Moreover, the people from different parts of Yugoslavia share positive attitudes on Yugoslavia and address each other with well-known socialist greeting "comrade" (dru2e/drugarice), or in some cases, with "my brother/sister", thus expressing the rejection of current usual greeting "sir or madam" (gospodine/gospodo). On the territory that suffered from great losses of lives and had witnessed intense immigration during and after the dissolution of the country, it seems that the music have much intense emotional potential, since the music and public figures tend to become triggers for dealing with the troubled past. An intriguing feature regarding the reactions to the second song seems to be in the fact that those reactions were triggered by a song that was made long after the break up of Yugoslavia. Namely, it is not rare feature that the music from Yugoslavia can embody the symbolism for the whole Yugoslavia and thus can trigger the emotions and recollections on Yugoslavia. However, in this case, the music made long after the end of Yugoslavia also provokes memories, as well as discussions on Yugoslavia. However, just like in the first case, the discourse on the war, the national separation and hate, is also present. Also in the world of these virtual citizens there are also examples that point to post-Yugoslav divided territory that is real and that it corresponds to the symbolic boundaries among the people. One exceptional comment regards this perspective: I do not think that this song is made in praise of Yugoslavia. It is about a great love between two people and it is a metaphor for former great Yugoslavia in which the peoples were together and they love each other, or at least it seemed so. But, in the end [...] each republic went to its own path and we (the Serbs) do not care anymore, just the same as the guy in the song does not care about the girl anymore. He overcame the love and so should we. This is how I understand the song. The comment, however, was also completely ignored, except for one reply in which it is pointed that "people do not care about nationalism or communism, but rather they just want to live without hate." This response in fact show that the intention of the 17 See, for instance, Ana Petrov, "The Songs We Love to Sing." musicians to bring the attention and provoke the reactions with the Yugoslav symbolism actually worked, since the love in the song is multifariously connected to Yugoslavia, mostly directly, but sometimes, as in the last example, just on the level of symbolism for love and peace among divergent peoples on the territory of the socialist Yugoslavia. Conclusion "Entitle a song Yugoslavia and it will be viewed because of the arguments in the comments. It is genius".18 Considering both cases, it can be concluded that these kinds of commercial expectations from the post-Yugoslav audience can be futile, but can also work out completely, for seemingly banal visual, verbal or musical triggers of memories related to the country, such as, for instance, Tito, or the Yugoslav national anthem. The comments on the second song were often: "Long live Tito", or: Long live Yugoslavia", and some contained the parts of the national anthem of Yugoslavia, such as: "Proklet bio izdajica svoje domovine" (Let the traitor of the homeland be cursed). Trying to explain different reactions to two songs (I remind that there is almost no criticism to the second song, unlike the first one), it is important to notice that the usage of the symbolism in the second song was much more successful. The national anthem and the appearance of Tito himself seem to be powerful triggers of memories. Having in mind such examples, the following question can be posed: What does it mean to capitalize on nostalgia, is commodified nostalgia here to stay? Do such commercial usage of Yugoslavia and its past tend to be manipulative with people's feelings and memories on their own past? Finally, are the former Yugoslavs sometimes consumed by nostalgia? As mentioned before, nostalgia can be treated with regard to its cultural dimension, can be interpreted as a social state, an emotion, as well as ideology. Concerning the issue of nostalgia and commercialism, it is often argued that they can be tools supporting a wide range of paradigms, and thus can be tools designed to promote a nationalistic or hegemonic agenda, but also can be engaged in divergent personal dealing with the past. Drastic changes in economic and political life in the years after the collapse of socialism have led to anxiety and uncertainty, together with excitement and hope. This is no specificity of post-Yugoslav spaces, since economic rationalization of the cultural industries has resulted in extensive repackaging and repurposing of existing content in order to secure customer acceptance elsewhere.19 However, specific for post-Yugoslav context is definitely highly emotional reactions, remembrance of both the socialist and the war past, and thus the existence of copious stands regarding the politics during and after Yugoslavia. It can be stated that to capitalize on nostalgia is to profit from the sale of such memories and that emotions, no matter how manipulated, retain their naturalness and 18 A comment regarding the first here discussed song entitled Yugoslavia. 19 S. D. Chrostowska, "Consumed by Nostalgia?," SubStance 122 (2010): 52-70. remain a counterweight to materialism. Still, capitalized nostalgia can cost parts of our ability to bear the weight of private memory - that is, memory that is alive not in spite but because of its solitude. It puts into question the value of lived experience, whose reproduction becomes patented and marketed as authentic, further becomes itself "nostalgiogenic". Certain authors hence argue that "commodified nostalgia is predictably self-consuming nostalgia".20 Such conclusions, however, do not fully explicate the cultural conditions in which "the relics of symbolically polluted time re-emerge as its purified signifiers and culturally successful icons within new circumstances".21 It is highly important to locate possible meanings of a feature in post-Yugoslav societies: people articulate nostalgic commitments to the past they might have themselves recently jettisoned, or, opposed to that, younger generation supposedly feel nostalgic about the time, state and system in which they had never lived. There are scholars who suggest that certain kinds of nostalgia are "primarily connected to persisting, defensive ideological attachments of the older and sheer vogue among the younger generations facilitated by denial and historical ignorance, respectively".22 It can even be noted that nowadays there is a general "popular curiosity" towards the past, the concrete one, or some mystified past, since we are living in a time of uncertainty, combined with the commercialization of content, which can "converge in a 'rediscovery' of history". From this perspective, "with characteristic commercial manipulation, historical narratives are injected with a heavy dose of melancholy and sentimentality, quite appropriate for nostalgic invocation".23 Moving back to the actual audience that consume the musical products here discussed, some remembering the past with nostalgia, whereas others debating on various political issues, I argue that Yugonostalgia is an important feature of the post-Yugoslav collectivities. As such, it should be considered with regard to many concomitants with which it is often manifested, whether it might be simple recollections on the past, or it provokes discussions, or it brings to conversations about the quality of popular music and the comparison with contemporary production. It is a feature that is rather common in those societies and it certainly points to the issues of the past, present and possibly the future of them. It is not a passive audience, having in mind that they tend to express their statements in abundance regarding divergent issues, often disapproving the fact that they are addressed with the expectations to react nostalgically. At the same time, however, this collectivity of the virtual post-Yugoslav audience does tend to react as expected. Namely, both of the songs have provoked reactions solely due to the reference to Yugoslavia, that is, due to their catchy titles. From this perspective, it can be concluded that such virtual audiences show complex and often contradictory characteristics, which in fact point out to the actual characteristics of the post-Yugoslav societies themselves - they are conflicted and networked in copious narratives regarding the past and the present. 20 S. D. Chrostowska, "Consumed by Nostalgia?," 54. 21 Dominik Bartmanski, "Successful icons of failed time: Rethinking postcommunist nostalgia," Acta Sociologica 54/3 (2011): 213-231. 22 More on such an approach see Dominik Bartmanski, "Successful icons of failed time," 213. 23 Wu Jing, "Nostalgia as Content Creativity. Cultural Industries and Popular Sentiment," International Journal of Cultural Studies 9/3 (2006): 359-368. In his reminiscences on Yugoslavia, Alvaro Guerra, former Portuguese ambassador in Yugoslavia, posed a question: "what does it mean when someone declares that he/ she is an ex Yugoslav?"24 If the country is labelled as former or ex Yugoslavia, are the people, the past, the experiences, the memories, the culture also ex? Yugoslavia as a geopolitical entity does not exist anymore. In many other contexts, however, Yugoslavia is not gone. Former is the state apparatus, but not the space of Yugoslavia, nor diverse aspects of Yugoslav culture. It appears that certain phenomena are former, others are post-Yugoslav, but, there are still many of them that are simply Yugoslav. If Yugoslavia is regularly written about as "dead"25 and "late",26 how should we then treat its cultural continuation, and, after all, its citizens? It can be argued that even though the category "Yugoslav" has been officially distinguished, there are still Yugoslavs, at least in certain micro dimensions of the post-Yugoslav cyber space. They might not be visible in a material sense but they in fact do form a unique sort of the community of the citizens who lost their country and who often tend to problematize current political situation, sometimes appearing even when not expected, and sometimes just to confirm that they are still vulnerable enough that a song entitled Yugoslavia could provoke tremendous emotional reactions. Bibliography Atanasovski, Srdan and Petrov, Ana. "Carnal Encounters and Producing Socialist Yugoslavia: Voluntary Youth Labour Actions on the Newsreel Screen." Eastern European Cinema 6/1 (2015): 21-32. Bancroft, Claire. "Yugonostalgia: The Pain of the Present." Indipendent Study Project (ISP) Collection. Paper 787. Accessed March 29 2015, 2009. http://digitalcollections. sit.edu/isp_collection/787. Baker, Catherine. "The Politics of Performance: Transnationalism and its Limits in Former Yugoslav Popular Music, 1999-2004." Ethnopolitics 5/3 (2005): 275-293. Bartmanski, Dominik. "Successful icons of failed time: Rethinking postcommunist nostalgia." Acta Sociologica 54/3 (2011): 213-231. Chrostowska, S. D.. "Consumed by Nostalgia?" SubStance 122 (2010): 52-70 Davidson, Tonya K., Park, Ondine and Shields, Rob, eds.. Ecologies of Affect. Placing Nostalgia, Desire, and Hope. Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2011. Dobrivojevic, Ivana. "Izmedu ideologije i pop kulture. Život omladine u FNRJ 19451955." Istorija 20. veka 1 (2010): 119-132. Duda, Igor. Danas kada postajem pionir: Djetinjstvo i ideologija jugoslavenskoga soci- jalizma. Zagreb: Srednja Europa, 2015. Gera, Alvaro. Jugoslovenske hronike. Beograd: Paidea, 2015. 24 Alvaro Gera, Jugoslovenske hronike (Beograd, Paidea, 2015), 7. 25 Ante Perkovic, Sedma republika. Pop kultura u Yu raspadu (Beograd and Zagreb: Službeni glasnik and Novi liber, 2011). 26 Mitja Velikonja, "Povratak otpisanih. Emancipatorski potencijali jugonostalgije," in Zid je mrtav, živeli zidovi. Pad Berlinskog zida i raspad Jugoslavije, edited by Ivan Čolovic (Beograd, XX vek, 2015), 366-398. Jing, Wu. "Nostalgia as Content Creativity. Cultural Industries and Popular Sentiment." International Journal of Cultural Studies 9/3 (2006): 359-368. Palmberger, Monica. "Nostalgia Matters: Nostalgia for Yugoslavia as Potential Vision for a Better Future." Sociologija 4 (2008): 355-370. Perkovič, Ante. Sedma republika. Pop kultura u Yu raspadu. Beograd and Zagreb: Službeni glasnik and Novi liber, 2011. Petrov, Ana. "Popular Music and Producing Collectivities: The Challenges of Audience Research in Contemporary Musicology." Musicology 18 (2015): 99-113. Petrov, Ana. "The Songs We Love to Sing and the History We Like to Remember: Tereza Kesovija's Come Back in Serbia." Southeastern Europe 39/2 (2015): 192-214. Petrov, Ana. Jugoslovenska muzika bez Jugoslavije. Koncerti kao mesta secanja. Beograd: Fakultet za medije i komunikacije, 2016. Petrov, Ana and Stevanovic, Lada. "The State of Cyborg Citizens: The After-life of Yugoslavia in the Internet Space." In Deep Archaeology. Edited by Petrov, Ana and Stojnic, Aneta. Forthcoming. Petrovič, Tanja. "The Territory of the Former Yugoslavia in the Mental Maps of Former Yugoslavs: Nostalgia for Space." Sprawy Narodowosciowe, Seria Nova. Zeszyt 31 (2007): 263-273. Velikonja, Mitja. Titostalgija. Beograd: XX vek, 2010. Velikonja, Mitja. "Rock'n'retro: novi jugoslavizam u savremenoj slovenačkoj popularnoj muzici." In Nebeska Jugoslavija. Edited by Čolovič, Ivan. Beograd: XX vek, 2012, 67-175. Velikonja, Mitja. "Povratak otpisanih. Emancipatorski potencijali jugonostalgije." In Zid je mrtav, živeli zidovi. Pad Berlinskog zida i raspad Jugoslavije. Edited by Čolovič, Ivan. Beograd: XX vek, 2015, 366-398. Volčič, Zala. "Yugonostalgia: Cultural Memory and Media in the Former Yugoslavia." Critical Studies in Media Communication 24/1 (2007): 21-38. Volčič, Zala. "Neither "East" nor "West": The Past and present Life of Yugoslav Identity." In Rules and Roles: Fluid Institutions, Hybrid Roles, and Identities in East European Transformation Processes (1989-2005). Edited by Kabakchieva, P. and Kiossev, A. Sofia: University of Sofia, 2009, 251-266. POVZETEK Po razpadu socialistične Jugoslavije, v obdobju novih tehnologij in interneta, se je pojavilo veliko kompleksnih oblik spominjanja na Jugoslavijo, večina v internetnih okoljih. Ena od manifestacij kibernetskih (post)jugoslovanskih okolij se nanaša na temo nostalgije in jugoslovanskih simbolov v sodobnih post-jugoslovanskih družbah. V članku dokazujem, da jugonostalgija zavzema bistveno mesto na (glasbenem) trgu. Ustvarja občutek ,izbire' in podobnost alternativi, ki je lahko v nekaterih primerih ničeva, v drugih pa produktivna. Črpam iz obširnega raziskovanja, ki se ukvarja z različnimi oblikami nostalgij (pri čemer sta t. i. post-socialistična in post-komunistična najbolj pogosti, ne pa tudi edini), v katerem se je razpravljalo o uporabnosti domnevno osebnih čustev za prodajo izdelkov. Kljub temu, da obstaja veliko različnih vrst nostalgij kot kulturnih fenomenov, kot je tudi mnogo načinov za spoprijemanje z njimi, je ena specifična vrsta tega fenomena povezana z uporabo jugoslovanskih simbolov ali celo s samo besedo »Jugoslavija« - včasih izključno v komercialne namene oz. za to, da se pozornost usmeri k določenemu (glasbenemu) izdelku. Po razpravi o splošnih lastnostih jugonostalgije se osredinim na sledeče vprašanje: sta Jugoslavija in jugonostalgija postali popularni in komercialni značilnosti post-jugoslovanskega glasbenega trg? Opozorim na dva reprezentativna in aktualna primera. Oba iz leta 2015: dve pesmi, ena v izvedbi Ane Bebic in Željka Vasica in druga od Amadeus banda, ki sta naslovljeni Jugoslavija, a nobena od njiju ni zares povezana z Jugoslavijo. »Jugoslavija« je tukaj mišljena kot metafora za izgubljeno ljubezen, za ljubezensko vez, ki je razpadla - tako kot sama Jugoslavija. Opirajoč se na raziskave občinstva, torej na odzive občinstva v virtualnem okolju interneta, se ukvarjam s temo komercia-lizacije Jugoslavije in jugonostalgije, pri čemer pokažem, kako se je v kompleksnem post-jugo-slovanskem prostoru na trgu pojavil nov glasbeni trend - trend uporabe kulture spominjanja na Jugoslavijo z namenom, da bi ustvarili pesmi, ki bi nemara bile zanimive za post-jugoslovanski trg. UDK 78:393.9(497.4Ljubljana)"2016" DOI: 10.4312/mz.53.1.217-241 Anita Prelovšek Tbilisijska 92 SI-1000 Ljubljana Glasbene prakse v pogrebnem kontekstu: študija primera pokopališč na območju Ljubljane v letu 2016 Musical Practices in the Funeral Context: A Case Study of Cemeteries in the Ljubljana Region in 2016 Prejeto: 15. oktober 2016 Sprejeto: 7. december 2016 Ključne besede: pogreb, pogrebna glasba, ekonomija glasbe, pokopališča, pogrebno podjetje Žale IZVLEČEK V Ljubljani in okolici je tradicionalna pogrebna glasbena praksa moške pevske zasedbe ali trobente še zmeraj v veliki meri prisotna, njeno dominacijo pa je v letu 2016 pod vprašaj postavila dekliška vokalno-instrumentalna zasedba. Repertoarna ponudba pri vseh je pogojena predvsem z željami svojcev preminulih. Prevladuje ljudska glasba, sledi ji domena popularne glasbe, najmanj pa je prisotna umetnostna glasba. Najpogosteje izvajane skladbe leta 2016 so bile Gozdič je že zelen, Lipa zelenela je in K tebi hitim, moj Bog. Received: 15th October 2016 Accepted: 7th December 2016 Keywords: funeral, funeral music, music economy, cemeteries, funeral company Žale ABSTRACT In Ljubljana and in its surroundings the music at a traditional funeral still consists usually of a vocal ensemble or a trumpet, but in 2016 this has increasingly tended to be replaced by a girl's vocal and instrumental ensemble. The choice of music depends largely on the wishes of the relatives of the deceased. Folk music predominates, followed by popular music; the music requested least is classical music. The most frequently performed songs of the year 2016 were: Gozdičje že zelen, Lipa zelenela je and Nearer my God to Thee. Uvod »Ko nekateri ljudje na pogrebu ob izgubi bližnjega žalujejo, na njih ničesar ne opazimo. Tedaj pa zazveni godalni kvartet ali zapoje zbor in je tako, kakor da se odprejo vse zapornice in vse čustvene zavore popustijo. Nič več ne moremo krotiti čustev. To stori glasba.«1 Članek obravnava glasbo v kontekstu pogrebnih slovesnosti kot etnomuzikološki, antropološki, ekonomski ter kulturno-zgodovinski fenomen, ki doslej ni bil deležen sistematične znanstvene pozornosti na Slovenskem. Raziskava glasbenih praks v članku se osredotoča na vrsto pomembnih procesov, ki nam iz različnih zornih kotov pomagajo razumeti pomen in vlogo glasbe v kontekstu pogrebov na ljubljanskih pokopališčih. Članek na začetku predstavlja fenomen pogrebnih glasbenih praks v različnih svetovnih okoljih in obdobjih, potem pa na primeru pokopališč v sklopu pogrebnega podjetja Žale določa raznovrstne aspekte glasbenega udejstvovanja na pogrebih, predstavlja najbolj prisotne glasbenike, analizira repertoar in se na koncu posveča dinamiki sprememb pogrebnih glasbenih praks. Članek temelji na vpogledu v ustrezno znanstveno literaturo slovenskih in tujih avtorjev, na člankih o pogrebnih slovesnostih iz dnevnega časopisja, revij in medmrežja ter na terenskem raziskovanju skozi leto 2016, s poudarkom na podjetju Žale in na glasbenikih, ki igrajo na pogrebih. Pri empiričnem delu je bila v ospredju metoda opazovanja z udeležbo, največ podatkov pa je bilo zbranih s pomočjo polstrukturiranih intervjujev. Tovrstne raziskave v tem okolju pred menoj ni izvedel še nihče, v tujini pa so izsledke primerljivih raziskav objavile nekatere mednarodno uveljavljene znanstvenice, kot na primer Ellen Oxfeld (2004) na podlagi študija pogrebnih praks na Kitajskem, Deborah Wong (1998) na Tajskem in Barbara L. Hampton (1982) v Gani. Glasba ob pogrebu v različnih okoljih in obdobjih Kot navaja Bernd Brabec de Mori,2 obstaja malo ritualov, ki ne vključujejo glasbe. To tezo potrjuje emsko razumevanje v mnogih skupnostih, v katerih je prav glasba tista meta-govorica s pomočjo katere si ljudje prizadevajo komunicirati z svetom božanstev ali duhov. Izvedba pogrebnega rituala je praviloma odvisna od religije, ki pomembno vpliva na njegov potek in uporabo glasbe. Pri kristjanih naj bi bilo to psalmodično petje za slavljenje boga, na primer petje duhovnikov v stari cerkveni slovanščini. V budističnih deželah menihi med pogrebom recitirajo sutre.3 Za muslimanske pogrebne kontekste ni značilna glasba. 1 Nikolaus Harnoncourt, Toni so vzvišene besede. Pogovori o romantični glasbi (Ljubljana: Modrijan, 2012), 73. 2 Bernd Brabec de Mori, »Rituals«, v Music in the Social Behavioral Science. An Encyclopedia, William Forde Thompson, ur. (Los Angeles: SAGE Publications, 2014), 965-969. 3 Maja Milčinski in Ana Bajželj Bevelacqua, ur., Življenje, smrt in umiranje v medkulturni perspektivi. Razprave FF (Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete, 2011), 37. Avtorici se sklicujeta na podatke C. Beckerja o Japonski, kjer se le okoli 75-80 odstotkov ljudi razglaša za budiste. Večino pogrebnih obredij v današnji Japonski prakticirajo v skladu s tradicionalnimi Po besedah Marka Terseglava so obredne pesmi najstarejša zvrst ljudskega pesništva, ki je nastala iz človekove želje po komunikaciji z višjimi silami, prošnjami ter zak-linjanjem zlih duhov.4 »Zaradi učinkovitosti prošnje ali približevanja bogovom je bilo treba besede razvrščati v magične obrazce. Ritmizirani govor in ponavljanje nista imela estetske funkcije, ampak je bilo ritmično zaklinjanje s plesom le uspešnejši način ogovarjanja višjih sil. [...] Variantnosti in spreminjanja ni smelo biti, če je pesem želela ohraniti magično moč.«5 Kot nadalje piše Terseglav, so pesmi z iniciacijskimi elementi pogosto v žalostnih, poslovilnih tonih, zato so se svatbene pesmi začele mešati z žalos-tinkami. Te so bile sestavni del obsmrtnih kultov. Petje žalostink izhaja že iz antike. Po mnenju Manuele Wiesler6 naj bi začetki žalos-tink izhajali iz žalnega petja za Linosa,7 ki se je nato razširilo po celem svetu; to so bili spevi, mešani s kriki in plesom. Kot opisuje Marcello Sorce Keller,8 je bila v klasični Grčiji zvrst v poeziji (ki je, tako kot vsa starogrška poezija, vsebovala glasbo) epikedeion pogrebna žalostinka in slavospev pokojnemu; te pesmi so peli ob truplu, medtem ko so bile thrènos pesmi v spomin pokojnika. Terseglav pravi, da so žalostinke predstavljale obveznost do umrlega; izvajali so jih javno pokojnikovi sorodniki, znanci in prijatelji ali najete profesionalne žalovalke.9 Improvizacija žalostink je potekala po določenih konvencijah in je zahtevala poveličevanje umrlega. Sorce Keller meni, da je reprezenta-cija žalosti ob smrti imela katarzični, terapevtski učinek na svojce pokojnika in je hkrati vzbujala empatijo pri drugih članih skupnosti.10 Prav žalostinka, pravi Marcel Mauss, zmore ustvariti vez med svetovi ljudi, prednikov in duhov, zato ima kozmično, družbeno in individualno dimenzijo.11 Sorce Keller poudarja, da žalostink pri tradicionalnih mediteranskih kulturah ne pojmujejo kot glasbo, saj bi bilo v prisotnosti mrtvega neprimerno peti pesmi.12 Žalostinka je le žalostinka in nič drugega ali pa gre za emocionalni govor. Podobno jezidski13 kilam budističnimi pogrebnimi praksami: budistične menihe pokličejo, da med pogrebom recitirajo sutre, ki povzdignejo dušo, pogrebci pa na oltar prinašajo kadila in cvetje. 4 Marko Terseglav, Ljudsko pesništvo (Ljubljana: DZS, 1987), 92. 5 Prav tam, 92. 6 Manuela Wiesler, izv., André Jolivet. The Complete Flute Music - Volume 1. CD (Djursholm: Grammofon AB BIS), 1993. 7 Kot navaja Myriam Philibert v Dictionnaire des mythologies (Manchecourt: Maxi-poche références, 2000), 161, obstaja o izvoru Linosa v starogrški mitologiji več razlag. Bil je sin Apolona in Muze ter najbolj nadarjeni glasbenik, izumitelj ritma in melodije, ki si je zato nakopal sovraštvo bogov. Bil je tudi Orfejev in Heraklesov učitelj; ta ga je v jezi ubil. V njegov spomin so ženske in otroci peli pogrebne himne. 8 Marcello Sorce Keller, »Expressing, Communicating, Sharing, and Representing Grief and Sorrow with Organised Sound (Musings in Eight Short Segments)«, v Humanities Research: One Common Thread the Musical World of Lament, Stephen Wild, Di Roy, Aaron Corn in Ruth Lee Martin, ur., vol. 19, št. 3, (Canberra: Australian National University, 2013), 3-14. 9 Prav tam, 95. 10 Prav tam, 5. 11 Mauss, Marcel, »L'expression obligatoire des sentiments (rituels oraux funéraires australiens)«, Journal de psychologie 18 (1921): 425-232. 12 Prav tam, 7. 13 Kot navaja Veliki splošni leksikon, 3. knjiga (Ljubljana: DZS, 1997), 1766-1767, so jezidi, poimenovani tudi esidi, izidi ali jazidi, kurdska religijska skupnost z endogamno, hierarhično socialno strukturo. Njihovo vero sestavljajo prvine staroperzijske, plemenske, krščanske, manihejske in islamske religije. Kot usmerjevalca sveta in vrhovnega služabnika boga stvarnika častijo t. i. angela pava, ki za muslimane pomeni hudiča. Zaradi tega jih imenujejo »molilci k hudiču.« Kot piše na spletni strani Organizacije YezidiTruth. org, b..n.l, obiskano 22. 8. 2016, http://www.yeziditruth.org/, so Jezidi oziroma Jazidi kurdsko govoreče ljudstvo, ki živi v glavnem v severnem Iraku in šteje približno 800.000 ljudi. Kot dalje piše na omenjeni spletni strani, so med in po velikih poplavah leta 4000 pr. n. št. imigrirali v več afriških in azijskih držav, med drugim v Indijo, Afganistan, Armenijo in Maroko, okoli leta 2000 pr. n. št. pa so se vrnili v domovino in pomembno vplivali na razvoj asirske, babilonske in judovske civilizacije; v svojo vero so vključili elemente teh civilizacij ter nekatere značilnosti zoroastrske perzijske vere, v 11. stoletju pa še elemente islamskega sufizma. ser, pri katerem, kot piše Amy de la Breteque,14 gre za peto pripoved oziroma melodizi-rani govor za izražanje žalosti, bolečine o travmatičnih dogodkih, kot sta smrt in izgnanstvo, pri Jezidih ne pojmujejo kot glasbo. Kot navaja Alenka Goljevšček,15 tudi na Slovenskem žalost svojcev ni bila zasebno čustvo, temveč dolžnost, ki se je morala kazati tudi na zunaj - javno, in sicer so žalujoči glasno tožili, si trgali obleko in se tolkli po prsih. Kot piše Helena Ložar Podlogar, je bila ena takšnih navad tudi »narokovanje« oziroma »narokanje«, »narekovanje« ali »nari-canje«, ki je bilo posebej značilno za obmejne predele, Rezijo, Istro, Prekmurje in Belo krajino. »Naricali« so pred hišo in na pokopališču, redkeje pa še nekaj dni po pogrebu. Šlo je za tožbo z glasnim jokom in stokom, med katerim so naštevali dobra dela pokojnika in mu dajali nasvete za njegovo pot. Umrlemu so hoteli povedati, kako je z odhodom s tega sveta prizadel svoje najbližje. To je bilo nekakšno pojoče recitiranje, ki je včasih že prehajalo v pesem. Naricali so domači, predvsem ženske za umrlim možem ali otrokom, v slovenskem Porabju je pri tej šegi tudi mož narekoval za umrlo ženo. Še bolj pogosto so bile ženske - »jokavke«, »narekavice« oziroma »naricalke«, prav zato najete in plačane.16 Zmaga Kumer je prispevala tudi zapise nekaterih pesmi objokovanja umrlega pri samem pogrebu z Dolenjske, Bele krajine, Istre in Notranjske. Avtorica navaja po viru B. Orla, da »naj bi bilo objokovanje nekdaj v navadi tudi na Slovenskem z imenom narekanje ali narekovanje. Bilo je glasno, napol pojoče. Besedilo so zlagali sproti, vendar po ustaljenem načinu, hkrati pa kakor je narekovalo čustvo. Objokovala je žena za možem, hči za materjo, sestra za bratom ipd. Danes tega ni več [...]«17 Terseg-lav18 piše: »V Sloveniji se je narekanje izgubilo. Pod cerkvenim vplivom so se razvila t. i. slova ali slovesa, moralizatorske pesmi v rimanih osmercih, ki so jih peli ob varovanju mrliča.« Po kvalifikaciji Zmage Kumer so slovesa značilna zlasti za Štajersko, drugod pa so le izjemna. Nekatera slovesa so se nato razširila po vsej Sloveniji, kjer jih ljudje pojejo kot pripovedne pesmi. Te spominske pesmi za nesrečno umrlimi, ki so bile vedno pete in nikoli deklamirane, je s štajersko narečno besedo slova ali slovesa poimenoval Karel Štrekelj.19 Kumrova je pesmi, pete pri varovanju mrliča, razvrstila v sedem različnih podzvrsti: v pesmi slovesa umrlega od svojcev, versko-poučne pesmi, odpeve za žalostni rožni venec, nabožne pesmi, pripovedne pesmi, mrtvečeve pesmi, slovesa za nesrečno umrlimi.20 O obrednem joku in tarnanju poroča tudi Niko Kuret v povezavi s semitskega vzhoda izvirajočo šego s tisočletnimi koreninami, ki časti življenje, smrt in ponovno vstajenje: to je adventna setev žita v plitve posode. Gre za verovanja, ki so povezana z grškim bogom Adonisom, ki je utelešal rastlinsko rast, plitve posode z žitom pa so se imenovale Adonisovi vrtički. »Adonis je vsako leto umrl s požetim žitom vred. Jesen in zimo je prebil v neznani deželi smrti, z mladim pomladanskim zelenjem pa se je prebudil 14 Estelle Amy de La Breteque, »Voices of Sorrow: Melodized Speech, Laments, and Heroic Narratives among the Yezidis of Armenia«, Yearbook for Traditional Music 44 (2012): 129-148. 15 Alenka Goljevšček, »Kult mrtvih v slovenski ljudski pesmi«, Traditiones 7-9 (1978-1980): 159-168. 16 Helena Ložar Podlogar, Neva Brun in Marjan Remic, ur., Tihi pomniki minljivega časa. Drobci o šegah slovesov in pokopališki kulturi v slovenskem etničnem prostoru (Ljubljana: Forma 7, 1999), 22. 17 Zmaga Kumer, Ena urca bo prišla. Mrliške pesmi na Slovenskem (Ljubljana: Družina, 2009), 19. 18 Prav tam, 96. 19 Prav tam, 19-20. 20 Prav tam, 5 v novo življenje.« Vedno so želi moški, ženske pa so v posode z zemljo sejale semena različnih rastlin in ga zalivale, dokler ni vzkalilo. »V obhodu, ki naj bi predstavljal Ado-nisov pogreb, so nato med jokom in glasnim tarnanjem nosile te posode do vode in jih - hkrati z Adonisovo podobo - zagnale vanjo.«21 Ljudska praksa obrednega žalovanja je v evropski tradiciji dobila svoje glasbene zapise. Znamenite oblike pogrebne glasbe so na primer srednjeveški planctus, kasneje na primer requiem, miserere in pogrebne koračnice. Philippe Aries in Louis Thomas v svojih delih ugotavljata, da se v nekaterih kulturah bolečina, žalost in smrt izražajo v tišini, v drugih pa žalovanje, ravno nasprotno, potrebuje svoj zvokovni izraz.22 V nadaljevanju navajam nekatere pogrebne prakse z različnih delov sveta, ki vsebujejo glasbo. Kalaši,23 animistično ljudstvo iz Pakistana, za svojimi umrlimi ne žalujejo. Kot piše Gohar Abbas v članku v Delu z naslovom »Kalaši svoje bogove častijo s plesom in z alkoholom« 18. maja 2016, je smrt zanje praznik konca potovanja, ki se začne z rojstvom; praznovanje traja tri dni in vsebuje glasbo, ples in gostijo. Na Kitajskem obstajajo velike razlike med pogrebnimi rituali v urbanem in rural-nem okolju. V vaseh obstajata dve vrsti pogrebov: xisang ali veseli pogreb, to je dolg ritual z veličastnimi zvoki za pokojno osebo, ki je imela dolgo življenje, in xiongsang ali nesrečni pogreb, to je kratek pogreb z enostavno zvočno podobo za osebo, ki je imela kratko življenje.24 Raziskovalka Ellen Oxfeld25 je raziskovala pogrebno obredje v ruralni Kitajski v provinci Guangdong pri Južnokitajskem morju in ugotovila, da pogreb na tem območju pomeni statusni emblem in pa moralni dolg umrlemu. Kot poroča Oh-sung Kwon, so v Koreji pogrebi med najbolj konservativnimi običaji sploh. Sestavni del tradicionalnega pogrebnega obreda v Koreji so ljudske pesmi, imenovane sangy sori, ki jih pogrebci pojejo med pogrebno procesijo.26 Deborah Wong27 je leta 1994 izvedla terensko raziskavo sodobnih pogrebnih praks iz Bangkoka in preučila tudi njihov zgodovinski razvoj. Glasba in ples sta najbolj primerna načina daritev umrlemu. Za Tajce pogrebi tradicionalno niso žalostni dogodki, pač pa imajo zabavno noto, preveva jih atmosfera veselja. Kot opisuje Mitja Janc v članku »Smrt je v Mehiki najdražja ljubica.« v Financah 30. oktobra 2014, se Mehičani smrti ne bojijo. 1. novembra, na dan nedolžnih ali dan 21 Niko Kuret, Praznično leto Slovencev: Starosvetne šege in navade od pomladi do zime, 2. zv. (Ljubljana: Družina, 1989), 284. 22 Philipp Ariès, L'homme devant la mort (Paris: Seuil, 1977). Louis-Vincent Thomas, Anthropologie de la mort (Paris: Payot, 1980). Louis-Vincent Thomas, Rites de mort: Pour la paix des vivants (Paris: Libraire Artheme Fayard, 1985). 23 Mare Lakovič, b.n.l, »Izginjajoča ljudstva: Kalaši«, Svet & ljudje, obiskano 22. 8. 2016, http://www.svetinljudje.si/si/clanki. wlgt?Id=4872. 24 Qi Kun, »Sonic Expressions of Cosmological Awareness: A Comparative Study of Funeral Rituals among Han Chinese Living in the Yangzi River Valley«, Yearbook for Traditional Music 46 (2014): 159-169. 25 Ellen Oxfeld, »'When You Drink Water, Think of Its Source': Morality, Status, and Reinvention in Rural Chinese Funerals«, The Journal of Asian Studies 63/4 (2004): 961-990. 26 Oh-sung Kwon, »Melodic Structure of Korean Funeral Procession Songs«, Yearbook for Traditional Music 15 (1983): 59-70. 27 Deborah Wong, »Mon Music for Thai Deaths. Ethnicity and Status in Thai Urban Funerals«, Asian Folklore Studies 57 (1998): 99-130. angelčkov, se spominjajo umrlih otrok, glavno praznovanje v spomin vseh odraslih pokojnikov pa poteka 2. novembra, na praznik vernih duš. Po pripovedovanju Christian D. Frias v pogovoru z B. Kotnik za Ono 15. decembra 2015, takrat vsaka hiša pripravi lasten oltar, ki je poln cvetja, sveč in fotografij umrlih, njihov spomin pa počastijo s pokojnikovo najljubšo hrano, pijačo, predmeti in celo njegovo najljubšo glasbo. Takšno praznovanje je pravzaprav nekakšna mešanica krščanstva in verovanj staroselcev na območju Mehike pred prihodom španskih osvajalcev. Staroselce ideja o smrti ni strašila; verovali so v posmrtno življenje. Praznovanje poteka tudi na ulicah s pojedinami in glasbo, ki jo izvajajo skupine glasbenikov mariačijev, ki popestrijo vse pomembne življenjske dogodke. Znamenita pogrebna tradicija, ki vključuje glasbo in jo navaja tudi Enciklopedija glasbe in znanosti družbenega vedenja SAGE,28 je tako imenovani Jazzovski pogreb iz New Orleansa v Louisiani. Poimenovanje »jazzovski pogreb« za to tradicijo je splošno znano, a ni povsem primerno, saj ni vsa izvajana glasba pri tem pogrebu jazz; gre v bistvu le za pogreb z glasbo. Kot izvemo iz navedenega vira, ima ta praksa svoje korenine v vojaški pihalni godbi, ki je igrala ob različnih dogodkih, tudi na pogrebih, in se je spojila z afriškimi duhovnimi praksami. Pihalna godba na sprevodu do pokopališča igra glasbo žalovanja; kot navaja Wikipedia, je pogosto izvajana pesem K tebi želim moj Bog (Nearer My God to Thee), na poti nazaj po pokopu pa igra živahno glasbo, ki odseva življenje.29 Na podlagi predstavljenih primerov je razvidno, da glasba spremlja pogrebne aktivnosti v različnih delih sveta, da sta dojemanje in namen glasbe odvisni od kulturnih kontekstov ter da se glasbene prakse med seboj ponekod bistveno razlikujejo. Vloga glasbe na obredu slovesa od pokojnika je večplastna. Pomembna je za izražanje čustev ter njihovo teatralizacijo, ki olajša muke in napetosti; ima tudi estetsko vlogo, torej olepša obred; pomembna pa je tudi v osmišljanju obreda, za njegovo simboliko in spomin. Melodije, izvajane na pogrebih, lahko prikličejo v spomin pokojnika, podobno kakor pri Proustu čutne zaznave sprožijo tudi najgloblje, nezavedne spomine. Ljubljanske Žale Žale so hkrati osrednje ljubljansko pokopališče in pogrebno podjetje, ki skrbi za pogrebe še na 18 pokopališčih, ki so od Ljubljane oddaljena do 25 kilometrov, to so: Bizovik, Črnuče, Dravlje, Janče, Javor, Mali Lipoglav, Polje, Prežganje, Rudnik, Sostro, Stožice, Šentjakob, Šentpavel, Šentvid, Šmartno pod Šmarno goro, Štepanja vas in Vič. Pokopališče Žale je kulturno-umetnostnozgodovinski spomenik in tudi hortikul-turni park na 375.000 kvadratnih metrih. Stare Žale je arhitekt Jože Plečnik zasnoval kot Vrt vseh svetih s 14 unikatnimi mrliškimi vežicami in mogočnim vhodnim pročeljem, s katerim je ločil mesto mrtvih od mesta živih. Pogrebe z Novih Žal so se začeli opravljati leta 1979. Od leta 2002 so Žale kot eno najlepših pokopališč v Evropi včlanjene v Združenje kulturno pomembnih evropskih pokopališč, katerega ustanovni član so. 28 Amy Clemens-Cortés, »Death«, v Music in the Social Behavioral Science. An Encyclopedia, William Forde Thompson, ur. (Los Angeles: SAGE Publications, 2014), 321. 29 »Jazz Funeral«, B.n.l, Wikipedia, obiskano 24. 5. 2016, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz_funeral. Kot lahko preberemo na spletni strani Pogrebnega podjetja Žale d.o.o.,30 Žale delujejo od 1. avgusta 1914, ko je Ljubljana dobila svoj mestni pogrebni zavod, pred tem pa je bila pokopališka dejavnost v cerkveni domeni, pogrebna pa v domeni zasebnikov. Mesto Ljubljana je pridobilo koncesijo za opravljanje pogrebne dejavnosti in sklenilo ustanoviti svoj pogrebni zavod, da bi zaščitilo javni interes in odpravilo nezadovoljstvo meščanov z delom po dobičku stremečih zasebnih pogrebnih podjetij. Po besedah direktorja Roberta Martinčiča v pogovoru z Alenko Zupanič za Delo 5. decembra 2015 Pogrebno podjetje Žale opravi na dan v povprečju deset pogrebov, od tega je približno 90 odstotkov upepelitev in 10 odstotkov pogrebov s krsto oziroma tako imenovanih zemeljskih pokopov. Nobena izjema niso pogrebi pripadnikov različnih veroizpovedi, kot sta pravoslavna in muslimanska. Umestitev glasbe v pogrebnem obredu Kdaj je v pogrebnem obredu na vrsti glasba, je odvisno od strank. Večinoma se živa glasba izvaja dvakrat, in sicer prvič na Starih Žalah pri katafalku31 oziroma na Novih Žalah v dvorani in drugič ob grobu. Lahko pa jo na željo svojcev izvedejo tudi pri vežici. Vrstni red skladb določijo stranke. Po navadi pevsko-instrumentalni ansambli izvedejo tri skladbe, po želji tudi štiri. V primeru, da sodeluje več zasedb, na primer pevci in flavta, izvedejo vsak po tri skladbe, lahko pa flavta zaigra tudi samo dve skladbi. Trobenta, ki tradicionalno zaigra Tišino, je na vrsti povsem na koncu. Trobentar ne igra tik ob grobu, pač pa odmaknjen nekaj metrov stran, lahko ga zakrivajo nagrobni spomeniki in zelenje parka Žal. Stranke se glede vrstnega reda skladb pogosto premislijo, zato je treba biti zraven, preden se začne obred - kot pravi izkušeni glasbenik na pogrebih Miklavž Pintar.32 Če glasbeniki nastopajo pri raztrosu pepela, se postavijo ob rob za to namenjenega travnika. Pogodbeni glasbeniki na Žalah morajo po protokolu hoditi od katafalka oziroma dvorane do groba v sprevodu tik za pogrebnim vozom. Podjetje Žale glasbenikom ne daje uniform, oblečeni so v standardni črni barvi, poleti dekleta lahko nosijo bele srajce. Glasbenice iz skupine M.J.A.V.,33 ki pogosto nastopa na pogrebih, so si sprva zamislile ponazoriti upanje ob žalostnem dogodku ne le z glasbo, ampak tudi z oblačili povsem bele barve, a je ustaljena praksa črnine preveč močna in se, kot so mi povedale članice te zasedbe, to ne bi prijelo. Ko zazvoni v cerkvi in se pogrebna slovesnost začne, pride pogrebna ekipa, ki iz vežice prenese žaro do katafalka oziroma dvorane in naloži cvetje na voz, pogrebci34 pa se postavijo oziroma posedejo. To poteka ob glasbi, ki zveni iz zvočnikov, predvajajo pa jo v sobi zraven pogrebniških garderob, ki se nahaja nasproti katafalka. Za 30 »Žale«, B.n.l, Spletna stran Pogrebnega podjetja Žale, obiskano 5. 6. 2016, http://www.zale.si/. 31 Kot navaja Verbinčev Slovar tujk (Ljubljana: Cankarjeva založba, 1979), 339, je katafalk [fr. catafalque iz gr.] »slovesno ozaljšan mrtvaški oder s krsto«. V navedenem primeru je katafalk govorniški oder na Plečnikovih Žalah, pred katerega postavijo žaro oziroma krsto. 32 Miklavž Pintar. 6., 7., 10., 20. 6. 2016. Osebni pogovori. 33 M.J.A.V. 10., 13. in 20. 6. 2016. Osebni pogovori. 34 Pogrebec: »1. kdor se udeleži pogreba«, »2. kdor (poklicno opravlja dela v zvezi s pokopavanjem; pogrebnik«. Pogrebnik: »1. kdor (poklicno opravlja dela v zvezi s pokopavanjem«, »2. star kdor se udeleži pogreba; pogrebec«. SSKJ (Ljubljana: DZS, 1997), 885. predvajanje glasbe je že mnogo let zadolžen pogrebnik Borislav Mitrovic.35 Na zgoščenkah ima posnetih več skladb, ki jih izbira glede na vrsto pogreba. Na seznamu ima med drugim nekaj cerkvene glasbe, dve različici pesmi K tebi želim moj Bog, dva srbska pravoslavna psalma, žalne koračnice za partizanske pogrebe, 23 različnih izvedb Ave Marie in Bachov Air iz 3. orkestralne suite BVW 1068. Mitrovic namesto teh skladb zelo pogosto predvaja glasbo, ki jo prinesejo svojci na CD-ju ali USB ključku. Ta glasba je zelo raznolika. Glasbo iz zvočnika predvaja tudi, ko pogrebna procesija krene od katafalka oziroma dvorane do groba (v primeru, da ni žive glasbe oziroma govorov na teh mestih, se odpravijo od vežice direktno na grob). Borislav Mitrovic mi je povedal tudi, da nekateri želijo sprevod povsem v tišini, a je to zelo redko. Nemalokrat se zgodi, da prijatelji pokojne osebe ali včasih celo svojci na pogrebu tudi sami zapojejo ali zaigrajo na kakšno glasbilo. Tako je bilo, kot poroča spletni portal 24ur.com 23. decembra 2015, tudi na pogrebu Simone Weiss, na katerem je pri katafal-ku zapela Ave Marijo njena kolegica Tereza Kesovija, pokojničin mož pa se je ob grobu pri zadnjih verzih pokojničine pesmi Zbogom tudi sam pridružil pevski skupini. Ekonomija glasbe v pogrebnem kontekstu Naročniki pogreba, ki si želijo imeti na njem tudi glasbo, imajo več možnosti: v lastni organizaciji lahko angažirajo katerega koli glasbenika, znanca, prijatelja ali nekoga s prostega trga. Informacije o glasbenikih, ki igrajo na pogrebih, lahko najdejo tudi na spletnem portalu www.pogrebi.info36 ter v brezplačni reviji Pogreb ni tabu. Če izvedejo pogreb na pokopališčih, ki spadajo pod pogrebno podjetje Žale, se lahko v sprejemni pisarni po sistemu, napisanem na panoju v sprejemni sobi, to je »vse na enem mestu«, dogovorijo »o nastopu pevskega zbora ali solo petju ob pogrebni slovesnosti« ali pa »o igranju trobente, violine, flavte ali kitare.«37 V sprejemni pisarni referentka naročniku ponudi tudi glasbo. Če naročnik želi glasbo, si referentka to zabeleži in pove, da bo njegovo telefonsko številko posredovala vodji ansambla, ki bo naročnika poklical in se z njim individualno dogovoril o repertoarju. Referentka stranki izroči tudi seznam skladb, ki jih ansambli izvajajo. Pri vsakem individualnem dogovoru med naročnikom in vodjo ansambla o repertoarju kolikor je to mogoče, upoštevajo želje naročnika. Cene posameznih ansamblov so različne, v povprečju pa znašajo okoli 200 evrov bruto. Stranka plača naročeno glasbo skupaj z drugimi stroški pogreba po računu, ki ga izda Pogrebno podjetje Žale, d. o. o. Vodja sprejemne pisarne, Domen Kokalj,38 mi je povedal, da statistike o tem, na koliko pogrebih igrajo njihovi pogodbeni glasbeniki, ne vodijo. Dodal je še: »Vedeti morate, da je naročil glasbe vse manj, padajo. To je dodatni strošek za svojce.« 35 Borislav Mitrovic, 8. 6. 2016. Osebni pogovor. 36 »O pogrebih in osmrtnice na spletu«, B.n.l, Spletni portal, obiskano 6. 6. 2016, http://pogrebi.info/zalno_petje_pevci_in_glasba_ ob_pogrebih.html. 37 Citre niso navedene, čeprav so tudi v ponudbi Žal. 38 Domen Kokalj, 10. 6. 2016. Osebni pogovor. Nataša Jereb,39 ki kot referentka na Žalah dela že 18 let, mi je povedala, da je sodobni trend pogrebnih slovesnosti, da potekajo »čimbolj hitro, brez pompa, saj je to mučno.« Mnoge stranke želijo pogreb že čez dva dni in jim ni prav, ko jim pove, da je mogoče šele čez teden dni; nekateri žalujoči na to reagirajo tudi z agresijo in jezo. Ta sodobni trend spominja na to, kar opisuje Thomas Bernhard,40 ko protagonist govori o pogrebu svoje žene: »V bistvu pogreb moje žene ni bil samo preprost, temveč dejansko tudi deprimirajoč [...] Želimo preprostega, tudi s kar je le mogoče malo ljudi, [...] pa smo potem angažirali pač nič drugačnega kot deprimirajočega. Nobene glasbe, pravimo, nobenih govorov, pravimo in mislimo, da je to še najbolj preprosto in bomo tako še najbolje prestali, in nas potem vseeno kar najgloblje prizadene [...]. Le sedem ali osem ljudi, dejansko le najbližji, če je le mogoče, nobenega sorodstva in res le najbližji, premišljujemo, in potem pridejo samo ti najbližji, katerim smo tudi povedali, nobenih rož, ničesar, in potem je vseeno vse zelo deprimirajoče. Hodimo za krsto in vse je deprimirajoče. Vse se zgodi hitro, niti tričetrt ure ne traja, in nas deprimira in mislimo, da je trajalo celo večnost [...] . Vedno in povsod sem povedal, da želim za ženo samo najpreprostejši pogreb, česar niso razumeli, kajti vsi drugi, kot sam vem, hočejo vedno posebnega. Koliko moči me je stalo, da sem končno le dosegel najpreprostejši pogreb [...] Ko sem rekel preprost pogreb, [...] ne želim imeti poceni pogreba, kot so mislili ostali, temveč preprostega, vsi so neprestano mislili, da želim poceni pogreb, ko sem rekel preprostega [...].« Po enem takšnih kratkih pogrebov, ki je trajal le četrt ure in kjer ni bilo žive glasbe -teh je bilo pri moji raziskavi 15 od 40 pogrebov, ki sem se jih udeležila, kar je 37,5 % - sem slišala reči eno od udeleženk: »Žalostno. Nihče ni ničesar zaigral«. Na izgled pogrebne slovesnosti seveda vpliva tudi ekonomski status naročnikov. Socialno najšibkejši si lahko privoščijo le najosnovnejši pogreb, celo brez mrliške vežice. Pogrebna glasba v živo ■ DA NE Primer 1: Pogrebna glasba v živo v odstotkih. 39 Nataša Jereb, 8. 6. 2016. Osebni pogovor. 40 Thomas Bernhard, Stari mojstri: komedija (Ljubljana: Študentska založba, 2007), 155. Glasbeniki »Uradni« glasbeniki, to so tisti, ki imajo pogodbo s Pogrebnim podjetjem Žale, sta moški pevski skupini Spomin in Ob slovesu, dekliška vokalno-instrumentalna skupina M.J.A.V., citrarka Tanja Zajc-Zupan, trobentar Robert Albreht in agencija Glasba po meri. Kot mi je povedal vodja sprejemne pisarne, so imeli tudi pogodbo s saksofonistom, ki pa so jo prekinili. Nekateri ansambli in solisti imajo tudi svoje podizvajalce; tako na primer v okviru glasbenega društva Spomin deluje trobentar Miklavž Pintar. Pevci in trobentarja delujejo izmenično, vsak teden eden, medtem ko skupina M.J.A.V. nastopa ves čas. Dogaja se tudi, da moški pevski zasedbi nastopata na kakšnem pogrebu tudi v tistem tednu, ko nista na vrsti, a so angažirani na primer na izrecno željo strank. Poleg navedenih ansamblov na pogrebih nastopajo najrazličnejši izvajalci, ansambli in solisti. Žalujoči lahko angažirajo katerega koli glasbenika, lahko je to tudi kdo izmed žalujočih, prijatelj, sodelavec; morda pevski zbor, v katerem je pokojni deloval. Tako sem med svojo terensko raziskavo opazila različne, »neuradne« vokalne zasedbe. Pevska skupina Spomin nastopa na Žalah že več kot 35 let. Vodi jo Vojko Škerja-nec,41 ki je tudi tisti, ki se dogovarja s strankami o izbiri skladb, ostali člani so njegov brat Zdravko ter njuna bratranca. Celotna vokalna skupina šteje več članov, a na pogrebih nastopajo kot kvartet; kot lahko preberemo na spletni strani Glasbenega društva Spomin, ponudijo tudi petje kvinteta, seksteta ali okteta, petje solista, igranje trobente, violine ali tamburašev, pa tudi pripravo in branje pogrebnega govora. V kvartetu Ob slovesu42 prav tako že več kot 35 let na Žalah nastopa Marjan Kraše-vec - Čarli,43 ki je organizator oziroma tisti, ki se dogovarja s strankami. Pred leti je imel sestav več članov in je bil znan pod imenom Operni oktet. Dekliška vokalno-instrumentalna pop skupina M.J.A.V. deluje na Žalah zadnje pol leta, drugod po Sloveniji pa igrajo na pogrebih že tri leta. Ime skupine je sestavljenka iz začetnih črk njihovih imen: Maša, Jasmina, Ani, Veronika (ki jo je kasneje nadomestila Ana). Dve izmed deklet sta diplomantki pedagoške fakultete, tretja je po poklicu socialna delavka, četrta vzgojiteljica. Štiriglasno petje spremljajo na različnih instrumentih, na pogrebih sta to predvsem kitara in flavta, lahko pa z orglami in petjem spremljajo tudi celotno mašo. M.J.A.V. ni le kvartet, pač pa tudi podjetje, ki ima še več dodatnih članic in lahko po potrebi sestavijo dodatno ekipo. Vsi navedeni ansambli ne nastopajo izključno na Žalah, ampak tudi drugod po Sloveniji, in seveda tudi v drugačnih kontekstih od pogrebnega. Trobentar Miklavž Pintar na Žalah nastopa že devet let, vse od svojega 19. leta, ko je bil še študent na Akademiji za glasbo. Drugi »uradni« trobentar, Robert Albreht, pa je samostojni podjetnik in član Orkestra slovenske policije. 41 Zdravko Škerjanec, 6., 7., 8., 10., 20. 6. 2016. Osebni pogovori. 42 »Ob slovesu«, B.n.l, Spletna stran moškega pevskega zbora, obiskano 23. 6. 2016, http://rastomencinger.wix.com/ob-slovesu#!program/c14o2. 43 Marjan Kraševec, 7. 6. 2016. Osebni pogovor. S pojavom novega ansambla, skupine M.J.A.V., se je močno znižalo število nastopov že skoraj štiri desetletja delujočih moških pevskih zasedb - vsak novi glasbenik, ki dobi pogodbo na Žalah, predstavlja konkurenco ostalim. Repertoar O repertoarju odločajo stranke, vodje ansambla jim pri tem lahko svetujejo. Posamezni ansambli imajo na svojih internetnih straneh objavljen repertoar pesmi, vendar so zelo fleksibilni in se potrudijo ugoditi vsem željam naročnikov. Nekateri naročniki imajo že jasno izdelane predstave o tem, katere pesmi oziroma skladbe si želijo, drugi se posvetujejo z glasbeniki, tretji jim popolnoma prepustijo izbor skladb. Po mnenju glasbenic iz skupine M.J.A.V. se Ljubljančani bolj posvečajo izbiri skladbe za pogrebno slovesnost in jo pred odločitvijo tudi poslušajo na spletni strani You-Tube. Zgodi se, da si tudi premislijo, pokličejo in zamenjajo kakšno skladbo za katero drugo. Ljudje na podeželju pa izbiro skladb prepustijo kar glasbenicam samim, rekoč: »Vam zaupamo«. Kot pravijo članice zasedbe M.J.A.V., se repertoar v Ljubljani in na podeželju razlikuje; navajajo primer skladbe narodnozabavnega ansambla Braneta Klavž-arja Mamina ruta, ki jo na podeželju zelo pogosto pojejo, medtem ko je v Ljubljani zaenkrat še niso izvedle. Kot kažejo rezultati moje terenske raziskave, sta na ljubljanskih pogrebih najpogosteje izvajani pesmi Lipa zelenela je in Gozdič je že zelen,44 od vzorca 40 pogrebov sta se pojavili vsaka petkrat, kar je 12,5 %. Na drugem mestu najpogosteje izvajanih skladb je K tebi želim moj Bog,45 ki se je pojavila na štirih (cerkvenih) pogrebih, to je na 10 % vseh pogrebov. Sledijo ljudske Zabučale gore, Po jezeru in Kje so moje rožice, ki so se pojavile vsaka trikrat, to je 7,5 %. Pogosto izvajane so tudi pesmi Hodil sem, Kje so tiste stezice, Vsi so venci vejli, Mal čez Izaro, Leži jezero v tihoti ter Slomškovi Glejte, že sonce zahaja in V nebesih sem doma. Na pogrebnih slovesnostih pogosto zvenijo tudi Avsenikove46 ali Slakove melodije, v primeru moje raziskave sta se oba avtorja pojavila vsak po dvakrat. Navedeni odstotki na sicer majhnem lastnem raziskovalnem vzorcu dobro zrcalijo podobo najpogosteje izvajanih skladb, ki so jih navedli moji intervjuvanci. Domen Ko-kalj je naštel skladbe Lipa zelenela je, Vsi so venci vejli in Kje so tiste stezice; Zdravko Škerjanec pa je rekel, da najpogosteje izvedejo skladbe Lipa zelenela je, Gozdič je že zelen in Slovenec sem, dodal pa je, da je odvisno od tega, kdo izvaja, saj mlajše skupine 44 Operna pevka Vilma Bukovec v članku Bojana Kambič Rajška v Nedelu 1. marca 2015 pripoveduje, da je v zaporih v Gonarsu ustanovila zbor deklet, ki je pel na pogrebih. Ko so jo sotrpini v vojnih zaporih prosili, naj zapoje kaj slovenskega, ko jih bodo gnali na morišče, je pela Gozdič je že zelen in jokala zraven. 45 Primerjaj jazzovski pogreb v New Orleansu, kjer je tudi prav ta pesem med najbolj izvajanimi. 46 Na pogrebu Slavka Avsenika v Begunjah 7. julija 2015, ki ga je v živo prenašala slovenska nacionalna televizija, je govornik Sašo Gašperin povedal, da v Begunjah še pravega pogreba ni več, ne da bi »ene tvoje zašpilal«. Na pogrebni slovesnosti so izvajali izključno Avsenikova dela, izvajalci pa so bili: ansambel Avsenikovega vnuka Saša Avsenika, Slovenski oktet, organistka v cerkvi ter Orkester slovenske policije. Izvedli so pesmi Moj rodni kraj, moj rodni dom, Gozdovi v mesečini, Kjer murke cveto in Na svidenje. Ob grobu je po izbiri Avsenikove vdove zazvenela melodija Veter nosi pesem mojo. Med mojo terensko raziskavo na Žalah sta bili izvedeni Avsenikovi skladbi Slovenija, odkod lepote tvoje in Kadar bom vandral. izvajajo tudi bolj popularne skladbe. Natanko to sem pri svoji raziskavi tudi sama opazila, in sicer v primeru dekliške skupine M.J.A.V. Naslov skladbe Skupaj odstotkov 1. Lipa zelenela je Gozdič je že zelen 25 % 2. K tebi želim moj Bog 20 % 3. Kje so moje rožice Po jezeru Zabučale gore 22,5 % Primer 2: Lestvica najpogosteje izvajanih skladb na Žalah. NASLOV SKLADBE ŠTEVILO IZVEDB Lipa zelenela je 5 Gozdič je že zelen 5 Kje so moje rožice 3 Po jezeru 3 Zabučale gore 3 Hodil sem 2 Kje so tiste stezice 2 Vsi so venci vejli 2 Nmav čez Izaro 2 Leži jezero v tihoti 2 Slovenec sem 1 Oj, Triglav, moj dom 1 Ena ptička priletela 1 Na oknu glej obrazek bled 1 Zlati časi, kam hitite 1 Mamica moja 1 Primer 3: Slovenske ljudske pesmi na ljubljanskih pogrebih in število njihovih izvedb pri danem vzorcu 40pogrebov. Glasba na pogrebih ni nujno, da je le žalostna; lahko gre za drugačno glasbo, živahno in celo veselo, ki kar najbolje odseva pokojnikov značaj ali pa spominja svojce na pokojnega, lahko gre za pokojnikovo najljubšo glasbo. Izbor glasbe tako ustreza novodobnemu trendu personalizacije pogrebov oziroma „pogreba po meri človeka", s tem pa tradicionalna glasbena praksa postaja nekonvencionalna. Članice skupine M.J.A.V. so mi povedale, da pri izbiri repertoarja nekateri želijo »nevtralno« skladbo, »da bi čim manj trpeli«. Žalujoči, ki jim je umrl nekdo od staršev, pogosto želijo pesmi s tematiko o mami ali očetu. Stranke želijo tudi skladbe »s pozitivno tematiko, v kateri je izraženo upanje, in kjer ni besed »pogrešam te« in podobno«. Glasbenice v tem primeru pogosto izbirajo pesmi s tematiko angelov, kot je na primer priredba popularne pesmi skupine ABBA Angeli živijo (I Believe in Angels oziroma I Have a Dream), ustvarile pa so tudi svojo avtorsko pesem z naslovom Perje angela. Kot navajajo na svoji spletni strani,47 so z njo želele povedati, da »ljudje nikoli zares ne umremo. Naša duša se preseli v svetlobo in od tod pazi na nas. Mogoče se zdi, da je pesem žalostna, pa ima vseeno optimističen del, ki jasno pove, da nas pokojniki ne zapustijo, le krila dobijo. Pesem je nastala v namen tolažbe.« Repertoar določajo tudi želje pokojnega. Kot mi je povedal etnomuzikolog Svani-bor Pettan,48 so v Zagrebu leta 2010 na pogrebu njegovega profesorja Jerka Bezica, rojenega v Kranju leta 1929, izvajali prav tiste klapske pesmi, ki si jih je pred leti sam izbral. Kot nekakšna »provokacija« zbranih na pogrebu je delovala izbira glasbe na pogrebu etnomuzikologa Nikole Bubleja v Trogirju leta 2015. Pokojni je namreč pred smrtjo naročil za pogreb ne klapske pesmi, za katere je bil vodilni strokovnjak in ki jih je večina navzočih pričakovala, temveč natančno določene skladbe, ki so zaslovele na Festivalu zabavne glasbe v Splitu v 70. letih prejšnjega stoletja. Pettan navaja še dve neposredni izkušnji pogrebov, na katerih so navzoči upoštevali glasbene preference umrlih, čeprav v nekoliko širšem pomenu. Tako so pogreb didžeja Maria Haberja v Samoborju leta 2014 spremljali posnetki „njegove" elektronske plesne glasbe. Na pogrebu študenta muzikologije Gala Povšeta v Žirih leta 2014 sta nastopili pihalna ter pop zasedba, v katerih je nekoč nastopal; pop zasedba je izvedla skladbo Neila Younga Heart of Gold, ki jo je pokojni imel rad. Pogrebna glasba je torej lahko katerakoli glasba, povezana s pokojnikom. Med svojim terenskim delom sem slišala tudi popevke različnih slovenskih in tujih avtorjev in izvajalcev, na primer Modrijanov, Natalije Verboten, Jana Plestenjaka, Helene Blagne, Vlada Kreslina, Céline Dion,49 filmsko glasbo ter narodnozabavne, ljudske in ponaro-dele pesmi, primere evropske umetnostne glasbe ter psalme krščanske liturgije. Na pogrebih borcev NOB izvajajo tudi partizanske pesmi, kot je na primer ljudska Na oknu glej obrazek bled. Glasba je izvajana v živo in na posnetkih, lahko tudi samo na posnetkih. Prevladuje vokalna, vse bolj se uveljavlja instrumentalno-vokalna glasba (M.J.A.V.), medtem ko je razen trobente instrumentalna solistična glasba - na primer solo flavta - redkost. Na Žale pridejo izvajat tudi sevdalinke; pogrebniki pa pomnijo enega ali dva pogreba, na katerih so igrali gonge. Ob državniških protokolarnih pogrebih igra tudi Orkester slovenske policije ali njihov trobilni ansambel. Mogoče so torej vse zasedbe, od solistov, duetov, tercetov, kvartetov, zborov in številčnejših ansamblov. 47 »M.J.A.V.«, b.n.l, Spletna stran dekliške skupine, obiskano 8. 6. 2016, http://mjav.si/. 48 Svanibor Pettan, 12. 12. 2016. Osebni pogovor. 49 če izvzamemo skladbe klasične glasbe, je bil pri vzorcu 58 primerov glasbe v živo le eden zapet v tujem jeziku (angleščina), in sicer je bila to pesem Over the Rainbow. Od 11 različnih popularnih skladb so bile tri tujega izvora. Pri posneti glasbi, ki jo svojci prinesejo za predvajanje po zvočniku, pa je bila tuja glasba pogostejša kot pri izvedbah v živo. Pri moji raziskavi se je pokazalo, da največji delež glasbe, ki so jo izvedli vokalni in vokalno-instrumentalni ansambli, predstavlja ljudska glasba: od vzorca 60 izvedenih skladb je bilo 35 izvedb ljudskih, kar je dobrih 58 %. Na drugem mestu so popular-noglasbene skladbe, ki so se pojavile 13 krat, kar je 22 %. Sledijo cerkvene pesmi z 10 izvedbami, to je 17 %, najmanj pa je skladb, ki sodijo v umetnostno glasbo: le 2, kar predstavlja 3 %. Vzorcu 60 skladb moram prišteti še 8 izvedb Tišine s solo trobento; trobenta je igrala v 12 % odstotkih vzorca 68 skladb. Razmerje različnih zvrsti glasbe na pogrebih ■ ljudska glasba ■ popularna glasba ■ cerkvena glasba ■ umetnostna glasba Primer 4: Razmerje različnih zvrsti glasbe na pogrebih. Član skupine Spomin Zdravko Škerjanec mi je pripovedoval o pogrebu, ki je bil nenavaden tudi za njih. Umrl je neki slovenski direktor in svojci so naročili pesem Žabe. Takrat je bil teden nastopov skupine Ob slovesu, a jih je njihov vodja poklical in jim predal izvedbo te pesmi, ki je sami tedaj niso imeli v repertoarju. Člani ožje družine so medtem, ko je kvartet pel to pesem, stopili skupaj, se prijeli za ramena, na koncu pa so si dali »petko.« Solo trobenta ob zaključku pogrebne slovesnosti je kar ustaljena praksa. Trobentar Miklavž Pintar je povedal: »Trobentači imamo že v genih zapisano, da bomo nekoč igrali na pogrebih«. Pintar pravi, da v 90 % pogrebov zaigra Tišino, na izrecno željo svojcev pa karkoli iz katerekoli zvrsti glasbe, od filmske, pop, operne, narodnozabavne do ljudske. Na koncu nastopa se uradni glasbeniki priklonijo pred odprtim grobom. Namesto aplavza pa glasbeniki pogosto prejmejo zahvale ali pohvale naročnikov po telefonu ali elektronski pošti. Člani ekipe pogrebnikov in še posebej Jure Špehar se dobro spominjajo pogreba, na katerem je nastopila klapa iz Rovinja. Špehar mi je povedal tako: »Bil je ogromen pogreb, več sto ljudi. Izvedli so pesmi Ruža moja crvena in Da te mogu pismom zvati. Nam se je naježila koža, polovica ljudi pa je jokala.«50 Analiza najpogosteje izvajane glasbe Na pogrebih v Ljubljani in okolici je najbolj priljubljena pesem Lipa zelenela je. Ta pesem Miroslava Vilharja v uglasbitvi Davorina Jenka je postala ponarodela, s svojo tematiko pa ni le simbol življenja in smrti, pač pa tudi simbol Slovencev in slovenstva. Vsebuje tudi idejo narodnega preporoda, ki je nakazan v zadnji kitici (»Spavaj, draga ljubica! / Večno ne boš spala, / nova pomlad zelena / novi cvet bo gnala.«). Podobno romantično temo hrepenenja po preteklosti in vračanje k naravi najdemo v Schubertovem samospevu Lipa (Der Lindenbaum) na besedilo Wilhelma Müllerja, petem po vrsti v ciklu Winterrreise. Lipa kot simbol srečnih dni kliče popotnika in mu ponuja počitek v svojem zavetju, a on gre daleč proč v mrzel veter, kjer pa še vedno sliši lipo, ki mu obljublja mir pod svojo krošnjo. Slovenska Lipa zelenela je pa je iz pesmi, ki budi narodno zavest, postala takorekoč pogrebna pesem »par excellence«. Motiv pomladi in veselje do življenja sta poudarjena tudi v ljudski pesmi Gozdič je že zelen. Zmaga Kumer51navaja štiri različice te pesmi z Gorenjske, Primorske in Koroške in jo klasificira med versko-poučne pesmi pri mrliču, čeprav v razlagi dodaja, da »se pogosto poje kot pogrebna pesem in je to morda celo prvotnejše.«52 Beseda gozdič ima po Slovarju slovenskega knjižnega jezika dovoljeno tudi stilno zaznamovano naglasno različico g0zdič. Kumrova pravi, da pevci pogosteje pojejo prvo različico, ki privede v trohejski ritem (Gozdič je žé zelén), medtem ko je prvotnejša oblika kitice alpska poskočnica; to je daktilsko naglaševanje prvih dveh vrstic (G0zdič je žé zelen, / trávnik je rázcveten) in vselej daktilski ritem zadnjih dveh vrstic v kitici (ptički pod nébom / vesélo pojó). Prvi dve kitici se, opevajoč prebujajočo se pomladno naravo, navezujeta na življenje, medtem ko zadnja, tretja kitica (in v različici s Koroške še dodatna četrta kitica) govori o smrti v črni zemlji, razkroju in trohnobi. Tonovski način celotne pesmi je durovski, a kot pravi Nikolaus Harnoncourt, (sicer v povezavi s Handlovo žalno koračnico v C-duru), je učinek še večji kot v molu: » [...] če skladatelj nekaj žalostnega izpove z veselim tonskim načinom, je to še stokrat bolj žalostno, kakor če bi uporabil žalostni tonski način. Mislim, da vsakdo razume: če za neki učinek uporabimo nasprotna sredstva, je ta učinek veliko, veliko večji.«53 Najpogosteje izvajana pesem na cerkvenih pogrebih je tako pri izvedbah v živo kot na predvajanih posnetkih K tebi želim moj Bog (Nearer, My God, to Thee). Gre za krščansko himno, ki jo je leta 1841 napisala angleška pisateljica in pesnica Sarah Flower Adams (1805-1848), temelji pa na biblijski zgodbi o Jakobovih sanjah. To poezijo je 50 Jure Špehar, 20. 6. 2016. Osebni pogovor. 51 Prav tam, 85-86. 52 Prav tam, 12-13. 53 Prav tam, 211. prvič uglasbila pesničina sestra Eliza Flower in jo objavila v zbirki Williama Johnsona Foxa »Hymns and Anthems«.54 Besedilo v slovenskem prevodu se glasi: »K tebi želim, moj Bog, k tebi, moj Bog, / če boš poslal bridkost ali radost. / Tebe bom ljubil zdaj, zdaj in na vekomaj. / K tebi želim, moj Bog, k tebi, moj Bog. / Strma je pot v nebo, strma zelo, / vendar lahka s teboj, ti greš z menoj. / Marija tam stoji, meni naprej veli. / K tebi želim, moj Bog, k tebi, moj Bog./ Zdaj je še temna noč, pošlji pomoč, / da ne omagam zdaj, roko podaj. / Kadar pa pride dan, pel ti bom ves udan. / K tebi želim, moj Bog, k tebi, moj Bog.« (vir: www.drustvospomin.com)55 Ta himna je postala splošno znana, ker naj bi, po pričevanju nekaterih preživelih prič, bila domnevno zadnja skladba, ki jo je zasedba godal izvajala na potapljajočem se Titaniku leta 1912. V svoj film Titanic iz leta 1997 jo je vključil tudi James Cameron. Prisostvovala sem pogrebu, na katerem je bila izvedena tudi ta skladba in jo je duhovnik spretno vpletel v svoj nagovor, rekoč, da ob tej melodiji, ki so jo igrali na potapljajočem se Titaniku, razmislimo o svojem življenju. Tišina, ki jo zaigra trobenta na pogrebni slovesnosti, izhaja iz krajše melodije, imenovane Taps, ki jo je, kot sugerira Wikipedia,56 zaigrala trobenta v ameriškem vojaškem kampu in z njo naznanila konec dneva. Uporabljali tudi na vojaških pogrebih v ZDA. Melodija je sestavljena izključno iz not C-durovega kvintakorda. Melodiji so dodali tudi besedilo, ki govori o koncu dneva. Trobentači na pogrebih izvajajo daljšo različico Taps-a, Il Silenzio, ki je zaslovela predvsem zahvaljujoč italijanskemu trobentaču Ninu Rossu in njegovem komercialno uspešnem posnetku iz leta 1964. Tradicionalna praksa petja in igranja trobente na pogrebih je prisotna še danes. Kot piše Zmaga Kumer57: »[...] vemo, da se je v preteklosti vse življenje pri nas (vsaj na podeželju) uravnavalo po nauku krščanske vere.« Petje spominja na petje angelov v nebesih, medtem ko nebeške trobente kličejo k vstajenju in božji sodbi, kar je omenjeno tudi v besedilih nekaterih pesmi, ki so jih peli pri varovanju mrliča. V ljudski pesmi Rasti, rasti rožmarin, ki jo je ista avtorica58 uvrstila med versko-poučne pesmi pri mrliču, se v nekaterih različicah v peti kitici pojavi motiv angelske trobente. Tako na primer v različici iz Št. Lenarta nad Škofjo Loko: »Tam koščice čakajo / na trobento angelsko, / z njim iz groba vstala bom, / šla v dolino k sodbi bom.«59 Ali pa pri slovesu umrlega od svojcev, kot je to pesem Ena urca bo prišla v različici iz Pijave gorice na Dolenjskem, v šesti kitici besedilo pravi: »Pa nebeške trobente / prelepo pojo, / le tistim dušicam, / ki gori gredo.«60 Glede nebeškega petja pa, prav tako v Ena urca bo prišla, v različici iz Spodnje Idrije, sedma kitica pravi: »Vs vicah je vroče, / vs peklu strašno, / v nebesih je luštno, / kjer angelc pojo.«61 54 A Historical Dictionary of British Women, Cathy Hartley, ur. (London: Europa Publications, 2003), 2-3. 55 »Glasbeno društvo Spomin«, b.n.l, Spletna stran pevske skupine, obiskano 22. 6. 2016, http://www.drustvospomin.com/Ppage_ id=2. 56 »Taps«, B.n.l, Enciklopedični vnos. Wikipedia, obiskano 11. 8. 2016, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taps. 57 Prav tam, 11. 58 Prav tam, 76-78. 59 Prav tam, 79. 60 Prav tam, 43. 61 Prav tam, 43. Nekaj povsem izvirnega je nova avtorska glasba, ki v novejšem času nastaja prav za namen izvajanja na pogrebih. Članice ansambla M.J.A.V. so mi dovolile reprodukcijo zapisa njihove pesmi Perje angela, ki je dobila končno podobo maja 2016. Del melodije te pesmi je bil napisan že leta 1998, refren pesmi pa je nastal, kot pravijo članice ansambla, »na turneji v Ameriki, sredi noči.« Besedilo je napisala Jasmina Šmarčan, melodijo pa Maša Uranjek in Ani Frece. Avtor aranžmaja je Samo Kališnik. Za to skladbo so dekleta posnela tudi videospot: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k8K_eFS5JC8.62 Pesem je napisana v F-duru; zanjo je značilno, da se melodija posameznih verzov giba izmenično navzgor, nato navzdol. Pri besedah »padem na tla« je padec označen tudi s padajočo čisto kvinto med zlogoma »na tla«; besede »drugačen si« pa se zaključijo z vmesnim kromatičnim tonom as. Perje angela Sredi sobe, tvoj odsev. Strah me je, ker boš odšel. O moj Bog kako boli, tako neskončno manjkaš mi. Svet se mi preklet zazdi, v meni vse kriči.. Refren: Ko obrišem si solzo z oči, vem, da ob meni si ti. Obraz ti žari v soju luči, drugačen si. Letiš, zdaj pripel krila si, Povsod, kamor grem, strah me ni. Če padem na tla, čuva me perje angela. Ko se jutro prebudi, tvoja srajca tu leži... Nič ne sme je vzeti mi, na njej tvoj vonj, poljub še tli! V preteklost stekla bi, Naj te oživi! 62 »M.J.A.V., Perje angela«, obiskano 19. 8. 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v-k8K_eFS5JC8. Perje angela Mine, Maš, Ane, Same j = 90 SOPRANO 1 SOPRANO 2 ALTO 1 ALTO 2 pH tu - ; j j j'i- * J. iü 1 - k k >—n—fn— i J h i - Ft jjN. n ?—i—i—— M H #t - »j JJjrJJ J- #• j d T ég - u A p #t - u A lift o U to A 2 12 21 3 25 4 40 u. Notni primer 1: MJ.A.V.: Perje angela. Dinamika sprememb Na vprašanje, kaj se je v zadnjih 35 letih spremenilo pri glasbi na ljubljanskih Žalah, je Marjan Kraševec - Čarli odgovoril: »Pevska kvaliteta - nekoč je vsak lahko nekaj zafu-šal ter repertoar - danes izvajamo vse, kar si stranka zamisli.« Če bi svojo terensko raziskavo opravljala pred letom dni, bi dobila precej drugačno sliko glasbenih praks na Žalah. S tem, ko je dobila pogodbo dekliška skupina M.J.A.V., se je izdatno zmanjšalo število nastopov tradicionalno uveljavljenih moških pevskih zasedb, po besedah Marjana Kraševca - Čarlija imajo te sedaj kar za polovico manj dela kot prej. Prav tako je v času pred letom dni zelo pogosto igrala citrarka, ki pa se v zadnjem času pojavlja precej redko; v času moje raziskave je nikoli nisem zasledila. Z uvedbo novega zakona o privatizaciji pogrebne dejavnosti pa bi se v prihodnosti lahko spremenila tudi ponudba pogrebne glasbe. Zaključek Glasba ob pogrebih na ljubljanskih Žalah je raznolika. V prvi vrsti je odvisna od verskih praks. Tradicionalna pogrebna glasbena praksa moške pevske zasedbe in trobente je še vedno prisotna, jo pa že vztrajno dopolnjuje dekliška pevska zasedba ob instrumentalni spremljavi. Glede repertoarja takorekoč ni omejitev - vsaka skladba lahko postane del pogrebne glasbene prakse, če je povezana s pokojnikom ali spominom nanj. Pri svoji raziskavi sem, drugače kot sem pričakovala, ugotovila, da je v živo izvedene umetnostne glasbe na pogrebih malo, najmanj od vseh zvrsti glasbe. V živo izvedena glasba pa ni prisotna na vseh pogrebih. Opažamo sodobni trend hitrih pogrebov, ki je nastal s sodobnim odnosom tabuiziranja smrti, kjer velja prepričanje, da je treba smrt skriti. Moja raziskava pogrebnih praks na ljubljanskem območju, za katero skrbi Pogrebno podjetje Žale in v sklopu katere sem poleg osrednjega pokopališča Žale zajela še pokopališča Bizovik, Črnuče, Dravlje, Javor, Polje, Sostro, Stožice, Šmartno pod Šmarno goro, Štepanja vas in Vič, omogoča vpogled v živo glasbeno prakso „tukaj in zdaj", ki doslej ni bila deležna ustrezne znanstvene pozornosti. S pomočjo raznovrstnih sogovornikov, predvsem uradnikov in glasbenikov, ki so bili pripravljeni sodelovati in so iskrene in odprte odgovore na številna raziskovalna vprašanja pogosto dopolnjevali s konkretnimi primeri, sem poskušala poiskati povezave med glasbo in smrtjo v pogrebnih kontekstih. Gre za del študije večjih razsežnosti, pri kateri si s pomočjo terenskega dela prizadevam zajeti tudi druge dele Slovenije, s pomočjo arhivskega dela pa tudi zgodovinske sledi pogrebnih glasbenih praks pri nas. 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Humanities Research: One Common Thread the Musical World of Lament. vol. 19, št. 3. Canberra: Australian National University, 2013, 3-14. »Glasbeno društvo Spomin«. B.n.l, Spletna stran pevske skupine. Obiskano 22. 6. 2016. http://www.drustvospomin.com/?page_id=2. Slovar slovenskega knjižnega jezika. Ljubljana, DZS, 1997. Škerjanec, Zdravko. 6., 7., 8., 10., 20. 6. 2016. Osebni pogovori. Špehar, Jure. 20. 6. 2016. Osebni pogovor. »Taps«. B.n.l. Wikipedia. Obiskano 11. 8. 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taps. Terseglav, Marko. Ljudsko pesništvo. Ljubljana: DZS, 1987. Thomas, Louis-Vincent. Anthropologie de la mort. Paris: Payot, 1980. Thomas, Louis-Vincent. Rites de mort: Pour la paix des vivants. Paris: Libraire Artheme Fayard, 1985. Veliki splošni leksikon. 3. knjiga. Ljubljana: DZS, 1997. Verbinc, France. Slovar tujk. Ljubljana: Cankarjeva založba, 1979. Wiesler, Manuela, izv.. André Jolivet. The Complete Flute Music - Volume 1. CD. Djur-sholm: Grammofon AB BIS, 1993. Wong, Deborah. »Mon Music for Thai Deaths. Ethnicity and Status in Thai Urban Funer-als«. Asian Folklore Studies 57 (1998): 99-130. Zupanič, Alenka. »Tržne bitke za pokojne bi obrnile odnos do mrtvih na glavo«. Delo. 5. 12. 2015, 18-19. »Žale«. B.n.1, Spletna stran Pogrebnega podjetja Žale. Obiskano 5. 6. 2016. http://www. zale.si/. »Žale«. 10. 9. 2014. Spletna stran Pogrebnega podjetja Žale. Obiskano 23. 8. 2016. http:// www.zale.si/sl/Novice/100_let_zivljenja_podjetja_Zale/. POVZETEK The article provides an insight into funeral music as an ethno-musicological, anthropological, economic and cultural phenomenon, which so far has not attracted appropriate scientific attention. It focuses on the role and importance of music at funerals in the context of symbolism associated with death, departure and the concept of transience, and on the causes of different choices of music as an integral part of the leave-taking of the deceased, in conjunction with aspects of historical, social and cultural diversity. Music has been used to accompany funeral ceremonies in various historical periods and environments, reflecting different culturally conditioned perceptions of death. The role of music in a ritual of farewell for the deceased is multi-layered: it stimulates the expression of emotions and sometimes facilitates their culturally conditioned dramatization, helping to relieve tension and torment; it gives meaning to the symbolic and memorial side of the ceremony and at the same time enriches the ritual in aesthetic terms. After a short introductory review of musical practices in the funeral context in different ages and places based on consultation of relevant literature, the article deals with musical practice in Ljubljana and its surroundings in 2016, with particular reference to the author's empirical research of the 18 cemeteries owned by the Žale Funeral Company. It is based on the author's observations while attending numerous funerals as well as on semi-structured interviews with employees of the Funeral Company, participating musicians and relatives of the deceased. This is the first empirical study of funeral music in modern Slovenia. Recenzije • Reviews Leon Stefanija Sizifovsko lepo: Portret Uroša Rojka Leon Stefanija. Sizifovsko lepo: Portret Uroša Rojka. (Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete (Razprave FF), 2016. 201 str. 19,90 €. ISBN: 9789612378653.) Izid nove znanstvene monografije o skladatelju Urošu Rojku je lepa priložnost za natančnejšo seznanitev z življenjem in delom tega novega dopisnega člana Slovenske akademije znanosti in umetnosti. Avtor Leon Stefanija navaja, da je njegovemu raziskovanju botrovala očaranost z Rojkovo glasbo in šele nato želja po razkrivanju izvirov njene zvočne energije in učinkovitosti. Ta očaranost preseva skozi besedilo kljub za znanstveno razpravo potrebni objektivni distanci. Stefanija se namreč ne opredeljuje do obravnavanega, a bo s spretnim prepletanjem podatkov in njihovim umeščanjem v teoretske okvire bralca pripeljal do zaključka, da gre za izjemen in raziskovanja vreden opus. Knjiga je urejena v tri večje tematske sklope, ki tvorijo logičen vsebinski lok. Prvi del je biografski, vendar ne na način, kot ga srečamo v večini biografij. Nekoliko presenetljivo prebiramo niz razmišljanj in anekdot iz skladateljevega življenja v prvoosebni obliki. Tako se zdi, da nam skladatelj prosto pripoveduje, v resnici pa gre za temeljito muzikološko delo. Skrbno zbrane odlomke iz različnih intervjujev, predavanj in zapisov je avtor monografije prepletel v smiselno zaokrožene sklope, skladatelj pa jih je nato mestoma dopolnil. Za »lahkotnim« branjem pa se ne skriva le obsežno raziskovanje dostopnih virov, ampak prvoosebna pripoved omogoča tudi kar najbolj neposreden vstop v skladateljev svet. Ta se pokaže kot krhka zmes energične impulzivnosti in refleksije. Iz pripovedi veje prepričanje, da ukvarjanje z zvokom osmišlja življenje in osvobaja, saj prebujanje človekove občutljivosti za subtilno plat zvoka omogoča komunikacijo na višji ravni. Sledi poglavje, ki želi osvetliti, iz kakšne pozicije skladatelj dela in kako njegova glasba učinkuje. Razdeljeno je sicer v več podpoglavij, a jih vsebinsko lahko združimo v dva sklopa. V prvem avtor poda nekaj občih estetiških premislekov, v drugem pa podrobneje obdela morda najpomembnejši vidik Rojkove estetike, prostor in čas. Teoretski del začenja s tezo, da je skladateljsko izhodišče znotraj tradicije moderniz-mov shizofreno, saj to glasbo na eni strani določa kultura iskanja nečesa posebnega, novega, na drugi pa vključevanje vsega, kar je mogoče označiti kot glasbo. Zato se večina ustvarjalcev srečuje s strahom pred prepoznavnimi vplivi in naivnostjo. Morda je rešitev zagate v namernem pozabljanju ustaljenih navad časa, da bi bilo mogoče iskati lastna pravila, kot jih narekujeta ustvarjalčeva vest in oblikotvorni občutek. Na teh predpostavkah zasnovane glasbene poetike je mogoče razvrstiti v tri kategorije, od katerih prvo najmočneje določa navdih, drugo racionaliziranje, tretjo pa filozofija naključja in improvizacija. Glasba Uroša Rojka izkazuje, da je skladateljev oblikotvorni občutek neizčrpen, v njej pa se prepletajo in med seboj dopolnjujejo vse tri poetološke kategorije. Vendar pa bistva njegove glasbe ne gre iskati v filozofskih ali pa poetoloških konceptih, ampak v učinkovitosti zvočnih kombinacij, v snovni čutnosti ustvarjenega. S to ugotovitvijo je povezano tudi vprašanje o funkciji in sporočilnosti. Pri iskanju odgovora je smiselno izhajati iz Adornove kategorije musique informelle, saj prav obdobje šestdesetih let preteklega stoletja najmočneje zaznamuje Rojkovo ustvarjalnost. Teks-tura je namreč osrednji nosilec glasbenosti, to pa se odraža tudi v njegovih estetskih naziranjih. Njegova glasba se izmika umeščanju v eno samo kompozicijsko tradicijo, saj vedno ostaja »nekje vmes«, na tanki črti med skrajnostmi, kot so napredno - nazadnjaško, elitistično - pragmatično »uporabno« ali pa Vzhod - Zahod. Teoretsko ogrodje dopolnjuje osvetlitev vprašanja prostora in časa. Analize nekaterih skladateljevih komentarjev k skladbam pokažejo, da je ena najpomembnejših tem Rojkove estetike etična vloga ustvarjalca v prostoru in času. Kategorija glasbenega prostora je večplastna. Zdi se, da gre pri Rojku za sintezo različnih razumevanj, ki so se pojavljala znotraj povojnih modernističnih tradicij. Tako zanj prostor lahko pomeni akustični fenomen, metafizično prispodobo, kategorijo stanja duha ali pa zanj še posebej značilno svetovnonazorsko kategorijo časa-prostora. Te premisleke dopolnjujejo analize pomembnejših kritiških zapisov, ki bi jih lahko razumeli kot korelat skladateljeve poetike prostora in časa. Ponavljajoče se označitve v Rojkovi glasbi prepoznavajo predvsem njeno proto-narativno funkcijo in jih je mogoče razmestiti v štiri med seboj povezane sklope. Poglavje zaključuje poskus umestitve opusa v čas in prostor. Tretji del knjige prinaša vpogled v skladateljevo delavnico. Za njegov glasbeni stavek so značilne predvsem glasbene geste oziroma dogodki, vsevsebujoči izhodiščni impulzi, ki se prepletajo v smiselno in koherentno celoto. Skice iz skladateljevega arhiva nazorno prikažejo, ob kakšnih premislekih so geste umeščene v glasbeni čas (in prostor), kateri postopki botrujejo naboru tonskih višin in kako pomembna je posebej v večjih zasedbah razporeditev gradiva med instrumente. Večji del skic in komentarjev je povezan z eno najodmevnejših skladb Uroša Rojka, za festival v Donaueschingenu napisanim delom Dih ranjenega časa iz leta 1988. Iz tega kratkega povzetka lahko takoj ugotovimo, da gre za sistematično urejen in zelo natančen portret. Pri tem se zdi pomembno, da je portretiranec še živ in lahko s komentarji, dodatnimi informacijami in gradivom iz osebnega arhiva usmerja potek raziskovalnega dela. Med slovenskimi skladatelji, rojenimi v petdesetih letih, se je muzikologija že pred izidom pričujoče monografije Urošu Rojku posvečala temeljiteje kot ostalim. Zakaj je torej nova monografija pomemben korak naprej? Ob pregledovanju obstoječega gradiva se je izkazalo, da je razpršeno in pogosto težko dostopno. Obsežen korpus sestavljajo raznovrstne oddaje v javnih medijih in številni kritiški zapisi v dnevnem časopisju, številne vire pa hrani le skladatelj. Monografija tako prinaša celovito obdelavo vsega dostopnega gradiva, pri čemer prvi, biografski del temelji predvsem na osebnih stikih s skladateljem, drugi, v ustvarjalno poetiko in estetiško problematiko usmerjeni, sloni na muzikoloških zapisih, tretji pa je dragocen komentar gradiv iz osebnega arhiva skladatelja, saj prinaša vpogled v kompozicijske rešitve. Kot dopolnilo te izdaje je v sklopu raziskovalnega projekta Glasba na Slovenskem po 1918 v elektronski obliki izšla še druga monografija istega avtorja: Akademik UrošRojko: Skladatelj o svojem delu in odzivi nanj (Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete, 2016; prosto dostopno na spletu). Tu so v pomoč bodočim raziskovalcem zbrani biografski podatki, skladateljevi komentarji k skladbam in podatki o izvedbah, ob vsakem delu pa tudi kritiški odzivi nanj. Obe deli skupaj celostno in zaokroženo obravnavata opus Uroša Rojka in njegovo recepcijo. Razprava je uravnotežena, saj so vsi trije opisani segmenti enakovredno zastopani. Namenjena je predvsem bralcem, ki so s sodobno glasbo že kar dobro seznanjeni, tako z njeno estetsko kot kompozicijsko-tehnično platjo. Branje namreč zahteva že vzpostavljeno pojmovno mrežo, znotraj katere pa avtor jasno opredeljuje svoje razumevanje ključnih konceptov. Bo pa tudi neposvečeni bralec v tej publikaciji našel dovolj uporabnih informacij za bolj poglobljeno poslušanje in razumevanje Roj-kove glasbe. Bogata vsebina kar kliče po preizkušanju pridobljenih uvidov na zvočnih podobah. Knjiga je pomemben mejnik v beleženju razvoja slovenske glasbe in vzorčen primer portreta še aktivnega skladatelja, hkrati pa nazorno predstavlja tudi avtorjevo misel o glasbeni ustvarjalnosti. Larisa Vrhunc Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LIII/1 Leon Stefanija Leon Stefanija. Sisyphean Beauty: A Portrait of Uroš Rojko. [Sizifovsko lepo: Portret Uroša Rojka.] (Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete (Razprave FF), 2016. 201 pp. 19,90 €. ISBN: 9789612378653.) The publication of a new scientific monograph on the composer Uroš Rojko is indeed a suitable occasion for a more thorough study of the life and work of this new corresponding member of the Slovene Academy of Sciences and Arts. The author, Leon Ste-fanija, states that his research engagement with Rojko was first and foremost sparked by his fascination with Rojko's music and only later by his wish to unveil the origins of its sound energy and efficiency. This fascination emanates throughout the text, regardless of the objective distance required for scientific research. Stefanija does not take a position on the researched subject but nevertheless guides the reader - carefully interweaving facts and arranging them into theoretical frames - to the conclusion that the oeuvre at hand is exceptional and worth researching. The book is arranged into three larger thematic sections that form a logical whole. The first part is biographical but not in the typical way found in most biographies. Somewhat surprisingly, we are presented with a string of considerations and anecdotes from the composer's life - in first-person narration. Thereby, it seems as if the composer was freely communicating with the reader, whereas in reality the work is a challenging musicological study. The author's excerpts, painstakingly collected from different interviews, lectures and notes, are woven into meaningfully composed sections, which were occasionally supplemented by the composer. Behind the appearance of an 'easy' read lies vast research and the first-person narration offers a direct path into the composer's world. This world appears to be a fragile mixture of energetic impulsiveness and contemplation, suggesting that engagement with sound gives meaning to life and liberates because the awakening of human sensibility to the sublime side of sound enables communication on a higher level. Next, a chapter follows that aims to show the position from which the composer works and how his music produces effects. Although it is divided into several smaller chapters, they can be combined in two larger sections. In the first, the author offers some general aesthetic considerations, while in the second he engages in detail with what is maybe the most important characteristic of Rojko's aesthetics - space and time. The theoretical part opens with the thesis that a composer's starting point within modernity is schizophrenic because this music is simultaneously defined by a culture of searching for something special, new, and by an incorporation of everything that can be regarded as music. This is why the majority of artists are faced with the fear of recognisable influences and naivety. Perhaps, the solution of this double bind lies in the deliberate omission of established habits of a given time, so that one might find one's own rules as they are dictated by the artist's conscience and his sense of form. Musical poetics grounded on such presuppositions can be classified into three categories, of which the first is mainly defined by inspiration, the second by rationalization and the third by the philosophy of chance and by improvisation. The music of Uroš Rojko shows that the composer's sense of form is inexhaustible, combining in his works and mutually supplementing all three poetic categories. We cannot, nevertheless, search for the core of his music in philosophical or aesthetic concepts but in the effectiveness of his sound combinations, in the material sensuality of the created. In connection with this statement, the question of function and expressiveness also arises. In searching for an answer, it is reasonable to proceed from Adorno's category of musique informelle, as the most influential for Rojko's creativity in the 1960s. That is to say, texture is the key carrier of musicality, and this can be detected also in his aesthetic views. His music eludes categorization into a single composing tradition, for it always remains "somewhere in between", on the thin line between extremes, such as progressive-reactionary, elitist-pragmatic/useful, or East-West. The theoretical framework is complemented by discussion on the question of space and time. Analyses of some of the composer's comments on his compositions reveal that the ethical role of the artist in space and time is one of the most important themes in Rojko's aesthetics. The category of musical space is multilayered. It seems as if in Rojko's work there is a synthesis of different understandings that appeared within postwar modernist traditions. For him, space can be an acoustic phenomenon, a metaphysical comparison, a state of mind, or the category of time-space, which is particularly characteristic of his worldview. Such deliberations are supplemented by analyses of reviews, which can be understood as a correlate to the composer's poetics of space and time. Recurring labels recognise in Rojko's music above all its proto-narrative function and they can be arranged into several interconnected thematic sets. The chapter ends with an attempt to place the composer's output into its temporal and spatial context. The third part offers a view into the composer's workshop. His musical textures are mainly characterised by musical gestures or events, all-encompassing starting impulses that are combined into a meaningful and coherent totality. Sketches from the composer's archive reveal gestures incorporated into the musical time (and space) responsible for the choice of pitch classes and how important it is to accordingly distribute the material among instruments, especially with large ensembles. The majority of sketches and commentaries are connected to Dih ranjenega časa (The Breath of Wounded Time), one of Rojko's most renowned compositions, written for the Donaueschingen Festival in 1988. Along the lines of this short summary it can be said that the monograph is a systematically conceptualised and detailed portrait of the composer. It is also important that the composer is still alive and able to influence the path of research work with commentaries, further information and material from his personal archive. Out of the Slovene composers born in the 1950s, Uroš Rojko has received more musicological attention than others, even before this monograph was published. Why is this new monograph an important step forward then? While reviewing existing material, it became clear that it is dispersed and often difficult to access. The extensive corpus is comprised of TV shows in public media, numerous critiques in newspapers and an abundance of material owned solely by the composer. The monograph therefore offers a comprehensive study of all accessible material: the first, biographical part is based on personal contact with the composer; the second, which is directed towards creative poetics and aesthetic problems, relies on musicological notes; the third is a precious commentary on materials from the personal archive of the composer and offers an insight into his compositional solutions. In addition to this publication and in the framework of the research program 'Music in Slovene Lands after 1918', a second monograph was made public in e-form: The Academy Member Uroš Rojko: The Composer on His Work and the Reactions to It,1 in which the biographical facts, the composer's commentaries on his compositions and information about the performances with accompanying critical reviews are collected, for the purpose of easier further research. Both publications comprehensively and extensively deal with the opus of Uroš Rojko and the reception of his work. The study is balanced because all three segments are represented equally. It is intended mainly for readers that are rather well acquainted with contemporary music, both its aesthetic and its compositional-technical sides. The reading demands an established conceptual framework, within which the author clearly defines his understanding of key concepts. Notwithstanding, the inexperienced reader will also find enough useful information for a deeper appreciation of Rojko's music. The rich content virtually calls for the reader to test newly gained insights on sound images. The book is a crucial milestone in documenting the development of Slovene music and an example of a living composer's portrait, as well as a clear presentation of the author's thought on musical creativity. Larisa Vrhunc Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana 1 Leon Štefanija, The Academy Member Uroš Rojko: The Composer on His Work and the Reactions to It [Akademik Uroš Rojko: Skladatelj o svojem delu in odzivi nanj] (Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete, 2016; freely accesible online). David Beard and Kenneth Gloag Musicology: The Key Concepts David Beard and Kenneth Gloag. Musicology: The Key Concepts (second edition). (London and New York: Routledge, 2016. 360 pp. Hardback £80. Paperback and E-book £22.99. ISBN-13: 978-0415679671.) Since it first appeared in 2005, Musicology: The Key Concepts has become a popular handbook for many interested in music research, primarily because it offers a practical introduction to important concepts on musicology. Within its 219 pages, the first edition covered a substantial range of issues pertinent to current research on music, in a form of almost ninety short essays with suggested further readings. The topics include a range of broad concepts, such as Analysis, Nationalism, Popular Music and Romanticism, and more specialised concepts such as Alterity, Body, Feminism, Gay Musicology, Semiotics and Sublime. In a way it is somewhat daunting to think that in just over a decade since the first edition, a diligent student of musicology has to consider twenty new entries (concepts), which are neatly elaborated in the second edition of the book (2016). Some entries from the first edition have been substantially revised and updated, even though the authors had effectively already achieved their goal in the first edition, as stated in their preface: "to make available a range of ideas for further consideration and discussion". These additional concepts actively call for consideration and discussion, not only because some key entries, such as Form, are expanded in the second edition, but also because important new concepts offer plenty to reflect on. The new entries comprise a striking list of new concepts, indicating widening horizons on music research that circulate the Anglo-Saxon (ethno)musicology: Autobiography, Cold War, Conflict (music and conflict), Consciousness, Creativity, Decadence, Disability, Ecomusicology, Emotion, Ethics (music and ethics), Film music, Gesture, Lateness (late works/late style), Listening, 9/11, Politics (music and politics), Popular musicology, Sound/soundscape/sound studies and Stance. The list of added concepts is commendable, although someone from the non-English-speaking world would also welcome entries on Glocalisation beside the already given Globalisation, on Post-Cold War Music Cultures beside the Postcolonial/Postcolonialism, on Cultural Economy of Music besides Value, on Musical Practices beside Cultural Industry (the differences are huge in many parts of the world), on Universalism and Subcultures beside Nationalism (a common topic for many), and on Music and Media beside Music and Politics (technology is, after all, an omnipresent concept in the last century). But taking practical considerations into account, the second edition of Musicology: The Key Concepts is nonetheless a notable enterprise that informs the reader considerably about the current musicological, or better said, ethnomu-sicological thought. The authors guide the reader in a refined manner, with clear, knowledgeable and weighty entries that introduce the relevant concepts through new information and welcome suggestions for further reading. The entry on Gesture, for instance, illustrates this well. Although the authors' suggestion that Robert Hatten was "central to the development of gesture in music" (p. 120) may sound exaggerated to someone acquainted with the concept as described by Wolf Frobenius in "Gestische Musik" published in Handwörterbuch der musikalischen Terminologie (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1972), Hatten did indeed undertake profound research on gesture in instrumental music. The interpretation of musical gesture as an "idea that is subject to development" (p. 121) is essentially what a student should know as the most convincing interpretation of the concept. The authors' warning that "understanding of musical gestures works well for some music" (Ibid.), but that it is not a music-theoretical panacea, is also sensible. The concept could have been elaborated further, of course, as two fairly instructive references that are not mentioned in the entry suggest: a volume edited by Rolf Inge Godey entitled Musical Gestures: Sound, Movement, and Meaning (also published by Routledge in 2010) and Expression et geste musical, edited by Susanne Kogler and Jean-Paul Olive (Paris, Budapest and Torino: L'Harmattan, 2013). But this is merely a note on international, or at least translingual, perspectives that could promote the work of several other musicological enterprises comparable to the one undertaken by Beard and Gloag. However this is far from a critique, and as the authors themselves claim, gesture in music still needs to be theoretically elaborated, which indeed is the case with many other concepts in the humanities. And it is precisely the helpful organisation of the book - in the form of a cross-referencing system - that offers links between different concepts discussed, and makes the volume a broad yet interconnected, almost rhisomatic and internet-like experience. The entry on Gesture suggests further readings on Emotion, Metaphor and Semiotics, each with more suggestions for further readings, and it is precisely with this arrangement of, what one could term "helpful guidance", that Beard and Gloag reveal the attraction of the book: conceived as a set of related entries, the volume offers the student of musicology not only fundamental information, but "installs a critical bug" into the reader's mind for the Webernian polyphonic world of understanding things. The references are up-to-date (although they may be, and probably will be expanded further); the explanations are sound, and the authors' commentaries are either inspiring, or at least, edifying. The overall impression of the volume is that the authors are erudite in the field of music research, aware of the risks lurking behind the encyclopaedic work, and at the same time utterly cautious with generalisations. One of the most attractive features is their pragmatic and integrative approach that brings together musicology and ethnomusicology, popular music studies and classical music, old and modern music. At a time when disciplinary divisions are still present and interdisciplinarity still searches its way into practice, this book is not only important, but deserves compliments. It may be compared to Jochen Hörisch's "theoretical pharmacy" (Theorie-Apotheke, Suhrkamp Taschenbuch, 2010), where comments may be considered as stimuli for further explorations of the relevant concepts, within broader, or more narrowly focused epistemological studies. Leon Stefanija Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana The editorial board is sad to announce that Prof. Kenneth Gloag passed away on 28 April 2017, after a long and brave fight with illness. David Beard in Kenneth Gloag Muzikologija: ključni pojmi (druga izdaja) David Beard in Kenneth Gloag. Muzikologija: ključni pojmi (druga izdaja). [Musicology: The Key Concepts (second edition).] (London in New York: Routledge, 2016). 360 str., trda vezava 80 £. Papirnata in elektronska izdaja 22,99 £. ISBN-13: 978-0415679671.) Odkar je leta 2005 izšla, je knjiga Musicology: The Key Concepts (Muzikologija: ključni pojmi) postala priljubljen učbenik za mnoge, ki jih zanima glasbeno raziskovanje, zlasti ker ponuja praktičen uvod v pomembne pojme muzikologije. Prva izdaja, ki jo je sestavljalo skoraj 90 krajših esejev z dodanimi napotki za nadaljnje branje, se je na 219 straneh posvečala širokemu naboru tem, ki so pomembne za sodobno raziskovanje glasbe. Mednje so zajeti nekateri širši pojmi oz. gesla kot denimo Analiza, Nacionalizem, Popularna glasba in Romanticizem, pa tudi bolj partikularni pojmi, kot so npr. Drugost, Telo, Feminizem, Gejevska muzikologija, Semiotika, Sublimno. Kar nekako srhljivo se zdi, da mora marljivi študent muzikologije po dobrem desetletju, odkar je prva izdaja izšla, predelati 20 novih gesel (pojmov), ki so natančno pojasnjena v drugi izdaji knjige (2016). Nekatera gesla iz prve izdaje so bila korenito predelana in posodobljena, čeravno sta avtorja v prvi izdaji že učinkovito dosegla svoj namen, da bralcem, kot pravita v predgovoru, »približata niz idej za nadaljnjo obravnavo in razpravo«. Ti dodatni pojmi dejavno kličejo po obravnavi in razpravi, ne samo ker so nekatera ključna gesla - kot npr. Forma - v drugi izdaji razširjena, ampak tudi zato, ker pomembni novi pojmi ponujajo precej iztočnic za razmislek. Nova gesla sestavljajo osupljiv seznam novih pojmov, ki kažejo na to, da se horizonti glasbenih raziskav v anglosaški (etno)muzikologiji širijo: Avtobiografija, Hladna vojna, Konflikt (glasba in konflikt), Zavest, Kreativnost, Dekadenca, Invalidnost, Ekomu-zikologija, Emocije, Etika (glasba in etika), Filmska glasba, Geste, Zamudništvo (pozna dela/pozni slog), Poslušanje, 11. september, Politika (glasba in politika), Popularna muzikologija, Zvok/zvočna krajina/zvočne študije in Drža. Seznam dodanih pojmov velja pohvaliti, četudi bi kdo iz delov sveta, kjer ne govorijo angleško, ob že obravnavani Globalizaciji pozdravil tudi gesla o Glokalizaciji, ob Postkolonialnem/Postkolonializmu tudi Glasbene kulture po hladni vojni, ob Vrednosti tudi Kulturno ekonomijo glasbe, ob Kulturni industriji še Glasbene prakse (razlike so v mnogih delih sveta ogromne), ob Nacionalizmu (za marsikoga pogosta tema) še kaj o Univerzalizmu in Subkulturah ter ob Glasbi in politiki tudi Glasbo in medije (tehnologija je nenazadnje vseprisoten pojem zadnjega stoletja). Toda glede na praktične premisleke je druga izdaja Musicology: The Key Concepts vseeno pomemben podvig, ki bralca v veliki meri pouči o sodobni muzikološki ali bolje rečeno etnomuzikološki misli. Avtorja bralca vodita prefinjeno, z jasnimi, poučenimi in tehtnimi gesli, ki uvajajo pomembne pojme s pomočjo novih informacij in dobrodošlih predlogov za nadaljnje branje. Geslo o Gestah je denimo lep primer povedanega. Čeprav morda mnenje avtorjev, da je bil Robert Hatten »ključen za razvoj gest v glasbi« (str. 120) zveni pretirano nekomu, ki je seznanjen s pojmom, kot ga opisuje Wolf Frobenius v geslu »Gestische Musik«, objavljenem v Handwörterbuch der musikalischen Terminologie (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1972), vsekakor drži, da se je Hatten ukvarjal z gestami v instrumentalni glasbi. Interpretacija glasbene geste kot »ideje, ki je predmet razvoja« (str. 121) je v bistvu to, kar bi študent moral poznati kot najbolj prepričljivo interpretacijo tega pojma. Opozorilo avtorjev, da je »razumevanje glasbenih gest uporabno samo za nekatere vrste glasbe« (prav tam), a da ni glasbeno-teoret-sko čudežno zdravilo, je prav tako precej razumno. Pojem bi bilo seveda mogoče razviti še naprej, na kar napeljujeta dokaj poučni referenci, ki v geslu sicer nista omenjeni: publikacija z naslovom Musical Gestures: Sound, Movement, and Meaning (izdana prav tako pri založbi Routledge leta 2010), ki jo je uredil Rolf Inge Godey, in knjiga Expression et geste musical, urednika Susanne Kogler in Jean-Paul Olive (Pariz, Budimpešta in Torino: L'Harmattan, 2013). Toda to je zgolj opomba o mednarodnih ali vsaj večjezičnih perspektivah, s katerimi bi lahko opozorili na kopico drugih muzikoloških podvigov, primerljivih s tem, kar sta dosegla Beard in Gloag. Vendarle naj to nikakor ne zveni kot kritika, saj je treba, kot trdita tudi sama avtorja, geste v glasbi teoretsko še nadalje obdelati, kakor velja tudi za mnoge druge pojme v humanistiki. In prav priročna organizacija knjige - v obliki sistema navzkrižnega sklicevanja - je tista, ki ponuja povezave med različnimi obravnavanimi pojmi in naredi iz knjige razvejano, a medsebojno povezano, skorajda rizomatsko in internetu podobno izkušnjo. Geslo o Gestah napeljuje k nadaljnjemu branju o Emocijah, Metafori in Semiotiki, pri teh pa so spet novi napotki; s prav takšno zasnovo, ki bi jo lahko poimenovali »koristno vodenje«, se razodeva privlačnost knjige: knjiga, zastavljena kot niz povezanih gesel, ponudi študentu muzikologije ne samo temeljne informacije, ampak v bralčevo zavest »naloži kritičnega računalniškega hrošča« za Webernov polifonični svet razumevanja stvari. Reference so aktualne (čeprav bi lahko bile, in verjetno tudi bodo, še bolj razširjene); razlage so dobre in komentarji avtorjev so bodisi navdihujoči ali pa vsaj poučni. Splošen vtis knjige je, da sta avtorja dodobra podkovana na področju glasbenega raziskovanja, da se zavedata pasti, ki prežijo ob enciklopedijskem delu, in se hkrati docela zavedata nevarnosti posploševanj. Ena od najbolj privlačnih značilnosti dela je njen pragmatični in vključujoči pristop, ki združuje muzikologijo in etnomuzikologijo, študije popularne in klasične ter stare in sodobne glasbe. V časih, ko meje med disciplinami še zmeraj vztrajajo in si mora interdisciplinarnost še zmeraj utirati pot v prakso, je ta knjiga ne samo pomembna, ampak si zasluži tudi vso hvalo. Primerjati jo je mogoče s »teoretsko lekarno« Jochena Hörischa (Theorie-Apotheke, Suhrkamp Taschenbuch, 2010), kjer komentarje lahko razumemo kot stimulanse za nadaljnje raziskovanje pomembnih pojmov znotraj širše ali ožje osredinjenih epistemoloških študij. Leon Stefanija Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani Uredniški odbor z obžalovanjem sporoča, daje prof. Kenneth Gloag po dolgem in hrabrem boju z boleznijo umrl 28. aprila 2017. Gavin Dixon, editor Schnittke Studies Schnittke Studies. Edited by Gavin Dixon. (Routledge: London and New York, 2017. xxvii+273 pp. £95. ISBN: 9781472471055.) In many ways this is the book on Schnittke we have all been waiting for. It brings together an international group of scholars working on Schnittke's legacy from many different perspectives, but all of them acknowledging a tremendous debt to the work of Alexander Ivashkin, to whose memory the collection is dedicated. As Gavin Dixon points out in his introduction, without Ivashkin having taken on the role of archivist more or less by accident, photocopying the composer's scores so that they remained accessible even when the originals were not, our knowledge of Schnittke's output both inside and outside Russia would be vastly different, reduced and compromised. Had this not been the case, all the scholars who have contributed to this collection of essays would necessarily have taken tremendously different approaches to Schnittke's work, and for that reason Ivashkin casts a long and beneficent shadow over the whole enterprise. The book comprises nine chapters, and is organised in three sections: Interpretative studies, Theoretical studies, and Russian perspectives. The first contains an absorbing study by Ivana Medic of the representation of the Cross in Schnittke's Symphony no. 2, "St Florian," a study hugely enhanced by the newly accessible sketches at the Juilliard School. Medic's "Revised Catalogue of Alfred Schnittke's Sketches in the Juil-liard Manuscript Collection" is also usefully included in the book as an appendix. The way in which the underlying symbolism of the Cross is expressed in compositional technique will hardly be a surprise for anyone who has looked closely at Schnittke's relationship with religious music and symbolism, but this kind of detailed study is not only needed, but also quite revelatory. The following essay by Emilia Ismael-Simental expands this exploration of symbolism to examine the composer's use of Znamenny chant (a liturgical chant system used in the Russian Orthodox Church) throughout his oeuvre, beginning with some early pieces and discussing the Three Sacred Hymns and Symphony no. 4 (1984), the Hymns I, II and IV (1974-79), and the String Quartet no. 2 (1981). Ismael-Simental offers a detailed analysis of the way in which the chant is plundered as musical material but retains its integrity, after the manner of Yuri But-sko, with whom Schnittke discussed these matters, and whose "extended" Znamenny mode is helpfully reproduced. This analysis does not centre on symbolism per se, but moves the discussion into a much broader context: the author concludes that these works "comprise a particular segment of Schnittke's oeuvre that reveals not only his deep spiritual and cultural engagement but also elaborates on the synchronic relationship of its materials, resulting in a musical discourse that understands space and time as cultural and relational principles of organisation and not as systematic and homogeneous structures of reality." (p. 58) There are, incidentally, two mis-translations of Slavonic hymn titles: Budi imia Gospodi (which should in fact be Budi imia Gospodne) is "Blessed be the name of the Lord", not "In the Name of God", and Svyatyi Bozhe is "Holy God", not "Holy Divine". There is also a misapprehension concerning the word stichera, which is not singular but the plural of sticheron (brief verses chanted, usually after a psalm verse, during various services in the Orthodox Church). By contrast, Amrei Flechsig contributes a chapter on the "negative spirituality" of Schnittke's opera Life with an Idiot, which explores the idea of the "negative passion", and traces parallels between the central character Vova and the holy fools of ancient Russia (yurodstvo). In this context Vova is an anti-yurodivy: "[Vova] brings aggressive violence into the world and destroys the cultural artefacts of civilisation; he shows men how to return to caveman instincts and how to live out their lust. In this regard, he can be interpreted not only as a parody of the yurodivy, but also as anti-yurodivy, with an anti-Christian justification" (p.66). Moreover, the context provided by Flechsig concerning the elimination of undesirable members of the intelligentsia and political dissidents in lunatic asylums is also of singular importance to understanding Schnittke's concerns here. Schnittke's explorations of good and evil are well known, from his operas on Faust and Gesualdo, but here there is a specifically Soviet context that this chapter elucidates brilliantly: "Life with an Idiot deals with the unspoken terrors of the Soviet past by using radical negativity, aimed to shock." (p. 71) The final chapter in the first section is by Gavin Dixon, which deals with "Polystyl-ism as dialogue". Having recourse for the ideas of the literary theorist Bakhtin, author of Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics, Dixon proposes a dialogic view of polystilism, in that "Dostoevsky's dialogue and Schnittke's polystylism both imbue the concept of style with semantic potential. The primary mechanism in both cases is the multiplicity of styles within a single work, which for Bakhtin guarantees the presence of dialogue." (p. 75) Just how this is achieved in Schnittke's work is the central question here, and Dixon examines this by using the Piano Quartet (1988), itself built from Mahler's fragmentary work for the same scoring, which Dixon argues invokes "Gustav Mahler as a stylistic presence." (p. 73) This is far more than theoretical speculation, however, and anyone aware of Schnittke's own comments on his divided identity (Russian-German, Christian-Jewish) will easily grasp its relevance. As Dixon concludes, "Mahler's legacy [...] acts as a point of stability against the paradoxes of the multiple cultural pasts to which Schnittke feels drawn. An interaction takes place in which a contemporary sense of rootlessness and uncertainty is addressed through a historical sense of identity and stability." (p.99) Polystylism is also discussed in the first chapter of the second section, by Gordon E. Marsh, but from an analytical-theoretical standpoint, and with specific regard to the Concerti Grossi. Marsh's aim is to "identify an archetypal pattern in [Schnittke's] polystylism" (p.136), which Marsh achieves by uncovering the use of archetypes as a structuring means. This offers Marsh a "psychological scheme" (p. 110), devised in reaction to Alastair Williams's dismissal of the Concerto Grosso no. 1 as a work that reduces "historical depth structure to surface configurations of the present." (p. 106) Such a project is not easy to implement, but Marsh is impressive in his conviction and the minutiae with which he builds his case. Just as impressive is Aaminah Durrani's discussion of the symmetrical constructions in the fourth movement of the String Quartet no. 4 - a highly detailed technical analysis whose virtuosic dissection of the movement is clearly inspired by a deep love of the music. The third and final section of the book, "Russian perspectives", contains three further chapters: Victoria Adamenko's "'Faith through scepticism': Desacralisation and resacralisation in Schnittke's First Symphony", Evgeniia Chigareva's "On the late style of Alfred Schnittke (the instrumental works)", and the late Alexander Ivashkin's "The Schnittke code". Adamenko's chapter deals with a number of phenomena simultaneously. "Desacralisation" does not only have its obvious meaning, but also refers to musical tradition - the author discusses the way in which Schnittke "desacralises" the classical symphonic tradition, and also the way in which it is "resacralised" as a kind of cosmic drama, which feeds into the composer's continuing preoccupation with the struggle between good and evil. Chigareva deals with musical and conceptual links between the works of Schnittke's stripped-down late style, and makes a good case for their interconnectedness, but it is extremely odd that no reference is made to Maria Kostakeva's seminal book on the composer's late style, Im Strom der Zeiten un der Welten. Das Spätwerke von Alfred Schnittke (2005). Ivashkin's final chapter is the kind of thing only he, with his personal knowledge of the composer, could have written: a discussion of Schnittke's use of "codes" (monograms signifying various performers and composers, Cabbalistic calculations, liturgical-numerical symbolism and so on), related very precisely to musical structure and contour. He illustrates this with a specific example in Klingende Buchstaben (1988), which is dedicated to Ivashkin himself. Yet given that all this is related to the perennial ideas of the composer's questioning of his own cultural identity and his investigation into good and evil, it is ironic that the title of Ulrich Siegele's article is misspelled and appears to deal with Bach's "teleological" rather than his "theological" concept of form! In sum, this collection of essays is essential reading for anyone interested in Schnittke's legacy. It shows the diversity of possible approaches in evaluating his work, and the way in which new scholarship both builds on earlier research and expands it into new and fascinating areas. Ivan Moody CESEM - Universidade Nova, Lisbon Gavin Dixon, urednik Študije o Šnitkeju Študije o Šnitkeju. [Schnittke Studies.] Uredil Gavin Dixon. (Routledge: London in New York, 2017. xxvii + 273 str. 95 £. ISBN: 9781472471055.) V marsičem je to knjiga o Šnitkeju, na katero smo vsi čakali. V njej se je združila mednarodna skupina raziskovalcev, ki so se ukvarjali s Šnitkejevo zapuščino z različnih zornih kotov, pri čemer vsi priznavajo, da ostajajo dolžniki izrednega dela, ki ga je opravil Aleksander Ivaškin, čigar spominu je zbirka tudi posvečena. Gavin Dixon v svojem uvodu opozarja na ključno dejstvo, da je Ivaškin malodane naključno prevzel vlogo Šnitkejevega arhivarja in fotokopiral skladateljeve notne zapise, ki so se tako ohranili tudi v primerih, ko izvirnikov več ni; če temu ne bi bilo tako, bi bilo naše poznavanje Šnitkejeve produkcije - tako v Rusiji kot izven nje - precej drugačno, omejeno in celo komprimitirano. Prav tako bi morali vsi avtorji, ki so prispevali k tej knjigi, ubrati docela drugačne pristope k Šnitkejevem delu in zavoljo tega Ivaškin meče dolgo in dobrohotno senco na celoten projekt. Knjiga sestoji iz devetih poglavij in je razdeljena na tri dele: Interpretativne študije, Teoretske študije in Ruske perspektive. V prvi najdemo zanimivo študijo Ivane Medic, ki se ukvarja z vprašanjem reprezentacije križa v Šnitkejevi Simfoniji št. 2, »Sv. Florijan«; gre za študijo, ki se odlično poslužuje nanovo dostopnih skic z glasbenega inštituta Juilliard School. Avtoričin »Revidirani katalog skic Alfreda Šnitkeja iz Juilliardove rokopisne zbirke« je prav tako pripravno vključen v knjigo kot dodatek. Način, kako je prikriti simbolizem križa izražen v kompozicijski tehniki, bo težko presenetil tiste, ki so si pobliže ogledali Šnitkejev odnos do religiozne glasbe in simbolizma, toda tako natančne študije niso samo nujne, temveč odpirajo oči. Naslednji esej Emilie Ismael-Si-mental raziskovanje simbolizma še razširi s tem, da prouči skladateljevo rabo t. i. korala znamenny oz. znamennyjskega korala (sistem liturgičnega petja v staroruski ortodo-ksni cerkvi) v njegovem opusu, začenši z nekaterimi zgodnji deli in z obravnavo Treh svetih himen in Simfonije št. 4 (1984), Himen I, II in IV (1974-79) in Godalnega kvarteta št. 2 (1981). Ismael-Simental ponuja podrobno analizo načina, kako je napev »ugrabljen« kot glasbeni material, a hkrati ohranja svojo integriteto - po vzoru Jurija Bucka, s komer je Šnitke o teh rečeh razpravljal in čigar »razširjena« oblika znamennyjskega korala je prikladno reproducirana. Ta analiza se ne osredinja na simbolizem kot tak, temveč prestavi razpravo v veliko širši kontekst: avtorica zaključi, da ta dela »sestavljajo določen segment Šnitkejevega opusa, ki ne razkriva le njegovega globokega duhovnega in kulturnega angažmaja, ampak pojasnjuje tudi sinhrono zvezo materialov tega opusa, kar privede do glasbenega diskurza, ki razume prostor in čas kot kulturna in relacijska principa organizacije in ne kot sistematični in homogeni strukturi realnosti« (str. 58). Najdemo pa tudi, žal, dva napačna prevoda naslovov slovanskih himen: Budi imja Gospodi (kar naj bi bilo v resnici Budi imja Gospodne) je »Blagoslovljeno naj bo ime Gospodovo«, ne pa »V imenu Gospoda«, in Svjatyj Bože je »Sveti Bog« in ne »Sveto božje«. Prav tako naletimo na nerazumevanje besede stichera, ki ni v ednini, ampak gre za množino od sticheron (kratki péti verzi, običajno po psalmskem verzu med različnimi obredi v ortodoksni cerkvi). Nekoliko drugačno je poglavje Amreia Flechsiga o »negativni spiritualnosti« Šnitke-jeve opere Življenje z idiotom, ki raziskuje idejo »negativne strasti« in išče vzporednice med glavnim junakom Vovom in svetimi norci stare Rusije (jurodstvo). V tem kontekstu je Vova anti-jurodivyj: »[Vova] prinaša agresivno nasilje v svet in uničuje kulturne artefakte civilizacije; možem kaže, kako naj se vrnejo k instinktom jamskih ljudi in kako naj izživijo svoje poželenje. V zvezi s tem ga lahko razumemo ne samo kot parodijo starih norcev, ampak tudi kot anti-yurodivyj z anti-krščansko utemeljitvijo« (str. 66). Še več, kontekst, ki ga ponudi Flechsig glede odstranjevanja nezaželenih izobražencev in političnih disidentov v norišnice, je prav tako ključnega pomena za razumevanje Šnit-kejevih premislekov o tem. Šnitkejevo raziskovanje dobrega in zlega je dobro znano iz njegovih oper o Faustu in Gesualdu, toda tukaj imamo opravka s specifično sovjetskim kontekstom, ki ga to poglavje sijajno pojasnjuje: »Življenje z idiotom se ukvarja z neizrečenimi strahotami sovjetske zgodovine tako, da se poslužuje radikalne negativnosti, ki naj pretrese« (str. 71). Zadnje poglavje prvega dela je napisal Gavin Dixon, ki se ukvarja s temo »Polistili-zem kot dialog«. S sklicevanjem na ideje literarnega teoretika Bahtina, avtorja dela Problemi poetike Dostojevskega, Dixon predlaga dialoško obravnavo polistilizma: »Tako dialog Dostojevskega kot tudi Šnitkejev polistilizem prežemata pojem stila s semantičnim potencialom. Prvotni mehanizem je v obeh primerih multipliciteta stilov znotraj enega samega dela, kar za Bahtina zagotavlja navzočnost dialoga« (str. 75). Kako natančno se to zgodi v Šnitkejevem delu, je tukaj osrednje vprašanje, ki ga Dixon pojasnjuje z obravnavo Klavirskega kvarteta (1988), zgrajenega iz Mahlerjevega fragmentarnega dela za enako zasedbo, ki po Dixonovi argumentaciji prikliče »Gustava Mahlerja kot slogovno prisotnost« (str. 73). To je gotovo več kot zgolj teoretska spekulacija in vsak, ki se zaveda Šnitkejevih komentarjev o svoji razdeljeni identiteti (rusko-nemški in krščan-sko-judovski), bo hitro doumel pomembnost pričujočega prikaza. Dixon zaključi tako: »Mahlerjeva zapuščina [...] deluje kot točka stabilnosti nasproti paradoksom mnoštva kulturnih preteklosti, h katerim vleče Šnitkeja. V interakciji slednjih je problematika sodobnega dojemanja izkoreninjenosti in negotovosti obravnavana s pomočjo zgodovinskega občutja identitete in stabilnosti« (str. 99). Polistilizem je prav tako tema prvega poglavja drugega dela, toda Gordon E. Marsh se ga loti iz analitsko-teoretskega zornega kota, s posebnim ozirom na Šnitkejeve Con-certi Grossi. Marsh želi »identificirati arhetipski vzorec v [Šnitkejevem] polistilizmu« (str. 136), kar doseže tako, da razkrije rabo arhetipov kot načinov strukturiranja. S tem Marsh osnuje »psihološko shemo« (str. 110), ki je zastavljena kot reakcija na to, da je Alastair Williams Concerto Grosso št. 1 zavrnil kot delo, ki reducira »strukturo historične globine na površinske konfiguracije sedanjosti« (str. 106). Takšnega projekta ni enostavno realizirati, toda Marsh je glede svojega prepričanja in podrobnosti, s katerimi ga dokazuje, izjemno prepričljiv. Prav tako je izjemna razprava Aaminah Durrani o simetričnih konstrukcijah v četrtem stavku Godalnega kvarteta št. 4 - to je zelo podrobna tehnična analiza, katere virtuozna obravnava stavka je prav gotovo navdahnjena z avtoričino globoko ljubeznijo do glasbe. Tretji in zadnji del knjige, »Ruske perspektive«, vsebuje še tri poglavja: »Vera skozi skepticizem: Desakralizacija in resakralizacija Šnitkejeve Prve simfonije« Victorie Ada-menko, »O poznem slogu Alfreda Šnitkeja (instrumentalna dela)« Evgenije Čigareve in »Šnitkejeva šifra« pokojnega Aleksandra Ivaškina. Poglavje Victorie Adamenko se ukvarja s kopico pojavov hkrati. »Desakralizacija« ne nosi zgolj običajnega pomena, temveč se nanaša tudi na glasbeno tradicijo - avtorica razpravlja o načinu, kako Šnitke »desakralizira« klasično simfonično tradicijo, in tudi o načinu, kako je »resakralizirana« kot nekakšna vesoljna drama, kar se vključuje v skladateljevo nenehno obsedenost z bojem med dobrim in zlim. Čigareva se ukvarja z glasbenimi in konceptualnimi vezmi med Šnitkejevimi deli okleščenega poznega sloga in uspešno prikaže, kako so medsebojno povezana, toda nadvse nenavadno je, da se v prispevku ne sklicuje na vplivno knjigo Marije Kostakeve, ki je posvečena skladateljevemu poznemu slogu: Im Strom der Zeiten und der Welten: Das Spätwerk von Alfred Schnittke (2005). Ivaškinovo poslednje poglavje je nekaj, kar je lahko glede na prijateljevanje s skladateljem napisal zgolj on: razprava o Šnitkejevi rabi »kod« (monogrami, ki označujejo različne izvajalce in skladatelje, kabalistični izračuni, liturgično-numerični simbolizem itn.), ki je zelo tesno povezana z glasbeno strukturo in konturo. To nam prikaže s precej specifičnim primerom iz skladbe Klingende Buchstaben (1988), ki je posvečena prav Ivaškinu. Toda z ozirom na to, da je vse dotično povezano s stalnimi idejami, po katerih je skladatelj prevpraševal lastno kulturno identiteto in svoje raziskovanje dobrega in zlega, je ironično, da je naslov članka Ulricha Siegeleja napačno zapisan in se posledično zdi, da se ukvarja z Bachovim »teleološkim« namesto »teološkim« pojmom oblike! Pod črto lahko rečemo, da zbirka esejev predstavlja ključno branje za vse, ki jih zanima Šnitkejeva zapuščina. Recenzirana monografija tako kaže na raznorodnost mogočih pristopov in vrednotenj njegovega dela ter na način, po katerem novo raziskovanje gradi na preteklih raziskavah po eni strani, po drugi pa se širi v nova in sila zanimiva področja. Ivan Moody CESEM - Universidade Nova, Lizbona Magistrska dela • M. A. Works Klavdija Feguš Slovenska solistična literatura za flavto Glede na zgodovinski razvoj flavte, kjer njeni začetki segajo daleč od 43.000 do 82.000 let nazaj, o čemer priča leta 1995 na arheološkem najdišču »DIVJE BABE I« (blizu Cerknega v Sloveniji) najdena prva piščal, ki jo lahko povezujemo s prvo neandertal-sko flavto in je najstarejši instrument nasploh, in vse do leta 1847, ko je današnjo obliko prečne flavte zasnoval Theobald Böhm, lahko rečemo, da je flavta kot solistični instrument postala zanimiva za slovenske skladatelje razmeroma pozno. Pričujoče magistrsko delo se nanaša na tematiko slovenske literature za flavto in njene različke: pikolo, alt flavto in bas flavto. Prvi del naloge z naslovom Razmah slovenske literature za flavto po letu 1945 predstavi flavtno literaturo po desetletjih, pomembnejše in večkrat izvajane skladbe tudi podrobneje opiše. Drugi, analitični del, z naslovom Analize izbranih skladb za flavto solo, se osredotoči na analize izbranih skladb skladateljev, ki so napisali največ solističnih skladb za flavto in vključujejo tudi skladbe za pikolo, alt flavto in bas flavto. Predstavljenih je sedem skladateljev (Ballata, Bonin, Firšt, Merku, Ramovš, Rojko, Sojar Voglar) skupaj z dvanajstimi skladbami za flavto solo. Skladbe so analizirane iz oblikovnega, ritmičnega, melodičnega in interpre-tacijskega vidika, vključujoč tudi komentar skladatelja k skladbi ter recepcijo in posnetke, v kolikor seveda obstajajo. Slovenski prostor zajema širok in pester izbor literature za flavto kot solo instrument ali v spremljavi klavirja, orkestra, Big banda ali v najrazličnejših komornih zasedbah vse od dueta naprej. Pomemben mejnik v slovenski literaturi za flavto po letu 1945 predstavlja prva izdana skladba za flavto iz leta 1948 - Sonata za flavto in klavir Pavla Šivica. Prve kompozicije so večinoma skladbe za različne komorne zasedbe. Drugi pomemben mejnik v slovenski solistični literaturi za flavto pa predstavlja prvo solistično delo za flavto Primoža Ramovša z naslovom Ekspanzija za flavto solo in datira v leto 1963. Prva solistična dela so bila posvečena flavtistoma Borisu Čampi in Fedju Ruplu, kasnejše skladbe pa že njunim študentom. Izvrstni slovenski flavtisti so velika spodbuda in navdih za slovenske skladatelje, zato lahko z gotovostjo trdimo, da bo v prihodnosti slovenske literature za flavto vedno več. Obranjeno 28. septembra 2016 na Filozofski fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani. Slovenian music literature for solo flute The history of the flute dates back about 43.000 to 82.000 years, as can be deduced from the finding of the first flute at the »Divje Babe« archaeological site near Cerkno in Slovenia in 1995. It can be considered as the first Neanderthal flute and the oldest known musical instrument. Taking into account its long historical development from the beginnings until 1847, when Theobald Böhm designed the modern transverse flute, we can notice that the interest of Slovenian composers for the flute as a solo instrument began to develop relatively late. The present thesis focuses on Slovenian flute repertory, including works for concert flute and its family members: piccolo, alto flute and bass flute. The first part of the thesis, entitled The Expansion of Slovenian Flute Literature after 1945, presents flute literature in different decades, giving a more detailed description of some important and more often performed pieces for flute. The second, analytical part, entitled The Analyses of Selected Works for Solo Flute, focuses on the analyses of chosen pieces by composers who were prolific authors of music for solo flute, including piccolo, alto flute and bass flute. Seven composers are presented (Ballata, Bonin, Firšt, Merku, Ramovš, Rojko, Sojar Voglar), together with twelve pieces for solo flute. The analysis includes examining structure, rhythmic and melodic aspect and interpretation as well as the composer's commentary on the piece, reviews, and recordings in case they exist. Slovenian flute literature comprises a wide variety of works for solo flute, works scored for flute and piano, orchestra or Big Band, and works for various chamber ensembles, from flute duets to larger ensembles. A milestone in Slovenian flute literature after 1945 is the first published piece for flute from 1948, Sonata for Flute and Piano by Pavel Šivic. The early compositions are predominantly pieces for various chamber ensembles, since the flute became interesting as a solo instrument rather late. The next important work in Slovenian flute literature is the first piece for solo flute by Primož Ramovš, Expansion for Flute Solo from 1963. The earliest solo pieces were dedicated to the flutists Boris Čampa and Fedja Rupel, and later ones already to their students. Many excellent Slovenian flutists are a great encouragement for Slovenian composers, therefore we can claim with certainty that there will be even more Slovenian flute literature in the future. Defended on 28 September 2016, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana. Dejan Juravic Vilko Ukmar in sodobni koncepti glasbenega zgodovinopisja Vilko Ukmar (1905-1991) je širši javnosti veliko bolj znan po skladateljskem opusu kot pa po svojem univerzitetnem pedagoškem delu in glasbenem zgodovinopisju. V svojem dolgem življenju je segal na najrazličnejša področja, na katerih se je izkazal kot veliki poznavalec estetsko-filozofskih vprašanj in prodoren pisec o umetnosti, še posebno o glasbeni misli in estetiki ter slogu. Njegovo krčevito iskanje življenjskega smisla in pomena umetnosti na splošno, ne le glasbene, se je enakovredno izražalo v njegovih publikacijah in obsežnem glasbenem opusu. Po začetnem študiju prava se je kmalu odločil, da bo prav glasba njegova življenjska sopotnica, in ji je posvetil tako rekoč ves svoj čas. Ukmarjevi dosežki in nesebično umetniško prizadevanje pričajo o izjemni ustvarjalnosti, vrelcu misli, ki je izviral bodisi iz njegovega glasbenega opusa bodisi je bilo tesno povezano z njim. Ukmarjevo publicistično delo je nastajalo ne le za potrebe takratnega šolstva, ampak tudi z mislijo po zapolnitvi vrzeli v pomanjkanju domače literature o svetovni glasbeni zgodovini. Tako upravičeno pravimo, da je avtor prvega in do zdaj edinega izvirnega slovenskega dela te vrste - to je njegova knjiga Zgodovina glasbe (1948). Oblikovana je tako, da si zgodovinski dogodki sledijo v nepretrganem časovnem zaporedju, razpira pa tudi zanimive povezave med likovno in glasbeno umetnostjo. Knjiga pomeni vrhunec njegovega zgodovinopisno-publicističnega dela, s katerim se je ukvarjal že v prvem obdobju poučevanja na konservatoriju v Ljubljani. V tistem obdobju je nastala skripta Pogled na zgodovinski razvoj glasbene umetnosti (1937), ki jo lahko označimo za predhodnico Zgodovine glasbe, saj imata veliko skupnih točk. Glasba v preteklih dobah (1955) in Glasba v preteklosti (1975) - oba dela pomenita logično nadaljevanje prejšnjih dveh publikacij. Gre za isto knjigo, druga je ponatis prve s spremenjenim naslovom. Za obe je značilna izčiščena in zgoščena snov, ki postreže s temeljnimi faktografskimi podatki. Do zdaj omenjene publikacije so imele poleg pedagoškega pomena tudi izrazito znanstveno-estetski vidik, ki v domači literaturi še vedno ni presežen. Izrazito pedagoško usmerjena sta priročnika Razvoj glasbe in glasbene oblike ter Uvod v umevanje glasbene umetnosti, ki sta nastala za potrebe tedanjih učnih načrtov za glasbeni pouk v višjih razredih osnovne šole oziroma v gimnazijah. Poleg zgodovine glasbe, s katero se je najprej ukvarjal, je v poznejših letih prišel v ospredje glasbeni slog z estetiko. Izsledke in preučevanje s tega področja glasbene publicistike lahko beremo v izdajah Po lepoti k resnici (1972) in Poglavja iz estetike glasbe (2007), v katerih se je izkazal za izjemnega poznavalca umetnosti na splošno. Pri raziskavi Ukmarjevega publicističnega dela je bilo ključno ugotoviti, kateri avtorji so nanj najbolj vplivali oziroma pri kom se je zgledoval. Tega posredno v knjigah ni mogoče zaslediti, saj ne navaja sprotnih opomb - to je analizo njegovega dela nekoliko otežilo. Izsledki so kljub temu zanimivi, saj je mogoče poleg Ukmarjevega lastnega slogovno-jezikovnega razvoja opazovati tudi povezavo z drugimi avtorji. Uk-mar je, kljub temu, da je prevzel precej misli od vodilnih piscev svojega časa, vedno ohranjal svoj slog in misli. To se kaže tudi v nadgrajevanju in dopolnjevanju gradiva ter v poglobljenih mislih, iz katerih vejejo apoliničnost in dionizičnost, človeški duhovni in duhovno-slogovni razvoj, pa tudi močna navezanost na naravo, človeka in njegove umetnine. Red, lepota in ne nazadnje estetika so bile glavne smernice ne le njegovih misli, ampak celotnega ustvarjalnega dela. Na Ukmarjeve slogovno-estetske poglede na »družbeni razvoj« v zvezi s slogovnim razvojem je prek Izidorja Cankarja vplival Max Dvorak. Njegov pojem »umetnostne zgodovine kot eksaktne zgodovinske discipline«, ki izhaja iz sloga, je treba razumeti v smislu razvoja duha. Prav Cankar je v slovenski umetnostni zgodovini uveljavil Dvorakovo Kunstgeschichte als Geistesgeschichte, ki jo je Ukmar uspešno nadaljeval na glasbenem področju. Pri tem ga je vodilo načelo, da pri razlagi zgodovine ne bo uporabljal dejstev, ki jih je mogoče najti v knjigah in priročnikih, marveč spoznanje človeškega duha v posameznih zgodovinskih obdobjih. V tem je bil nadaljevalec poti, ki jo je začrtal že Guido Adler, osnove pa je postavila dunajska umetnostnozgodovinska šola. Omenjeni so imeli na Ukmarja največji vpliv, vsak na svojem področju, vendar nikoli ne v celoti. Po Adlerju je povzel besedilo za svoje publikacije, po Dvoraku in Cankarju umetnostnozgodovinsko razčlenjevanje obdobij, vendar je jasno, da si je pri omenjenih sicer »sposodil« osnovo, toda nadgradil jo je s svojimi idejami in mislimi. Ukmar je svoje misli nadgrajeval in dopolnjeval, a človek in njegove umetnine so bile vedno v središču njegovega zanimanja. Kot vsej umetnosti je tudi glasbi izhodišče in cilj lepota. In ta lepota je bila Ukmarjeva spremljevalka vse življenje in mu je poleg glasbe pomenila pojem in smisel življenja. To se zelo lepo kaže v njegovih publikacijah, ki so vedno zgledno ter jasno in natančno oblikovane. V njih išče človeško resnico in njeno apoteozo ob pomoči umetnosti in družbenega razvoja, ki vedno teži k izboljšanju. Glasba je bila za Ukmarja vse. Bila je tesno povezana z njegovim bistvom in smislom življenja ter razvojem - ne le njegovim, ampak človeškim na splošno, s katerim sta si delila razvojno pot. Obranjeno 14. junija 2016 na Filozofski fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani. Vilko Ukmar and Modern Concepts of Music Historiography Vilko Ukmar is often defined as a Slovenian composer of the 20th century, although his work was set broader. During his long life, Ukmar focused on various fields, proving to be an expert on aesthetic-philosophical issues, a lucid writer about art, specifically on musical idea, aesthetics and style. The fact that he was trying to find music - the meaning of life and the meaning of art in general was equally reflected in his publications and in his extensive music opus. Despite his law school education, he devoted his life to music, which accompanied him throughout his whole life. Ukmar's artistic achievements and selfless efforts testify to exceptional creativity and a fountain of thought, which originated either from his musical opus or were closely associated with him. His publications Pogled na zgodovinski razvoj glasbene umetnosti (A View on the Historical Development of the Art of Music, 1937), Zgodovina glasbe (History of Music, 1948), Glasba v preteklih dobah (Music of Previous Epochs, 1955), Glasba v preteklosti (Music in the Past, 1975), Razvoj glasbe in glasbene oblike (The Development of Music and Musical Forms, 1961) andUvod v umevanje glasbene umetnosti (Introduction into the Understanding of the Art of Music, 1963) as well as a contribution on the issue and concept of style in music - Glasbeni stil in estetika (Music Style and Aesthetics) and Po lepoti k resnici (From Beauty to Truth, 1972), represent in many ways a basis even for today's aesthetic, ethical and sociological critical aspects of critique in Slovenian music. I compared the above mentioned books and handbooks to equivalent foreign and Slovenian literature and analysed Ukmar's work in comparison with the work of other authors. I structured and linked the characteristics of individual writers and analysed their views in music historiography. The findings are interesting as they show that these authors had an important influence on Ukmar's writing. This cannot be indirectly identified in the books because he did not use footnotes - that made the analysis of his work somewhat more difficult. The results are nonetheless interesting; besides Ukmar's own style and language development we can also observe the connection to other authors. Despite the fact that he took many thoughts from leading writers of his time, Ukmar always kept his own style and ideas. This is also visible in the upgrading and updating of materials, from which we can observe the Apollonian and the Dionysian, human spiritual and spiritual-style development, as well as a strong attachment to nature, man and man's art-work. Order, beauty and in the end aesthetics, were the main guidelines not only for his ideas but for his entire creative work. Cankar established Dvorak's direction in Slovenian art history, namely the concept of"art history as an exact history discipline" resulting from style, whereby style needs to be understood as the development of the intellect in the sense of Kunstgeschichte als Geistesgeschichte - art history as intellectual history. This direction of Dvorak and Cankar was successfully continued by Vilko Ukmar through Vurnik in the music field. Ukmar did not merely list years or facts while explaining history but used insights into the human intellect in individual historical episodes instead. In this, he was a follower of Guido Adler's path, and the basis was set by the Viennese School of Art History. The above mentioned authors were an important influence on Ukmar, each in their own field, but never completely. He summarized Adler's texts for his publications and the art history periodization after Dvorak and Cankar but it is clear that he, borrowed' only the basics, and upgraded them with his own ideas and thoughts. He constantly further developed and supplemented his thoughts, but man and man's works of art remained always at the centre of his interest. Like with all art, the starting-point and the aim of music is beauty, and this beauty was accompanying Ukmar throughout his whole life - alongside music itself. This is noticeably reflected in his publications, which were always concisely and well designed. In his publications, he was seeking the human truth and its apotheosis through art and social development, always striving for improvement. Music was of utmost importance for Ukmar. It was closely linked to his essence and meaning of life and development - not only his but for humans in general, with whom he shared the developmental path. Defended on 14 June 2016Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana. Nina Gala Kušej Glasba kot protokolarni element Če protokol po strogo terminološki definiciji označuje sklop uradnih in družabnih pravil za medsebojne stike uradnih predstavnikov držav1, predstavlja protokolarna glasba glasbeno sredstvo za uresničevanje teh pravil. Glasba ima kot protokolarni element pomembno vlogo, saj predstavlja vidni del marsikaterega ceremoniala, kjer bodisi s svojo signalizacijsko funkcijo določa ogrodje, oziroma narekuje posamezne korake udeležencev poteka ceremoniala bodisi s svojo zmožnostjo učinkovanja na posameznika pripomore k želeni sporočilnosti posameznega protokolarnega dogodka. Kot eno od sredstev za doseganje želenih ciljev je imela glasba v diplomaciji od nekdaj pomembno vlogo in se kot taka uporabljala v najrazličnejših protokolarnih kontekstih. Združevanje glasbenikov v ansamble naj bi obstajalo že v času zgodnjih visokih kultur starega Vzhoda, še zlasti od konca srednjega veka dalje pa so zasedbe sestavljene iz pihal, trobil in tolkal postale viden (protokolarni) element evropskih dvorov in mest. Podobno kot danes je imel že zgodnji dvorni ceremonial v prvi vrsti funkcijo »promocije vladarja« in vzpostavljanja discipline, oziroma urejanja interakcije znotraj dvorne družbe, pri čemer je kot pomembno sredstvo za doseganje namena uporabljal glasbo. Zametki godb, vojaških in policijskih orkestrov, kakršne poznamo danes, segajo daleč v zgodovino. V izhodišču je bila njihova vloga povsem praktična, saj so poleg zvočne signalizacije takšni ansambli služili zlasti opogumljanju vojakov in njihovemu razvedrilu. Na Slovenskem imajo pihalni sestavi dolgo in bogato tradicijo, saj se jih prvič omenja že v 14. in 15. stoletju. Če veljajo deželni trobentači kot oddelek deželne milice za prve vojaške godce v Ljubljani, se smatra mestne piskače za prve civilno organizirane ljubljanske godce. V drugi polovici 19. stoletja so se pri nas začele ustanavljati prve današnjim podobne civilne mestne godbe in kakršnih v Sloveniji trenutno obstaja okoli 120. Pri nastopanju na prostem se sodobni godbeniki še vedno poslužujejo tradicionalnih veščin igranja med hkratnim gibanjem, ki se imenuje predvodništvo. Zunanja podoba sleherne godbe tako predstavlja pomemben vidik njenih nastopov, še toliko bolj v primeru Policijskega orkestra, ki kot uradni državni protokolarni orkester predstavlja simbol nacionalne identitete in je kot tak ob svojih nastopih redno pod drobnogledom javnosti. Slovenija je morala po osamosvojitvi zastaviti temelje novega državnega protokola in s tem med drugim definirati vlogo in repertoar protokolarnega orkestra znotraj ceremonialov. Za celovito razumevanje protokolarnega aparata v Republiki Sloveniji 1 Protokol, obiskano 27. marec 2016, http://bos.zrc-sazu.si/cgi/a03.exe?name=sskj_testa&expression= protokol&hs=1. in vpogled v vlogo glasbe znotraj državnega ceremoniala, je potrebno sistematično poznavanje vseh njegovih pojavnostnih oblik. V grobem gre za delitev na strogo cere-monialne dogodke in na izvedbeno ter repertoarno svobodnejše priložnosti. V prvem primeru gre za protokolarne dogodke, ki temeljijo na ustaljenem ceremonialu s pripadajočimi glasbenimi oblikami, načeloma v izvedbi Policijskega orkestra. Pri svobodnejših dogodkih, med katerimi so najbolj ekspresivni kulturni programi državnih proslav, pa je praktično edina (a hkrati zelo pomembna) omejitev načelo zmernosti, primernosti in ustreznosti. Slednje (kulturne dele državnih proslav) poleg drugih dejavnikov diferencirajo in zaznamujejo predvsem različni individualni režijski pristopi k strukturiranju dogodka, ki pogojujejo preseančno vlogo in mesto glasbe kot strukturnega elementa znotraj posamezne proslave. Navedeno posledično opredeljuje delo skladatelja, oziroma avtorja glasbe, saj je od koncepta proslave odvisno, če se v dogodku uporabljajo avtorske skladbe ali priredbe in, če glasba služi zgolj kot glasbena spremljava ali pa predstavlja osrednji element dogodka, ki narekuje vsebinsko izhodišče scenarija. V vsakem primeru se glasba državnih proslav lahko celostno prezentira samo v soodvisnem prepletanju z drugimi strukturnimi elementi, kar pa pravzaprav velja za protokolarno glasbo nasplošno in jo kot tako opredeljuje kot svojstveni glasbeni žanr. Čeprav je sodobni protokol srednjeevropskega prostora pretežno moderniziran, poenostavljen in minimaliziran, so tradicionalni temelji še vedno opazni v primarnih ciljih ceremoniala, ki z glasbenim elementom na čelu ostajajo usmerjeni v iste stvari, med drugim v poveličevanje države, bujenje narodne zavesti in izkazovanje časti tujim državnikom, hkrati pa opravljajo tudi funkcijo signalizacije (igranje žalostinke v izvedbi trobilnega sestava ob ceremonialu polaganja venca je na primer znak za predsednika republike, naj začne za nosilcema venca stopati proti spomeniku). Nenazadnje protokol ostaja organizacijski temelj delovanja državnega aparata in urejanja odnosov med njegovimi udeleženci. Strogi ceremonial sicer ohranja uporabo tradicionalnih glasbenih oblik (državne himne, koračnice), medtem ko njegove svobodnejše oblike, kot so najrazličnejši sprejemi in državne proslave, v znamenju sodobne diplomatske govorice uporabljajo širok razpon glasbenih in drugih izraznih sredstev. Gre torej za združevanje tradicije, ki simbolizira narodno pripadnost, s sodobnim, ki simbolizira zazrtost v prihodnost. Navedeno mešanico je kot učinkovit recept za večanje priljubljenosti pri ljudeh pogosto opaziti pri diplomatskih praksah najrazličnejših državnikov. Glasba v funkciji, oziroma glasba kot protokolarni element predstavlja enega od gradbenih elementov posameznega protokolarnega dogodka ali ceremoniala. Vsekakor gre za glasbo, ki ne obstaja sama po sebi in ni sama sebi namen, temveč ima svojo praktično in sporočilno vlogo. O njeni umetniški vrednosti torej lahko govorimo predvsem v takem kontekstu. Hkrati pa gre za glasbo, ki je nujno in neločljivo vezana na okoliščine, ki jim je na neki način podrejena oziroma jim služi kot »glasilo«, saj je brez njih ni. Namreč, kakor ni fanfar brez vladarja, ni državne proslave brez občinstva. Obranjeno 14. junija 2016 na Filozofski fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani. Music as a protocol element "Protocol" by definition means a set of formal and social rules of interaction between official state representatives. "Protocol music" is consequently a musical means of achieving these rules. Music as a protocol element represents a notable part of a ceremonial, as it helps to frame it and has the ability to structurally dictate the course of action through sound and its form. At the same time it has the power to emotionally affect the individual and in such way underline the true meaning of an individual protocol occasion or event. As being used in various protocol events to convey a message or influence the listener in a certain way, music has always had an important role in diplomacy. Musicians were supposed to have gathered in ensembles as soon as the early high cultures of the old East, but especially since the end of the Middle Ages, ensembles of brass, woodwind and percussion instruments became a visible (protocol) element of European courts and cities. Similar to today, the early court ceremonial already had the primary function of "promoting the ruler" and establishing discipline or managing the interactions among court society, using music as an important medium to achieve these objectives. The origins of brass bands, army and police orchestras, as we know them today, go back a very long way. Their original role was a practical one, as they encouraged soldiers and cheered them up, besides serving as audible signaling. In the Slovene lands, wind instrument ensembles have a long lasting and rich heritage, as they were first mentioned in the 14th and 15th century. If "deželni trobentači" (regional trumpeters), a division of the regional militia, count as the first military brass band in Ljubljana, then the "mestni piskači" (city whistlers) can be regarded as the first civilian organized brass band in Ljubljana. In the second half of the 19th century, the first civilian city brass bands, as we know them today, began to form in the region. In Slovenia, there are currently around 120 such brass bands. While performing in open air, contemporary musicians still use the traditional skill of playing and moving at the same time, conducted by a drum major. The external appearance of the brass band is an important aspect of the performance, especially when they are in the spotlight, as in the case of the Police Orchestra, which is a symbol of national identity - being the state protocol orchestra. After gaining its independence, Slovenia had to create the foundations of a new state protocol and thereby define the role and the repertoire of the protocol orchestra during ceremonial events. For a comprehensive understanding of the protocol apparatus in the Republic of Slovenia and an insight in the role of music in state ceremonials, one must have systematic knowledge of all of its forms. Roughly, it is divided into strictly ceremonial events and more relaxed occasions - regarding performance and repertoire. The first case applies to protocol events, which are based on an established ceremonial with corresponding musicforms, mostly performed by the Police Orchestra. At the more relaxed events, among which the cultural programs of state celebrations are the most expressive, there are basically only few (but important) restrictions - the principles of moderation, adequacy and appropriateness. The latter (cultural parts of state celebrations) vary and are characterized by, among other factors, different production and directing approaches of how the event is structured, which defines the role of music as a structural element of each individual celebration. This also defines the work of the music composer or author, as the concept of the celebration determines, if a certain composition or piece will be performed in the original form or as an adaptation, and if the music is serving as the background or if it is a central element of the event. In any case, the music at state celebration events can be comprehensively presented only in the context of other structural elements, which applies not only to state celebrations, but to protocol music in general; this actually categorizes it as a musical genre. Music in the function of or as a protocol element represents one of the building blocks of an individual protocol event or ceremonial. It is music that cannot exist by itself and cannot fulfill its function by itself, but has its practical function and conveys a message only within the protocol framework. Therefore its artistic value can only be discussed within its context. At the same time it is music that is absolutely and inseparably tied to the event; it is subjected to the event in a certain way and supports it. After all, fanfares cannot truly exist without a ruler and there is no real point in state celebrations without an audience. Defended on 14 June 2016, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana. Disertacije • Dissertations Karmen Salmič Kovačič Demetrij Žebre in sodobne slogovne tendence slovenske glasbe Ob poglobljenem pregledu slogovnih tendenc glasbe v prvi polovici preteklega stoletja in z njo povezane strokovne terminologije predstavljamo v prvem delu disertacije tudi najsodobnejše pomisleke različnih glasbenih teoretikov in muzikologov o dosedanjem razumevanju glasbenega modernizma, neoklasicizma ter tradicije v glasbi 20. stoletja. Njihove soglasne ugotovitve osvetljujejo desetletja prevladujočo tezo o novi dunajski šoli kot vodilni ter edini modernistično usmerjeni sredini - zaradi njenih »avantgardnih« dosežkov v okviru glasbenega ekspresionizma - kot zavajajočo, do nedavna predstavljano zgodovino glasbenega modernizma pa kot nacionalno-ideološki konstrukt. Zato v disertaciji posredujemo nove poglede na omenjene glasbene in slogovne fenomene ter ugotavljamo posledice (z naše strani) tako poimenovane »ador-novske zmote« tudi v slovenskem zgodovinopisju. Med drugim v nalogi razgrinjamo Danuserjevo tezo o širokem in »vse obsegajočem« estetskem konceptu »modernističnega klasicizma« oziroma »klasicističnega modernizma« med letoma 1920-1950, ki naj bi vključeval številne in raznolike kompozicijskotehnične idiome v okviru nacionalno pogojenih glasbenih silnic, s čimer le potrjuje našo tezo o polislogovnosti glasbe tega časa. Najnovejša spoznanja o dosedanji (pejorativni) obravnavi neoklasicizma in vključevanja tradicionalnih tonalnih elementov v novo glasbo zato odpirajo številna nadaljnja vprašanja, predvsem pa pozivajo k ponovnemu ovrednotenju slovenskega glasbenega modernizma v prvi polovici 20. stoletja. Kljub številčni skromnosti opusa slovenskega modernista Demetrija Žebreta (19121970), kot ugotavljamo v drugem delu disertacije, ki je posvečen njegovemu opusu ob iskanju vzporednic z drugimi slovenskimi ustvarjalci in slogovnimi trendi, je skladatelj ustvarjal svoja dela premišljeno in konsistentno ter z dodelano glasbeno poetiko. Slednja se je sicer od najzgodnejših stvaritev (iz leta 1925) do poslednje (1949) spreminjala pod vplivom in v skladu s sodobnimi slogovnimi tendencami časa ter okolja, v katerem je živel. Kot večina njegovih sodobnikov iz prve polovice 20. stoletja, ki jih je pritegnila in zaznamovala ideja »napredka« oziroma »inovacije«, je v novem, svobodnem zvočnem svetu po prelomu s tradicionalno tonalnostjo moral poiskati drugačne rešitve vezivnosti in artikulacije glasbena toka, kot ga je omogočal tonalni sistem, čeprav se posameznim elementom le-tega v svojih zmernejših modernističnih skladbah ni odpovedal. Slogovne in kompozicijsko-tehnične analize večine njegovih skladb, zlasti pa vseh orkestralnih, so pokazale, da je njegov opus večkrat doživel slogovne premene in da je pomembno prispeval k slovenski glasbeni tvornosti v okviru vseh slogovnih tendenc časa - od ekspresionizma, impresionizma, neoklasicizma, nove stvarnosti, postromantizma, socialističnega realizma in modernističnega klasicizma. Z nekaterimi ekspresionističnimi deli se je pridružil najbolj radikalnim kompozicijskim rešitvam v slovenski glasbi, z izjemo dodekafonske metode, ki pa je ni, enako kot Alois Haba, dokončno sprejel nihče od Osterčevih učencev. Preseneča dejstvo, da je Žebre svojo kompozicijsko pot že začel tako, saj so bila ob nekaterih romantičnih začetkih v orkestralni glasbi (Andante) njegova komorna dela in samospevi povečini pod vplivom ekspresionističnih slogovnih tendenc in elementov nove stvarnosti. Kje je dobil spodbude za tako aktualen in disonančno zaostren zunajtonalni zvočni svet, denimo, v Tepežnici (1928) ali Treh samospevih na Župančičeva besedila (1929), ostaja odprto vprašanje. Zanimivo je tudi, da je v svojih samospevih ter v večini komornih in solističnih del ohranil zunajtonalni ekspresionistični slog z elementi nove stvarnosti, vse do zadnjih treh samospevov na besedilo Mitje Šarabona iz leta 1944. To dokazujeta tudi Scherzo (1925) in Nocturno (1944) za klavir oziroma priredba slednjega za violino in klavir (1947), ki začenjata ter zaključujeta njegov ekspresionistični lok izraznosti. Ta se še posebno vzpne med in po Žebretovem prihodu iz Prage v delih kot so Godalni kvartet (1935), Caprice (1935) in Preludij za violino in klavir (1936), Trije lirični poemi za violino in klavir (1937), komorna glasba in otroški zbori v četrtonskem in šestino-tonskem sistemu ter orkestralni skladbi Tek (1935) in Toccata (1936). Med študijem pri Slavku Ostercu (1929-1934) je skladatelj ustvaril par samospevov, zborov, nekaj komornih del (Intermezzo saxofobico za saksofon in klavir, 1932, Burleska za violino in klavir, 1933, Pihalni trio za flavto, klavir in fagot, 1934) ter orkestralno Suita za mali orkester (1932). Analiza Suite kaže večji vpliv neoklasicizma, neobaroka, nove stvarnosti ter ameriške plesne glasbe tistega časa, z vključitvijo prvin jazzovske glasbe. Zlasti opazen je parodično-humoren, lahkotnejši in antiromantični izraz omenjenih del, značilen za predstavnike glasbe t. i. »francosko-ruske osi«. Leta 1938 začne Žebre vključevati impresionistične tehnike v svoj kompozicijski slog in ustvari zaporedoma dve obsežni deli pod vplivom Debussyja. Polislogovni Bacchanale oziroma balet (simfonično sliko v treh stavkih) Dan z elementi impresionizma, ekspresionizma, nove stvarnosti in postromantizma zaključi štiri leta kasneje (1938-1942), že leta 1939 pa nastane njegov prvi »impresionistični biser« z naslovom Vizija, ki se ji pridružita kmalu še Tretja (1942), imenovana tudi Prebujenje, in Druga (1943). Cikel Treh vizij ostane njegovo najbolj slogovno enovito delo, čeprav gre razumeti impresionizem v tem času že kot historično referenco najširše pojmovanega klasicističnega modernizma. Pod močnejšim vplivom impresionizma, sicer pa izrazno polislogovna, je še skladba Maja in morje za sopran in orkester (1944). Tendenci socialističnega realizma z večjim nagibom k klasicističnim oblikovnim postopkom, bolj di-atoničnim tonskim vsebinam in romantičnemu izrazu prilagodi skladatelj svoja zadnja štiri orkestralna dela - Svobodi naproti (1944), Žalno glasbo v spomin Slavka Osterca (1945), Concertino za klavir in orkester (1946) in Allegro risoluto-marciale (1949), ki jih moremo razumeti kot naraven polislogovni odziv »klasicističnega modernista« na zahteve revolucionarnega in politično enoumnega časa. Obranjeno 7. septembra 2016 na Filozofski fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani. Demetrij Zebre and contemporary stylistic tendencies in Slovenian music Alongside a thorough overview of stylistic trends in music of the first half of the last century, and its particular terminology, the first part of dissertation explores the most recent concepts of different music theorists and musicologists on hitherto understanding of music modernism, neoclassicism and tradition in the music of 20th century. Their similar findings illuminate for decades prevailing premise of the Second Viennese School as being the leading and the only modernist focused centre - because of its "avant-garde" achievements within musical expressionism - and regard it as misleading. Furthermore, they consider the most recently presented history of music modernism as a national ideological construct. In the dissertation we therefore reveal new views on aforementioned musical and stylistic phenomena and expose the consequences of the "Adornian mistake" present in Slovenian historiography. Moreover, in the thesis we present Danuser's argument on a wide and "all inclusive" aesthetic concept of "modernist classicism" or "classicist modernism". Emerging between 1920-1950 it encompassed a variety of different compositional-technical idioms within nationally determined musical tendencies, thus confirming our thesis on polystylistic features of the music of that time. The most recent findings on up to date (pejorative) discussion of neoclassicism and inclusion of traditional tonal elements in contemporary music therefore unravel diverse new questions, and above all they call for a second evaluation of modernism in the Slovenian music of the first half of the 20th century. In spite of relatively small opus of Slovenian modernist Demetrij Zebre (19121970), as we discover in the second part of the dissertation, which concerns with his opus and identification of parallels with other Slovenian artists and stylistic trends, the composer created his works thoughtfully and steadily, with an exceptional music poetics. Nevertheless, from the earliest creations (from 1925) to the last (1949), his poetics evolved in accordance with the contemporary stylistic trends of the time and the environment he lived in. Within the new, free sound world, marked by the break from traditional tonality, he, too, as most of his contemporaries from the first half of the 20th century who were drawn to and inspired by the idea of "progress" or "innovation", had to search for different solutions for achieving cohesiveness and articulation of music flow, just as it was attainable through tonal system. Even so, in his restrained modernist compositions he did not abandon specific elements of the tonal system. Stylistic and compositional-technical analysis of most of his compositions, especially those written for orchestra, reveals, that his opus progressed through several stylistic changes and that he significantly contributed to Slovenian musical achievements within all stylistic trends of the time - from expressionism, impressionism, neoclassicism, New Objectivity, post-romanticism, socialist realism and modernist classicism. Some of his expressionist works can be regarded as the most radical compositional solutions in Slovenian music, leaving out dodecaphonic method, which was not fully accepted by neither Alois Haba nor any of Osterc's students. The fact that Žebre started his compositional path in such manner is surprising, since alongside some of his romantic outsets in orchestral music (Andante,), his chamber music and songs displayed an influence of expressionistic stylistic trends and elements of the New Objectivity. Where has he found the inspiration for such original and dissonant non-tonal sound world, for example in Tepežnica (1928) or Trije samospevi (Three songs) on lyrics of Oton Župančič (1929), remains an open question. It is interesting that in his songs and in most of his choral and solo compositions he retained a non-tonal expressionist style with elements of the New Objectivity, until the last three songs from the year 1944, written to the lyrics of Mitja Šabon. Furthermore, this can also be recognized in the Scherzo (1925) and the Nocturno (1944) for piano, and its adaptation for violin and piano (1947), which begin and end his path of expressionist expression. The latter notably escalates in the time between and after Žebre's arrival from Prague, in works such as the Godalni kvartet (String Quartet) (1935), Caprice (1935) and Preludij (Prelude) for violin and piano (1936), Trije lirični poemi za violino in klavir (Three lyrical poems for violin and piano) (1937), chamber music and children's choirs in quarter-tone and sixth-tone system and in the orchestral composition Tek (Run) (1935) and Toccata (1936). Between his studies with Slavko Osterc (1929-1934) the composer created a few songs, choirs, some chamber works (Intermezzo saxofobico for saxophone and piano, 1932, Burleska (Burlesque) for violin and piano, 1933, Pihalni trio (Wind trio) for flute, piano and bassoon, 1934) and orchestral Suita (Suite) for a small orchestra (1932). Analysis of the Suite shows a stronger sense of neoclassicism, neo-baroque, New Objectivity and American dance music of the time, along with the inclusion of features of jazz music. Especially noticeable is parodic-humorous, light and anti-romantic expression by all of these mentioned works, typical for the music of composers belonging to the "French-Russian axis". In 1938 Žebre starts to incorporate impressionist techniques in his compositional style and consecutively creates two large works, which were influenced by Debussy. Polystylistic Bacchanale, a ballet (symphonic poem in three movements), Dan (Day) with elements of impressionism, expressionism, New Objectivity and post-romanticism, which he finished four years later (1938-1942). By the year 1939 he has already created his first "impressionist jewel" titled Vizija (Vision), which is soon followed by Tretja (The third) (1942), titled also as Prebujenje (Awakening), and Druga (The second) (1943). The cycle Tri vizije (Three visions) remains his most stylistic uniform work. However, impressionism of that time needs to be understood as a historical reference of the wider defined classicist modernism. Under stronger impact of impressionism, and in expression polystylistic, is composition Maja in morje (Maja and the sea) for soprano and orchestra (1944). The composer shifted toward socialist realism with stronger attraction to classicist formal processes, greater diatonic tonal content and romantic expression in his last four orchestral works - Svobodi naproti (Towards the freedom) (1944), Žalna glasba v spomin Slavka Osterca (Funeral music in the memory of Slavko Osterc) (1945), Concertino for piano and orchestra (1946) and Allegro risoluto-mar-ciale (1949), which can be understood as an instinctive polystylistic reaction of the classicist modernist to the demands of the revolutionary and politically unequivocal time. Defended on 7 September 2016, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana. Nejc Sukljan Istitutioni Harmoniche Gioseffa Zarlina in antična glasbena teorija Gioseffo Zarlino, po mnenju mnogih osrednji in najvplivnejši italijanski glasbeni teoretik 16. stoletja, je na začetku traktata Istitutioni harmoniche (Temelji harmonike) glasbo predstavil kot matematično znanost. Prepričan je bil, da mora pravi muzik poznati tudi spekulativno plat glasbe, saj je ravno poglobljeno teoretsko znanje tisti temelj, iz katerega izhaja vsakršno glasbenopraktično udejstvovanje. V tem svojem prepričanju se je v humanističnem duhu v veliki meri navezoval na poglede antičnih glasbenih teoretikov, ki jih je prevzemal in na njih gradil vsebino svojega traktata. Na ta način se njegova razprava o glasbi kaže kot prvovrstni vir za preučevanje razumevanja in prevzemanja antičnih glasbenih teoremov v renesančno glasbeno teorijo: Zarlino ni bil teoretik, ki bi antično izročilo le povzel, pač pa ga je interpretiral, razumel in v Istitutioni predstavil z ozirom na glasbo svojega časa. V povezavi z nakazano problematiko zasleduje razprava predvsem tri cilje: (1) Umestiti Zarlina in Istitutioni v zgodovinski kontekst: pokazati, da je traktat v taki obliki in s tako vsebino lahko nastal le znotraj specifičnega zgodovinskega prostora in časa, v renesančni Italiji 16. stoletja. (2) Predstaviti, kako se je v danem okolju in času kot humanistični učenjak oblikoval Zarlino: ugotoviti, na kakšen način in v kolikšni meri je spoznaval antično (glasbe-noteoretsko) izročilo. (3) V ospredje postaviti vsebino Istitutioni in različne vidike njenih povezav z antično glasbeno teorijo. Izhajajoč iz zastavljenih ciljev je vsebina disertacije razdeljena na tri dele. V prvem so orisane značilne kulturnozgodovinske okoliščine, v katerih so nastale Istitutioni. Za razumevanje Zarlinovih glasbenoteoretskih zamisli je gotovo ključnega pomena zavedanje, da ni bil izoliran posameznik in da je bil kot italijanski učenjak v središču dogajanja: humanistična miselnost in v njenem okviru novi pogledi na antiko in antično izročilo so se najprej pojavili prav v italijanskih mestih; med slednjimi so se kot eno izmed najpomembnejših že v visokem srednjem veku uveljavile Benetke. Te so spričo razvejane pomorske trgovine, gospodarske in finančne blaginje ter relativne politične stabilnosti privlačile mnoge tujce, med katerimi so bili tudi številni učenjaki in umetniki. Ti so s seboj prinesli mnoge sveže zamisli, ki so pomembno pripomogle, da je mesto, posebno po skokovitem vzponu tiskarske dejavnosti v drugi polovici 15. stoletja, postalo eno najpomembnejših sedišč renesančne kulture. Od začetka štiridesetih let 16. stoletja je tu živel in deloval tudi Zarlino. V drugem delu disertacije je ob pregledu Zarlinovega življenja podrobno predstavljen njegov študij antike in spoznavanje antičnih virov. Prek študija in kasnejšega glasbenega in neglasbenega delovanja, posebno prek poglobljenih razprav z drugimi učenjaki časa, je Zarlino prevzemal in hkrati pomembno sooblikoval renesančno humanistično paradigmo navezovanja na antiko. Ključnega pomena za preučevanje antičnega izročila je bila razpoložljivost virov, najprej latinskih in nato od konca 15. stoletja dalje še grških. Kot pomemben beneški učenjak in viden član Accademie Vene-ziane je imel Zarlino spričo Bessarionovega darila mestu na voljo vse pomembnejše grške spise o glasbi: način njegovega dojemanja in razumevanje antike in antične glasbene teorije v Istitutioni je nedvomno tudi posledica širokega dostopa do izvirnikov in možnosti za njihovo preučevanje. Tretji del disertacije izhaja iz traktata samega: ob obravnavi posameznih Zarlinovih teoremov je prikazano, v kolikšni meri, na kakšen način in s kakšnim namenom je v njem obravnavana in prevzeta antična glasbena teorija. V skladu s pogledi antičnih teoretikov je glasba v začetku Istitutioni postavljena kot eksaktna matematična znanost, tesno povezana z ostalimi kvadrivialnimi disciplinami. Zarlino trdi, da se prek nje dostopa do najvišje resnice, saj je v obliki harmoničnih razmerij prisotna povsod: vse, kar obstaja, je harmonično (glasbeno) urejeno. V nadaljevanju se v traktatu razpravlja le o dejanski, zveneči glasbi; najprej se utemeljuje tonski sistem, znotraj katerega more obstajati. Izpostavljeno je prepričanje, da je bila antična glasba drugačna od sodobne, zaradi česar je bil tudi njen tonski sistem nujno drugačen. Ta sodobni glasbi ni več zadosten, potrebno ga je spremeniti, razširiti in prilagoditi. Tako Zarlino namesto konso-nanc, opisanih z razmerji prvih štirih števil (quaternario), uvede sistem, utemeljen na številu šest (numero senario), v katerega so vključene tudi lepo zveneče terce in sekste. Iz njega je nadalje izpeljan eden jedrnih konceptov Zarlinove glasbene teorije, zveneče število (numero sonoro), ki je postavljeno za predmet muzikovega preučevanja: v kompozicijah je dovoljeno uporabljati le intervale, katerih termine razmerij najdemo med zvenečimi števili, izpeljanimi iz števila šest in njegovih delov. Izgradnja tonskega sistema se zaključi z razpravo o uglasitvi: Zarlino dokazuje, da se v sočasni vokalni glasbi rabi Ptolemajeva sintonična diatonična oz. čista uglasitev, medtem ko mora biti uglasitev v instrumentalni glasbi temperirana. Teoretičnim poglavjem sledi obravnava glasbenopraktičnih tem: spekulativni premisleki in zgrajeni tonski sistem so v tretji in četrti knjigi povezani z naukom o kontra-punktu in z razpravo o modusih. Na ta način se antična glasbenoteoretska tradicija v Istitutioni v veliki meri kaže kot model in sredstvo za dosego ozko določenega cilja: izgradnjo tonskega sistema, znotraj katerega poteka glasbena praksa časa in znotraj katerega je po Zarlinovem prepričanju možen in od njega odvisen v spisu predstavljeni nauk o kontrapunktu. Prevzemanje antičnih kanonov je v renesansi postalo postulat. Toda misleci časa jih niso prevzemali dosledno, temveč so jih v prvi vrsti postavljali za vzor in izhodiščni model, ki ga je moč prilagoditi realnosti lastnega časa. V tem smislu so renesančni znanstveniki antične zamisli preučevali, kritično pretresali, predrugačili, nadgradili in tako prišli do novih spoznanj ter postavljali nove sisteme. Na enak način je poglede antičnih glasbenih teoretikov prevzemal Zarlino: V stari Grčiji je nastal osnovni kanon glasbenoteoretskih toposov, ki so ga poznoantični avtorji in posebej Boetij prenesli v srednji vek. Zarlino je vsebino ključnih antičnih glasbenoteoretskih spisov, na katere se sklicuje v Istitutioni, dobro poznal in iz nje v svojih premislekih izhajal. Toda ni je prevzemal dosledno in nespremenjene, temveč jo je (morda najjasneje izmed vseh teoretikov časa) redefiniral: prosto jo je komentiral, interpretiral, širil, krčil, predvsem pa prilagodil glasbeni praksi svojega časa in na ta način postavil glasbenoteoretski sistem, s katerim je opisal sodobno glasbo. Obranjeno 24. aprila 2017 na Filozofski fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani. Gioseffo Zarlino's Istitutioni Harmoniche and Ancient Music Theory At the beginning of the treatise Istitutioni harmoniche (Harmonic Institutions), Gioseffo Zarlino, who is considered by many as the central and the most influential Italian music theorist of the 16th century, presented music as a mathematical science. Making the theoretical knowledge the main foundation for any kind of practical musical activity, he maintained that a true musician must also have a profound knowledge of musica speculativa. In this way, he adopted the ancient musical theorists' views and in a humanistic spirit, he used them as the cornerstone of his treatise. The Istitutioni can thus be considered as a first rate source for the study of the understanding and implementation of ancient musical theorems into the Renaissance music theory: Zarlino was not a theoretician who would merely summarize the classical tradition, but would interpret it, comprehend it and presented it with respect to the music of his time. In connection with the indicated issue, the thesis has three main goals: (1) To place Zarlino and Istitutioni within the historical context: The aim is to show that the treatise with its form and content could only be a product of a specific historical time and space, namely the 16th Century Renaissance Italy. (2) To discuss Zarlino's formation as a humanist scholar within the given environment and time: The aim is to establish, in what way and to what extent he was acquainted with classical (music theory) tradition. (3) To discuss the content of Istitutioni and its various connections with the ancient music theory. In accordance with the stated goals, the content of the dissertation is divided into three main parts. In the first, the cultural historical background of Istitutioni is discussed. In order to fully comprehend Zarlino's theoretical ideas one must keep in mind that he was not an isolated individual and that as an Italian scholar, he was at the heart of development: humanistic mind-set together with the new views on Classical Antiquity and the classical tradition emerged precisely in the Italian cities. Among the latter, Venice had been one of the most important already in the High Middle Ages. In the view of a widely developed maritime trade, economic and financial growth and relative political stability, the city attracted many foreigners, including many scholars and artists. They brought many fresh ideas that made a significant contribution to Venice to become one of the key centres of the Renaissance culture during the second half of the 15th century. From the beginning of 1540s, Zarlino was also one of the city's inhabitants. With the biographical overview of Zarlino's life, the second part of the dissertation focuses on his classical studies and acquaintance with the ancient sources. First through constant study and, later, through different musical and non-musical activities, especially through in-depth discussions with other scholars of the time, Zarlino took over and at the same time importantly shaped the Renaissance humanist paradigm of taking the Classical Antiquity as an example for all kind of cultural and scientific activities. The Renaissance development of classical studies was possible because the necessary sources became available (firstly, Latin and from the end of the 15th century also Greek). As an important Venetian scholar and a prominent member of the Acca-demia Veneziana, Zarlino had at his disposal all the necessary ancient Greek musical treatises: His understanding of Classical Antiquity and ancient music theory in Istitu-tioni is beyond doubt the result of his broad access to the original sources. The third part focuses on the treatise itself: the discussion of individual Zarlino's theorems shows to what extent, how and with what purpose he discusses and deals with the ancient music theory. In accordance with the views of the ancient theorists, at the beginning of Istitutioni music is defined as a mathematical science, closely related to the other quadrivial disciplines. According to Zarlino's beliefs, through its omnipresence in the form of harmonic ratios the ultimate truth can be accessed: all existence is harmonically (musically) ordained. The treatise then focuses only on the actual, sonorous music. Firstly, its acoustic system is defined. Zarlino maintains that ancient music was different from modern, therefore its acoustic system was different as well. As such, it does not fit the music of his time and has to be changed, expanded and adapted. Instead of consonances contained within the ratios based on the first four numbers (quatemario), a system based on the number six (numero senario) is introduced; the nice-sounding thirds and sixths are also included. Moreover, another of Zarlino's key theoretical concepts is derived from the number six, namely the sounding number (numero sonoro) that is defined as the main object of the music theorists' study: only the intervals, ratios of which can be found among the sounding numbers, are to be used when composing a musical composition. To conclude the acoustic system construction, Zarlino discusses the tuning question: According to him, Ptolemy's syntonic diatonic tuning or just intonation is used in vocal music, whereas in instrumental music, tem-peration has to be made. Theoretical chapters are followed by the discussion of practical topics: speculative considerations from the first and second part of the treatise are connected with the art of counterpoint (part three) and the modes (part four). Thus, the inclusion of the ancient music theory concepts in Istitutioni seems to have one specific goal: the construction of the contemporary music acoustic system, in which the contemporary art of counterpoint can only exist. Relying upon classical ideals became a Renaissance postulate. However, the Renaissance scholars did not merely copy classical ideas: they set them as an example and a point of departure that could be adapted to the reality of their own time. According to this, the Renaissance scholars studied, criticised, altered and upgraded the ancient ideas, which resulted in new findings and in the construction of new systems. Zarlino dealt with the views of the ancient music theorists in the same way: In Ancient Greece, a fundamental canon of music theory categories was created and was transmitted to the Middle Ages in Late Antiquity writings (especially Boethius). Zarlino was well acquainted with the content of the most important classical music theory treatises that he used as his source in Istitutioni; however, he did not merely copy it. On the contrary, he redefined it and perhaps even clearer than any other Renaissance music theorist: he freely commented it, interpreted it, extended it, shortened it, and above all, he adjusted it to the musical practice of his time. As a result, he built a theoretical system to describe the contemporary music. Defended on 24 April 2017 Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana. Vesna Venišnik Zgodnja simfonična glasba na Slovenskem Rokopisni prepisi in tiskane izdaje simfonij, ki so ohranjeni v arhivih po Sloveniji in italijanski Gorici potrjujejo, da je tudi slovenski prostor v 18. in na začetku 19. stoletja sledil širšim evropskim simfoničnim tokovom in da je bil seznanjen z najsodobnejšim simfoničnim repertoarjem. Večina slovenskega ozemlja je spadala pod okrilje Svetega rimskega cesarstva nemške narodnosti kot del habsburških dednih dežel. Značilnosti tukajšnjega simfoničnega repertoarja so sovpadale z značilnostmi repertoarja celotne habsburške monarhije. Najstarejše simfonije ohranjene na tem območju hrani Deželni zgodovinski arhiv v Gorici (Archivio storico procinciale di Gorizia). Te simfonije, ki so nastale približno med letoma 1740 in 1765, so najzgodnejši primeri simfonične zvrsti na tem področju. Simfonični repertoar tega obdobja je bil mednarodno usmerjen, kar je bilo značilno tudi za druga evropska središča. Gre za simfonije skladateljev, ki so bili zelo znani po celotni Evropi. Med njimi so Antonio Brioschi, Giovanni Battista Sammartini, Georg Christoph Wagenseil, Johann Gabriel Seyffarth, Johann Christian Bach, Ignaz Holzbauer, Johann Stamitz in Carl Joseph Toeschi. Med pomembnimi meceni simfoničnega repertoarja osemnajstega stoletja so bile sakralne institucije, kjer se so simfonije izvajale tudi v okviru bogoslužja. Frančiškanski samostan v Novem mestu hrani eno simfonijo Carla Dittersa von Dittersdorfa, eno simfonijo Johanna Baptista Vanhala, eno simfonijo Leopolda Mozarta, eno simfonijo Antonina Kammela, priljubljeno tiskano zbirko Sei sinfonie a grande orchester Jose-pha Haydna in tiskane zbirko dvanajstih simfonij patra Lamberta Krausa. Simfonije so bile pridobljene približno med letoma 1750 in 1780, torej v času, ko so samostani v habsburški monarhiji pridobili največ simfonij. Jožefinske reforme v osemdesetih letih osemnajstega stoletja so namreč razpustile veliko samostanov in tudi okrnile glasbeno spremljavo pri liturgiji, kar je zmanjšalo potrebo po dobavi novih simfonij. Ob koncu stoletja je bil simfonični repertoar v habsburški monarhiji usmerjen izključno v lokalno ustvarjalnost. To je značilno tako za goriško deželo kot za repertoar ljubljanske Filharmonične družbe, ki je bila ustanovljena leta 1794. V Deželnem zgodovinskem arhivu v Gorici prevladujejo dela priljubljenih skladateljev Adalberta Gyro-wetza in Ignaza Pleyela. Nadalje je v arhivu ohranjena tudi simfonija »La festa dellapace 1791« Franza Antona Hoffmeistra, prva simfonija Franza Krommerja, zbirka šestih simfonij beneškega skladatelja Angela Baldana ter dve simfoniji nemškega skladatelja Otta Carla Erdmanna von Kospotha. Poleg tega hrani arhiv dve simfoniji Josepha Haydna in prvo ter tretjo Beethovnovo simfonijo. Med muzikalijami pa presenetljivo ni nobene simfonije Wolfganga Amadeusa Mozarta. Tako goriški repertoar kot repertoar Filharmonične družbe je bil usmerjen skoraj izključno v lokalno ustvarjalnost (pridobivali so dela skladateljev, ki so bili v monarhiji rojeni, ali pa so tam delovali). V obeh zbirkah najdemo dela istih skladateljev -načeloma najbolj priljubljenih sodobnih skladateljev - vključno z nekaj identičnimi deli. Po drugi strani pa je družba pridobila tudi dela Dittersdorfa in Paula Wranitzkyja ter seveda Mozartove simfonije. Prevladujoči skladatelj simfonij v družbinem katalogu muzikalij iz leta 1804 je Joseph Haydn. Od skladateljev simfonij, ki jih je imela v lasti družba, le Franz Christoph Neubauer in Louis Massoneau nista delovala v habsburški monarhiji, so pa bila njuna dela na prodaj na Dunaju. V prvem desetletju 19. stoletja je bil repertoar Filharmonične družbe še vedno usmerjen v lokalno ustvarjalnost. Od leta 1816 dalje pa so se člani družbe spoznavali tudi z najnovejšimi simfonijami skladateljev delujočih v nemških deželah. Od dvajsetih let 19. stoletja dalje so bile simfonije v sporede družbe vključene vedno redkeje in tudi izvajali so le še posamezne stavke in ne več celotnih simfonij. Od leta 1830 dalje pa so simfonije za dobrih dvajset let iz sporedov družbe popolnoma izginile. Nadomestile so jih uverture in skladbe za solističen inštrument z orkestrsko spremljavo. Tiskane izdaje, ohranjene v obravnavanih arhivih, so načeloma prve izdaje. Ohranjene so namreč prve izdaje Andréja ter dunajskih založb, ali prve dunajske izdaje, ki so nastale leto ali dve po izdajah tujih založnikov. To dokazuje, da so si Filharmonična družba in goriški glasbeni navdušenci si prizadevali pridobiti najnovejše simfonije. To vsekakor drži za Filharmonično društvo, kajti katalog družbenih skladb iz leta 1804 vključuje operno simfonijo k operi, ki je bila premierno izvedena januarja 1804, ter tudi Beethovnovo Drugo simfonijo, ki je bila istega leta na voljo v tiskani izdaji. Težko je govoriti o slovenskem simfoničnem repertoarju v osemnajstem stoletju, kajti v tem času Slovenija sploh ni obstajala. Niti ni obstajal slovenski narod, ki bi delil zavest o skupni pripadnosti, ki bi govoril isti jezik in imel skupno kulturo ter ekonomijo. Slovensko ozemlje je bilo pravzaprav periferija večje, kulturno zelo bogate, države. Tako tudi simfonični repertoar, ki je nastajal na Dunaju in v drugih habsburških deželah, ni bil »tuj« ali »nemški«, temveč je bil del lokalne ustvarjalnosti. Čeprav na našem ozemlju ni bilo resnično zelo bogatih mecenov, ki bi podpirali veliko število simfonij, so tudi na tem območju cerkve, samostani, plemiči, glasbena društva in gledališča kupovali simfonije in kot potrošniki prispevali k povpraševanju po novih delih, kajti uspešna prodaja simfonij je založnike tudi spodbudila k naročilu novih del. Obranjeno 16. septembra 2016 na Filozofski fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani. Early Symphonic Music in Slovenia The extant manuscripts and prints of early symphonic music preserved in various archives throughout Slovenia and in the border town of Gorizia confirm that during the eighteenth and early nineteenth century this territory followed broader European symphonic currents and was acquainted with contemporary examples of the genre. Throughout the eighteenth century the symphonic repertoire of the Slovenian territory was significantly influenced by the preferences of the Habsburg Empire to which it belonged politically. The characteristics of the symphonies preserved in the slovenian historical lands are comparable to those of other collections in the Habsburg monarchy. The symphonies held by the Historical Archive of Gorizia from the period between the 1740s and 1760s are the earliest examples of the symphonic genre preserved in this territory, and are mainly works by the pioneers of the genre. The symphonic repertoire of this period had an international orientation, which was also characteristic of other European collections; the works of these composers were in general very well known and disseminated throughout Europe. Among the composers are Antonio Brioschi, Giovanni Battista Sammartini, Georg Christoph Wagenseil, Ignaz Holzbauer, Johann Stamitz, Johann Christian Bach and Carl Joseph Toeschi. Among the important patrons of the symphonic repertoire in the eighteenth century were religious institutions, where symphonies were used for liturgical and devotional purposes as well as during festivities. The Franciscan monastery in Novo Mesto holds one symphony by Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf, one by Leopold Mozart, one by Antonin Kammel and one by Johann Baptist Vanhal, as well as the popular edition of Sei sinfonie a grande orchestra by Joseph Haydn and a collection of twelwe symphonies by Lambert Kraus. The works of this type in these religious establishments were acquired between the 1750s and the 1780s, the period when Austrian monasteries also obtained most of their symphonic repertoire. The Josephine reforms of the 1780s not only closed several monasteries but also curtailed the musical accompaniment to the liturgy, thereby automatically reducing the Church's demand for symphonies. By the end of the century the symphonic repertoire in the Habsburg monarchy had become oriented almost exclusively towards local production. This is characteristic of the Gorizian region and of the repertoire of the Philharmonic Society in Ljubljana, founded in 1794. In the Gorizian collection works by popular composers such as Adalbert Gyrowetz and Ignaz Pleyel predominate. There are only two symphonies by J. Haydn, the first and third symphonies by Beethoven and none at all by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. There is also a collection of six symphonies by the Venetian Angelo Baldan and two symphonies by German Otto Carl Erdmann von Kospoth. Certain parallels can be drawn between the Gorizian repertoire and that of the Philharmonic Society, since the latter also favoured local repertoire (by composers born and/or active within the monarchy). Moreover, works by the same composers - primarily the most prolific and popular composers of the day - are found in both collections, including some absolutely identical works. Unlike the Gorizians, however, the Society acquired works by Dittersdorf and Paul Wranitzky, plus - in contrast - several Mozart symphonies. Not surprisingly, the predominant composer listed in the Society's catalogue of works drawn up in 1804 was clearly Haydn. Among the composers of symphonies held by the Society, only Franz Christoph Neubauer and Louis Massoneau were non-Austrian; their works were, however, available for purchase in Vienna. In the first decade of the nineteenth century the repertoire of the Philharmonic Society was still focused local composers from the Habsburg Monarchy. However, from 1816 onwards the new symphonies that were acquired were mainly works by German composers. The symphonies were being programmed less frequently and not in their entirety. There are practically no more symphonies found on the Society's programs from 1830 onwards. They were substituted with overtures and concertos. The printed editions preserved in Slovenian archives are generally first editions. This proves that the Society and the Gorizian music enthusiasts were keen to acquire the most recently composed symphonies. This was definitely true of the Philharmonic Society, whose catalogue citing works acquired by June 1804 includes the sinfonia to an opera that had been premiered in January 1804 as well as Beethoven's Second Symphony, which first became available in print that same year. It is difficult to write about the Slovenian symphonic repertoire in the eighteenth century, because Slovenia as such at this time did not exist. The vast majority of the population regarded themselves as belonging first and foremost to a certain duchy, and in consequence to the Habsburg monarchy. We cannot, therefore, properly speak of an expressly Slovenian symphonic repertoire and Slovenian composers; however, we may in compensation regard Austrian creativity legitimately as "local" creativity. In this light, the modern Slovenian territory was a peripheral but integral component of a large and culturally rich state. Although there were no (truly rich) patrons in this periphery capable of commissioning vast numbers of symphonies, there were at least consumers who in their more modest way contributed to the cultivation and growth of the symphonic repertoire, whereby new symphonies continued to be written so long as there was a continued demand for them. Defended on 16 September 2016 at the Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana. Vojko Veršnik Glasbeno življenje upokojencev na slovenskem Koroškem Osrednji namen doktorske disertacije je bil raziskati in prikazati glasbeno življenje upokojencev na slovenskem Koroškem ter na temeljih aplikativne etnomuzikologije predlagati strategije za izboljšave ugotovljenega stanja. Disertacija na 355 straneh obsega pet poglavij in vsebuje 80 prilog (grafov, tabel, fotografij). Uvodno poglavje predstavlja teoretična in metodološka izhodišča disertacije. Sledijo poglavja, ki obravnavajo upokojence in glasbo na splošni ravni (drugo poglavje), na Slovenskem (tretje) ter na slovenskem Koroškem (četrto). Med drugim in četrtim poglavjem se proporcionalno zmanjšuje poudarek na dognanjih drugih avtorjev in se povečuje pomen avtorjevega empiričnega raziskovalnega dela. V petem poglavju je v ospredju potencial aplikativne etnomuzikologije za izboljšanje ugotovljenega stanja, predstavljen pa je tudi primer učinkovite aplikacije raziskovalnih dognanj v konkretnem projektu. Disertacijo sklenejo Zaključek ter Viri in literatura. Gre za prvo obsežnejšo etnomuzikološko študijo v slovenskem znanstvenem prostoru, ki obravnava glasbene aspekte tretjega življenjskega obdobja. Študija temelji na večletnem terenskem raziskovalnem delu ter na kritičnem vpogledu v relevantne študije drugih avtorjev, ki so raziskave opravili v drugih delih sveta. Na podlagi tega je bilo ugotovljeno, da Slovenija ne zaostaja zgolj v organizirani rabi glasbe za dobrobit starejših, ampak na celotnem področju socialne geriatrije, gerontologije in gerontago-gike, kar kaže na potrebo po strateškem sistemskem pristopu. V ospredju obravnave današnjih in polpreteklih glasbenih aktivnosti in praks koroških upokojencev je človek v široko zajetem sociokulturnem kontekstu, s posebnim poudarkom na njegovi interakciji z glasbo, in ne glasba kot produkt. Z vidika raziskovanja od globalnega k lokalnemu je predstavljenih več primerov dobrih praks različnih osebnosti iz današnje generacije upokojencev, tako na tujem in v Sloveniji nasploh kot tudi na slovenskem Koroškem. Dejavnosti upokojencev potekajo znotraj krovne Zveze društev upokojencev Slovenije in drugih njim namenjenih organizacij, ustanov in društev. Upokojenci so v organizirani obliki glasbeno najbolj aktivni na lokalnem nivoju, bodisi v čisto upokojenskih bodisi v starostno mešanih skupinah. Med vsemi prednjačijo vokalne skupine, poleg njih pa v nekaterih regijah delujejo upokojenske folklorne skupine in veteranske godbe. Izbira je privilegij predvsem tistih, ki stanujejo "doma", medtem ko so tisti, ki stanujejo "v domu" (za starejše občane), bolj odvisni od ponudbe posameznega doma. Iz izsledkov raziskave je razvidno pestro glasbeno življenje v teh domovih, glasbene aktivnosti v njih pa so po vsej Sloveniji precej podobne. Med njimi izstopa petje, stanovalci se najbolj identificirajo z ljudsko ali ponarodelo pesmijo, od glasbil pa je najbolj prisotna harmonika. V osrednjem delu disertacije so glasbene aktivnosti koroških upokojencev obravnavane z vidika poslušanja, izvajanja, estetskega vrednotenja ter funkcij in rab glasbe. Starejši na Koroškem so večinoma dejavni v pevskih zborih (moških, ženskih ali mešanih), ki ponekod pri čisto upokojenskih skupinah zaradi problematike staranja izgubljajo članstvo in prehajajo v manjše vokalne skupine. Čeprav je bilo veliko sogovornikov v preteklosti dejavnih prav na področju narodnozabavne glasbe, pa tovrstnih ansamblov med upokojenci skoraj ne zasledimo več. Izjeme so manjše priložnostne zasedbe (npr. trio ali kvartet) in skupine ljudskih godcev/godk in pevcev/pevk. Na področju folklornih plesov deluje kot "čista" upokojenska zasedba na Koroškem le starejša sekcija Folklorne skupine KD Prežihov Voranc iz Raven na Koroškem (z nekaj mlajšimi izjemami še Folklorna skupina Majstrski iz Mislinje). Med dvanajstimi koroškim pihalnimi orkestri ni veteranske godbe. Ker je tradicijska ljudska glasba močno zaznamovala mladost koroških upokojencev, so si v največji meri okoli nje in njej sorodnih zvrsti ustvarili tudi lastni tako pasivni kot tudi aktivni repertoar. Slednji se sicer razlikuje glede na področje delovanja in posamezne skupine, vendar je na vokalnem področju zelo prisotna ljudska in ponarodela pesem v različnih (zborovskih oz. vokalnih) priredbah. Značilni občutek koroških upokojencev za estetsko interpretiranje teh pesmi je v disertaciji poimenovan "koroški občutek'. Posebne pozornosti so v disertaciji deležne funkcije in rabe glasbe, saj lahko šele skoznje razumemo pomene, vloge, učinke in moč glasbe pri koroških upokojencih. Raziskava je pokazala, da pri njihovih glasbenih aktivnostih ne gre zgolj za zabavo, ampak tudi za druge vidike, kot so izobraževanje, izražanje čustev, vpliv na posameznika (na vedenje, počutje, razpoloženje in zdravje) ter prispevek h kulturi. Analiza glasbenih parametrov je omogočila razumevanje njihovega odnosa do glasbe in potrebe po njej. Glasba jim predstavlja sprostitev, pogosto tudi uteho, miselno vadbo, način izražanja, nekaterim pa celo način življenja. Študija ugotavlja, da je večina žensk, predvsem zaradi družinskih obveznosti, postala glasbeno aktivna šele v tretjem življenjskem obdobju, ko so glasbene aktivnosti njihovih partnerjev že upadale ali celo prenehale. Iz raziskave je razvidno tudi, da je glasba v današnjem času izgubila močno povezovalno funkcijo, ki jo je imela v času njihove mladosti, za kar je deloma odgovoren tudi tehnološki napredek. Disertacijo zaznamujeta dve posebnosti. V metodološkem pogledu gre za poskus eksperimentalne etnografije, ki temelji na ozaveščenem odnosu med vlogama, ki ju pooseblja avtor: vlogo glasbenika, ki je bil integralni del (nekaterih) življenjskih zgodb koroških upokojencev, ter vlogo etnomuzikologa, ki raziskuje te življenjske zgodbe in jih razlaga v širšem kontekstu povezav med glasbo in ljudmi v tretjem življenjskem obdobju. V organizacijskem in idejnem pogledu izstopa zadnji del disertacije, ki na teoretičnih temeljih aplikativne etnomuzikologije nadgrajuje običajne cilje raziskovalnega dela ter demonstrira uporabo doseženih znanj in razumevanj v dobrobit obravnavane populacije. Tak primer je enoletni projekt "Poklonimo jim pesem", ki je bil namenjen predvsem starostnikom v koroških domovih za starejše občane. Njegov osnovni namen je bil skozi glasbeno interakcijo dveh različnih generacij doseči čim večjo medsebojno korist za obe skupini. Na podlagi predhodne raziskave je bil določen repertoar, s katerim so se upokojenci najbolj identificirali, Pevsko društvo Alenčice pa je skozi nastope pod avtorjevim vodstvom uspelo vzpostaviti učinkovito medgeneracijsko komunikacijo. Čeprav v projektu niso bile merjene dolgoročne posledice, je ta glede na kasnejše analize presegel zadane osnovne cilje in namen, hkrati pa je z različnimi predstavitvami (tudi na simpozijih) odigral pomembno vlogo ozaveščanja javnosti in dobil nove, tudi mednarodne razsežnosti. Celotna terenska raziskava temelji na opazovanju z udeležbo, pri zbiranju informacij pa je prevladoval kvalitativni pristop, najpogosteje v obliki poglobljenih intervjujev. V njih so se kot odličen komunikacijski pripomoček za miselno vračanje v preteklost izkazale fotografije iz konteksta glasbenih dejavnosti intervjuvancev. Celoten proces je bil dokumentiran z video in avdio snemalno ter fotografsko opremo. Disertacija pod mentorstvom prof. dr. Svaniborja Pettana razkriva sedanje in polpreteklo glasbeno in siceršnje življenje upokojencev na slovenskem Koroškem. Obranjeno 17. junija 2016 na Filozofski fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani. Musical Life of Pensioners in the Slovenian Carinthia The main purpose of this doctoral dissertation was to research and present musical life of pensioners in Slovenian Carinthia and to suggest new strategies and improvements of the analyzed state, based on the fundamentals of applied ethnomusicology. The dissertation on 355pages is organised into five chapters and includes 80 attachments (graphs, tables, photographs). The introductory chapter presents theoretical and methodological fundamentals of the dissertation. The following three chapters address the pensioners and music in general (second chapter), in Slovenia (third chapter) and in the Slovenian Carinthia (fourth chapter). Between the second and the forth chapter, the emphasis on the findings of other researchers is proportionally decreasing and the significance of the author's empirical research is increasing. In the foreground of the fifth chapter is the potential of applied ethnomusicology in improving the situation identified in the previous chapters. An example of efficient application of the research findings concludes this chapter. The dissertation ends with a Conclusion and References. This dissertation is the first extensive scientific study concerning the musical life of people in their third life period in the Slovenian realm. The study is based on field research over several years and the critical insights into the relevant studies of other authors, who have conducted research in various parts of the world. The results suggest that Slovenia lags behind not only in the organized use of music for the welfare of the elderly, but on the whole scale of social geriatrics, gerontology and gerontagogy; that indicates the need for a strategic systematic improvement. In the foreground of the research of musical activities and practices of Carinthian pensioners in the present and recent past, is a person in his or her wide socio-cultural context, with special emphasis on music-related interactions, rather than music as a product. In terms of research from global to local, the dissertation presents several examples of good practice, pointing to individual cases from abroad, from Slovenia and from Slovenian Carinthia. Pensioners organize their activities within the frameworks of the Association of Pensioners of Slovenia and other organizations, institutions and associations. Their musical activities are most intense on the local level, either solely pensioners or in mixed-age groups. Most common are vocal groups, followed by folklore groups and brass bands. The choice is mostly a privilege of those pensioners who live "at home", while the ones who live "in the home" (a retirement home) are in most cases dependent on what their institution offers. This research provides evidence of a vivid musical life in retirement homes, which is comparable all over Slovenia. Singing predominates, the residents identify usually with folk and folklorized songs, and the accordion is the preferred musical instrument. In the main part of the dissertation, musical activities of Carinthian pensioners are discussed in terms of listening, performance, aesthetic appreciation, and the uses and functions of music. The elderly in Carinthia are mostly active in choirs (male, female, or mixed), which in some cases of exclusively pensioner groups, due to problems of aging and losing members, transform to small vocal groups. Although many of the interviewed seniors used to be actively involved in the performance of folk-pop music, such ensembles composed solely of pensioners do not exist. Exceptions are smaller occasional groups of this type (e.g. a trio or quartet) and groups of folk musicians or singers. In the field of folklore dancing, the only exclusively senior group is KD Prezihov Voranc from Ravne and to an extent (with some younger members) the folklore group Majstrski from Mislinja. Among the twelve active Carinthian brass bands, not a single one is composed exclusively of pensioners. In their youth, Carinthian pensioners were influenced by traditional folk music more than by any other music, thus it remained the core, around which they have built both their passive and active repertoires. The latter differs according to their working field and specific groups, but in present time folk and folklorized songs in different renditions for choirs or vocal groups predominate. The specific notion of aesthetic interpretation of these songs is in the thesis named "Carinthian sense." Special attention in the dissertation is paid to functions and the uses of music, since they are the key to understanding the meanings, roles, impacts and power of music among Carinthian pensioners. The results of the research show that the aim of their musical activities is not merely entertainment, but also education, expression of feelings, impact on the individual (behavior, well-being, mood, health), and contribution to culture. Analysis of the researched parameters enabled an understanding of their attitudes towards music, as well as their need for it. Music means relaxation, often comfort, mental exercise, a way of expression and for some even a way of life. The study finds that most women, mainly due to family obligations, became musically active in their third life period, when the musical activities of their partners have started to decline or even to cease. The study also shows that music today has lost the powerful connecting function that it had during their youth, for which technological development is partly responsible. The dissertation is marked by two specific characteristics. In terms of methodology, it features experimental ethnography based on a conscious relationship between the two roles embodied by the author; the role of a musician, who has been an integral part of some life stories of Carinthian pensioners, and the role of a researcher, who explores these life stories and interprets them in a broader context, taking into account the connections between music and the people of the third life period. The last part of the dissertation stands out in terms of the organizational and the ideological view. Based on the theoretical foundations of applied ethnomusicology, it upgrades ordinary goals of research work and demonstrates the use of the gained knowledge and understanding for the benefit of the population concerned. Such an example is a one year lasting project called "Let's Give Them a Song", which was dedicated mainly to the elderly in Carinthian retirement homes. Its primary purpose was to achieve, through musical interaction of two different generations, the mutual benefit for both groups. Based on previous research, a repertoire has been established, with which most of the seniors could identify. "The Singing Society Alencice", a female vocal group, managed to establish effective inter-generational communication through their performances under the guidance of the author. Although the long-term consequences of the project have not yet been measured, it exceeded the score of the basic objectives and purpose. With different presentations, including those at conferences, it played an important role in raising public awareness and spreading into new, international dimensions. The field researchfor this dissertation is based on the participant observation methodology. In the collecting of information, the qualitative approach was predominant, most commonly in the form of interviews. In them, photographs of the past musical activities of the interviewees proved to be an excellent communicational tool that enabled them to remember past experiences. The whole process was documented with video, audio, and photo equipment. The dissertation, supervised by Prof. Dr. Svanibor Pet-tan, reveals the musical and everyday life of pensioners in Slovenian Carinthia in the present and in the recent past. Defended on 17 June 2016, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana. MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK » MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LIII/1 Imensko kazalo • Index Abbas, Gohar Adam, Frane Adamenko, Viktorija (Victoria) Adamič, Emil Adams, Pauline Adams, Sarah Flower Adler, Guido Adorno, Theodor W. Albreht, Robert Allsop, Peter Althusser, Louis Amabile, Teresa M. Amadino, Ricciardo Amon, Blasius Ana (Anne), svetnica Anderson, Charles W. André, Johann Ansgar, Franz Anton Padovanski, svetnik Antonicek, Theophil Ariès, Philippe Aristotel Arvidsson, Adam Asola, Giovanni Matteo Atanasovski, Srdan Attali, Jacques Auner, Joseph Auslander, Philip Avsenik, Sašo Avsenik, Slavko Babbitt, Milton Bach, Johann Christian Bach, Johann Sebastian Bahn, Curtis Bahtin (Bakhtin), Mihail Bajželj Bevelacqua, Ana Baker, Catherine Baldano, Angelo Baldwin, David Ballard, Robert Ballata, Zequirja Baltzer, Rebecca A. Bancroft, Claire Bandur, Markus Barber, Samuel Barbo, Matjaž Barnett, Gregory 221, 238 151, 163 256, 259 117 168, 181 231 103, 104, 107-110, 113, 118, 119, 124, 164, 166 122-124, 126-129, 135, 154, 160, 161, 244, 247 226 83, 84, 86, 99 161 166, 181 59, 62 58, 69 14, 18, 20, 21, 41-47 187, 188, 200 284 15, 16, 29, 30 83 117 221, 238 109, 145, 163 159, 161 63, 64 207, 213 145, 146, 148, 161 123 150, 161 227 191, 201, 227, 240 123 283, 285 82, 106, 116, 118, 224, 256, 259, 161 146, 255, 258 218, 239 209, 213 283, 285 188, 200 59, 65 261, 262 11, 30, 31 205, 213 128, 129, 139 123 125, 126, 138, 139, 145, 146, 161, 186, 194, 194, 200, 82-84, 86, 99-100 Barthes, Roland Bartmanski, Dominik Bartok, Béla Baudrillard, Jean Bebic, Ana Beck, Ulrich Becker, C. Becker, Hansjakob Beethoven, Ludwig van Belar, Leopold Belli, Giulio Benamou, Michael Benoît du Moustier Berg, Adam Berg, Alban Beringen, Godefroy Beringen, Marcellin Berio, Luciano Bermani, Cesare Bernardi, Cristina Bernhard, Thomas Bessarion, Basilios (Basilius) Bethanio, Fausto Bezic, Jerko Bianco, Pietro Antonio Bitenc, Janez Bjelcevic, Aleksander Blagne, Helena Blaschke, Wolfgang Blaukopf, Kurt Boetij (Boethius), Anicij Manlij Torkvat Severin Böhm, Josef Böhm, Theobald Bojinovic Fenko, Ana Bonin, Matej Bonporti, Francesco Antonio Botstein, Leon Boulanger, Nadia Boulez, Pierre Brabec de Mori, Bernd Brahms, Johannes Bratusek, Alenka Bravnicar, Matija Bregovic, Goran Bretèque, Estelle Amy de la Breznik, Inge Brglez, Milan Brioschi, Antonio Briquet, Charles-Moïse Britten, Benjamin Brouck, Jacob de Broz, Josip - Tito Bruckner, Anton Brun, Neva 156 212, 213 131, 135, 141 156, 159 206, 215 161 218 15-18, 22, 24, 28-30, 32 106, 108, 116, 118, 123, 145, 283-286 104, 118 59, 71 150 glej Lambres, Benoît 58, 59 129, 130, 135, 141 60 60 136 191, 200 22, 24, 30 225, 238 278 59 229 58, 69 193 189, 198, 201 229 82, 88 151, 161 278, 281 105 261, 262 188, 200 261, 262 81-92, 94, 96, 98-102 123, 124, 129-131, 134, 135, 139, 141 136 123, 136 218, 238 123 190 139, 140 204 220, 239 169, 182 197 283, 285 56, 60, 65-67 123 58, 69 207 105, 106 220, 239 Bruno iz Kölna Buble, Nikola Bucik, Valentin Bučar, France Bujic, Bojan Bukovec Kambič, Vilma Bürger, Peter Burnard, Pamela Busoni, Ferruccio Butler, Christopher Butsko, Yuri Butt, John Byrne, David Cabrol, Fernand Cage, John Cameron, James Cankar, Ivan Cankar, Izidor Careri, Enrico Carlini, Antonio Carter, Tim Cavaccio, Giovanni Charteris, Richard Chavez, Carlos Chigareva, Evgeniia Christensen, Erik Chrostowska, S. D. Chua, Danile Cigoj Krstulovic, Nataša Clavius, Christophorus Clemens-Cortes, Amy Cleve, Johannes de Cluzet, Emmanuel Coattino, Francesco Codelli, Peter Anton Collamore, Lila Diane Colonna, Carlo Cook, Nicolas Cooke, Deryck Copland, Aaron Corelli, Arcangelo Corn, Aaron Cortell, Stephen Cowell, Henry Cox, Christoph Craig, Gordon Croce, Giovanni Crossley, Nick Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly Cvetko, Dragotin Čakš, Tonja Čampa, Boris Čerin, Josip 15, 16, 29, 30 229 268, 181 194 5 227, 239 155 166, 181 130, 131, 141 123, 139 254 84, 99 147, 161 15, 30 132, 158 232 196 118, 264-266 82, 83, 101 82-84, 86, 88, 89, 91, 96, 100 84, 99 59, 70, 71 62, 67 131, 141 glej Čigareva, Evgenija 131, 132, 136, 139, 141 211-213 129 106, 107, 117, 190, 198, 200, 201 57, 60, 69-71 222, 238 58, 64, 65, 69, 77 15, 30 60 91 10, 12, 13, 30 88, 90 123, 124, 128, 139 186, 200 123, 136 82-84, 88, 99, 101 219, 240 157 131, 141 150, 151, 161, 162 188, 200 62, 67, 77 161 166, 181 5, 6, 92-94, 100 104, 109-113, 115-117, 119 261, 262 103-119 Čigareva, Evgenija Čolovic, Ivan Čopi, Ambrož Dahlhaus, Carl Dallapiccola, Luigi Damitz, Bartolomeus D'Annunzio (d'Annunzio), Gabriele Danuser, Hermann Davidson, Tonya K. Debeljak, Aleš Debussy, Claude Degand, Amand Deleuze, Gilles Deliège, Irène Demelius, Gustav Derrida, Jacques Dietz, Max Dimec, Mojca Dion, Céline Ditters von Dittersdorf, Carl Dixon, Gavin Dobrivojevic, Ivana Dognatan-Dack, Mine Dolinar, France M. Dolničar, Janez Anton Dolničar, Janez Gregor Dom Basile, kartuzijan Donato, Baldassare Door, Anton Dostojevski, Fjodor Mihajlovič Duda, Igor Durrani, Aaminah Dvorak, Antonin Dvorak, Max Eco, Umberto Egan, Belinda Eggebrecht, Hans Heinrich Elgar, Edward Elze, Theodor Emmerson, Simon Exner, Adolf Fabiani, Anja Faganel, Tomaž Fassler, Margot E. Feld, Steven Ferdinand II. Habsburški, cesar Ferdinand II. Tirolski, nadvojvoda Finscher, Ludwig Firšt, Nenad Flechsig, Amrei Florjančič (Floriantschitsch) de Grienfeld, Ivan Štefan 256 208, 213, 214 193 124, 126 136 59, 69 127 124, 128, 139, 141, 271, 274 206, 213 146, 148, 154, 155, 159-161 125, 134, 272, 275 15, 16, 18, 30 151, 156 166, 182 105 156 108, 117, 119 193 229 283-286 254, 255, 257, 258 209, 213 161 90, 92, 100 91 89, 91, 92, 94, 99-101 15 59, 71 105 255, 258 207, 213 256, 259 198, 200 264-266 151, 162 26, 28, 30 129, 139 124, 130 113-115, 118 162 105 188, 200 125, 139, 190, 201 11, 30, 31 144, 162 61 58, 59, 66 62, 68 261, 262 255, 258 93 Flower Adams, Sarah Flower, Eliza Foerster, Anton Foskolou, Vassiliki A. Fox, William Johnson Franceschini, Armando Franklin, Peter Frece, Ani Freud, Sigmund Frias, Christian D. Fritz, Ervin Fuchs, Robert Furchheim, Johann Wilhelm Gabrieli, Andrea Gabrieli, Giovanni Gäch, Johann Gallenfels, Andrej Evzebij Gandolfo, Massimiliano Gardano, Alessandro Gardano, Angelo Gardano, Antonio Gastoldi, Giovanni Giacomo Gašperin, Sašo Gatto, Simone Georg Friedrich I. von BrandenburgAnsbach-Kulmbach George, Alexander Gerlach, Katharina Gerstner, Hans Gesualdo, Carlo Giovanelli, Adelaide Maria Anna Caterina, grofica Lodron Giovanelli, Pietro Giovannelli, Ruggiero Girard, Alain Gobec, Radovan Göbel, Gottlieb Goehr, Lydia Goestl (Göstl), Fran Goljevšček, Alenka Göllner, Theodor Golner, Klemen Golob, Jani Gostiša, Lojze Gošelj, Janez Gašper Grabnar, Klemen Gradišek, Polona Granda, Stane Grdina, Igor Greblo, Patrik Grier, James Griffiths, Paul Guerra, Alvaro Guigo I. (Guigues), kartuzijan 231 232 104, 114 10, 11, 30 232 82, 100 124, 127, 139 233 152 222 193 105 94 59, 70, 71 59 58 93 89, 98 60 59, 60, 58, 59, 64-66 59, 62, 69 227 58, 69 60 188, 200 65 105, 198, 201 255, 258 86, 89 58 60, 71 26, 30 189, 201 94 143, 145-148, 151, 157, 162, 163 106, 117 220, 238 63, 68 193 193 101 94 56, 66, 67 168, 181 198, 200 126, 132, 133, 137, 138, 140 193 11, 30 130, 131, 140 213 24, 27, 30, 32 Gulda, Friedrich Gura, David T. Gyrowetz, Adalbert Haba, Alois Habe, Tomaž Haber, Mario Haines, John Hampton, Barbara L. Händel, Georg Friedrich Handl - Gallus, Jacobus Hansen, Mathias Hanslick, Eduard Harnoncourt, Nikolaus Harrach, Franz Anton Hartley, Cathy Hartmann, Karl Amadeus Hausleithner, Carl Hawkins, Stan Haydn, Joseph Heaton, Roger Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Heidegger, Martin Heile, Björn Hennion, Antoine Henze, Hans Werner Herberstein, Žiga Krištof Hieronim (Jerome), svetnik Hild, Elaine Hiley, David Hilscher(-Fritz), Elisabeth Th. Hindemith, Paul Hočevar, Janez Jurij Hočevar, Ksenija Höffer, Janez Bertold Hoffmeister, Franz Anton Höfler, Janez Hogg, James Holcar Brunauer, Ada Hollander, Christian Holst, Gustav Holzbauer, Ignaz Hourlier, Jacques Howes, Christian Hren, Tomaž Hubad, Matej Hudej, Franc Hughes, Andrew Igličar, Ema Ilešič, Fran Ingarden, Roman Ismael-Simental, Emilia Ivaškin (Ivashkin), Aleksander (Alexander) Ives, Charles 173 23, 29, 31 283, 285 131, 141, 272, 275 193 229 12, 31 218, 238 108 6, 60, 65, 69, 78, 115 129 107 218, 231, 238 89 232, 238 136 105 147, 162 283-286 162 155, 156 127 127, 140 162 136 91, 92 28 10 12, 31 117 124, 131, 141 93 196, 200 93 283 56, 60, 63, 64, 67, 92, 94, 100 15, 26, 30, 32 167, 169, 182 66, 78 124 283, 285 15, 18, 31 173 55, 56, 61, 62, 64, 66, 67, 68, 79 104, 106, 107, 110-113 162 12, 31 167, 182 112-114, 117 144 254, 257 254, 256, 257, 259 131, 132, 136, 141 Jagic, Vatroslav Jameson, Fredric Janaček, Leoš Janc, Mitja Janez (John), evangelist Javornik, Marjan Jazbec, Anka Jeanneret-Gris, Charles-Edouard Jenko, Davorin Jereb, Nataša Jerina, Jaka Jesenko, Ana M. Jezus Kristus (Jesus Christ) Jireček, Konstantin Jone, Hildegard Joyce, James Jožef II. Habsburški, cesar Juriševič, Mojca Kabakčijeva (Kabakchieva), Petja (Petya) Kalan, Pavle Kališnik, Samo Kammel, Antonin Kant, Immanuel Karel II. Habsburški, nadvojvoda Karneža Cerjak, Biserka Kaučič, Ivan Keil, Charles Kek, Danaja Kerle, Jacob de Kesovija, Tereza Kimovec, Fran King, Arthur Archdale Kiossev, Alexander Klavžar, Brane Klemen XI., papež Klemen VIII., papež Klemenčič, Ivan Kogoj, Marij Kokalj, Domen Kokkonis, Georges Kokole, Metoda Kokotsaki, Dimitra Komel, Emil Kopačinska, Patricija Kosanovic, Dejan Kosovel, Srečko Kospoth, Otto Carl Erdmann Kostakeva, Maria Koter, Darja Kotnik, Barbara Krajnc, Slavko Kramer, Lawrence Kraševec, Marjan - Čarli 113, 154- 109, 110, 143, 150, 131, 141 221, 238 23, 24 104, 118 193 156 231 225, 238 193 191, 201 10, 13-18, 2061, 62, 69, 75 109, 110, 119 129 156 56 168, 119 156, 159, 162, 163 ■24, 28, 38-41, 46, 53, 57, 58, 170, 181, 182 205, 214 190 233 283, 285 155 58 191, 201 194 144, 162 190 65, 78 204, 214, 224 116 15, 31 205, 214 227 88, 91 61 56, 67, 92, 94, 100, 101, 137, 140, 198, 201 116, 118, 137 224, 227, 239 189, 201 56, 57, 62, 66, 67, 91-94, 100, 190, 201 167,182 194 157, 162 207 137, 173 283, 285 256, 259 117, 139, 140, 189, 201 222, 239 62, 68 146, 147, 162 226, 237, 239 Krašovec, Primož Krašovic, Janez Baptist Kraus, Lambert Krek, Uroš Kreslin, Vlado Krisper, Anton Križanič, Ivan Krommer, Franz Kuenburg, Franc (Franz) Ferdinand Kuenburg, Janez Friderik Kuenburg, Maximilian Gandolf Kuglmann, Georg Kuglmann, Sebastian Kumar, Aldo Kumer, Zmaga Kun, Qi Kunst, Bojana Kuret, Niko Kuret, Primož Kwon, Oh-sung Labor, Josef Lacan, Jacques Lagkhner, Daniel Lajovic, Anton Lakovič, Mare Lamberg, Janez Filip (Giovanni Filippo) Lambres, Benoît Lampe, Evgen Landerkin, Kelly Lantieri (Lanthieri), Franc Anton Lasso, Orlando di Lasso, Rudolph di Lavrič, Ana Laya, Jose Clemente Lazar (Lazarus) iz Betanije, svetnik Le Blévec, Daniel Le Cène, Michel Charles Le Corbusier Le Roy, Adrian Leclercq, Henri Leech-Wilkinson, Daniel Leibowitz, René Lenin, Vladimir Iljič Ligeti, György Lipovšek, Marijan Liszt, Franz Lockenburg, Johannes Loewen, Peter V. Logar, Georgius Lokar, Janko Loparnik, Borut Ložar Podlogar, Helena Lubart, Todd I. Lumbardo, Giovanni Battista 154, 159, 162 96 283, 285 125, 126, 138, 139 229 117 114, 117 283 81, 82, 86, 88-93, 98, 99, 101, 90 89 67, 79 55, 67, 79 193 231, 232, 239 239 102 220 221, 162 220 114, 221 221, 239 116, 118, 126, 131, 133, 139, 140 105 156 7 112, 115, 116, 118 221, 239 88-90 15, 31 115 10 93 58, 59, 63-66, 69-71, 77, 78 59, 68, 69 89, 91, 100 188, 201 10, 11, 13, 14, 18, 20, 53 26, 30 84, 100 glej Jeanneret-Gris, Charles-Édouard 59, 65 15, 30 144, 146, 151, 152, 162 123 116 132 137, 140 146, 147 66, 78 13, 31 57 113 124, 125, 132, 133, 140 220, 239 166, 182 60, 69, 70 Luther, Martin Luython, Carl Lyotard, Jean-François Maderna, Bruno Mahler, Gustav Makarovič, Jan Maksimilijan II., cesar Mandel, Ernest Mantuani, Josip Marija (Mary) iz Betanije, svetnica Marija Ana, nadvojvodinja Marija, Jezusova mati Marija Magdalena (Mary Magdalene), svetnica Marko (Mark), evangelist Markovic, Tatjana Marsh, Gordon E. Marta (Martha) iz Betanije, svetnica Martin, Ruth Lee Martinčič, Robert Martinû, Bohuslav Marx, Karl Massaino, Tiburtio Massoneau, Louis Mašek, Kamilo Matej (Matthew), evangelist Maurer, Neža Mauss, Marcel Mav, Alojzij Mayr, Janez Krstnik McLuhan, Marshall Medic, Ivana Melo, Rinaldo del Merku, Pavle Merriam, Alan P. Merulo, Claudio Messiaen, Olivier Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig Milčinski, Maja Milhaud, Darius Mitrovic, Borislav Montanus, Johannes Monte, Philippe de Monteverdi, Claudio Moore, Christopher Morales, Christobal de Morsellino, Giovanni Battista Mosolov, Aleksander Mozart, Leopold Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus Mugerle pl. Edelhaimb, Janez Andrej Müller, Wilhelm Müllner, Laurenz Musorgski, Modest Mutio, Nicolo 110-112 58, 70 153 136 117, 124, 134, 136, 255, 258 166, 182 58 154 6, 56, 61, 62, 68, 113, 115, 118 10, 12, 27, 53 91 17 9-28, 30-32, 41-48, 50, 51, 53 23, 58, 59 198, 201 255, 256, 258 10, 12, 13, 18, 20, 27, 53 219, 240 223 131, 141 123 59, 70 284, 286 115 27 193 219, 239 190 94, 100 150, 162 254, 257 60 261, 262 186, 187, 197, 198, 201 59, 63, 70 136 156 218, 239 123 224, 239 58 58, 66, 68, 78 108 162 59 59, 70 135 283, 285 106, 157, 173, 283-286 93, 94 231 109, 119 125 60 Nagode, Aleš Nahtigal, Neža Neubauer, Franz Christoph Neuber, Ulrich Newton, Douglas P. Nicolai, Johann Michael Nielsen, Carl Nigrin (Cerny), Georg (Jiff) Nono, Liugi Nye, Joseph S. Oblak, Breda Odena, Oscar O'Loughlin, Niall Op de Coul, Thomas Oraže, Eduard (Edi) Orel, B. Osterberger, Georg Osterc, Slavko Ovsenik (Avsenik), Vilko Oxfeld, Ellen Pacelli, Asprilio Padovano, Annibale Pahor, Karol Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palmberger, Monica Park, Ondine Patalas, Aleksandra Pavanello, Agnese Pavček, Tone Pečjak, Vid Pedrosa, Ludim L. Perkovic, Ante Petrov, Ana Petrovic, Tanja Pettan, Svanibor Pfitzner, Hans Philibert, Myriam Philpott, Chris Phinot, Dominique Pintar, Miklavž Pippen, John R Plečnik, Jože Plestenjak, Jan Pleteršnik, Maks Pleyel, Ignaz Pogačnik - Naval, Franc Pokorn, Danilo Pompe, Gregor Pople, Anthony Porta, Costanzo Poulenc, Francis Pousseur, Henri Povše, Gal 198, 201 178, 179, 183 284, 286 58 167, 182 94 124, 130 65 136 188, 201 166, 182 166, 182 136, 137, 140 17, 31 194 220 60 137, 140, 272, 275, 276 191, 201, 227 218, 221, 239, 240 60, 71 58, 64, 65, 71, 78 196 59, 70, 127 205, 214 206, 213 56, 68 10 193 166, 182 188, 201 213, 214 204, 206, 207, 210, 213, 214 205, 214 229, 239, 289, 292 135 219, 240 167, 168, 181, 182 60, 70 223, 226, 230, 240 149, 153, 157-160, 162 192, 222, 223 229 115 283, 285 104 190, 201 139, 140, 150, 157, 159, 162, 163, 189, 198, 201 123, 124, 128, 139 59, 69-71 130 136 229 Praprotnik, Andrej Premrl, Stanko Prenner, Jurij Prešeren, France Prešeren, Janez Krstnik Prokofjev, Sergej Prosnitz, Adolf Proust, Marcel Ptolemaj, Klavdij Puccini, Giacomo Quaggiato, Patrick Radics, Peter Rahmaninov (Rachmaninov), Sergej Rajšek, Bojan Rakuša, Fran Ramovš, Primož Rasch, Rudolf Rasp, Maksimilijan Leopold Ratoša, Katarina Ravel, Maurice Raverio, Alessandro Razinger, Anton Regnart, Jacob Reisp, Branko Remic, Marjan Riccio, Teodore (Theodore) Richelle, Marc Riethmüller, Albrecht Rietsch, Heinrich Rihtman, Cvjetko Rodari, Gianni Roger, Estienne Rojko, Uroš Rore, Cipriano de Rosenfeld, Randall Rosenmüller, Johann Roslavec (Roslavets), Nikolaj Rossini, Gioacchino Rosso, Nini Rotar Pance, Branka Roy, Di Rudolf Habsburški, avstrijski princ Rudolf II., cesar Runco, Mark A. Rupel, Fedja Sachs, Klaus-Jürgen Sala, Giuseppe (Gioseppe) Sala, Josquino della Salieri, Antonio Sammartini, Giovanni Battista Sardagna, Giovanni Battista 194 104, 105, 107, 116, 118 7 193 89, 91, 92 124 105 156, 222 278, 281 130 194 114, 118 124 227, 239 115, 118 261, 262 84, 86, 88, 100 91, 92 191, 200 123, 130 60 104 58, 64, 66, 70, 71, 78 100 220, 239 60, 69 166, 182 129, 139 108, 117, 119 5 194 84, 86, 88, 100 243-248, 261, 262 65 12, 31 94 135 145 232, 239 169, 170, 182 219, 240 105 58, 65 166, 182 261, 262 62, 68 82, 84, 86, 99 59, 70 106 283, 285 91 Sardagna, Giovanni Battista Felice, di Hochenstein Sardagna, Lucrezia Teresa Sardagna, Michel Antonio Sardagna, rodbina Satie, Eric Saxer, Victor Scarcez, Alicia Schalk, Joseph Schauff (Schauferl), Jakob Schell pl. Schellenburg, Ana Katarina Schell pl. Schellenburg, Jakob Schenker, Heinrich Schmid, Bernhold Schnittke (Šnitke), Alfred Schönberg, Arnold Schönigk, Johannes Schreker, Franz Schubert, Franz Schwertel, Johann Scotto, Girolamo Sedak, Eva Seyffarth, Johann Gabriel Shields, Rob Sibelius, Jean Siberau, Volfgang Andrej Konrad Sicherl Kafol, Barbara Siegel, Heinrich Siegele, Ulrich Sigismund III., poljski kralj Simon, farizej Sivec, Jože Skrjabin (Skryabin), Aleksander Slak, Lojze Slomšek, Anton Martin Smoje, Dujka Smolik, Marijan Snoj, Jurij Sobel, Maxwell Sojar Voglar, Črt Sorce Keller, Marcello Souvan, Ferdinand - Ferry Spaur, Giovanni Michele Spontone, Bartolomeo Stadlmayr, Johann Stalin, Josip Visarijonovič Džugašvili Stamitz, Johann Stefanija, Leon Stefanini, Giovanni Battista Stein, Erwin Stephan, Rudolph Sternberg, Robert J. Steuermann, Eduard Stevanovic, Lada 91 91 91, 99 82 132, 136, 141 10-12, 14, 31 13, 15, 18, 31 105 106 96, 97, 99 91, 93, 96 156 63, 68 254-259 122-131, 133-136, 141, 156 94 134 106, 117, 152, 231 65 59 198, 201 283 206, 213 124 94 169, 182 105 256, 259 60 11, 39, 41 5-7, 104, 107, 118 130, 134 227 227 5 91, 100 56, 68, 104, 118 82, 86, 99, 100 261, 262 219, 240 191 89 59, 70 58 135 283, 285 133, 140, 186, 189, 190, 198, 201, 243, 245, 246, 248 60, 71 124 133, 140 166, 181, 182 135 204, 214 Stipčevic, Ennio Stohr, Adolph Stojnic, Anita Strauss, Richard Stravinski (Stravinsky), Igor Striccius, Wolfgang Sutherland, Roger Swed, Mark Szymanowski, Karol Šarabon, Mitja Šivic, Pavel Škerjanec, Vojko Škerjanec, Zdravko Škulj, Edo Šmarčan, Jasmina Šostakovič (Shostakovich), Dmitrij Špehar, Jure Šter, Katarina Šterbenc Svetina, Barbara Štrekelj, Karel Talbot, Michael Terkhel, Jacob Terseglav, Marko Théberge, Paul Thomas, Louis-Vincent Thompson, William Forde Thun, Giovanni Ernesto (Johann Ernst) Timms, Andrew Tini, Francesco Tini, Simone Toeschi, Carl Joseph Toffetti, Marina Tomažič, Pinko Tomšič, Matevž Torrance, Paul E. Trstenjak, Anton Trtnik, Jožef Trubar, Primož Turner, Victor Tuzzi, Carlo Udovič, Boštjan Ukmar, Vilko Ulhard, Philipp Uranjek, Maša Vaet, Jacobus Vanhal, Johann Baptist Varèse, Edgard Vasic, Veljko Vecchi, Orazio Velikonja, Mitja Velkaverh, Dušan 239 109, 119 204, 214 123, 134 123, 124, 126, 127, 130, 131, 134-136, 141 6, 7 149, 163 153 131, 141 272 261, 262 226 226, 227, 230, 240 62, 68, 91-94, 101 233 123, 135 231, 240 26, 27, 31 104, 117, 118 220 82, 83, 101 75 219, 220, 240 144, 145, 163 221, 240 218, 222 89 127-130, 140 65 65 283, 285 56, 68 190 151, 163 166, 183 166, 183 104 111-115, 117-118 157 191 187, 189, 201 263-266 65 233 58, 69 283, 285 132 206, 215 59, 70, 71 205, 208, 213, 214 193 Verbinc, France Verboten, Natalija Veselinovic-Hofman, Mirjana Vidmar, Luka Vila Verde, Teresa Vilfan, Sergij Vilhar, Miroslav Vincenti, Giacomo Vivaldi, Antonio Voctus, Michael Vockner, Josef Vodopivec, Marijan Vogrinc, Jože Vogt, Theodor Volčič, Zala Vondrak, Vaclav (Wenzel) Vrdlovec, Zdenko Vurnik, Stanko Waelrant, Hubert Wagenseil, Georg Christoph Wagner, Richard Wallaschek, Richard Walsh, John Warner, Daniel Waugh, Robin Weber, Max Webern, Anton Webster, Peter Weiss, Jernej Weiss, Simona Welch, Graham Wert, Giaches de Wettstein (Wetzstein), Jurij Wickstrom, John B. Wiesler, Manuela Wiggins, Geraint A. Wild, Stephen Willaert, Adrian Williams, Alastair Wong, Deborah Wranitzky, Paul Wu Jing Zajc-Zupan, Tanja Zarlino, Gioseffo Zdravkovic, Toma Zerfass, Alexander Zorn, John Zupančič, Maruša Zupanič, Alenka Zurshek, Hansen Gasparus 223, 240 229 186, 198, 201 91, 101 153, 163 94, 101 231 62 157 65 105 193 144, 145, 163 109, 119 205, 214 109, 119 145, 163 116, 118, 265 60, 71 283, 285 116, 118, 134, 149 108 84 150, 151, 13, 31 143, 151, 129-131, 136, 141, 250, 253 166, 167, 183 189, 198, 201 224, 240 166, 182 59, 70 91 15, 22, 23, 32 219, 240 166, 182 219, 240 59 255, 258 218, 221, 240 284, 286 212,214 161, 162 163 Young, Neil 229 226 277-281 209 13, 15, 16, 25, 29, 30, 32 132 94, 101 223, 240 75 Žagar, Jasmina 179 Žebre, Demetrij 188, Žefran, Barbara 193 Župančič, Oton 272, 201, 271, 272, 274, 275 275 Avtorji • Contributors Matjaž BARBO (matjaz.barbo@ff.uni4j.si) je predstojnik Oddelka za muzikologijo Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani. Je avtor več knjig in znanstvenih prispevkov, bil je predsednik Slovenskega muzikološkega društva ter dolgoletni urednik revije Muzi-kološki zbornik. V svojih raziskavah se posveča glasbi od 18. stoletja do danes, zlasti v povezavi s slovenskim kulturnim življenjem, pa razvoju simfonične glasbe ter izbranim glasbeno-estetskim vprašanjem. Matjaž BARBO (matjaz.barbo@ff.uni-lj.si) is a head of the Department of Musicology at the Faculty of Arts of the University of Ljubljana. He is an author of several books and scientific articles. He has been a president of the Slovenian Musicological Society and for several years an editor of the journal Musicological Annual. His research focuses on music from the 18th century to the present, especially that which is associated with Slovenian cultural life, the development of symphonic music and selected questions related to the aesthetics of music. Klemen GRABNAR (klemen.grabnar@zrc-sazu.si) je raziskovalec na Muzikološkem inštitutu ZRC SAZU. Ukvarja se predvsem z liturgično glasbo v Notranji Avstriji iz časa nadvojvod Karla II. in Ferdinanda II. Klemen GRABNAR (klemen.grabnar@zrc-sazu.si) is a research fellow at the Institute of Musicology, Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts. His work is focused primarily on the liturgical music in Inner Austria at the turn of the sixteenth century. Ema IGLIČAR (ema.iglicar@ostpavcka.si) je leta 2014 magistrirala na Akademiji za glasbo v Ljubljani, smer Glasbena pedagogika. Med študijem je aktivno sodelovala pri izvedbi prvih treh slovenskih glasbenih olimpijad in poučevala v glasbenih šolah Škofja Loka in Stična. Kot učiteljica glasbe in zborovodkinja pevskih zborov, zaposlena na Osnovni šoli Toneta Pavčka v Mirni Peči, v praksi raziskuje in dela z glasbeno nadarjenimi učenci, odkriva njihovo glasbeno ustvarjalnost in kot mentorica sodeluje na slovenskih glasbenih olimpijadah. Ema IGLIČAR (ema.iglicar@ostpavcka.si) received her master's degree in Music Education from the Music Academy of the University of Ljubljana, Slovenia in 2014. During her studies, she already actively participated in organising Slovene Music Olyimpiad and gained her first teaching experience at the music schools in Škofja Loka and Stična. She works as a music teacher and choir leader at the Primary school Tone Pavček in Mirna Peč. Through practice researches and work with musically talented children, she is discovering their musical creativity. As a mentor she participates at the Slovene Music Olympiads. Metoda KOKOLE (metoda.kokole@zrc-sazu.si) je znanstvena svetnica in predstojnica Muzikološkega inštituta ZRC SAZU. Raziskovalno se ukvarja s preučevanjem zgodovine glasbe geografskega področja današnje Slovenije od 16. do konca 18. stoletja. Je glavna in odgovorna urednica zbirke znanstvenokritičnih notnih izdaj Monumenta artis mu-sicae Sloveniae in e-knjižne zbirke Slovenska glasbena dediščina ter vodja nacionalne skupine v okviru projekta RILM. Je avtorica številnih razprav, notnih izdaj in dveh monografij s področja navedenih raziskovalnih vsebin. Metoda KOKOLE (metoda.kokole@zrc-sazu.si) is Research Advisor and Head of the Institute of Musicology at the Scientific Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts. Her research focuses on the history of music on the territory of today's Slovenia from the 16th to the 18th century. She is general editor of the music series Monumenta artis musicae Sloveniae and of a new e-series Slovenska glasbena dediščina (Slovenian Music Heritage) and leader of the National group for RILM in Slovenia. She is the author of numerous articles, critical music editions and two monographs dealing with the above mentioned field of interests. Ana PETROV (anapetrov82@gmail.com) je končala BA študij muzikologije na Fakulteti za glasbo na Univerzi za umetnost v Beogradu, MA in doktorski študij pa na Oddelku za sociologijo na Filozofski fakulteti Univerze v Beogradu. Od leta 2015 dela kot izredna profesorica na Fakulteti za medije in komunikacijo na Univerzi Singidunum v Beogradu, kjer uči vrsto predmetov s področja sociologije in antropološke teorije kot tudi predmet, ki se ukvarja z jugoslovansko popularno glasbo. Ana Petrov je avtorica knjig o Pierru Bourdieuju (Orion art and FMK, Beograd, 2015) in Brunu Latourju (Orion art and FMK, Beograd, 2015), o znanstvenem imperializmu v diskurzu Max Webra o glasbi (Rethinking rationalisation, Hollitzer Verlag, Wien, 2016) in knjigo, ki se ukvarja z recepcijo jugoslovanske popularne glasbe po razpadu Jugoslavije (Yugoslav music without Yugoslavia, 2016); poleg tega je v številnih člankih pisala o estetiki, muziko-logiji in sociologiji glasbe v devetnajstem in dvajsetem stoletju. Trenutno se ukvarja z jugoslovanskim in post-jugoslovanskim kulturnim prostorom, pri čemer se osredinja na politike spomina in nostalgije ter jugoslovansko popularno glasbo. Ana PETROV (anapetrov82@gmail.com) has finished musicology at the Faculty of Music, University of Arts in Belgrade, and master's and PhD studies in sociology at the Sociology Department at the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade. Since 2015 she has worked as an assistant professor at the Faculty of media and communications, Singidunum University, Belgrade, where she teaches several courses in the field of sociological and anthropological theories, as well as a course on Yugoslav popular music. Petrov is the author of a book on Pierre Bourdieu (Orion art and FMK, Beograd, 2015) and Bruno Latour (Orion art and FMK, Beograd, 2015), on scientific imperialism in Max Weber's discourse on music (Rethinking rationalisation, Hollitzer Verlag, Wien, 2016), and a book dealing with the reception of Yugoslav popular music after the dissolution of Yugoslavia (Yugoslav music without Yugoslavia, 2016), as well as many articles on aesthetics, musicology, and sociology of music in the nineteenth and the twentieth centuries. Currently, she is dealing with Yugoslav and post-Yugoslav cultural space, with the focus on the politics of memory and nostalgia and Yugoslav popular music. Anita PRELOVŠEK (anita.prelovsek@gmail.com) je glasbenica (flavtistka) in raziskovalka, doktorska študentka na Oddelku za muzikologijo FF UL. Leta 2008 je z najvišjo oceno diplomirala na Visokem institutu za glasbo »O. Vecchi-A. Tonelli« v Modeni z nalogo Carl Reinecke e la Sonata per flauto e pianoforte, op. 167 (»Undine«). Nastopa kot samostojna koncertna glasbenica in v različnih zasedbah, sodeluje na simpozijih in objavlja članke. Za temo tega prispevka je pomembno dejstvo, da igra na flavto tudi v kontekstu pogrebnih slovesnosti. Anita PRELOVŠEK (anita.prelovsek@gmail.com) is a musician (flute), researcher and PhD-candidate at the Department for Musicology, Faculty of Arts Ljubljana. In 2008, she finished her MA-degree at the Istituto Superiore di Studi Musicali "Vecchi - Tonelli" in Modena with the title Carl Reinecke e la Sonata per flauto e pianoforte, op. 167 (»Undine«) with the highest grade. She performs as an independent concert musician and with different music casts, takes part at symposia and publishes articles. In regard to this article, it is important to emphasize that she also performs at funerals. Urška RIHTARŠIČ (ursa.rihtarsic@gmail.com) je leta 2015 z odliko zaključila študij harfe na Akademiji za glasbo v Ljubljani. V času študija je za izvedbo Concertina za hafo in godala Zvonimirja Cigliča prejela študentsko Prešernovo nagrado Akademije za glasbo. Leta 2016 je prav tako z odliko zaključila študij sociologije kulture in muzikologije na ljubljanski Filozofski fakulteti, njeno diplomsko delo pa je bilo nagrajeno s študentsko Prešernovo nagrado. Urška RIHTARŠIČ (ursa.rihtarsic@gmail.com) finished her harp studies in 2015 (summa cum laude) at the Academy for Music in Ljubljana. During her studies she received the student Prešeren prize of the Academy for Music for her performance of Concertina za harfo in godala (Concertina for harp and strings) by Zvonimir Ciglič. In 2016, she successfully completed her Sociology of Culture and Musicology study programs at the Faculty of Arts in Ljubljana; her diploma thesis was also rewarded the student Prešeren prize. Branka ROTAR PANCE (branka.rotar-pance@ag.uni-lj.si) je izredna profesorica za področje glasbeno-pedagoški predmeti na Akademiji za glasbo Univerze v Ljubljani, Slovenija. Raziskovalno se ukvarja z različnimi temami s področja glasbene pedagogike, motivacije, dela z glasbeno nadarjenimi učenci, vseživljenjskega učenja učiteljev glasbe, kulturno-umetnostne vzgoje v šoli in zgodovine slovenske glasbene pedagogike. Kot kordinatorica je sodelovala pri izvedbi petih slovenskih glasbenih olimpijad in kot članica žirije na treh mednarodnih glasbenih olimpijadah. Branka ROTAR PANCE (branka.rotar-pance@ag.uni-lj.si) is an Associate Professor at the Music Education Department of the Academy of Music, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Her research interests lie in the different fields of music education, motivation, working with gifted students, lifelong learning of music teachers, arts and cultural education in the school and the history of Slovenian music pedagogy. She participated in five Slovenian Music Olympiads as the coordinator and in three International Music Olympiads as a member of jury. Karmen SALMIČ KOVAČIČ (karmen.salmic@um.si) je muzikologinja in bibliotekarka, strokovna referentka in skrbnica Glasbene in filmske zbirke v Univerzitetni knjižnici Maribor. Pred tem je bila šest let asistentka za zgodovino glasbe na Oddelku za glasbo Pedagoške fakultete v Mariboru. Po končani gimnaziji v Brežicah in Srednji glasbeni šoli v Ljubljani je nadaljevala študij na Oddelku za muzikologijo Filozofske fakultete v Ljubljani, kjer je leta 1990 diplomirala, leta 2007 magistrirala, leta 2016 pa zagovarjala doktorsko tezo Demetrij Žebre in sodobne slogovne tendence slovenske glasbe. Je avtorica številnih projektov, razstav, strokovnih in znanstvenih prispevkov. Raziskuje predvsem slovensko glasbo prve polovice 20. stoletja. Karmen SALMIČ KOVAČIČ (karmen.salmic@um.si) is a musicologist, librarian and administrator for the Music and film collection in University library Maribor. Previously, she was employed as a university assistant of the history of music at the Music department at the Faulty of Education. After finishing the high school in Brežice and Secondary music school in Ljubljana, she continued her studies at the Department of musicology, at the Faculty of Arts in Ljubljana, where she graduated in 1990, received her masters in 2007, and in the year 2016 she successfully defended her doctoral thesis Demetrij Žebre and contemporary stylistic tendencies in Slovenian music. She is an author of several projects, exhibitions and scientific papers. Her research is primarily focused on the Slovenian music in the first half of the 20th century. Katarina ŠTER (katarina@zrc-sazu.si) is a Research Fellow at the Institute of Musicology ZRC SAZU. Her work is focused primarily on the medieval monastic musical traditions and the relationship between text and music in early vocal music. On the subject of the Carthusian chant, she presented numerous papers at the international conferences, and published a monograph as well as several articles in musicological and other journals. Recently, she was enaged in research of the relationship between the Carthusians and other traditions within the postdoctoral project funded by the Slovenian Research Agency, as well as with two Swiss scholarships (Swiss Government Excellence Scholarship; International Short Visits scholarship of Swiss National Science Foundation) intended for research at the Schola Cantorum in Basel. Katarina ŠTER (katarina@zrc-sazu.si) je znanstvena sodelavka na Muzikološkem inštitutu ZRC SAZU. Pri svojem delu se posveča predvsem srednjeveškim monastičnim tradicijam in razmerju med besedilom in glasbo v stari vokalni glasbi. Na temo kartuzi-janskega korala je na mednarodnih konferencah predstavila številne referate, objavila pa je tudi monografijo in več člankov, ki so izšli v različnih muzikoloških in drugih revijah. V zadnjih letih se posveča predvsem primerjavi kartuzijanov z drugimi tradicijami. Raziskave na tem področju je izvedla v okviru podoktorskega projekta ARRS in dveh švicarskih štipendij (Štipendija švicarske vlade za odličnost, štipendija Švicarskega nacionalnega sklada za kratke študijske obiske), namenjenih raziskavam na Scholi Can-torum v Baslu. Boštjan UDOVIČ (bostjan@udovic.eu) je diplomiral na področju politologije - mednarodni odnosi in doktoriral iz mednarodne ekonomije. Na Fakulteti za družbene vede poučuje predmete povezane z diplomacijo in mednarodno politično ekonomijo. Je (so)avtor več znanstvenih člankov in monografij s področja kulturne in gospodarske diplomacije. Boštjan UDOVIČ (bostjan@udovic.eu) graduated in Political Sciences - International Relations and received his PhD in International Economics. He is an assistant professor at the Faculty of Social Sciences, where he teaches courses related to Diplomacy and International Political Economy. He (co-)authored different articles and monographs in the field of cultural and commercial diplomacy.