118
D ocumenta P raehis torica L I ( 2 0 2 4 ) D O I : 10 . 4 312 / d p . 5 1. 2 2 tions became possible with the de velopment of radio-
carbon dating in the late 1940s. Both approaches have 
been accepted and criticized, allowing archaeologists 
to favour the one that better supported their views on 
temporality.
Balkan archaeology is no exception in this regard, and 
numerous attempts have been made to determine both 
the beginning and end of the Neolithic Age, with the 
Introduction
With the beginning of modern archaeological re-
search, attempts were made to provide chronological 
frameworks for the different periods under inves ti-
gation. As the discipline was evolving, a variety of me-
thods were proposed for measuring time in the di stant
past. Before the mid-20
th
 century most approaches 
were based on comparisons of stra tigraphically se-
cured finds that made it possible to elaborate on rela -
tive chronological schemes, but more exact deter mi na -
KLJUÈNE BESEDE – zgodnji neolitik; Pelagonija, geografska regija Makedonija; absolutna kronologija; 
pro ces neolitizacije
IZVLEÈEK – Potem ko je Gordon V. Childe pred 100 leti prviè predstavil širjenje kulture z Bližnjega vzhoda
v Evropo, so nastali razlièni modeli napredovanja neolitskega naèina življenja. Kronologija je imela pri
tem pomembno vlogo, vendar zaradi pomanjkljivih podatkov v zgodbe niso bile vkljuèene vse re gije. Ne -
davne raziskave v Pelagoniji, na mejnem obmoèju med Severno Makedonijo in Grèijo, so pri nesle nova
in zanesljiva radiokarbonska zaporedja; skupaj 42 novih radiokarbonskih datumov, ki bodo vkljuèeni v
razprave o neolitski kronologiji Balkana.
Datiranje zgodnjega neolitika Pelagonije:
zapolnitev kronološke vrzeli v balkanski prazgodovini
KEY WORDS – Early Neolithic; Pelagonia, geographical region of Macedonia; absolute chronology; Neoli -
thization process
ABSTRACT - Since Gordon V . Childe first discussed the diffusion of culture from the Near East into Europe 
100 years ago, various models for the advance of the Neolithic way of life have been proposed. Chronolo -
gy has played an important role in this, but not all regions were included in the narratives due to a lack 
of data. Recent investigations in the border area between North Macedonia and Greece, namely in Pel-
agonia, have provided reliable new radiocarbon sequences, in total 42 new radiocarbon dates, that will 
contribute to the discussion on the Neolithic chronology of the Balkans.
Goce Naumov 
1
, Agathe Reingruber 
2
1 Einstein Center – Chronoi, Berlin, DE; gocenaumov@ gmail . com 
2 Institute of Prehistoric Archaeology, Free University of Berlin, Berlin, DE; Agathe. Reingruber@ f u- berl in. d e
Dating the Early Neolithic in Pelagonia:
closing a chronological gap in Balkan prehistory

119
Dating the Early Neolithic in Pelagonia: closing a chronological gap in Balkan prehistory
de finition of the establishment of the first agricultural 
societies before their transformation into metallurgical 
communities remaining an ongoing process (Childe 
1929; Garašanin 195 1; Gavela 1963; Benac 1979; Par  -
zinger 1993; Todorova, Vaisov 1993; Sanev 1994; Kor -
kuti 1995; Reingruber 2020). Some authors have fa-
voured relative chronologies based mainly on pottery 
and criticized the shortcomings of radiocarbon dating 
(Milojèiæ 1949; Nikolov 1989), while others, es pecially 
after the turn of the millennium, have em  phasized 
the advantages of absolute dates and have been more 
cautious with direct material ana lo  gies (Thissen 2000; 
Reingruber, Thissen 2005; Nau  mov 2009; Bulatoviæ 
et al. 2018; Porèiæ 2023). Nevertheless, nearly all ar-
chaeologists aiming to de ter mine the timeframe of 
the Early Neolithic (EN) have attempted to provide 
elaborate perspectives on the dissemination of inno-
vations from the Near East to Europe, reflecting in 
particular on the intermediary regions of the Aegean 
and the Balkans.
Given the influential relative chronology of the Bal   kans
kans (e.g., Milojèiæ 1949), some archaeologists ad-
justed their own appraisals of the evidence based on
this. Indeed, it has often seemed unthinkable to ar gue
against such a chronology, leading to the si tuation 
in which authoritative dicta were followed and re-
inforced, as was the case with the so-called Pre ceramic 
Period in some countries (Reingruber 2008.85–93). 
On the other hand, language and na tional borders 
have often impeded productive communication among 
archaeologists, and the po li tical situation of the 20
th
 
century, with Europe divided by an ‘Iron Curtain’, only 
exacerbated this.
These persistent, rigid approaches to archaeology 
were overcome not only with the political changes 
that occurred after 1989, but also with the broad ac-
ceptance of radiocarbon analysis. Although the first 
challenges to the relative chronological systems in the
Balkans go back to the early 1970s when Co lin Ren-
frew presented his new chronological insights based 
on the stratigraphy from Sitagroi with a sequence of 
26 radiocarbon dates (Renfrew 1971), it took two de-
cades until John Coleman gathered and analysed all 
the radiocarbon dates available at that time (Coleman 
1992). The dissertation of Lau rens Thissen (2000) set 
new standards with regard to the comprehension of
the connectivity between Southeast Europe and Ana -
tolia in light of the absolute chronology, and the on -
line project CANeW (the pre cursor of 14SEA) in par-
ticular has led to the more wide spread application of 
chronologies based on radiocarbon dates. As such, an
absolute chronology has slowly been adopted and 
adapted, but even more than 20 years later some ad-
justments are still necessary (Reingruber 2020.17).
In the past, radiocarbon dates were either dismissed 
and ignored, or were accepted at face value with the 
ex  pectation that they reflect a prehistoric ‘reality’. 
Similarly, the quality of the dates is not sufficiently 
discussed, and one can observe a tendency to give 
credence to single dates, even with high standard de   -
viations. This has led to a lopsided assessment of when 
and where the EN started in the Balkans. Sometimes,
the properties of the calibration curve are not consi-
dered, especially the long-lasting plateaus resulting 
from the many wiggles (particularly that of the 7
th
 
millennium BC). This has led and still leads to a dis pro-
portionate emphasis on the oldest possible date in-
stead of a more objective discussion of the dates in
question. One must further acknowledge some in con-
sistencies in the interpretation of ra dio carbon dates 
resulting from largely neglecting the origin of samples, 
natural effects on them, warn ings by laboratories 
(e.g., too little collagen in the samples, δ
13
C effects, 
N:C-ratios, etc.). Moreover, the small number of dates 
inevitably cause biased interpretations. Despite some 
significant contributions to a better understanding 
of Neolithic chronology in the Balkans, regions with 
few and inconsistent radiocarbon dates were missing 
from broad chro no logical overviews. Such gaps in 
our knowledge have been detrimental to a better 
understanding of the advance of the Neolithic way of 
life.
Therefore, this paper will be an attempt to incorporate 
a missing region into the absolute chronological maps 
of the Neolithic Balkans. Our major focus will be on 
the new dates obtained from recent excavations and/
or re-investigations of tell sites in Pelagonia (North Ma-
cedonia). We will provide more accurate information 
from the recent processing of the avai lable data and 
present modelled sequences with the help of Bayesian 
statistics. As the research at some of the EN sites in 
this area is ongoing and the number of samples is still 
limited, we would like to stress that our models are 
provisional.
Neolithic in Pelagonia
Pelagonia is an elongated basin about 80km long and 
20km wide that straddles the border area between 
North Macedonia and Greece (Fig. 1). Mountains with 

12 0
oce Nao gathe eingrer
The wetlands and alluvial soils of Pelagonia may 
have been an essential incentive for farming societies 
to settle here around 6000 BC. It was a wide-spread 
procedure in the Neolithic to establish and then conti -
   nuously inhabit a site, resulting in tells several metres 
high. Besides Pelagonia, this practice is also present 
in other regions of the Balkan Peninsula, as well as in
the Anatolian highlands and beyond (Gallis 1992; 
Commenge 2009; Rosenstock 2009; Fouache et al.
2010; Alexakis et al. 201 1; Ghilardi et al. 2012; Les pez
et al. 2014; Ayala et al. 2017; Naumov 2018). Pe lagonia
can be considered an adequate setting for agricultural 
communities with access to a variety of re sources 
around and in the wetlands (e.g., fertile soils for cul ti-
vation, clay for constructions and pottery production, 
water animals and fruits) that enabled the ongoing 
occupation of tells for several hundred years. 
This habitation pattern is reflected in the fact that hou-
ses were built and rebuilt on the same foundations for 
peaks as high as 2500m surround it, such as Dautica, 
Babuna, and Buševa in the north, Baba and Neredska 
in the west, Seleèka and Niðe in the east, whereas the 
Varnoundas and Voras enclose the southern part. Sur -
 rounded by these mountains is a flatland at 600–700m
above sea level. The fertile alluvial sediments of the
flatlands are remnants of the Neogene lake that was
naturally drained by the river Crna Re ka and its tri bu -
taries that discharge into the river Vardar/Axios and 
from there into the Aegean Sea. As a result, a series of
wetlands were created, particularly in the seasons of 
river floods, which were artificially drained during the 
melioration processes in the 1950s (Arsovski 1997; 
Trifunovski 1998; Dumurdzanov et al. 2004; Mir-
èovski et al. 2015; Puteska et al. 2015). The existence 
of such wetlands in prehistory and par  ticularly in the 
Neolithic period is confirmed by geoarchaeological re-
search, while wetlands are also mentioned in some of 
the Medieval sources (Kitanoski et al. 1980; Chausidis 
2003; Naumov 2020; Naumov et al. 2021). 
Fig. 1. Map of south-eastern Europe with Neolithic sites mentioned in the text (Pelagonia highlighted in the red 
square): 1 Vlaho, 2 Veluška Tumba, 3 Tumba Porodin, 4 Tumba Optièari, 5 Školska Tumba, 6 Èuka Topolèani, 
7 Vrb janska Èuka, 8 Markovi Kuli, 9 Mavropigi-Fillotsairi, 10 Revenia-Korinos, 11 Paliambela-Kolindros, 12 
Nea Ni komedeia, 13 Vashtëmi, 14 Ploèa, 15 Ohridati, 16 Lin 3, 17 Pogradec, 18 Cerje Govrlevo, 19 Tumba Ma -
djari, 20 Amzabegovo, 21 Kovaèevo.

12 1
Dating the Early Neolithic in Pelagonia: closing a chronological gap in Balkan prehistory
textualized samples for radiocarbon dating providing 
an accurate chronological sequence of the sites. This 
way, a model could be created from the time of the 
initial inhabitation of first farming communities in 
Pelagonia until the social transformations occurring 
in the Late Neolithic and Early Chalcolithic. These 
chro  nological sequences and models can be used to 
include the Pelagonian chronology in the existing 
Balkan periodizations. In a first step, the proposition 
of a possible scenario related to the Neolithisation pro-
cess in this region will be presented.
Pelagonia and the dating of Neolithic sites
After initial descriptions of the Neolithic in Pela go nia, 
attempts were made to better define its chro no logical 
framework. These were based on the re   lative chrono-
logy derived from analogies with other regions, as in
the case of Tumba at Porodin (Gr biæ et al. 1960). Al-
though belonging to the EN, the material from Porodin 
was first suggested to be from the Late Neolithic – yet
it was an initial modest step to understand the chro-
nological scope of this period in Pelagonia. Later, with 
the definition of the Velušina-Porodin cultural group, 
the earlier dating was highlighted once again, but still 
in terms of relative chronology (Garašanin 1979). This
approach was also followed by the division into pha ses 
(Sanev 1995) that were adjusted to the existing ones
from Amzabegovo, and as such contributed to its dat-
ing from 6100 until 4900 BC (Gimbutas 1976). Despite 
the small scale of this research, it was nevertheless a 
prolific time in Ma cedonian archaeology when the 
Neo lithic period in this area was also starting to attract 
international in terest.
As a result of the enthusiastic initiative and dynamic 
research in the 1970s, there were a number of radio-
car bon samples obtained from the tells at Porodin, 
Trn, Mogila, and Topolèani, which were run at the la -
boratories in La Jolla, in the United States, and in Zag-
reb, Croatia (Srdoæ et al. 1977; Valastro et al. 1977). 
Although they were available as published resources, it 
is surprising that they were hardly used in Yugoslavian 
and then later Macedonian studies dedicated to the 
Neolithic and the Neolithisation process (Garašanin 
1979; Sanev 1994; Mitrevski 2003). It was not until the 
year 2000 that the dates were finally included in the 
larger Balkan chronology related to the appearance 
of first farming communities in Macedonia (Thissen 
2000). Consequently, they were incorporated into the 
radiocarbon database of the CANeW project, and later
later the 14SEA project, that provided the most com-
generations. Not only the use of the same plot over ge -
  nerations, but also large clay installations in their in-
teriors, such as granaries, bins and ovens for storing 
and processing cereals, characterize this residential 
lifestyle (Simoska, Sanev 1976; Kitanoski et al. 1990; 
Naumov 2016). Constant access to resources and a 
permanent residence manifested itself in flourishing 
societies that produced impressive painted pottery, hu -
man representations, house models, clay tablets, and
stamps (Simoska, Sanev 1976; Garašanin 1979; Sa-
nev 1995; Naumov 2020). 
Despite these remarkable features of Pelagonian tells,
they were not of particular research interest until the
1970s. Before that, only restricted fieldwork was car -
ried out, for example by Vladimir Fewkes and Walter 
Heurtley in the 1930s or by Josip Korošec, Ra doslav 
Galoviæ and Miodrag Grbiæ in the 1950s at Grgur, Po-
rodin, Karamani, and so on (Fewkes 1934; Heurtley 
1939; Grbiæ et al. 1960; Galoviæ 1964). How ever, it was
Dragica Simoska who had the greatest impact on the
study of prehistoric sites in Pelagonia with a series of
surveys and excavations in the 1970s, which contri-
buted to a much better understanding of the first agri -
cultural and metallurgical communities in the re gion
(Simoska, Sanev 1975; 1976; 1977; Si   mos ka et al. 
1977; 1979). This was followed by the more modest 
research in the northern parts of Pelagonia with limit-
ed fieldwork by Blagoja Ki tanoski (Kitanoski 1977; 
Kitanoski et al. 1978; 1980). The archaeological boom 
of the 1970s turned out to be relatively short lived, as 
only a few sites were investigated in the next decade 
(To doroviæ et al. 1987; Kitanoski 1989; Simoska, Kuz-
man 1990). What followed were two decades with a 
total absence of research in this region, until the 2010s
when new and multidisciplinary explorations were 
initiated that are still ongoing (Naumov 2022; Nau-
mov et al. 2014; 2018a; 2021; 2023a). To better under-
stand the prehistory of Pelagonia – particularly with 
regard to its neighbouring societies and wetland areas 
– further investigations were soon undertaken in the 
re gions of Lake Ohrid and Lake Prespa (Naumov et al. 
2018b; 2023b).
These multidisciplinary projects and international 
collaborations were oriented towards newer me thods,
such as archaeobotany, dendrochronology, zooar cha -
eology, geoarchaeological and geophysical inves ti ga-
tions, laser and LiDAR scanning, lipid and use-wear 
analysis, GIS and 3D modelling, most of which were
implemented in Macedonian archaeology for the first
time. One of the crucial aims was to obtain well-con-

12 2
oce Nao gathe eingrer
generally excluded as they are susceptible to the re-
servoir effect. Similarly, the dating of charcoal was 
usually avoided due to the old wood effect. The datings 
were performed at the laboratories of the Universities 
of Seville (CNA), Bern (BE), Zurich (ETH) and Bris tol
(BRAMS), and have been published before as un mo-
delled dates on several occasions (Stojanovski et al. 
2020; Naumov et al. 2021; 2023b; Sabanov et al. 
2023). 
In this study, all 36 dates (Tab. 1, see below) were ca-
librated to the latest calibration curve
1
 and Bayesian 
statistics were applied for modelling the sequences.
2
 
These results are subsequently rounded by 10 and in-
terpreted in the 1σ range (at 68.3% probability). We 
then use their median values in order to reach the 
greatest limitations possible that are methodologically 
still acceptable (we are aware that new data will lead 
to more precise models).
3
 This chronological study 
was executed at the Department for Prehistory in the
Free University Berlin and at the Einstein Center Chro -
noi in Berlin. Besides the samples from Vlaho, Veluška 
Tumba and Vrbjanska Èuka, the recent ones from 
Tumba at Optièari, Školska Tumba at Mogila and Tumba 
at Porodin were also included in the study, while those 
from the 1970s are only mentioned in the general over-
view of the Neolithic chronology of Pelagonia.
Vlaho
Vlaho is situated on the lower slopes of the Nidje moun-
tain, on a 6ha sandstone terrace created by two rivers 
(Fig. 2). Systematic research was started in 2020 and 
since then the site has been continuously excavated 
(Naumov et al. 2023a). The geophysical prospections 
indicated the presence of a dozen of semicircular dit-
ches, and their EN association has been verified by the 
excavation of three such features. Both geophysical 
coring and excavation confirm the existence of cultural 
layers 1.60m and 2.40m deep in which a number of 
unfired daub buildings have been detected, as well as 
structures made from laterally placed grinding stones. 
The unearthed pottery, models, and figurines form an 
apparent relationship with other EN sites in Pelagonia, 
pre hensive chronological outline of the Balkans and
Anatolia (Reingruber, Thissen 2005; 2017; This sen, 
Rein gruber 2017). The radiocarbon dates from Pela -
gonia were not only set into broad chro nological se -
quences but also used in overviews of the Neoli thisa-
tion process in North Macedonia itself (Naumov 2009; 
2015; 2023b; Fidanoski 2019).
With the new initiative for more intensified and multi -
 disciplinary research of the Neolithic tells in Pelagonia 
at the beginning of the 2010s, radiocarbon dating has
been a regular practice and the major method to pro-
vide a firm chronology for particular sites and for the 
entire region. The Center for Pre hi storic Research in
Skopje launched several fieldwork projects in the Pe-
lagonian basin in order to provide versatile data for 
understanding the timeframe, en vironmental setting 
and social dynamics of the Neo lithic in this area, and
consequently samples were taken from specific con-
texts to obtain well-founded sequences for each site 
(Naumov 2023b). Besides regional surveys and geo-
mag netic prospections, three particular sites in three 
different parts of the basin were focused on in order to
de ter mine the si mi larities and differences of com mu -
nities that lived here: Vrbjanska Èuka at Slavej in the
northern part of the valley, Veluška Tumba at Porodin 
in the central part and Vlaho at Živojno in the south­
ern highlands. Systematic excavations at the three set-
tlements provided the majority of samples for dating, 
and these will be used to establish the duration of spe -
cific building-phases at each site. In a second step, the
sequences will be used to obtain a temporal pers pec-
tive for the entire region of Pelagonia, parti cu larly in 
re lation to the Neolithic Balkans.
Samples from archaeobotanical, archaeozoological, 
and anthropological investigations were mainly used 
for the current dating of the investigated sites, i.e. the
remains from seasonal plants, animal and human 
bones (Antolín et al. 2020; 2021; Naumov et al. 2021;
Sabanov et al. 2022; 2023). Short-lived seeds of ce-
reals and legumes were preferred in this study, while 
the bones of pigs and humans, although dated, were 
1 Radiocarbon dates used in this study that are not listed in Table 1 and 2 can be viewed in the Excel spreadsheet at www.
14SEA.org (Reingruber, Thissen 2017).
2 Calibration and modelling were carried out using OxCal 4.4.4 (Bronk Ramsey 2021) and the IntCal20 atmospheric curve
(Reimer et al. 2020).
3 Regarding the qualities of the dates we distinguish three levels of accuracy: single dates obtained on long-lived species
(mainly charcoal) that were calibrated to the newest curve can be used only as a Terminus post quem (TPQ-cal), even 
when modelled statistically together with other such dates (TPQ-mod), although in this latter case the precision may 
be much better. Only dates stemming from a sequence that has been modelled according to short-lived species can be 
regarded as a Terminus a Quo (TaQuo) – not to be confused with Terminus ante quem (TAQ).

12 3
Dating the Early Neolithic in Pelagonia: closing a chronological gap in Balkan prehistory
time of or a bit later than Building 2. It is followed in 
the stratigraphical record by Building 5, for which only 
a single date is available with a median of 6320 cal 
BC. The youngest date, CNA-61 50, comes from a cereal 
sample in Building 7, which is situated in the top layers 
of the Vlaho stratigraphy. This date is much younger 
than the rest of the dates (6060–5990 cal BC).
These six dates were used for the Bayesian model (Fig. 
4) based on their context within a particular building. 
At this stage of excavation, it is premature to define 
specific phases for the whole settlement. Nevertheless, 
the vertical disposition of buildings, one above the 
other, enables a stratigraphical succession from the 
earliest to latest buildings. This way the model can be 
used as a reference for either a continuous occupation 
and/or for the detection of cultural gaps. Judging by 
the median values of the model’s boundaries, the EN 
community founded the settlement between 6400 
but also with some in Central and
Western Ma ce donia in Gre ece. In
view of these features of the ma -
terial culture, but also the geo gra -
phical location and dating, Vlaho
proves to be one of the settle-
ments that played a significant 
role in the early Neolithisation 
processes in the Balkans.
The continuous excavation of Vla-
ho in the last few years has pro-
vided samples for archaeo bota-
nical and archaeozoological ana -
lyses that were also used for its
dating (Antolín et al. 2021; Nau -
mov et al. 2023a; Sabanov et al. 2023). There are only
six dates available for the site so far, but many more
are expected. The samples are related to stratigraphical 
units from the initial to the final stages of the EN oc cu -
pation, so that a temporal overview of the general du-
ration can be established. Most samples derive from 
cereals, but some were obtained from the bones of 
sheep and cat tle. 
The earliest date from Vlaho, ETH-132740, comes from
a sheep bone found on the floor of Building 2. The
sample ETH-132741, taken from cattle bone, streng-
thens the early dating of Building 2 since the calibrated 
and rounded by 10 the results are between c. 6420 
and 6250 cal BC (compare Tab. 1 and Fig. 3). This buil-
ding, one of the earliest at the site, is located above 
Building 1, for which there are no dates available yet. 
Two samples analysed in Seville (CNA-6151 and CNA-
6152) place the activity within Building 3 at the same 
Fig. 2. Aerial photo from the site of Vlaho in the hilly area (©Center for Pre -
historic Research).
Fig. 3. Calibrated dates from Vlaho, sorted by age.

12 4
oce Nao gathe eingrer
system. Despite the absence of dates from the earliest 
Building 1, a start of the sequence around 6400 cal 
BC (as TaQuo, see footnote 3) seems probable. It ends 
after c. 400 years of occupation latest at 5980 cal BC, 
according to the end of the model’s boundary. This 
corresponds to the EN period in Aegean terminology 
and, as such, it is much earlier than any modelled se-
quence from Neolithic sites in the Balkans.
Veluška Tumba
The tell site of Veluška Tumba is positioned 400m south
of Porodin on the lowest slopes of Baba Moun   tain next 
to the flatland plain of central Pelagonia (Fig. 5). It was
largely excavated in the 1970s and 1980s, when its EN
stratigraphical record of 4m height together with its
distinct material cul ture were highlighted (Si mos ka,
Sa  nev 1975; 1976; Simoska 1986). No   vel multi dis cipli -
nary research was initiated in 2017, first with non-in -
vasive investigations (archaeological and geo phy sical
and 6360 cal BC; the activity within Building 3 may 
have occurred in the 2
nd
 half of the 64
th
 century BC, 
followed soon after around 6300 cal BC by Building 5. 
The next date, CNA-6150, is much younger, with a me-
dian of 6030 cal BC.
The provision of more dates for these contexts, but 
also for the site in general, will enable a more con si s -
tent chronological sequence. This significantly con-
cerns the temporal gap between Buildings 5 and 7 
of c. 150 years. This may indicate a lack of dates (in-
cluding those from Building 6) or a brief inactivity in 
this part of the settlement or even in the entire site. 
Only intensified excavations of these levels in various 
parts of the site, together with more frequent sampling 
will resolve this question.
Nevertheless, we should not underestimate the im-
por tance of this high-quality data in our evaluation 
Fig. 4. Radiocarbon dates from Vlaho, modelled according to four building sequences.

12 5
Dating the Early Neolithic in Pelagonia: closing a chronological gap in Balkan prehistory
6000 cal BC. Therefore, the cereal sample ETH-122646, 
dated to 5890–5720 cal BC (median of 5800 cal BC), 
provides the latest date from a secure unit. Still, this 
date is also not from the final stages of the settlement 
as there is stratigraphical evidence for at least nine 
more buildings erected above it.
The Bayesian model for the dates from Veluška Tum-
 ba provide a reliable dating of several buildings, as all
the samples were taken from their interiors. Since the
chronological modelling corresponds to the strati gra -
phical position of the buildings, it can be used for a
better determination of phases along with the observ-
ed changes in the material culture in the future. Given
the medians in the Bayesian model (Fig. 7), the chro no -
logical frame is set in the period between 6000 (as 
TaQuo) and 5820 cal BC, according to the boundary 
medians. Thus, the four consecutive building phases 
correspond well with the EN in Pelagonia. 
It should be noted that the earliest date from Veluška 
Tumba is related to the level of protosoil in which the 
remains of material culture and cultivated plants were 
found. This could be a result of intensive building and 
rebuilding of houses for which the foundations were 
often dug deeper into the soil, as proven not only for 
this site but also at Vrbjanska Èuka (Naumov 2020). 
That this activity is related to the founding phase of 
the settlement is also indicated by the Bayesian model 
with a median of c. 5990 cal BC for this early date. The 
earliest detected architectural unit at Veluška Tumba 
so far is Building 16, with two dates (according to 
their medians) of 5970 and 5940 cal BC, respectively. 
Stratigraphically, it is followed by Building 1, which 
prospections), followed by the still on-
going excavations (Naumov 2022). The
recent research of Veluška Tumba pro-
vides detailed information on the spatial 
organization of this EN settlement, which
is enclosed by two narrow ditches and
daub buildings positioned in a north-
east–southwest direction, often re built
in up to 13 architectural levels. The buil -
dings contained several clay instal la-
tions, such as ovens and bins, as well as 
dozens of large grinding stones.
The excavations and study of material 
culture were accompanied by archaeobotanical ana-
lysis which also provided samples for dating (Antolín 
et al. 2021; Sabanov et al. 2023). Besides these, sam-
ples of hazelnut and charcoal were also dated, but they 
are not included in this chronological study as they 
belong to the Mesolithic with results at 8846 BP (me-
dian at 8000 cal BC) and 7973 BP (median at 6900 cal 
BC). They also need additional revision and discussion, 
as at this stage it cannot be confirmed whether these 
samples are related to cultural activities or to natural 
events (Naumov 2023b). Similar to Vlaho, the Veluška 
Tumba samples derive from the stratigraphical units 
related to particular buildings, mainly concentrated 
in the earlier stages of the Neolithic settlement, some 
of which are synchronic, while others are erected one 
on top of another.
From the 18 samples from Veluška Tumba, two failed to 
be dated, two are from the Mesolithic, and one sample 
(BRAMS-4497), although from the EN layers, dates to 
the last century of the 6
th
 millennium BC and may 
have been displaced by a rodent.
4
 However, the 13 re -
  maining samples provide a solid sequence ranging 
from 6020 to 5760 cal BC according to their medians 
(Fig. 6). The earliest Neolithic date is provided by the
cereal sample BRAMS-4499 (6060–5990 cal BC: see 
Tab. 1) and it marks the foundation period of the set -
tlement. The youngest date in the EN-sequence is ETH-
122645 at 5760 cal BC according to its median. How-
ever, the sample, a pulse, was found in Building 1, one
of the earliest in the sequence. Note that the date shows
a high standard deviation and thus, if it has not been 
displaced by rodents or other agents, it may even be in
line with the earliest occupation phase shortly after 
Fig. 5. Photo from Veluška Tumba (©Center for Prehistoric Research).
4 In terms of Balkan chronology this would correspond to the Late Neolithic, but so far, no finds of this period were made. 
However, there is possibility that the upper part of the tell has been destroyed by constant ploughing in the last two cen-
turies.

12 6
oce Nao gathe eingrer
tensive occupation on this tell, which most likely was 
continuously inhabited (Naumov et al. 2020). Ac-
cording to the boundaries of the model the duration 
of single sequences is between 70 and 20 years. Ne-
ver theless, future dating of the phases following Buil-
ding 2 is necessary to understand whether or not there 
was an uninterrupted occupation at this site.
For Veluška Tumba, the dates from the 1970s should 
also be mentioned. We did not include them in the 
discussion so far, due to the nature of their origin 
(char  coal samples from poorly defined layers). Despite 
their broad standard deviations, the calibrations re-
veal results around 5800 cal BC (as TPQ-cal). Thus, 
they overlap mainly with the younger part of the newly 
obtained sequence, and they substantiate this period 
as one of the most intensive oc cupations in the tell’s 
stratigraphy. These findings will be discussed below in 
relation to the general chronology of Pelagonia.
Vrbjanska Èuka
The site of Vrbjanska Èuka is positioned in the north-
ern part of Pelagonia, be tween the cities of Prilep and 
held most of the samples. Inclusive of the date ETH-
122645 they narrow down the activity within this buil -
ding to the time around 5920/5890 cal BC. Buil ding
14, just above it, has a median of c. 5870 cal BC, and is
in its turn succeeded by the last dated unit, Buil ding 2,
dated around 5850/5840 cal BC. Of course, these me-
dians only represent a general chronological range for 
each of these buildings. They nevertheless indicate a 
gradual temporal perspective of the building intensity 
in the EN stages of Veluška Tumba. They should be 
regarded as approximate dates for the occupational 
period of these four buildings between 40 and 60 years 
each. With the future provision of more dates for each 
building phase, their time span will be determined 
more precisely.
The model from Veluška Tumba shows no temporal 
gaps, unlike the aforementioned model for Vlaho. This
appears to be largely due to the higher number of sam -
ples, but also the stratigraphical records with no in di -
cations of geological events related to shorter or long-
er phases of abandonment. The dense succession of 
buil dings in the stratigraphy also demonstrates an in-
Fig. 6. Calibrated dates from Veluška Tumba, sorted by age.

12 7
Dating the Early Neolithic in Pelagonia: closing a chronological gap in Balkan prehistory
Fig. 7. Radiocarbon dates from Veluška Tumba, modelled according to four building sequences.

12 8
oce Nao gathe eingrer
138166 from Building 16 belongs to an infant buried 
in the foundation for this structure (Naumov et al. 
2023c). The calibrated date has a median at 5900 cal 
BC and is as such c. 200 years older than expected on 
behalf of the stratigraphical position of the building 
between Buildings 5 and 14. We did not include it into 
the model as it is susceptible to the reservoir effect.
Given the reliable set of dates, we created a model with 
five sequences according to the excavated building 
units (Fig. 10). The building sequences represent three
different architectural horizons that were dated on be -
half of their stratigraphic disposition (Naumov et 
al. 2021): The earliest is Building 11, which is in the 
same layer as Building 2 and next to it. Therefore, it 
is not surprising that their temporal ranges overlap, 
although sample ETH-122658 implies a possible ear-
lier establishment of Building 11 at the end of the 7
th
millennium BC (5990 cal BC as TaQuo). On the other 
hand, the large number of dates from Building 2 de ter -
mine its occupation between 5900 and 5860 cal BC. 
Given its stratigraphic position, Building 5 may also 
belong to this initial phase of Vrbjanska Èuka and can 
be chronologically attributed to the 59
th
 century with 
its modelled median of 5830 cal BC. 
As for the second architectural horizon, there are no
dates available so far, but samples from interiors of
Building 4 and Building 21, which are from this ho-
rizon, are ready for dating, so they will be in cor po rat-
ed in the updated version of the model.
The third architectural horizon consists of two sub-
phases, each represented by a building unit. From 
Buil ding 14 sample CNA-4705 was dated to c. 5790 
cal BC. Building 8, which was founded above the pre-
vious one, largely corresponds to this dating with 
Kruševo, i.e. in the flatlands, 1.3km 
south of the village of Slavej (Fig. 8). The
initial ex cavation was performed in the
1980s when its Neolithic character was 
determined through its impressive ma te-
rial culture and ar chi  tecture (Kita no ski
1989; Mitkoski 2005). New multi disci pli -
nary research started in 2016 and is still
on going (Naumov et al. 2021; Nau mov
et al. 2023c). Other than the afore men -
tioned sites, Vrbjanska Èuka ends with a
Late Roman villa rustica and depo si-
tional pits, which were further used in
the Medieval period, when this tell serv -
ed as a necropolis. Only 1.30m of its 
height consists of EN layers, but these demonstrate 
a dynamic settlement with seven building layers en-
closed by a broad ditch. The buildings, positioned in 
the NW–SE direction, contained a large number of 
massive clay installations (ovens, granaries and bins) 
as well as grinding stones. Like the cases of Veluška 
Tumba and Vlaho, the painted pottery, figurines, house 
models and tablets indicate distinct craftsmanship 
with complex symbolic and social fea tures. An infant 
burial was discovered in the wall foundation of a house 
(Building 16).
The archaeobotanical research provided the majority 
of radiocarbon samples, but also samples from lipid 
analyses and the above-mentioned infant burial were
dated (Beneš et al. 2018; Antolín et al. 2020; Sto  ja nov-
ski et al. 2020; Sabanov et al. 2022; 2023; Naumov et 
al. 2023c). Altogether 20 samples were sent to diffe -
rent laboratories, of which two belong to the Medieval 
period and another four were of poor pre cision. The
remaining 14 samples are related to indoor strati gra -
phic units, i.e. particular buildings from different 
levels of the settlement. Not only the quantity but also
the quality of the samples thus provide a reliable chro-
nological sequence that de monstrates the temporal 
span of this EN settlement from its beginnings until 
its abandonment.
The earliest date is related to the cereal sample ETH-
122658 from Building 11 (Tab. 1 and Fig. 9). It is ca-
librated to 6100–6000 cal BC, with the median of 6050 
cal BC. The latest date, CNA-4705, was obtained from 
a lentil (5730–5670 cal BC, median of 5700 cal BC) 
and it overlaps with the lipid sample BRAMS-2838. 
The chronological frame of the medians suggests a 
temporal range of the EN settlement between 6050 
and 5700 cal BC. It must be stressed that sample ETH-
Fig. 8. Vrbjanska Èuka as seen from the south (©Center for Pre hi-
storic Research).

12 9
Dating the Early Neolithic in Pelagonia: closing a chronological gap in Balkan prehistory
detailed observations, but they do contribute to a 
better understanding of the temporal determination 
of the tells and the dispersion of the Neolithic in Pe-
lagonia, and will therefore be included in this chro-
nological overview.
There are three samples from the EN site of Tumba at 
Optièari, taken from seed and animal bones unearthed 
in the 1980s when this tell was excavated (Simoska, 
Kuzman 1990). They were recently dated as part of 
the current projects (Naumov 2023b). The seed sam-
ple BE-5280 was dated to 5980–5850 cal BC (median 
of 5910 cal BC) (Tab. 2, see below). The two bone sam-
ples are almost a century younger with a median of c. 
5800 cal BC. In this respect, the Optièari dates overlap 
with those from Veluška Tumba and Vrbjanska Èuka, 
indicating a synchronic occupation of these tells.
There is another tell in the same central part of Pela-
gonia that has been recently dated. Školska Tumba was 
excavated in the 1970s and again in 2014, providing 
more information on the complexity of Neolithic tells
(Simoska et al. 1979; Naumov, Tomaž 2015). Five sam-
one median of 5760 (BRAMS-4542) and 5750 cal BC 
(BRAMS-2838).
Therefore, the model limits the duration of occupation 
at this site according to the boundaries between 6030–
5740 cal BC. Nevertheless, despite the large number 
of samples and the thorough sequencing of Vrbjanska 
Èuka, more dating is still necessary in order to develop 
a better chronology of this site. Intensive dating of 
Buil ding 4 would end in a more precise chronological 
understanding of the 2
nd
 architectural horizon, while 
more dates from structures of the last occupational 
stage of this tell are also needed. Dating of the newly 
dis covered Building 19 and Building 21 in the northern 
part of the trench will provide additional information 
on the settlement expansion and its temporality.
Dating other Pelagonian tells
Besides the sequences and models elaborated above 
for Vlaho, Veluška Tumba, and Vrbjanska Èuka, and 
next to the few dates obtained in the 1970s, there are 
also some newer dates available from other sites, yet 
only one to three per site. These are not sufficient for
Fig. 9. Calibrated dates from Vrbjanska Èuka, sorted by age.

130 oce Nao gathe eingrer
excavations of both teams. The bone samples were re -
cently dated to 5700–5600 cal BC, thus indicating the
most probable period for the establishment of the tell 
(see Tab. 2). In this case, it is noteworthy that the ini-
ples were taken from this site, yet only the two bone 
samples related to the earliest layers gave good results, 
whereas the seeds were dated to the Middle Ages (6
th
 
to 9
th
 centuries AD), a period that was recorded in the 
Fig. 10. Radiocarbon dates from Vrbjanska Èuka, modelled according to five building sequences.

131
Dating the Early Neolithic in Pelagonia: closing a chronological gap in Balkan prehistory
tial inhabitation period of this tell is a bit later than the 
ones at Veluška Tumba and Vrbjanska Èuka. The two 
dates from Školska Tumba from the 1970s, however, 
give rather broad results: the earlier one is positioned 
between 6250 and 5560 cal BC and the later one be-
tween 5390 and 4680 cal BC (Naumov 2023b). Un for -
tunately, not only were the samples taken from uniden-
tified charcoal but their standard deviations are also 
very large. Consequently, they cannot be used in this 
dis cussion.
Tumba Porodin is a tell very close to Veluška Tumba 
and was intensively excavated in the 1950s (Grbiæ et 
al. 1960). Although three charcoal samples were dated 
in the 1970s, one of the seeds was recently sent for 
radiocarbon analysis. The sample BE-5281 (see Tab. 
2) has results between 5840 and 5710 cal BC and a 
curve peak at approximately 5740 cal BC. Of the three 
aforementioned charcoal samples, the earliest has a 
smaller standard deviation and could be set at the end 
of the 7
th
 millennium, while the two others are with
broader results between 6000 and 5600 cal BC. As 
such they overlap with those from Veluška Tum ba which
is just 2km away. It appears that the two neigh bour ing
tells may have, at least at times, been used syn chro ni -
cally.
There are three other Neolithic sites in Pelagonia that
were dated in the 1970s, but no more recent radio car -
bon analysis has been performed. From Èuka at To-
polèani two dates are known: the older date has a 
broad standard deviation and covers the middle of the 
7
th
 millennium BC. This date has been discussed in 
depth since it was regarded as far too old for the Neo -
lithic in North Macedonia, and it was presumed that 
old wood was used (Naumov 2016; 2023b). Besides, 
its exact context was not provided, and it is un clear as 
to which layer it belongs (Srdoæ et al. 1977; Kitanoski 
et al. 1978). The second sample from this site was 
dated to the first half of 6
th
 millennium BC, which is
more or less comparable to the chronology of the 
other tells in Pelagonia.
Markovi Kuli above the city of Prilep is one of the rare 
sites that differs in terms of its natural setting and 
settlement features from the other sites. It is a rock 
shelter without specific Neolithic architecture, but 
with some typical pottery for this and the subsequent 
Chalcolithic period (Cnotlivi 1990; Naumov, Mitkoski 
2018). The only analysed Neolithic sample comes from
an animal bone and it provides a date of around 5600
BC. This overlaps with the date from Porodin and 
could be considered one of the latest EN dates in Pe la-
gonia (Naumov 2023b).
The chronology of Pelagonia in a broader regio-
nal context
The detailed chronological overview of Pelagonia 
enabled a reliable determination of the start and end 
of the EN in this region. Our current aim is to embed 
this period into a broader context and particularly 
trace relationships with surrounding areas in which 
the Neolithic communities in Pelagonia established 
networks that are manifested in the ma terial culture. 
Analogies in pottery and figural re pre sentations that 
reflect not only geographical but also chronological 
proximity can be observed with the south (Western 
and Central Macedonia in Greece), west (Lake Ohrid, 
Lake Prespa, Korça Basin) and north (Ovèe Pole and 
Skopje basin).
5
Western and Central Macedonia in Greece
Starting with the oldest Pelagonian dates, namely 
those from Vlaho, the relationship with EN sites in 
Western and Central Macedonia in Greece is par ti cu-
larly significant. As mentioned above, the southern 
part of the Pelagonian basin also stretches south of the 
border between North Macedonia and Greece, into the 
region of Western Macedonia. The closest comparable 
site is yet farther south, some 50km south of Vlaho. 
This site, Mavropigi-Fillotsairi, is located in the hilly 
area of Ptolemaida (Kozani district). It is a flat site with 
two separate architectonical phases: an earlier one 
consisting of mainly pits of different sizes and depths 
and a later one with quadrangular constructions (Bon-
ga 2020.Fig. 2; Reingruber 2024.86).
There are 32 radiocarbon dates from Mavropigi, which 
cover the whole duration of the EN (Starnini 2018; 
Bonga 2020). The two oldest dates in the sequence fall 
within a flat portion of the curve and were obtained 
from charcoal (of an unknown species). Therefore, the
sequence may not have started as early as 6600 cal BC, 
as suggested before (Karamitrou-Mentessidi 2014. 
245; Maniatis 2014.207; Karamitrou-Mentessidi et 
5 The connections between the Struma Valley and the areas to the west of it were recently discussed in a comprehensive
contribution on the Neolithisation of southeastern Europe (Krauß 2023.83–105), so we omit this region from our over-
view and refer the reader to that study.

132
oce Nao gathe eingrer
al. 2015; Starnini 2018.Tab. 1), but several decades 
later (Reingruber et al. 2023).
We have created a model according to Phases 1–3 as 
developed by the excavators (Karamitrou-Mentessi et
al. 2015.58) and discussed by Lily Bonga in her own 
work (Bonga 2017; 2020) and in collaboration with
others (Reingruber et al. 2023). In our model we 
are relying on dates obtained on charcoal and seeds, 
excluding those on human bones (Fig. 11). As some 
of the dates do not match the sequence they are con-
sidered here to be outliers, unfortunately most of them 
on seeds (Fig. 12). One such outlier is from Phase 1: 
DEM-1716, 7314±30 BP (6230–6100 cal BC); two others 
are from Phase 2: MAMS-21099/DEM-2683, 7619±26 
BP (6480–6440 cal BC) and OxA-31678, 7470±40 BP 
(6410–6260 cal BC). In Figure 11, the upper boundary 
is thus set at 6530 cal BC because the oldest date in 
the sequence falls onto the plateau in the calibration 
curve. Therefore, 6530 cal BC can be understood me-
rely as a TPQ-mod, although the ac tual start may have 
been much later than this, as the date for this phase – 
which was obtained from seeds – suggests (DEM-2684 
with a median of 6360 cal BC; but note that the result 
of another seed, attributed to Phase 3, DEM-2683, is 
dated to 6460 cal BC, Fig. 12).
According to the modelled medians, Phase 1 lasted 
over 200 years, between 6530–6310 cal BC. Phase 2
may have been of comparably short duration (6310–
6220 cal BC), whereas Phase 3 has a seemingly long-
er duration again, between 6220–6000 cal BC. The 
extreme length of Phase 1 and the huge over lap with
Phase 2 are indicative of how difficult it is to accura-
tely separate contexts within pit sites. More over, the 
overlap between Phases 2 and 3 shows that more dates
would be needed to derive a solid model without ca -
veats during calculations executed with Oxcal. The re-
fore, we suggest the start at 6530 cal BC only as TPQ-
mod and the date of 6460 cal BC, with reservations, 
as TaQuo.
The Pieria region is situated in Central Macedonia, be-
tween the lower Aliakmon River and the Aegean Sea. 
Some of the newly discovered EN sites that are located 
there have further changed our perception of how the 
Neolithic disseminated into the Aegean.
Revenia-Korinos is an open-air, flat extended set tle-
ment, only 10km away from today’s coastline. The site
is characterized by pits of varying sizes, some of them 
identified as subterranean or semi-subterranean pit
dwellings. However, at “6200/6100 BC […] the pit 
habitation mode is followed by aboveground, rec tan-
 gular post-framed structures” (Maniatis, Adaktylou 
2021.1025).
Twenty-nine radiocarbon dates have been obtained 
from Revenia from samples of different materials, 
among them fish-eating species and charcoal of long-
lived oak (Maniatis, Adaktylou 2021). It is noteworthy 
that two of the four oldest dates are either on pig bone 
(excluded due to the reservoir effect) or charcoal (old-
wood effect), and their results need to be treated with 
care. Additionally, together with a third date, they 
cover a flat portion of the calibration curve, a so-call-
ed plateau (Reingruber et al. 2023.Fig. 5), which ar ti-
 ficially lengthens the duration by more than 100 
years, between 6600 and 6500 cal BC. A fourth date 
attributed to the ‘Primary habitation phase’ was taken 
from cattle bone and is not affected by the plateau and
thus a more reliable result (DEM-2823). These four 
dates, together with the five dates from charcoal and 
cattle bones, date the earliest pottery Neolithic at Re-
venia to between 6560 and 6300 cal BC (according 
to their medians). The later EN can be dated between 
6420–6140 cal BC, according to the calibrated medians 
from 13 dates (among them seven from human bones). 
The huge overlap of dates from these two phases be-
tween 6420 and 6200 cal BC may reflect possible re-
usages of pits and the difficulties associated with the 
chronological assessment of undecorated pottery and/
or unidentifiable sherds. Another plateau on the curve 
between 6240 and 6020 cal BC creates the impression 
of a long duration of the last phase, when it actually 
may have been much shorter.
We modelled the dates according to three phases –
‘Primary’, ‘Earlier EN’ (EEN) and ‘Later EN’ (LEN) – in -
cluding samples obtained on charcoal and cattle (ex-
cluding human bones) and obtained a more limited 
occupation of the sites (Fig. 13). Due to the plateau, 
the boundary start is set at 6560 cal BC as a TPQ-mod. 
According to the medians, the sequence of the Primary 
phase lasts between 6520 and 6430 cal BC. The EEN 
phase covers the period between 6380 and 6320 cal 
BC whereas the LEN is comparably short, from 6320 
to 6240 cal BC. However, this model is only a rough 
framework, with less heavy re-modellings of the ca-
librated dates than was the case in Mavropigi. Yet we
still encountered some issues during the cal cu lation 
process. Other than in the model obtained by Yannis 
Maniatis and Fotini Adaktylou (2021.1042), in our mo -
del the tran sition to the LEN – the phase with rec tan-
gular buildings – is at 6320 cal BC.

133
Dating the Early Neolithic in Pelagonia: closing a chronological gap in Balkan prehistory
Fig. 11. Radiocarbon dates from Mavropigi, modelled according to three 
habitation phases (indicated in red are results obtained on grains).
Another site in the Pieria, ap pro -
ximately 20km north from Re ve nia, 
is Paliambela-Kolindros. The site is 
established on a small hill above 
flatlands and is laid out on terraces.
During the later EN and at the tran-
sition EN/MN, it was sur rounded (at 
least partially) by dit ches. Like in 
Vlaho, structures like hearths and 
bedrock-mortars were cut into the 
soft bedrock (Tsar  t si dou, Kotsakis 
2020; Nau mov et al. 2021; Sabanov 
et al. 2023).
The sequence of dates from this site 
is not yet com ple te, but from the
five dates obtained mainly from ani-
mal bone (Maniatis 2014.208, Fig. 
3), the three oldest samples yield ed 
results between 6530 (as TPQ-cal) 
and 6450 cal BC according to their 
medians (Rein  gruber et al. 2023.
Fig. 7). The two other dates fall into 
the EN 2 between 6300 and 6000 cal
BC (Fig. 14). Interestingly, and as 
in Revenia-Korinos, the old est ha bi-
tation phase is charac teriz ed by pits. 
There is a major change observable 
after 6300/6200 cal BC when rec-
tan gular constructions were erected 
above ground.
Exclusively above-ground con struc -
 tions were en countered in Nea Ni ko-
medeia, again a flat site with only 60
cm accumulation (Pyke 1996). As
the dates from there have not been
published according to con texts, 
another model will not be pro posed 
here and con sequently we rely on 
those already published (Rein gruber,
Thissen 2017; Ya no vich 2021). The 
se quence starts only after 6300 cal 
BC (as TPQ-cal) and ends around 
5900 cal BC. Thus, the change from
pit-levels to above-ground con struc-
tions at or shortly after 6300 cal BC, 
as clari fied for the previous two 
sites, can be regarded as secured.
The newly obtained dates from EN 
sites in Pelagonia, together with 

134 oce Nao gathe eingrer
tween Vlaho and Mavropigi, which are only 50km 
away from each other and set in similar hilly environ-
ments above marshy flatlands. It is interesting that 
the earliest and latest dated short-lived material – i.e. 
seeds – from both sites are almost identically dated 
to 6380–6020 cal BC, meaning that the EN-levels may 
have been at least partly contemporary, and that the 
sites were aban doned at the same time. Based on these 
relative and ab solute chronological assessments, it 
should come as no surprise when more and better evi-
dence for networks among these societies is revealed 
in the future.
Lake areas and basins in the border area of 
North Macedonia and Albania
Besides the earliest Neolithic sites, the tells in the 
flatlands of Pelagonia – those with dates between 
those from Pieria and Ptolemaida, thus provide more 
thorough foundations for the de  termination of the 
chronological scale in which so cial transformations 
occurred and communities from different sites estab -
lished networks. If the chro nological models pro pos -
ed for Revenia, Paliam bela and Mavropigi are accept-
ed then we can conclude that not all sites were estab-
lished in the same decades: those closer to the coast 
(Re venia and Paliambela, 6530/6520 cal BC) seem to 
be slightly earlier than Mavropigi (6460 cal BC) and 
Vlaho (6400 cal BC) in the hills. That Vlaho was also 
part of the initial spread of the Neolithic way of life 
into the Balkans is further evidenced by the re semb-
lance of pottery technology, its decoration and the 
architectural features are comparable with the sites in 
Pieria and Ptolemaida (Bon ga 2017; Naumov, Nasuh 
2023). Particularly im   portant is the relationship be -
Fig. 12. Calibrated dates on seeds from Mavropigi, sorted according to the three building phases.

135
Dating the Early Neolithic in Pelagonia: closing a chronological gap in Balkan prehistory
works among wetland societies were certainly es tab -
lished in all periods of prehistory (Nau mov 2018), al-
though solid radiocarbon dates from the southwestern 
Balkans are still missing. Considering the Neolithic of 
Lake Ohrid, the relative chronology developed based 
on decoration patterns on vessels, figurines, tablets 
6000–5600 cal BC
6
 – should also be regarded in a 
broader regional context. Due to their geographical 
proximity, the areas of the Lakes Ohrid and Prespa as
well as the Korça Basin display the most evident rela-
tionships, as has been pointed out on several occa sions
(Benac 1979; Sanev 1995; Andoni et al. 2017). Net-
Fig. 13. Radiocarbon dates from Revenia, modelled according to three habitation phases.
6 This period is known as the Middle Neolithic period in Thessaly, but as the Early Neolithic in the Balkan terminology.

136
Goce Naumov, Agathe Reingruber
samples from Sovjan and Vashtëmi (dated to the first 
half of the 7
th
 millennium BC), which are used as 
indicators for the initial spread of the Neolithic (Allen 
et al. 2014). Another date from Vashtëmi, around 6400
BC, is also questionable as it is obtained from a char -
coal sample from a core. Re gardless, if more argu ments
in support of such early dates in this area are pro vid -
ed in the future, they would fall within the time of oc-
cupation of Vlaho. One should note that comparisons 
based on pottery alone do not suffice to establish early 
connections, as some pottery features are continuously 
present up to around 6000 BC.
The regions of Ovèe Pole and Skopje basin in 
North Macedonia
When it comes to the first centuries of the 6
th
 millen-
nium BC, the sites of the so-called Amzabegovo–Vršnik 
group in particular must be mentioned, although this 
was traditionally conceived of as two distinct ‘cultural 
groups’ (Garašanin 1979; Sanev 1994; Mitrevski 
2013). Judging from the material culture (pottery, fi gu -
 rines and house models), the farming communities in 
Pelagonia were closely linked with those in the val leys
of Tikveš, Ovèe Pole, Polog, and Skopje. To date, only
the sites of Amzabegovo and Govrlevo have yielded ra-
diocarbon dates, whereas most sites were never dated 
or provided only one or few dates per site. Therefore, 
the chronological comparison with Pelagonia will be 
based only on two sites. Am za  begovo is one of the rare
and anthropomorphic house models, authenticates
the connects with Pelagonia in the Neo lithic, and some
of the few radiocarbon dates that are available con tri -
bute to this. They are related to pile dwellings of Ohri -
dati, Ploèa, and Lin 3, and belong to the first half of 
the 6
th
 millennium BC, i.e. the period with the highest 
density of dates in Pelagonia as well (Westphal et al.
201 1; Anastasi 2022; Holguin et al. in press). Accord-
ing to the material culture, connections between Pela-
go nian tells can also be manifested with the dryland 
sites of Dolno Trnovo and Pogradec. So far, only dates 
from Pogradec are provided and they range between 
6000 and 5800 cal BC (Andoni 2017). In the area of 
Lake Prespa not many Neolithic sites have yet been ex -
cavated and dated, except the one at Kallamas that 
was dated to the second half of the 6
th
 millennium BC
(Oberweiler et al. 2020). Consequently, due to the lack
of research in this region, only a little information re-
lated to the chronological and material connections 
with Pelagonia can be provided.
Better insights are available from sites in the Korça Ba -
sin in Albania, although only two have provided ra dio -
carbon dates. The similarities in terms of painted pot -
tery were already highlighted and they indicate evi-
dent communication with Pelagonia (Korkuti 1982). 
Absolute dates are available from sites near Vashtëmi 
and Podgorie, yet they do not derive from excavations 
but from coring. This is particularly an issue with the 
Fig. 14. Calibrated dates from Paliambela, sorted according to the two Early Neolithic phases.

137
Dating the Early Neolithic in Pelagonia: closing a chronological gap in Balkan prehistory
(according to the calibrated medians). We can there-
fore ascertain that the Neolithic way of life in Pelagonia 
started much earlier than previously thought and, as 
another surprising insight, a change in habitation 
pattern or in behaviour generally occurred around 
5750/5700 cal BC.
The site of Vlaho is of special significance as so far it is
the earliest Neolithic site in Pelagonia, as well as one of
the earliest sites in the broader Balkan area. Most like -
ly, the initial settlement was established soon after 
those in the regions of Pieria and Ptolemaida. The 
sites of Mavropigi, Revenia, and Paliambela share si-
milarities not only in impressed pottery production, 
which appears in quite a large amount in Vlaho as well,
but also in the presence of dug out structures or dwel-
lings (Karamitrou-Mentessidi et al. 2015.Figs. 6–11; 
Kotsakis 2018.Fig. 3.2; Bonga 2020.Fig. 2; Maniatis, 
Adaktylou 2021.Fig. 5; Naumov, Nasuh 2023; Nau-
mov et al. 2023a).
The revised chronology of the initial stage of Paliam be-
la, c. 100 years older than that at Vlaho and Mavro pi -
gi, and close to that from Revenia (Reingruber et al.
2023), indicates the possible trajectories of the ad vance
of Neolithic innovations like farming from the coastal 
areas to the hinterland of geographical Macedonia. 
The overlapping dates from Revenia (Primary and 
Early Phase) and Mavropigi (Phase 1) between c. 6500
and 6300 cal BC and those between Mavropigi (Phases 
2–3) and Vlaho between 6400 and 6020 cal BC is 
some thing that should be used in future studies on 
demographic processes in the EN of the Balkans.
The distances of the sites to the Aegean Sea have not
yet been well investigated, but according to John 
Bintliff (1976.Fig. 10) and Matthieu Ghilardi et al. 
(2012.47–61), Nea Nikomedeia was only 5km away
from the Thermaic Gulf. Moreover, geological stu dies
from other Aegean coastal areas revealed the proxi mi-
ty of sites to the sea that are nowadays located farther 
inland (Horejs 2017.13–15, Fig. 1.3). The spread of 
Neolithic innovations into the circum-Aegean area 
was thus in great part based on the maritime contacts 
between communities.
Plateaus in the calibration curve around and before 
6600 cal BC and again between 6200 and 6000 cal BC 
(Reingruber et al. 2017.Fig.20) complicate a precise 
estimation of the beginning or the end of a specific 
sequence. The former is important in the case of the 
Aegean, the latter for the Neolithisation of the Balkans. 
examples of thoroughly explored Macedonian sites 
with implementation of multidisciplinary research in
the 2
nd
 half of the 20
th
 century (Gimbutas 1976). Its
detailed chronological sequence was later modelled 
and integrated into the Balkan chronology (Rein gru-
ber, Thissen 2005). The chronological range between 
c. 6100 and 5000 cal BC indicates the presence of all 
Neolithic phases at this site, some synchronous to the
tells in Pelagonia. This is further supported by the
striking resemblance of cer tain white painted pottery 
patterns which, besides in Pelagonia, are also present 
at the sites of Mavropigi and Nea Nikomedeia. There-
fore, a possible gradual temporal dispersal of the Neo li-
thic via various routes from the southern to the north-
ern regions would certainly be reasonable.
The site of Cerje near Govrlevo is one of the most sys  -
tematically excavated in the Skopje Valley, and pro-
vides a more exact insight into the Neolithic chro no -
logy of this region (Bilbija 1986; Fidanoski 2012; Fi-
danoski 2023). The chronological range of a dozen 
dates between 5950 and 5750 overlaps with those in 
Pelagonia and they can be related to a later stage of the
Neolithisation process in this part of the Balkans. Si mi -
lar dates are also present from other sites in the Skopje 
Valley, i.e. Tumba Madjari. Although extensively ex ca -
vated for several decades only a few reports and radio-
carbon dates similar to those from Govrlevo have been 
published (Sanev 1988; Commenge 2009; Stojanova 
Kanzurova 2020). In this respect, two more sites of 
the Amzabegovo–Vršnik group from the Ovèe Pole re -
gion should be mentioned: Vršnik near Tarinci and 
Grn èarica near Krupište with results from first half of 
the 6
th
 millennium BC (Garašanin, Garašanin 1961; 
Stojanovski 2017). Similar to Pelagonia, there is also 
no single date available for the centuries around the 
mid-6
th
 millennium BC at these sites. The absence of 
cultural layers of this period (or at least of absolute 
dates) requires particular attention.
Discussion and conclusions: Pelagonian chro no -
logy and the spread of the Neolithic into south-
eastern Eu rope
The detailed insight into the chronological sequences 
of the Neolithic sites in Pelagonia, as well as the over    -
view of the chronologies in the surrounding re gions
provide a solid time-frame for when and how the first 
farming communities appeared in North Macedonia. 
Thirty-nine of the 42 dates (compare Tabs. 1 and 2)
rendered results between 6360–5700 cal BC (accord-
ing to the modelled medians) and 6390–5750 cal BC

138
Goce Naumov, Agathe Reingruber
only after 6500/6400 BC (as a TPQ-cal) (Reingruber 
2008; Alexakis et al. 2011; Reingruber et al. 2017), 
and in Pelagonia around 6000 BC (Naumov 2018).
This habitation model, based on the current chro nolo  -
gical results, explains the abrupt appearance of tells in
the wetlands of Pelagonia around 6000 BC, after ear -
lier sites in the hilly areas were abandoned. Both 
prospections and excavations confirm the pre sence of
the majority of tells around marshes in the flatlands, 
a practice that was maintained in the Late Neolithic, 
Chalcolithic, and Bronze Age as well (Alexakis et al.
201 1; Naumov 2016; Reingruber et al. 2017). This de-
cision made by the first generation of farmers to settle 
at the transition between different habitats seems ra-
tional, especially if envisaging them as descendants of 
Mesolithic communities that explored not only water-
rich areas like lakes and rivers (providing fish, birds, 
shells, reptiles, etc.), but also woods and hills with 
their abundant resources for hunting and gathering in
the different seasons. We suggest that the later gene ra -
tions were not only ‘hunters in transition’, but also al -
ready well-established farmers for whom direct access 
to the resources of the wetlands was crucial: fertile 
soils for farming, mud and reed for buildings, clay for
pottery, and water for animals were constantly avail-
able in direct proximity to the settlements.
It is evident that this period between 6000 and 5700
cal BC was quite dynamic in Pelagonia and the Bal kans
in terms of social activity if compared with the exist ing
data before 6000 BC. But when looking at the younger 
dates, evidence is also scant: for the time around 5600
cal BC we have to rely on the old radiocarbon dates, 
and even then a temporal gap around 5500 BC be-
comes apparent, with only few dates from Školska 
Tum ba at Mogila and Tumba at Trn (Valastro et al. 
1977), and the dubious one from Veluška Tumba at 
the end of 6
th
 millennium BC. The situation is a bit 
different in the Struma Valley of Bul garia, where at 
Kovaèevo and Balgarèevo levels are present that fit in -
to this temporal gap (Grebska-Ku low, Zidarov 2021),
although no radiocarbon dates are available yet (This -
sen, Reingruber 2017). Such a gap could be an artifi-
cial one that needs to be closed by future research. Al-
ternatively, social and/or climatic processes may have 
caused the abandonment of most of the tells before 
the mid-6
th
 millennium BC. This view is supported by 
the material culture as no elements of later pottery 
features are present. As this study focused on the early 
stages of the Neolithic in Pelagonia, the questions re-
lating to the Middle and Late Neolithic will have to be 
addressed in a future study.
We have no conclusive dates yet for the time between 
6200 and 6000 cal BC from other sites in North Ma-
cedonia (apart from Amzabegovo), although it is the 
time when the first sites were established in other re-
gions of the Balkans, e.g., in Southern Bulgaria (Ko-
va èevo) (Thissen, Reingruber 2017.137–139). The 
extreme decrease in global temperature for at least 
200 years, if not longer, around 6200 cal BC (the 8.2 
ka-event, Weninger et al. 2009) may have triggered 
the appearance of new sites in river valleys and wet-
lands (Thissen, Reingruber 2017.Fig. 2). Especially at 
or after 6000 cal BC many new sites appear around 
the marshes of Pelagonia (e.g., Veluška Tumba, Tumba 
Porodin, Tumba Optièari, Vrbjanska Èuka and Školska 
Tumba) (Naumov 2016). If the old dates from Markovi 
Kuli and Èuka-Topolèani can be confirmed by new 
samples, then this flourishing period of the EN ends 
around 5600 cal BC.
Vlaho and Mavropigi are positioned in the lower hills
of mountain slopes above marshes in the wet lands 
which nowadays have dried out as a result of the me -
lio ration processes in the 20
th
 century (Ka ra mitrou-
Mentessidi et al. 201 5; Naumov et al. 2023a). Paliam -
bela, c. 85km away from Vlaho, has also been estab-
lished in a hilly setting. Three out of four very early 
sites (the exception being Revenia) are located on low-
er hills, above the plain. Therefore, we provisionally 
acknowledge a new settlement pattern that needs con -
firmation through future research. This is in contrast 
to previous observations that EN com munities ex clu -
sively established their settlements in flat areas and 
on river terraces, while afterwards, in the LN, they 
moved to higher positions due to in tensified conflicts 
(Garašanin 1979; Sanev 1995). Namely, the examples 
from Paliambela, Mavropigi and Vlaho demonstrate 
that the first farmers intentionally selected these ele -
vated positions (up to 780 masl) and made modifi ca -
tion to the bedrock in order to place the initial struc tu -
res and hearths (Kotsos, Urem Kotsou 2006; Kara mi -
trou-Mentessidi et al. 201 5; Naumov et al. 2021). This
was most likely due to the presence of marshes in the
wetlands that were covering large areas in the pe riod
before the 8.2 ka event. Studies on the sizes of Thes-
salian lakes in prehistoric times (nowadays also dried 
out or drained in the 20
th
 century) are now being car -
ried out, but judging from the current results the lakes
changed their out lines over the course of the millennia 
(Reingruber, Toufexis 2021.42–43; Caputo et al. 
2022.35–63). Tells also started to appear around 
marshes and lakes only a few centuries after the initial 
establishment of settlements in hilly areas: in Thessaly 

139
Dati ng the Early Neolithic in Pelagonia: closing a chronological gap in Balkan prehistory
Acknowledgements
Goce Naumov would like to thank the Einstein Center-Chronoi for the research fellowship and both authors would like 
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anonymous reviewers who con tributed to the improvement of this paper.
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Dating the Early Neolithic in Pelagonia: closing a chronological gap in Balkan prehistory
Site Lab. code BP
StDev
(±)
Sample 
material
Species Context and layer
cal BC
1σ
cal BC
2σ
Median
(cal)
Median
(mod)
No.
V l aho E 74 86 2 6 Bone Ovis aries Biling    arant 64 16– 62 66 64 2 4 – 62 5 0 6360 639 0 1
V l aho E 74 79 2 6 Bone Bos Taurus Biling    arant 64 11– 62 64 64 2 1– 62 4 6 634 0 6380 2 V l aho N 74 60 36 C ereal Triticum sp. Biling    639 1– 62 5 9 64 10 – 62 4 0 632 0 635 0 3
V l aho N 7371 36 C ereal Triticum sp. Biling    635 7– 60 9 2 6372 – 60 85 62 30 6330 4 V l aho E 74 64 2 8 C ereal Tr. timopheevii Biling    639 3– 62 5 9 64 0 8– 62 4 3 632 0 62 4 0 5 V l aho N 715 1 36 C ereal Triticum sp. Biling   60 5 8– 5 9 9 2 60 72 – 5 9 2 6 60 2 0 5 9 2 0 6
elka a B 884 6 2 9 C harcoal Charcoal
Earliest layers s 
tes t trench 8
8172 – 785 6 82 0 5 – 780 7 80 0 0 - 7
elka a B 79 73 2 8 W il d f ruit Corylus avellana Earliest layers s 70 35 – 682 5 70 4 4 – 670 2 69 10 - 8
elka a B 714 3 2 7 C ereal Tr. monococum Protosoil s 60 5 7– 5 9 89 60 67– 5 9 2 8 60 2 0 5 9 9 0 9elka a E 70 69 2 8 P ul s e Lens culinaris Biling   5 9 9 1– 5 9 10 60 16– 5 888 5 9 4 0 5 9 70 10
elka a E 70 4 0 2 8 C ereal Triticum sp. Biling   5 9 82 – 5 89 2 5 9 9 1– 5 84 2 5 9 30 5 9 4 0 11
elka a E 70 75 4 1 ereal cha Tr. monococcum Biling   60 11– 5 9 0 7 60 2 8– 5 84 4 5 9 5 0 5 9 2 0 12
elka a E 70 4 1 33 ereal cha Tr. monococcum Biling   5 9 83– 5 89 2 5 9 9 4 – 5 84 1 5 9 30 5 9 2 0 13
elka a E 70 36 2 8 P ul s e Pisum sativum Biling   5 9 82 – 5 89 0 5 9 89 – 5 84 2 5 9 2 0 5 9 10 14
elka a N 70 30 36 C ereal Triticum sp. Biling  5 9 82 – 5 85 0 5 9 9 3– 5 831 5 9 2 0 5 9 0 0 15
elka a N 69 89 35 C ereal Triticum sp. Biling  5 9 72 – 5 834 5 9 81– 5 9 4 3 5 870 5 9 0 0 16
elka a E 69 84 2 8 C ereal Tr. aestivum/durum Biling   5 9 69 – 5 832 5 9 79 – 5 773 5 870 5 89 0 17
elka a E 6862 84 P ul s e Pisum elatius Biling   5 833– 5 667 5 9 71– 5 62 5 5 760 5 89 0 18
elka a E 70 0 2 2 8 C ereal 
Hordeum vulgare cf. 
var. nudum
Biling   5 9 72 – 5 84 3 5 9 83– 5 79 8 5 89 0 5 870 19
elka a E 69 9 5 30 W il d f ruit Rubus fruticosus Biling   5 9 71– 5 84 0 5 9 83– 5 786 5 880 5 85 0 2 0elka a E 69 2 3 37 ereal cha Tr. monococcum Biling   5 836– 5 74 5 5 89 0 – 5 72 5 5 80 0 5 830 2 1
elka a B 619 8 2 6 C ereal Tr. aestivum Early layers  5 2 12 – 5 0 73 5 2 87– 5 0 4 7 5 130 - 2 2ranska ka E 719 8 4 7 ereal cha Tr. monococcum Biling   60 83– 5 9 9 6 62 2 0 – 5 9 84 60 5 0 60 10 2 3
ranska ka E 70 10 36 ereal cha Tr. monococcum Biling   5 9 77– 5 84 3 5 9 86– 5 79 6 5 9 0 0 5 9 5 0 2 4ranska ka E 69 15 2 8 C ereal 
(tlier not 
incl ud ed in the 
mod el )
Biling    5 830 – 5 74 1 5 881– 5 72 6 5 79 0 - 2 5ranska ka N 70 36 36 F ruit Prunus spinosa Biling 5 9 83– 5 887 60 0 9 – 5 836 5 9 2 0 5 9 0 0 2 6
ranska ka N 70 30 37 F ruit Prunus sativa Biling  5 9 82 – 5 85 0 5 9 9 5 – 5 80 4 5 9 2 0 5 9 0 0 2 7
ranska ka BE 69 9 5 2 4 C ereal Triticum sp.
Biling      
 c
5 9 69 – 5 84 2 5 9 80 – 5 79 8 5 880 5 89 0 2 8
Tab. 1. Radiocarbon dates from the three Pelagonian sites, listed according to building units; calibrated and modelled medians are rounded by 10.

14 6
oce Nao gathe eingrer
ranska ka N 69 76 36 C ereal Tr. monococcum Biling  5 9 66– 5 79 8 5 9 78– 5 9 4 9 5 860 5 880 2 9ranska ka B 69 71 2 9 Bone Bos taurus Biling    k  5 89 4 – 5 79 6 5 9 73– 5 75 3 5 85 0 5 870 30
ranska ka BE 69 4 6 4 4 - Cerna spec.
Biling     
L 0 - 5 cm
5 883– 5 75 5 5 9 71– 5 731 5 82 0 5 860 31
ranska ka B 69 72 2 9 Bone Sus domesticus Biling    k 5 89 5 – 5 79 6 5 9 74 – 5 75 4 5 85 0 5 830 32
ranska ka E 70 4 3 33 Bone 
Homo infans (not 
incl ud ed in the 
mod el )
Biling   5 9 83– 5 89 3 5 9 9 5 – 5 84 1 5 9 0 0 - 33
ranska ka N 682 4 35 P ul s e Pisum sativum Biling 5 731– 5 668 5 771– 5 633 5 70 0 5 79 0 34
ranska ka B 69 74 2 9 Bone Capra hircus Biling    k 5 89 5 – 5 79 9 5 9 74 – 5 75 7 5 860 5 760 35
ranska ka B 6839 4 7 Res id ue Lipid Biling   5 75 8– 5 663 5 831– 5 634 5 72 0 5 75 0 36
Site Lab. code BP
StDev
(±)
Sample 
material
Species Context and layer
cal BC
1σ
cal BC
2σ
Median
(cal)
No.
aptiari BE 70 19 2 2 ee Pisum sativum arant  in  ecaations 5 9 76- 5 85 1 5 9 83- 5 84 1 5 9 10 1
aptiari
B 69 4 9 2 9 Bone Bos taurus
arant  sothern hal spit  in 
 ecaations 
5 883- 5 774 5 9 65 - 5 737 5 82 0 2aptiari
B 69 35 2 9 Bone Bos taurus
arant  sothern hal spit  in 
 ecaations
5 84 1- 5 75 1 5 887- 5 734 5 810 3
aPoroin BE 5 2 81 6884 2 2 ee Tr. monococcum arant  in  ecaations 5 784 - 5 72 7 5 831- 5 72 0 5 760 4 kolska a B 6768 2 9 Bone Bos taurus arant    in  ecaations 5 710 - 5 635 5 72 1- 5 62 7 5 670 5 kolska a B 6736 2 9 Bone Bos taurus arant    in  ecaations 5 70 3- 5 62 3 5 714 - 5 5 70 5 65 0 6
Tab. 2. Radiocarbon dates from other Pelagonian sites recently dated; calibrated medians are rounded by 10.
Tab. 1. Continued

.