DIDACTICA SLOVENICA – PEDAGOŠKA OBZORJA ZNANSTVENA REVIJA ZA DIDAKTIKO Izdajatelji Published by □ Pedagoška obzorja d.o.o. □ Univerza v Novem mestu Glavni in odgovorni urednik Editor-in-chief □ Dr. Marjan Blažič Uredniški odbor Editorial board □ Dr. José Manuel Bautista Vallejo, Huelva, Španija □ Dr. Marija Javornik Krečič, Maribor, Slovenija □ Dr. Gabriela Kelemen, Arad, Romunija □ Dr. Ljupčo Kevereski, Bitola, Makedonija □ Dr. Milan Matijević, Zagreb, Hrvaška □ Dr. Nikola Mijanović, Nikšić, Črna gora □ Dr. Jasmina Starc, Novo mesto, Slovenija □ Dr. Lazar Stošić, Beograd, Srbija □ Dr. Boško Vlahović, Beograd, Srbija □ Dr. Janez Vogrinc, Ljubljana, Slovenija Lektor Proofread by □ Meta Kmetič Prevodi Translated by □ Ensitra, Brigita Vogrinec s.p. Naslov uredništva in uprave Editorial office and administration □ Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja, Na Loko 2, p.p. 124, SI-8000 Novo mesto, Slovenija, EU Spletna stran revije Website of the journal □ http://www.pedagoska-obzorja.si/revija Elektronski naslov E-mail □ info@pedagoska-obzorja.si Revija Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja je indeksirana in vključena v Journal Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja is indexed and included in □ Elsevier Bibliographic Databases (SCOPUS) □ International Bibliography of Periodical Literature / Internationale Bibliographie geistes- und sozial- wissenshaft lischer Zeitschiftenliteratur (IBZ) □ Internationale Bibliographie der Rezensionen geistes- und sozialwissenshaftlischer Literatur (IBR) □ Co-operative Online Bibliographic System and Services (COBISS) Izdajanje revije sofinancira Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije. The publication of the journal is co-financed by the Public research agency of the Republic of Slovenia. Naklada Circulation □ 300 Tisk Printed by □ Tiskarna Cicero, Begunje, d.o.o. Copyright © 2020 – Pedagoška obzorja podjetje za pedagoški inženiring d.o.o. 2020 letnik 35 1 DIDACTICA SLOVENICA pedago{ka obzorja znanstvena revija za didaktiko Vsebina Contents Maruša Loboda, 3 Stališča študentov pedagoških smeri do Nika Bedek, nadarjenih in njihovega izobraževanja Urška Žerak, Attitudes of Pre-Service Teachers towards Gifted dr. Mojca Juriševič, Pupils and Their Education dr. Janez Vogrinc Dr. Tatjana Devjak, 21 Pomen pozitivne klime za izvajanje dr. Vesna Podgornik, samoevalvacije v vrtcu dr. Sanja Berčnik, Importance of a Positive Climate for Conducting dr. Janez Vogrinc Self-Evaluation in Kindergarten Dr. Bojana Perić Prkosovački, 42 Vpliv učnih delavnic na pouk in učenje mag. Milica Popović Stijačić, Educational Workshops: Positive Impact on dr. Nina Brkić Jovanović Teaching and Learning Dr. Dubravka Kuščević, 56 Medkulturnost pri pouku – učenčeve preference dr. Marija Brajčić, likovnih del Nikolina Tomašević Interculturalism in Teaching – Pupils’ Preferences for Art Works Dr. Jernej Kovač, 72 Vključevanje šolskih svetovalnih delavcev v Ljiljana Radovanović, različne oblike supervizije dr. Marija Javornik Krečič Inclusion of School Counselors in Various Types of Supervision Dr. Mija Marija Klemenčič 87 Kontekstualno občutljivi procesi partnerstva Rozman, med šolo in družino dr. Olga Poljšak Škraban The Context-Sensitive Processes of School-Family Partnership Dr. Sonja Pečjak, 99 Fazaniranje dijakov novincev z vidika spola dr. Tina Pirc fazanerjev Hazing Student-Novices with Regard to Hazers’ Gender Dr. Milena Kramar Zupan, 114 Kompetence in potrebe po izobraževanju dr. Karmen Erjavec direktorjev slovenskih bolnišnic Competencies and Training Needs of Directors of Slovenian Hospitals Dr. Olexandra Dubaseniuk, 132 Kakovost izobraževanja – ukrajinske izkušnje dr. Alexander Voznyuk, Quality of Education – Ukrainian Experience dr. Oksana Samoilenko Maruša Loboda, Nika Bedek, Urška Žerak, dr. Mojca Juriševič, dr. Janez Vogrinc Stališča študentov pedagoških smeri do nadarjenih in njihovega izobraževanja Prejeto 25.09.2019 / Sprejeto 10.02.2020 Received 25.09.2019 / Accepted 10.02.2020 Znanstveni članek Scientific paper UDK 159.924+37.01:378 UDC 159.924+37.01:378 KLJUČNE BESEDE: nadarjen učenec, izobraževa- KEYWORDS: gifted pupil, gifted education, attitudes nje nadarjenih, stališča do nadarjenosti, izobraževa- towards gifted pupils, teacher education, pre-service nje učiteljev, prihodnji učitelji teachers POVZETEK – V prispevku so prikazani izsledki em- ABSTRACT – The paper presents the results of an em- pirične raziskave, v kateri smo na osnovi kvantita- pirical study based on a quantitative research plan, in tivnega raziskovalnega načrta preverili stališča štu- which we examined the attitudes of pre-service teach- dentov pedagoških študijskih smeri do nadarjenih in ers towards gifted pupils and their education. The njihovega izobraževanja. Podatki so bili pridobljeni z data was obtained using a questionnaire on a sample anketnim vprašalnikom na vzorcu 480 študentov Pe- of 480 students of the Faculty of Education of the Uni- dagoške fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani. V povprečju versity of Ljubljana. On average, students’ answers so se odgovori študentov zgostili pri pozitivnih sta- were oriented towards positive attitudes; the most liščih do nadarjenih; najbolj pozitivno so izstopala positive attitudes were expressed towards support for stališča o podpori programom za nadarjene. Študenti gifted programmes. Students have shown a great deal so pokazali veliko mero kritičnosti do procesa prepo- of criticism towards the process of identifying and znave in izobraževanja nadarjenih. Študenti zaključ- educating gifted pupils. The final-year students ex- nega letnika so izrazili večjo podporo programom za pressed greater support for gifted programmes, lower nadarjene, manjše zaznavanje elitizma v izobraževa- perceptions of elitism in gifted education and lower nju nadarjenih in nižjo toleranco do družbene hierar- tolerance of social hierarchy, while the year of study hije, medtem ko študij ni bil statistično pomembno was not statistically significantly related to the per- povezan z zaznavanjem lastnega znanja o nadarje- ceived knowledge of giftedness. The identified gifted nih. Prepoznani nadarjeni študenti so sebe zaznavali students perceived themselves more often as gifted kot bolj nadarjene in poročali o obsežnejšem znanju and reported more extensive knowledge in the field s področja obravnave nadarjenih, pogostejših stikih z of giftedness, more frequent contacts with the gifted, njimi, prav tako so bili bolj naklonjeni programom za and were fonder of gifted programmes. We conclude nadarjene. Sklepamo, da tako študij kot prepoznana that both the year of study and identified giftedness nadarjenost prispevata k bolj pozitivnim stališčem do contribute to more positive attitudes towards gifted nadarjenih in njihovega izobraževanja. pupils and their education. 1 Uvod V strokovni literaturi stežka najdemo enotno definicijo nadarjenosti – medtem ko starejše definicije zožujejo nadarjenost na samo inteligentnost, novejše teorije v de- finicijo nadarjenosti vključujejo tudi dosežke in druge neintelektualne spremenljivke. Trendu širšega opredeljevanja nadarjenosti sledi večina evropskih držav (Juriševič, 2012). V Sloveniji smo nadarjene učence kot samostojno skupino učencev zakonodajno opredelili leta 2011 v dopolnitvi Zakona o osnovni šoli, in sicer: “Nadarjeni učenci so učenci, ki izkazujejo visoko nadpovprečne sposobnosti mišljenja ali izjemne dosežke 4 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) na posameznih učnih področjih, v umetnosti ali športu. Šola tem učencem zagotavlja ustrezne pogoje za vzgojo in izobraževanje, tako da jim prilagodi vsebine, metode in oblike dela ter jim omogoči vključitev v dodatni pouk, druge oblike individualne in skupinske pomoči ter druge oblike dela.” (ZOsn-H, 11. člen). Dokumenta Koncept: odkrivanje in delo z nadarjenimi učenci v devetletni osnovni šoli (1999) in Operacionalizacija Koncepta: odkrivanje in delo z nadarjenimi v osnovni šoli (2000) omogočata, da se k izobraževanju nadarjenih v osnovni šoli pristopa bolj sis- tematično; prav tako sta h kontinuiteti izobraževanja na srednješolski ravni pripomogla Koncept vzgojno-izobraževalnega dela z nadarjenimi dijaki v srednjem izobraževanju (2007) in Operacionalizacija Koncepta: vzgojno-izobraževalno delo z nadarjenimi di- jaki v srednjem izobraževanju (2007). V Beli knjigi o vzgoji in izobraževanju v Repu- bliki Sloveniji 2011 je področje nadarjenih obravnavano v samostojnem poglavju, v katerem so zapisana izhodišča in predlagane rešitve za prepoznavanje in delo z nadar- jenimi učenci (Juriševič, 2011). Vsi dokumenti predstavljajo kakovostno pridobitev za slovenski vzgojno-izobraževalni sistem, saj omogočajo razvoj stroke na tem področju. Za kakovostno implementacijo predlaganih rešitev pa je seveda treba upoštevati inter- disciplinarni in holistični pristop k obravnavi nadarjenih učencev, na katerega opozori Blažič (1996, str. 5): “Jasno je, da se skrb za pospeševanje razvoja nadarjenih v šoli ne more omejiti zgolj na posamezne didaktične ukrepe. Prepoznavanje in spodbujanje nadarjenih je povezano z vsemi strukturnimi elementi pedagoškega procesa in zahteva poseganje v celoten razvoj učenčeve osebnosti. Pedagoško-didaktično ravnanje v šoli je treba razumeti in zasnovati kot permanentno poizvedovanje, iskanje, odkrivanje in uveljavljanje individualnih značilnosti učencev.” Na politiko izobraževanja nadarjenih vpliva odnos družbe do njih. Zakoreninjena prepričanja oz. različni stereotipi in predsodki o nadarjenih in njihovem izobraževanju pogosto zavirajo nadaljnji razvoj izobraževanja in programov za nadarjene, hkrati vpli- vajo na sisteme financiranja (Subotnik, Olszewski-Kubilius in Worrell, 2011). Subotnik in sod. (2011) kot enega izmed nevarnih prepričanj navajajo enačenje uspeha nadarje- nega učenca z delom brez napora, kar zanemarja tako trud in predanost nadarjenega učenca kot tudi vlogo vzgojno-izobraževalnega programa (glej tudi American Psycho- logical Association, 2018). Prav tako se odpor do programov za nadarjene veča zaradi mišljenja, da se vanje uvršča učence družin z višjim socialno-ekonomskim statusom, kar implicira nedostopnost programov za nadarjene učence iz nižjih socialnih slojev ali depriviligiranih kulturnih okolij. Ambivalentnost družbe spodbujajo tudi šolska kultura, ki sprejema nadarjenost le na določenih področjih, in prevladujoči stereotipi o akadem- sko nadarjenih učencih. Odnos družbe do izobraževanja nadarjenih se z izobraževanjem o pomenu tematike in ozaveščanjem o problematiki spreminja in razvija (IEA, 2018). Na nadarjene ne vpliva zgolj odnos družbe. K učenčevi izobraževalni izkušnji ključno prispevajo učitelji (Swanson in Lord, 2013); ti imajo na učenčeve dosežke po- membnejši vpliv kot kateri koli drugi dejavnik (Flynt in Brozo, 2009). Njihova stališča o učencih pomembno vplivajo na motivacijo in zadovoljstvo učencev pri določenem predmetu. Različni avtorji (po Szymanski, Croft in Godor, 2018) poudarjajo, da so rav- no nadarjeni učenci tisti, na katere stališča ter vedenja učitelja vplivajo v največji meri. Stališča učiteljev ne vplivajo le na njihovo poučevalno prakso, ampak posredno na sta- lišča in vedenje vrstnikov ter spodbudno razredno klimo, ki zagotavlja optimalen razvoj nadarjenih učencev (Al Makhalid, 2012). Subjektivne teorije učiteljev, (ne)razumeva- Loboda, Bedek, Žerak, dr. Juriševič, dr. Vogrinc: Stališča študentov pedagoških smeri do... 5 nje problematike in stališča do nadarjenih, njihovega izobraževanja ter implementacije različnih programov za nadarjene so izjemno pomembni vidiki poučevanja nadarjenih, ki se jih je treba pri načrtovanju izobraževanja nadarjenih zavedati (Ozcan, 2016). Av- torji različnih študij pojasnjujejo, da nadarjeni učenci za svojo uspešnost potrebujejo kompetentne učitelje, ki jim dajejo ustrezne spodbude, da so lahko uspešni in uresničijo svoje potenciale (Ozcan, 2016; Perković Krijan in Borić, 2015). Juriševičeva (2011) poudarja, da inkluzivni pristop od učiteljev zahteva najvišjo stopnjo strokovne uspo- sobljenosti za prepoznavanje in individualizirano vzgojno-izobraževalno delo z nadar- jenimi učenci. Pangrčič in Blažič (2017, str. 105) poudarjata podobno: “Če želimo iz nadarjenih učencev vzgojiti odgovorne odrasle, ki bodo doprinesli k razvoju naše druž- be in države, jih moramo tega naučiti že zgodaj. Pa ne s tem, da bomo delali namesto njih, saj jih bomo tako le ohromili in jim odvzeli dragocene izkušnje. Če pa bomo pouk usmerili v dvig kakovosti znanja in v prevzemanje odgovornosti nadarjenih učencev za svoje znanje, bomo dosegali višje rezultate pri vseh učencih, ne samo pri nadarjenih, s tem pa uresničili tudi poslanstvo učiteljev.” Čeprav je raziskovanje stališč učiteljev do nadarjenih in njihovega izobraževanja predmet zanimanja že od sredine prejšnjega stoletja, rezultati študij še vedno niso eno- značni (Öztürk in Fıçıcı, 2014; Perković Krijan in Borić, 2015). Razloge za to avtorji pripisujejo neenotni opredelitvi nadarjenosti (Mcclain in Pfeiffer, 2012), vrednotam, potrebam in interesom, ki se spreminjajo v času in prostoru (Diezmann, 2002), različ- nim kulturnim okoljem z različnimi izobraževalnimi sistemi in programi za nadarjene ter neenotni metodologiji v različnih študijah (Al Makhalid, 2012). Öztürk in Fıçıcı (2014) kot enega izmed razlogov za protislovne rezultate različnih raziskav navajata pomanjkanje veljavnih in zanesljivih instrumentov za merjenje konstrukta nadarjenosti. Perković Krijan in Borić (2015) povzemata izsledke različnih raziskav s tega po- dročja, v katerih je bila uporabljena lestvica Gagnéja in Nadeauove (1985, 1991), in ugotavljata, da pri učiteljih prevladujejo pozitivna stališča, predvsem ko govorimo o prepoznavanju potreb in podpore, podobno kot so to ugotavljali tudi v predhodnih štu- dijah (Allodi in Rydelius, 2008; Juriševič, 2012; Lassig, 2009; Lewis in Milton, 2005; McCoach in Siegle, 2007; Troxclair, 2013; Watts, 2006). Raziskave po drugi strani ka- žejo, da so stališča učiteljev do akceleracije negativna (Allodi in Rydelius, 2008; Las- sig, 2009; Troxclair, 2013; Watts, 2006), medtem ko so stališča do grupiranja po spo- sobnostih nevtralna (Lassig, 2009) oz. negativna (Allodi in Rydelius, 2008; Troxclair, 2013; Watts, 2006). Troxclair (2013) to pojasnjuje z družbenimi predsodki, povezanimi s pomanjkanjem znanja in izkušenj s tovrstnimi pristopi pri izobraževanju nadarjenih, ter poudarja nujnost izobraževanja prihodnjih učiteljev o omenjenih pristopih. Jung (2014) v raziskavi napovednikov stališč študentov do programov in dejavnosti za nadarjene kot dejavnike pozitivnih stališč do programov za nadarjene navaja: □ nizko toleranco do razlik v porazdelitvi moči v družbi, kar povezuje z meritokracijo in posledično s fokusom na izobrazbo; □ pogoste stike z nadarjenimi, ki na zavedni in nezavedni ravni vplivajo na zavedanje specifičnih potreb nadarjenih učencev; □ višjo starost učitelja oz. dolžino njegove delovne dobe. Po drugi strani pomanjkanje predhodnih izkušenj s kurikulumom za nadarjene v redni osnovni šoli in nižjo starost učitelja avtor povezuje z negativnimi stališči ter s pre- 6 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) pričanjem, da programi in dejavnosti za nadarjene spodbujajo elitizem. Bégin in Gagné (1994b) v zvezi s tem izpostavljata pogoste stike z nadarjenimi in socialno-ekonomski status kot dejavnika, ki pomembno vplivata na oblikovanje pozitivnih stališč učiteljev (in staršev) do nadarjenih. Raziskovalci so proučevali tudi povezavo med obsegom strokovnih izkušenj in stališči do nadarjenih, pri tem pa ugotovitve raziskav niso enoznačne. Posamezne raz- iskave ugotavljajo, da imajo starejši učitelji, ki imajo večji obseg strokovnih izkušenj in posledično več izkušenj dela z nadarjenimi, bolj pozitivna stališča (Bégin in Gagné, 1994a; Jung, 2014), medtem ko rezultati raziskav drugih avtorjev prepoznavajo bolj pozitivna stališča pri mlajših učiteljih (po Perković Krijan in Borić, 2015). Številne raz- iskave pomembnih razlik v stališčih glede na starost ali obdobje strokovnega dela učite- ljev ne ugotavljajo (Allodi in Rydeliuss, 2008; Cramond in Martin, 1987; Lassig, 2009). V eni izmed redkih raziskav (Matheis, Keller, Kronborg, Schmitt in Preckel, 2019), ki je proučevala stališča študentov do nadarjenih učencev, avtorji poročajo, da študen- ti nadarjenost pogosto povezujejo z višjimi intelektualnimi ter z nižjimi socialnimi in emocionalnimi sposobnostmi. Ugotovitve so skladne z raziskavo avtoric Baudson in Preckel (2013) o hipotezi disharmoničnega razvoja (Becker, 1978, v Matheis in sod., 2019), po kateri so za nadarjene značilne različne psihosocialne in čustvene težave. V osnovi hipoteza pojasnjuje stereotipno prepričanje, ki ni v skladu z empiričnimi ugo- tovitvami (Martin, Burns in Schonlau, 2010; Neihart, Reis, Robinson in Moon, 2002) in predstavlja oviro pri prepoznavanju in uresničevanju potreb nadarjenih učencev. Po- dobno poudarjata tudi Matrić in Duh (2019, str. 79): “Naše ugotovitve kažejo, da je tre- ba učitelje senzibilizirati za potrebe dvojno izjemnih oziroma nadarjenih učencev /…/” 2 Problem raziskave, cilji in raziskovalna vprašanja Stališča študentov pedagoških smeri do nadarjenih in njihovega izobraževanja so redko predmet znanstvenega raziskovanja. V mednarodnem prostoru so bila stališča študentov že raziskana v nekaterih študijah (npr. Jung, 2014; Matheis in sod., 2019; Ozcan, 2016; Troxclair, 2013), medtem ko je pri nas to področje še neraziskano. Pri tem je treba poudariti, da so stališča prihodnjih pedagoških delavcev ključna za na- daljnji razvoj in uspešnost poučevanja nadarjenih učencev (Ozcan, 2016). Pomembno je, da prihodnji učitelji dobro poznajo učne značilnosti in potrebe ter razumejo pomen diferenciranega in individualiziranega poučevanja za zadovoljevanje učnih potreb in spodbujanje učnih potencialov vseh učencev, med njimi tudi nadarjenih. Univerzitetno okolje, v katerem se izobražujejo prihodnji učitelji, predstavlja te- meljni kontekst, v katerem lahko ti usvojijo znanje in izkušnje, ki prispevajo k razvoju strokovnega, na empiričnih dokazih temelječega pedagoškega pristopa. Da bi pedago- ške fakultete lahko študente kakovostno strokovno spodbujale, usmerjale in podpirale, je potrebno razumevanje predznanja študentov; imeti znanje o tem, kako študenti raz- mišljajo o obravnavani problematiki ter kakšne so njihove osebne izkušnje in stališča. Nemogoče je namreč kakovostno kultivirati določeno področje brez upoštevanja pred- znanja tistih, ki se učijo (Marentič Požarnik, 2018). Loboda, Bedek, Žerak, dr. Juriševič, dr. Vogrinc: Stališča študentov pedagoških smeri do... 7 Cilj raziskave je bil ugotoviti, kako študenti pedagoških smeri še pred vstopom v pedagoško prakso oz. na trg dela razmišljajo o nadarjenih učencih in njihovem izobra- ževanju. Pri tem smo si zastavili naslednja raziskovalna vprašanja: □ Kakšen je odnos študentov do nadarjenih in njihovega izobraževanja? □ Kako se stališča do nadarjenih in njihovega izobraževanja razlikujejo med študenti začetnega in zaključnega letnika študija? □ Kako se stališča do nadarjenih in njihovega izobraževanja razlikujejo med študenti, ki so bili prepoznani kot nadarjeni, in preostalimi študenti? 3 Raziskovalna metoda 3.1 Udeleženci V namenski vzorec so bili vključeni študenti Pedagoške fakultete Univerze v Lju- bljani, in sicer študenti začetnega in zaključnega letnika rednega študija programov dodiplomske stopnje. V raziskavi je sodelovalo 480 študentov od 731 vpisanih (65,7 % osnovne populaci- je), od tega 284 študentov začetnega letnika (67,6 % osnovne populacije) in 196 študen- tov zaključnega letnika (63,0 % osnovne populacije). Med udeleženci je bilo 444 žensk (92,5 %) in 36 moških (7,5 %), kar odraža stanje na fakulteti (9,8 % študentov moškega spola). Povprečna starost udeležencev je bila 20,73 leta. Med sodelujočimi študenti jih je 77 % opravilo splošno maturo, preostali poklicno. Med udeleženci jih je bilo 57,9 % v svojem izobraževanju pred vstopom na univerzo prepoznanih za nadarjene, 65,7 % teh je bilo deležnih dodatnih/razširjenih dejavnosti za nadarjene v osnovni šoli, 11,5 % v srednji šoli. 74,2 % vseh sodelujočih je svojo (ne nujno prepoznano) nadarjenost raz- vijalo v okviru zunajšolskih dejavnosti. 3.2 Pripomoček za zbiranje podatkov Anketni vprašalnik o stališčih do nadarjenih in njihovega izobraževanja za študen- te (Jung, 2014) je bil preveden po metodi vzvratnega prevoda (van Widenfelt in sod., 2005). Vprašalnik vključuje uvodni del, ki obsega namen raziskave in razdelek z de- mografskimi vprašanji. Poizvedovalni oz. vsebinski del vprašalnika vsebuje tri sklope trditev, ki merijo stališča na 7-stopenjski lestvici Likertovega tipa (1 – nikakor se ne strinjam, 7 – popolnoma se strinjam), in odprto vprašanje o odnosu do nadarjenih in njihovega izobraževanja. V tabeli 1 so predstavljena posamezna vsebinska področja vprašalnika. Ker uporabljeni instrument še ni bil ustrezno prirejen za slovensko kulturno in je- zikovno okolje, je bila s konfirmatorno faktorsko analizo (CFA) predhodno preverjena notranja struktura uporabljenega vprašalnika. Analizo smo izvedli v programu RStu- dio z uporabo statističnega paketa Lavaan. Pri tem smo kot cenilko parametrov upo- rabili DWLS, ki je v Lavaanu privzeta cenilka za ordinalne podatke. Pri odločanju o 8 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) ustreznosti prileganja modela smo uporabili naslednje mere: χ2, RMSEA, CFI in TLI. Za določanje ustreznosti prileganja modelov smo uporabili naslednje mejne vredno- sti: RMSEA < 0,08; CFI > (ali blizu) 0,90; TLI > (ali blizu) 0,90. Prileganje šestfak- torskega modela je bilo zadovoljivo, χ2 (260) = 834,38; p < 0,001; RMSEA = 0,068; CFI = 0,97; TLI = 0,96. Standardizirane faktorske nasičenosti so bile v povprečju do- volj visoke: znanje, M(λ) = 0,65; stiki, M(λ) = 0,72; samozaznava, M(λ) = 0,88; podpo- ra, M(λ) = 0,67; elitizem, M(λ) = 0,72, razdalja moči, M(λ) = 0,71. Tabela 1: Področja oblikovanja stališč do nadarjenosti in izobraževanja nadarjenih Krajšava Področje Primer postavke Znanje Dojemanje lastnega Poznam nekatere razredne aktivnosti, znanja o nadarjenosti primerne za nadarjene učence. Stiki Stiki z nadarjenimi Vsakodnevno se srečujem z nadarjenimi. Samozaznava Samozaznava nadarjenosti Ljudje me imajo za nadarjenega. Podpora Podpora programom Naše šole bi morale ponuditi posebne vzgojno- za nadarjene izobraževalne dejavnosti za nadarjene učence. Elitizem Zaznava elitizma Če nadarjenim učencem posvečamo posebno pozornost, lahko postanejo vzvišeni in egoistični. Razdalja moči Zavedanje razlik v Ljudje, ki zasedajo nižje položaje v ustanovi, porazdelitvi družbene moči ne bi smeli imeti veliko avtoritete. 3.3 Zbiranje in obdelava podatkov Zbiranje podatkov je potekalo marca 2018. Anketne vprašalnike so študenti izpol- njevali prostovoljno med predavanji po standardnih navodilih. Sledil je prepis podat- kov. Kvantitativni podatki so bili obdelani v programih RStudio (2015) in SPSS v23 (IBM Corporation, 2016). Številčni podatki so bili skladno z namenom raziskave analizirani v programu SPSS v23 (IBM Corporation, 2016); uporabljeni so bili ustrezni postopki deskriptivne in infe- renčne statistične analize (Levenov preizkus homogenosti varianc, t-test za neodvisne vzorce, Cohenov d, Pearsonov korelacijski koeficient). Odgovori na odprta vprašanja so bili analizirani s pomočjo vsebinske analize; uporabljena je bila primerjalna analiza vsebine z odprtim kodiranjem izbranih kategorij (Vogrinc, 2008). 4 Rezultati in razprava 4.1 Stališča študentov do nadarjenih učencev in njihovega izobraževanja Tabela 2 prikazuje opisne statistike po posameznih področjih stališč. Izrazito pozi- tivna stališča so se pokazala v področju podpora, negativno so se študenti opredeljevali Loboda, Bedek, Žerak, dr. Juriševič, dr. Vogrinc: Stališča študentov pedagoških smeri do... 9 le do zaznavanja družbene hierarhije. Srednje vrednosti rezultatov na preostalih podro- čjih so se zgostile na zgornjem delu ocenjevalne lestvice, kar pomeni, da študentje v povprečju ocenjujejo, da so pogosto v stiku z nadarjenimi, številni sami sebe zaznava- jo kot nadarjene, poročajo o znanju s področja nadarjenih in njihovega izobraževanja. Kljub temu v obravnavi nadarjenih številni študenti zaznavajo elitizem. Tabela 2: Področja stališč do nadarjenih učencev in njihovega izobraževanja – opisne statistike Področje n M SD K. A. K. S. Znanje 468 4,23 1,08 –0,13 –0,19 Stiki 471 4,93 1,40 –0,62 –0,30 Samozaznava 458 4,14 1,29 –0,34 –0,37 Podpora 476 5,66 0,97 –0,69 0,11 Elitizem 470 4,73 1,25 –0,25 –0,44 Razdalja moči 479 1,56 0,69 1,74 3,60 V tabeli 3 so prikazane korelacije med obravnavanimi vsebinskimi področji stališč. Največ statistično značilnih korelacij se je pokazalo med področjem znanje in preostali- mi področji. Študenti, ki imajo boljše prepričanje o svojem znanju o nadarjenosti, meni- jo, da so v pogostejših stikih z nadarjenimi, sebe značilno bolj zaznavajo kot nadarjene in so bolj pozitivno naravnani do programov za nadarjene. Prav tako so občutljivejši na razlike v družbeni moči in zaznavajo statistično značilno manj elitizma v obravnavi nadarjenih. Relativno najvišja korelacija (zmerno pozitivna) se je pokazala med podro- čjema stiki in samozaznava. Zaznava elitizma je neznatno, a statistično značilno nega- tivno povezana s podporo programom za nadarjene. Razberemo lahko, da se znanje s področja obravnave nadarjenih izpostavi kot eno najpomembnejših področij stališč, saj se edino statistično značilno povezuje z vsemi drugimi področji stališč. Tabela 3: Področja stališč do nadarjenih učencev in njihovega izobraževanja – korelacije Področje Znanje Stiki Samozaznava Podpora Elitizem Stiki 0,37* Samozaznava 0,40* 0,65* Podpora 0,37* 0,27* 0,25* Elitizem –0,14* 0,03 0,03 –0,18* Razdalja moči 0,15* 0,01 0,06 –0,05 0,03 Opomba: * statistična značilnost korelacij p < 0,01 10 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) 4.2 Razlike v stališčih do nadarjenih in njihovega izobraževanja med študenti začetnega in zaključnega letnika Primerjava med področji stališč študentov začetnega in zaključnega letnika pokaže (tabela 4), da študenti obeh skupin izražajo podporo programom za nadarjene, statistič- no značilno bolj so ji naklonjeni študenti zaključnega letnika, ki v obravnavi nadarjenih vidijo statistično značilno manj elitizma. Študenti zaključnega letnika imajo prav tako statistično značilno nižjo toleranco do družbene hierarhije, kar sovpada z Jungovo ugo- tovitvijo, da je nizka toleranca do družbenih razlik v moči napovednik bolj pozitivnih stališč do izobraževanja nadarjenih (Jung, 2014). Izračunana je bila mera velikosti učin- ka, ki je pokazala najvišjo praktično pomembnost na področju elitizem (srednja velikost učinka), majhna velikost učinka se je pokazala na področjih samozaznava in razdalja moči. Tabela 4: Razlike med začetnim in zaključnim letnikom na posameznih področjih stališč t-preizkus Področje Letnik n M SD t df p d začetni 259 4,20 1,12 Znanje –0,91 452 0,36 0,08 zaključni 195 4,29 1,06 začetni 261 4,89 1,39 Stiki –0,44 454 0,66 0,04 zaključni 195 4,95 1,42 začetni 253 4,14 1,32 Samozaznava 0,34 441 0,74 0,04 zaključni 190 4,09 1,27 začetni 266 5,48 1,00 Podpora* –4,35 459 < 0,001 0,41 zaključni 195 5,87 0,90 začetni 262 5,06 1,21 Elitizem* 6,96 453 < 0,001 0,66 zaključni 193 4,27 1,17 začetni 269 1,64 0,72 Razdalja moči* 2,88 462 0,004 0,28 zaključni 195 1,45 0,64 Opomba: * statistično značilne razlike na ravni p < 0,05 Zaradi pomembnosti izpostavljenega področja nas je v raziskavi zanimalo, kako študenti razmišljajo o nadarjenih in njihovem izobraževanju glede na svoje konkretne oz. specifične izkušnje. Proste odgovore je na odprto vprašanja o tej temi podalo 200 od 284 anketiranih študentov začetnega letnika (70,4 %) in 148 od 196 anketiranih štu- dentov zaključnega letnika (75,5 %). V tabeli 5 je podana analiza njihovih odgovorov. Loboda, Bedek, Žerak, dr. Juriševič, dr. Vogrinc: Stališča študentov pedagoških smeri do... 11 Tabela 5: Vsebinska analiza odgovorov študentov na odprto vprašanje o nadarjenih in njihovem izobraževanju* Začetni Zaključni Kategorija Primer letnik letnik f f Pomembnost razvijanja “Pomembno je spodbujati razvoj na močnih nadarjenosti področjih in jim na splošno ponuditi 105 73 dodatne spodbude in aktivnosti.” Kritičnost do obstoječega “Šole želijo imeti čim več nadarjenih, izobraževanja nadarjenih a ne poskrbijo za dodatne vsebine, 61 54 ki bi jih nudile tem učencem.” “Velik problem je v tem, da ni enotnega Kritičnost do obstoječega sistema oz. metode za prepoznavanje, postopka prepoznavanja zato so pogosto spregledani.” 60 54 “V osnovni šoli so status nadarjenega razdeljevali po tekočem traku.” Kritičnost do “Ne smem jim zaradi tega, ker so nadarjeni, dati izpostavljanja in “nalepke”, saj je nekatere lahko tudi sram tega 61 21 etiketiranja oz. se ostali počutijo nenadarjene/nesposobne.” “Menim, da je vsak nadarjen na svoj način Napačno razumevanje in ima sposobnost, ki je drugi nimajo.” nadarjenosti “Imajo dobre ocene, so ljubljenčki 28 27 učiteljev, vestno delajo za šolo.” Negativne izkušnje “Težko se je opredeliti do nečesa, o čemer o (izobraževanju) premalo veš in imaš ob tem še zelo slabe nadarjenih izkušnje, saj je bilo v našem razredu kar 32 23 15/28 nadarjenih, kar je malo verjetno.” Kontekstna pogojenost “Nekatere šole nadarjenost zanemarjajo, obravnave nadarjenih druge kot nadarjenega učenca identificirajo 18 13 preveč otrok, da ne bi komu storili krivice.” Pomembnost “Zdi se mi pomembno, da se prepoznavanja nadarjenih nadarjene prepozna /.../” 21 5 Kompetentnost učiteljev “Učitelji bi morali biti bolj izobraženi za prepoznavanje in poučevanje nadarjenih.” 2 16 Pomanjkanje znanja “O tem vem zelo malo, premalo, da bi se počutila o nadarjenosti kompetentno pri izpolnjevanju vprašalnika.” 7 12 “Imeli smo krožek, kjer smo se šli različne Pozitivne izkušnje socialne igre, v razredu so nas učitelji o (izobraževanju) porabili za pomoč šibkejšim, vodili 8 4 nadarjenih smo medvrstniško pomoč. Vse skupaj je izpadlo pozitivno za ves razred.” “Preveč staršev si domišlja, da je njihov otrok nadarjen. Otroka porinejo v vse Pričakovanja staršev mogoče aktivnosti, ga silijo k učenju, 7 3 zahtevajo, da ima same petice ..., kar uničuje posameznikovo otroštvo.” Opomba: * Kategorije, ki so se skupno pojavile pri manj kot desetih študentih: kritičnost do akceleracije (7), samozadostnost razvoja nadarjenih (7), podpora akceleraciji (4) ... 12 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) Odgovori študentov po večini izražajo podporo izobraževanju nadarjenih in razvi- janju nadarjenosti. Opazimo lahko, da študenti zaključnega letnika izstopajo v kritično- sti do izobraževanja in prepoznavanja, kar nakazuje na večje zavedanje tudi njegovih negativnih vidikov. Zapisi, kot so “V našem razredu so pozabili narediti teste nadarje- nosti.”, so skrb vzbujajoči, saj nakazujejo na izrazito pomanjkljivost v sistemu. Pouda- riti je vredno tudi razliko pri izpostavljanju nadarjenih v razredu in zaznavi elitizma, ki so jo večkrat omenili študenti začetnega letnika. Ta izsledek se sklada z Jungovo ugotovitvijo (Jung, 2014), da imajo študenti začetnega letnika pedagoških programov izrazitejše stališče, da so programi za nadarjene elitistični. Študenti začetnega in za- ključnega letnika so o nadarjenih in nadarjenosti večkrat izpostavili negativne izkušnje kot pozitivne. Videti je, da se študenti zaključnega letnika bolj zavedajo pomena izo- braževanja učiteljev za delo z nadarjenimi, prav tako so bolj kritični do svojega znanja o nadarjenosti. Študenti začetnega in zaključnega letnika so izpostavljali, da je prepoznanih preveč nadarjenih, kar se sklada z Žagarjevo ugotovitvijo (Žagar, 2012), da je odstotek prepo- znanih nadarjenih v populaciji previsok. Visoko število lahko pojasnimo z modelom prepoznave, ki velja v Sloveniji in ga določa Koncept: odkrivanje in delo z nadarjenimi učenci v devetletni osnovni šoli – ta namreč predvideva prepoznavanje po enem izmed treh meril (test sposobnosti, test ustvarjalnosti, ocena učitelja), medtem ko nadarjene po Rezullijevem trikrožnem modelu prepoznavajo na podlagi vseh treh meril (nadpov- prečno sposobni, ustvarjalni, motivirani oz. predani); z drugimi besedami to pomeni, da se namesto načela “in – in” uporablja načelo “ali – ali” (Juriševič, 2012). V skupino na- darjenih je zato mogoče uvrstiti veliko več učencev. Hkrati študenti izpostavljajo, da je prepoznavanje krivično, saj so nadarjeni pogosto spregledani, kar postavlja vprašanje, če kljub prevelikemu številu nadarjenih niso prepoznani vsi, ki bi morali biti. 4.3 Razlike v stališčih do nadarjenih in njihovega izobraževanja glede na prepoznano nadarjenost študentov Tabela 6 prikazuje razlike na posameznih področjih stališč glede na prepoznano nadarjenost študentov v času njihovega izobraževanja pred vstopom na univerzo. Raz- vidno je, da so med prepoznanimi nadarjenimi in ostalimi študenti statistično značilne razlike: prepoznani imajo boljše mnenje o lastnem znanju o nadarjenosti, izražajo več podpore programom za nadarjene, prav tako so bolj prepričani, da so v stiku z nadar- jenimi in da so sami nadarjeni. Izračunana je bila mera velikosti učinka, ki je pokazala najvišjo praktično pomembnost na področju samozaznava (srednja velikost učinka), manjša velikost učinka se je pokazala na področjih stiki, podpora in znanje. Loboda, Bedek, Žerak, dr. Juriševič, dr. Vogrinc: Stališča študentov pedagoških smeri do... 13 Tabela 6: Razlike med prepoznanimi nadarjenimi in preostalimi študenti na posameznih področjih stališč Področje Prepoznana t-preizkus nadarjenost n M SD t df p d da 275 4,32 1,07 Znanje* 2,16 466 0,03 0,20 ne 193 4,10 1,09 da 273 5,20 1,22 Stiki* 4,81 362,26 < 0,001 0,46 ne 198 4,56 1,54 da 271 4,53 1,10 Samozaznava* 8,11 351,82 < 0,001 0,79 ne 187 3,57 1,32 da 278 5,81 0,96 Podpora* 4,01 474 < 0,001 0,38 ne 198 5,45 0,96 da 275 4,66 1,30 Elitizem –1,37 468 0,17 0,13 ne 195 4,82 1,17 da 278 1,53 0,68 Razdalja moči –0,86 477 0,39 0,09 ne 201 1,59 0,70 Opomba: * – statistična značilnost razlik p < 0,05 5 Sklep Na izobraževanje nadarjenih vpliva odnos družbe do njih, še bolj k učenčevi izo- braževalni izkušnji prispevajo učitelji (Swanson in Lord, 2013), ki imajo na učenčeve dosežke pomembnejši vpliv kot kateri koli drugi dejavnik v okviru vzgojno-izobraže- valnega konteksta (Flynt in Brozo, 2009). Stališča prihodnjih učiteljev so ključna za nadaljnji razvoj in uspešnost poučevanja nadarjenih učencev, vendar so redko pred- met znanstvenega raziskovanja. Cilj raziskave je bil ugotoviti, kakšna stališča imajo študenti pedagoških smeri oz. prihodnji učitelji do nadarjenih učencev in njihovega izobraževanja. V sklopu prvega raziskovalnega vprašanja smo se vprašali, kakšen je odnos štu- dentov do nadarjenih in njihovega izobraževanja. Odgovori študentov so se večinsko zgostili pri pozitivnih stališčih, pri čemer je izstopalo področje podpora, negativno so se študenti opredeljevali le do zaznavanja razlik v družbeni moči. Področje znanje se je izpostavilo kot eno najpomembnejših področij stališč, saj se edino statistično značilno povezuje z vsemi preostalimi področji. Na tem mestu je pomembno poudariti, da je zna- nje o obravnavi nadarjenih pri študentih pedagoških smeri treba spodbujati in ga širiti, saj to pomembno prispeva k naklonjenosti prilagoditvam oz. programom za nadarjene in obenem k manjšemu zaznavanju elitizma v povezavi z izobraževanjem nadarjenih, kar vsekakor lahko pripomore h kakovostnemu izobraževanju nadarjenih v prihodno- sti. Analiza odprtega vprašanja je pokazala kritičnost študentov do procesa prepoznave 14 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) nadarjenih, predvsem z vidika množičnega prepoznavanja, in do njihovega izobraževa- nja, v smislu neizvajanja prilagoditev in dejavnosti v praksi. Prav tako je za nadarjene prepoznanih bistveno več udeležencev raziskave v primerjavi z deležem tistih, ki so poročali, da so bili deležni posebne obravnave v šoli. Na pomanjkljivosti pri prepo- znavi nadarjenih učencev in potrebo po spremembi na zakonodajni in sistemski ravni opozarja tudi več avtorjev s tega področja (Boben, 2012; Juriševič, 2012; Žagar, 2012). Pogosto se je pojavljalo napačno razumevanje nadarjenosti, češ da je vsak učenec na- darjen. Čeprav imajo vsi otroci svoja močna ali prednostna področja, Juriševič (2012, 2018) poudarja, da o nadarjenih posameznikih v strokovnem pomenu besede govorimo, ko ti dosežejo merila, s katerimi je nadarjenost opredeljena v strokovnem kontekstu. Zanimalo nas je tudi, kako se stališča do nadarjenih in njihovega izobraževanja razlikujejo med študenti začetnega in zaključnega letnika. Čeprav je primerjava poka- zala, da študenti obeh skupin izražajo visoko podporo programom za nadarjene, se je izkazalo, da so jim študenti zaključnega letnika statistično značilno bolj naklonjeni, jih zaznavajo kot manj elitistične in imajo statistično značilno nižjo toleranco do družbene hierarhije. Sklepamo lahko, da dodiplomski študij prispeva k oblikovanju bolj pozi- tivnih stališč do nadarjenih in njihovega izobraževanja. Kljub temu se v zaznavanju lastnega znanja med študenti začetnega in zaključnega letnika niso pokazale statistično značilne razlike, kar pomeni, da se študij oz. vsebine o nadarjenih učencih in izobraže- vanju nadarjenih, ki so integrirane v študijske predmete, ne povezujejo s prepričanjem o znanju posameznika. Ugotovitve raziskave in dejstvo, da se področje znanje povezuje z vsemi preostalimi področji stališč, nakazujejo na potrebo vključevanja več vsebin o nadarjenih učencih in delu z njimi v študij ter študijske predmete. Znotraj tretjega raziskovalnega vprašanja smo preverili, kako se stališča do na- darjenih in njihovega izobraževanja razlikujejo glede na prepoznano nadarjenost. Pre- poznani nadarjeni študenti so imeli statistično značilno boljše prepričanje o lastnem znanju o nadarjenosti, o lastni nadarjenosti, svoje stike z nadarjenimi so ocenjevali kot pogostejše in do prilagoditev za nadarjene oz. programov izobraževanja nadarjenih so izražali statistično značilno večjo naklonjenost. Iz tega lahko sklepamo, da se prepo- znana nadarjenost pozitivno povezuje z zaznavanjem lastnega znanja in posledično s pozitivnejšimi stališči do nadarjenih in njihovega izobraževanja. Z vidika predstavljenih empiričnih izsledkov se raziskava pomembno umešča v slovenski izobraževalni prostor, saj iz nje izhajajo naslednja spoznanja: □ splošna naklonjenost študentov pedagoških študijskih programov do na- darjenih in njihovega izobraževanja, □ kritičnost študentov do prepoznavanja in izobraževanja nadarjenih, □ višja stopnja pozitivnega odnosa in ozaveščenosti študentov zaključnega letnika v primerjavi s študenti začetnega letnika do izobraževanja nadar- jenih ter tistih študentov, ki so bili v svojem predhodnem šolanju prepo- znani kot nadarjeni. Navedena spoznanja so v prid predpostavki o splošnem sprejemajočem kontekstu nadarjenih znotraj slovenskega inkluzivnega šolskega sistema in o vlogi pozitivnih iz- kušenj ter ustreznega izobraževanja za razvoj pozitivnih stališč (Juriševič, 2012), ki vodijo z deklarativne na transformacijsko raven socialnih interakcij in prispevajo h ka- kovosti celotnega šolskega sistema. Loboda, Bedek, Žerak, dr. Juriševič, dr. Vogrinc: Stališča študentov pedagoških smeri do... 15 Vprašalnik, ki je bil preveden in preverjen za namen te raziskave, je bil prvotno zasnovan in uporabljen na Univerzi New South Wales v Avstraliji, kar omogoča medna- rodne primerjave različnih vzgojno-izobraževalnih kontekstov, v čemer vidimo izjemno vrednost naše raziskave in še neizkoriščene možnosti nadaljnjega raziskovanja. Dejstvo namreč je, da je to področje, kljub izjemni pomembnosti v smislu izobraževanja priho- dnjih učiteljev ne le pri nas, temveč tudi v svetu, še precej skromno raziskano. Zato je aplikativno vrednost te raziskave mogoče prepoznati z vidika konkretne institucije, na kateri študirajo v raziskavo vključeni študenti, saj ta lahko na podlagi predstavljenih empiričnih ugotovitev kritično ovrednoti študijske vsebine s tega področja in odnos, ki ga študentom posredno ali neposredno predaja. Maruša Loboda, Nika Bedek, Urška Žerak, Mojca Juriševič, PhD, Janez Vogrinc, PhD Attitudes of Pre-Service Teachers towards Gifted Pupils and Their Education The gifted education policy is influenced by society’s attitudes towards gifted pupils. The continued development of programmes for the gifted is often inhibited by different stereotypes and prejudices, which are also affecting funding systems. Experts note that teachers are key contributors to an individual’s educational experience. Their attitudes towards students significantly influence students’ motivation in a particular subject. Scientists suggest that the attitudes of teachers, as well as pre-service teachers, are of paramount importance for the continued development of gifted education. It is impor- tant that pre-service teachers have a good understanding of the learning characteristics and needs of all pupils, including the gifted, as well as an understanding of the impor- tance of differentiated and individualized teaching to meet learning needs and promote learning potential. Attitudes of education students – pre-service teachers towards the education of gifted pupils are crucial for the development and success of teaching gifted pupils, who need an encouraging environment to cultivate their vast learning potential. Attitudes of pre-service teachers guide their professional thinking, experience and behaviour in pedagogical situations, but until now they have rarely been the subject of scientific research. The result is a lack of empirical evidence of the authentic context of the knowl- edge and attitudes of pre-service teachers, which would contribute to a more systematic and goal-oriented higher education in this field, meeting the requirements for a higher- quality education of gifted pupils. The university environment in which pre-service teachers are educated is the fun- damental context in which they can acquire knowledge and experience that contribute to the development of a professional, empirical, evidence-based pedagogical approach. For pedagogical faculties to stimulate, guide and support students professionally, they must understand the prior knowledge of students, and know what students think about the issues involved, and what their personal experiences and attitudes are. It is impos- sible to qualitatively cultivate a certain area of expertise without considering the prior knowledge of those who are learning. Therefore, the aim of the study was to obtain data 16 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) on the attitudes of pre-service teachers towards gifted pupils and gifted education, and with it learn and understand the students’ key inner factors, which influence their pro- fessional advancement in teaching gifted pupils. In the study, we examined the relationship between pre-service teachers’ attitudes and two potential predictors: year of study and identified giftedness. In the research, we used a translated questionnaire of attitudes toward gifted pupils and gifted education (Survey of Attitudes toward Gifted Students and Gifted Education) by the Australian author Jae Yup Jung, a professor at the University of South Wales. The research involved 480 students of the University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education (65.7 % of the students enrolled), in the 2017/18 academic year; there were 284 first- year students (67.6 % of the first-year students) and 196 final-year students (63.0 % of the final-year students). Among the participants, there were 444 women (92.5 %) and 36 men (7.5 %), reflecting the gender ratio at the faculty (9.8 % of male students). The average age of the participants was 20.73. Of the participating students, 77 % took a general Matura exam, and the rest a vocational Matura exam. 57.9 % of participants were identified as gifted pupils in their education before coming to university; 65.7 % of them received additional/expanded activities for gifted students in primary school, and 11.5 % in secondary school. The majority of participants (74.2 %) reported that they had developed their (not necessarily identified) giftedness with extra-curricular activi- ties during their past schooling. The questionnaire of attitudes toward gifted pupils and gifted education was trans- lated according to the back-translation method. It includes an introductory part about the purpose of the research, personal data, and independent variables. The inquiry part includes a 7-point scale of attitudes and an open question about attitudes toward gifted pupils and their education. The questionnaire measures six areas of content in which we have formulated views on giftedness and gifted education: perceived knowledge of giftedness, contact with gifted persons, self-perceptions of giftedness, support for spe- cial gifted programmes/provisions, perceptions of elitism, power distance orientation. Based on a confirmatory factor analysis, we preliminarily verified the validity of the assumed theoretical model of attitudes towards gifted education; afterwards, the identi- fied factors or attitude fields were quantitatively analysed by differential analysis. The open question answers were processed qualitatively in terms of content. In the first research question, we researched what the students’ attitudes towards gifted pupils and their education were. The attitudes were mostly concentrated in the upper part of the scale, i.e. focusing on positive attitudes, with support for special gifted programmes as the most positive area. The only negatively perceived area was the atti- tude towards differences in social power. The area of perceived knowledge of giftedness has been highlighted as one of the most important areas of attitudes since it was the only one with a statistically significant correlation with all other areas. At this point, it is important to emphasize that knowledge about gifted pupils should be promoted and spread amongst students in pedagogical studies, as this contributes significantly to their favour of the provisions or programmes for the gifted and at the same time contributes to a lower perception of elitism in connection with gifted education, which in any case can contribute to the quality of gifted education in the future. Loboda, Bedek, Žerak, dr. Juriševič, dr. Vogrinc: Stališča študentov pedagoških smeri do... 17 The analysis of the open question showed the students’ criticism towards the gifted identification process, especially from the point of view of the mass screening procedure, and towards gifted education, in the sense of the non-implementation of provisions and activities in practice. Similarly, among the participants, there was a significantly higher number of identified gifted students compared to the number of those who received special treatment at school. Several shortcomings in the identification of gifted pupils and the need for change at the legislative and systemic level were also highlighted by several authors in this field. Furthermore, many participants showed a misunderstand- ing of giftedness, especially in the sense that each pupil is considered gifted. Although all children have their strong or priority areas, individuals are considered gifted in the scientific sense of the word when they reach the criteria with which giftedness is defined in a scientific context. In the second research question, we researched how attitudes towards gifted pupils and their education differed between the first-year and the final-year students. Although the comparison showed that the students of both groups expressed strong support for gifted programmes, it turned out that the students of the final year were statistically more inclined towards them, they perceived them as less elitist and had a statistically significantly lower tolerance towards social hierarchy. Therefore, we can conclude that undergraduate study programmes contribute to the formation of more positive attitudes towards gifted pupils and their education. Nevertheless, in the area of perception of one’s own knowledge among the students of the first and final year, there were no sta- tistically significant differences, which means that undergraduate study programmes or the contents on gifted pupils and the education of gifted students, which are integrated into study subjects, do not relate to the perception of the knowledge of an individual. The findings of the research and the fact that the knowledge area links with all the re- maining areas of attitudes point to the need to include more content about gifted pupils and their education in studies and study subjects. In the third research question, we examined how attitudes towards gifted pupils and their education differ depending on the identified giftedness of participants. Identified gifted students showed statistically significantly more positive beliefs about their own knowledge of giftedness, a higher perception of their own giftedness, and evaluated their contacts with gifted individuals as more frequent. Moreover, they were also statis- tically significantly more inclined towards gifted education provisions or programmes. From this evidence we can conclude that the identified giftedness is positively related to the perception of one’s own knowledge and, consequently, with more positive attitudes towards gifted pupils and their education. From the point of view of the presented empirical results, the research has an im- portant place in the Slovenian educational context, since the following findings can be derived from it: □ General affection of pre-service teachers towards gifted pupils and their education; □ Criticism of pre-service teachers towards contemporary gifted education in primary and secondary school; □ A higher level of positive attitudes and awareness of students in the final year com- pared with the students of the first study year towards gifted education, as well as with students who were identified as gifted in their previous education. 18 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) The findings are in favour of the assumption of the general acceptance of gifted- ness within the Slovenian inclusive school system and of the role of positive experiences and appropriate education in the development of positive attitudes, which, last but not least, lead from the declarative to the transformational level of social interactions and contribute to the quality of the entire school system. LITERATURA 1. Al Makhalid, K.A. (2012). Primary teachers’ attitudes and knowledge regarding gifted pupils and their education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (doktorska disertacija). Manchester: Uni- versity of Manchester, School of Education. 2. Allodi, W., Rydelius, P.A. (2008). The needs of gifted children in context: a study of Swedish teachers’ knowledge and attitudes. Paper presented at the ECHA conference Prague, Czechoslo- vakia. Pridobljeno dne 10.09.2019 s svetovnega spleta: http://www.academia.edu. 3. American Psychological Association, Coalition for Psychology in Schools and Education (2018). Dvajset najpomembnejših psiholoških načel za poučevanje in učenje ustvarjalnih, ta- lentiranih in nadarjenih učencev od vrtca do srednje šole (prevod Dolšina in Žerak, Center za raziskovanje in spodbujanje nadarjenosti na Pedagoški fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani). Prido- bljeno dne 10.09.2019 s svetovnega spleta: https://www.apa.org/ed/schools/teaching-learning/ top-twenty-principles-slovenian.pdf. 4. Baudson, T.G., Preckel, F. (2013). Teachers’ implicit personality theories about the gifted: An experimental approach. School Psychology Quarterly, 28, str. 37–46. 5. Bégin, J., Gagné, F. (1994a). Predictors of attitudes toward gifted education: A review of the lite- rature and a blueprint for future research. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 17, str. 161–179. 6. Bégin, J., Gagné, F. (1994b). Predictors of a general attitude toward gifted education. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 17, str. 74–86. 7. Bela knjiga o vzgoji in izobraževanju v Republiki Sloveniji (ur. Krek, J., in Metljak, M.) (2011). Ljubljana: Zavod Republike Slovenije za šolstvo. 8. Blažič, M. (1996). Didaktični vidiki dela z nadarjenimi. Pedagoška obzorja, 11, št. 1–2, str. 3–10. 9. Boben, D. (2012). Smo psihologi (edini) kompetentni za identifikacijo nadarjenih? V: Juriše- vič, M. in Stritih, B. (ur.). Posvetovanje Vloga psihologa v vzgoji in izobraževanju nadarje- nih – 27.01.2012. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani, str. 57–76. 10. Cramond, B., Martin, C.E. (1987). Inservice and preservice teachers’ attitudes toward the aca- demically brilliant. Gifted child Quarterly, 31, str. 15–19. 11. Diezmann, C.M. (2002). Capitalising on the zeitgeist for mathematically gifted students. Au- stralasian Journal of Gifted Education, 11, št. 2, str. 5–10. 12. Flynt, E.S., Brozo, W.G. (2009). It’s all about the teacher. The Reading Teacher, 62, str. 536–538. 13. Gagné, F., Nadeau, L. (1985). Dimensions of attitudes towards giftedness. V: Roldan, A. H. (ur.). Gifted and talented children, youth and adults: Their social perspective and culture. Mo- nrou, NJ: Trillium, str. 148–170. 14. Gagné, F., Nadeau, L. (1991). Brief presentation of Gagné & Nadeau attitude scale “Opinions about gifted and their education”. Unpublished instrument. Montreal, Canada: GIREDT, Uni- versité du Québec à Montréal. 15. IBM Corporation (2016). IBM SPSS Statistics for Macintosh, Version 23.0. Armonk. NY: IBM Corporation. 16. IEA (2018). Public attitudes towards gifted education. Pasadena, CA: Institute for Educational Advancement. 17. Jung, J.Y. (2014). Predictors of attitudes to gifted programs/provisions: Evidence from preser- vice educators. Gifted Child Quarterly, 58, str. 247–258. 18. Juriševič, M. (2011). Vzgoja in izobraževanje nadarjenih. V: Krek, J. in Metljak, M. (ur.). Bela knjiga o vzgoji in izobraževanju v Republiki Sloveniji 2011. Ljubljana: Zavod Republike Slo- venije za šolstvo, str. 329–367. Loboda, Bedek, Žerak, dr. Juriševič, dr. Vogrinc: Stališča študentov pedagoških smeri do... 19 19. Juriševič, M. (2012). Nadarjeni učenci v slovenski šoli. Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, Peda- goška fakulteta. 20. Juriševič, M. (2018). Zmorem in hočem več: nadarjen učenec pri pouku. Fizika v šoli, 23, št. 1, str. 2–8. 21. Koncept vzgojno-izobraževalnega dela z nadarjenimi dijaki v srednjem izobraževanju (2007). V. D. Žagar in sod. (ur.). Razširjena programska skupina za odkrivanje in delo z nadarjenimi. 22. Koncept: odkrivanje in delo z nadarjenimi učenci v devetletni osnovni šoli (1999). V: D. Žagar in sod. (ur.). Delovna skupina za pripravo koncepta dela z nadarjenimi učenci, Področna kuri- kularna komisija za osnovno šolo, Nacionalni kurikularni svet. 23. Lassig, C.J. (2009). Teachers’ attitudes towards the gifted: The importance of professional de- velopment and school culture. Australasian Journal of Gifted Education, 18, št. 2, str. 32–42. 24. Lewis, E., Milton, M. (2005). Attitudes of teachers before and after professional development. The Australasian Journal of Gifted Education, 14, št. 1, str. 5–14. 25. Marentič Požarnik, B. (2018). Psihologija učenja in pouka: od poučevanja k učenju. Ljubljana: DZS. 26. Martin, L., Burns, R., Schonlau, M. (2010). Mental disorders among gifted and nongifted youth: A selected review of the epidemiologic literature. Gifted Child Quarterly, 54, str. 31–41. 27. Matheis, S., Keller, L.K., Kronborg, L., Schmitt, M., Preckel, F. (2019). Do stereotypes strike twice? Giftedness and gender stereotypes in pre-service teachers’ beliefs about student charac- teristics in Australia. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 47. Pridobljeno dne 10.09.2019 s svetovnega spleta: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/1359866X.2019.1576029?n eedAccess=true. 28. Matrić, M., Duh, M. (2019). Teachers’ perceptions of gifted, talented and EBD students. Peda- goška obzorja, 34, št. 2, str. 67–81. 29. Mcclain, M.C., Pfeiffer, S. (2012). Identification of gifted students in the United States today: A look at state definitions, policies, and practices. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 28, št. 1, str. 59–88. 30. McCoach, D.B., Siegle, D. (2007). What predicts teachers’ attitudes toward the gifted. Gifted Child Quarterly, 5, št. 3, str. 246–255. 31. Neihart, M., Reis, S.M., Robinson, N.M., Moon, S.M. (2002). The social and emotional deve- lopment of gifted children: What do we know? Waco, TX: The National Association for Gifted Children. 32. Operacionalizacija Koncepta: odkrivanje in delo z nadarjenimi učenci v devetletni osnovni šoli (2000). V: Tatjana Bezić in sod. (ur.). Razširjena programska skupina za svetovalno delo v vrtcih, šolah in domovih. 33. Operacionalizacija Koncepta: vzgojno-izobraževalno delo z nadarjenimi dijaki v srednjem izo- braževanju (2007). V: Drago Žagar in sod. (ur.). Razširjena programska skupina za svetovalno delo v vrtcih, šolah in domovih. 34. Ozcan, D. (2016). Predictions and attitudes towards giftedness and gifted education. Internatio- nal Journal of Educational Sciences, 15, št. 1–2, str. 126–133. 35. Öztürk, M.A., Fıçıcı, A. (2014). The Development of the educators’ attitudes toward gifted education scale. International Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 6, št. 2, str. 349–360. 36. Pangrčič, P., Blažič, M. (2017). Participatorni individualizirani programi dela za nadarjene učence. Pedagoška obzorja, 32, št. 1, str. 91–110. 37. Perković Krijan, I., Borić, E. (2015). Teachers’ attitudes towards gifted students and differences in attitudes regarding the years of teaching. Croatian Journal of Education, 17, št. 1, str. 165–178. 38. RStudio Team (2015). RStudio: Integrated Development for R. RStudio, Inc., Boston, MA. 39. Subotnik, R.F., Olszewski-Kubilius, P., Worrell, F.C. (2011). Rethinking giftedness and gifted education: A proposed direction forward based on psychological science. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 12, str. 3–54. 40. Swanson, J.D., Lord, E.W. (2013). Harnessing and guiding the power of policy: Examples from one state’s experiences. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 36, str. 198–219. 41. Szymanski, A., Croft, L., Godor, B. (2018). Determining Attitudes Toward Ability: A New Tool for New Understanding. Journal of Advanced Academics, 29, št. 1, str. 29–55. 20 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) 42. Troxclair, D.A. (2013). Preservice teacher attitudes toward giftedness. Roeper Review, 35, str. 58–64. 43. Van Widenfelt, B.M., Treffers, P.D.A, De Beurs, E., Siebelink, B.M., Koudijs, E. (2005). Tran- slation and cross-cultural adaptation of assessment instruments used in psychological research with children and families. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8, št. 2, str. 135–147. 44. Watts, G. (2006). Teacher attitudes to the acceleration of the gifted: a case study from New Zealand. Gifted and Talented, 10, št. 1, str. 11–19. 45. Zakon o spremembah in dopolnitvah Zakona o osnovni šoli (ZOsn-H) (2011). Pridobljeno dne 10.09.2019 s svetovnega spleta: http://pisrs.si/Pis.web/pregledPredpisa?id=ZAKO6129#. 46. Žagar, D. (2012). Metodologija odkrivanja nadarjenih učencev v Sloveniji: zakaj tako in kaj spremeniti. V: Juriševič, M. in Stritih, B. (ur.). Posvetovanje Vloga psihologa v vzgoji in iz- obraževanju nadarjenih – 27.01.2012. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, str. 19–26. Maruša Loboda (1995), študentka Pedagoške fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani. Naslov: Gasilska 44, 1234 Mengeš, Slovenija; Telefon: (+386) 031 597 560 E-mail: marusa.loboda@gmail.com Nika Bedek (1996), študentka Pedagoške fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani. Naslov: Podvin pri Polzeli 34i, 3313 Polzela, Slovenija; Telefon: (+386) 040 248 876 E-mail: nikica.bedek@gmail.com Urška Žerak (1991), asistentka na Pedagoški fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani. Naslov: Riharjeva 34, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija; Telefon: (+386) 031 723 528 E-mail: urska.zerak@pef.uni-lj.si Dr. Mojca Juriševič (1968), redna profesorica za področje pedagoške psihologije na Pedagoški fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani. Naslov: Jakčeva ulica 27, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija; Telefon: (+386) 040 587 714 E-mail: mojca.jurisevic@ pef.uni-lj.si Dr. Janez Vogrinc (1977), izredni profesor za pedagoško metodologijo in statistiko na Pedagoški fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani. Naslov: Jurčkova cesta 5a, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija; Telefon: (+386) 040 536 039 E-mail: janez.vogrinc@pef.uni-lj.si Tatjana Devjak, PhD, Vesna Podgornik, PhD, Sanja Berčnik, PhD, Janez Vogrinc, PhD Importance of a Positive Climate for Conducting Self-Evaluation in Kindergarten Prejeto 10.11.2019 / Sprejeto 10.02.2020 Received 10.11.2019 / Accepted 10.02.2020 Znanstveni članek Scientific paper UDK 373.2+005.962.131 UDC 373.2+005.962.131 KLJUČNE BESEDE: predšolska vzgoja, klima vrtca, KEYWORDS: pre-school education, kindergarten cli- samoevalvacija, raziskovalno delo mate, self-evaluation, research work POVZETEK – Zagotavljanje dostopne in visokoka- ABSTRACT – Providing accessible and high-quality kovostne predšolske vzgoje je nujen pogoj, da omo- early childhood education is a prerequisite for ena- gočimo otroku ustrezen duševni in telesni razvoj in bling the child’s mental and physical development, razvoj njegove individualnosti, zmanjšamo osip v his/her individuality, reducing early school leaving, rednem šolanju ter tveganja za revščino in socialno reducing the risk of poverty and social exclusion. In izključenost. V tem kontekstu se znotraj kakovostne- this context, a quality kindergarten highlights the ga vrtca poudarja potreba po visoko usposobljenem need for highly qualified staff, as it has been proved kadru, saj je dokazano, da višje kot je strokovno ose- that the more the professional staff in the kindergar- bje v vrtcu usposobljeno, višja je kakovost storitev, ten is qualified, the higher the quality of services that ki jo vrtec lahko ponuja. Področje predšolske vzgoje the kindergarten can provide. The field of pre-school potrebuje stalno in načrtno strokovno ter znanstveno education requires constant, planned professional raziskovanje, ki bo prispevalo k ohranjanju dosežene and scientific work, which will contribute to main- in razvijanju višje ravni kakovosti vrtcev. V prispevku taining the achieved quality of kindergartens and to nas je v okviru empirične raziskave (N = 398 vzgoji- developing a higher level thereof. In the empirical teljev) zanimalo področje samoevalvacije vzgojiteljev research (N = 398 educators), we were interested in predšolskih otrok v slovenskih vrtcih, ocena njihove the self-evaluation of the pre-school teachers in the usposobljenosti za samoevalvacijo, njihovo dojema- Slovenian kindergartens, in their assessment of their nje klime v vrtcu in povezava med dojemanjem klime self-evaluation skills, their perception of the kinder- v vrtcu ter pogostostjo samoevalvacije in raziskoval- garten climate, and in the relationship between their nega dela. Ugotovili smo, da samoevalvacija lahko kindergarten climate perception and their self-evalu- postane pomemben dejavnik zagotavljanja kakovo- ation frequency and research work. It was established sti v vrtcu, vendar je za to potrebno v njem ustvariti that self-evaluation could be an important kindergar- ustrezno klimo. ten quality assurance element when a stimulating kin- dergarten climate is created. 1 Introduction The process of kindergarten assurance focuses on the experiences gathered in edu- cational settings, such as child – educator interactions, and on the types of activities in which children are engaged. High-quality kindergarten experiences enhance children’s abilities to take advantage of the educational opportunities in school and reduce deficits, e.g. in speech and in the social background, which children from a socially deprived environment might have. Nowadays, educators are faced with professional challenges on a daily basis and are expected to create appropriate interactions and learning situ- ations while taking into account the child’s individuality. For this reason, educators 22 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) should systematically collect data on their work and the child’s progress and perform self-evaluation, thus verifying the achievement of specific goals and objectives. By do- ing so, they are also motivated to change, improve their work practices, and adapt them to the needs of all the kindergarten participants (children, parents, the local and wider society). In addition, they plan their further activities and the pre-school field develop- ment, which is highlighted in the Kindergarten Act (1996, 2005) and the Curriculum for Kindergartens (1999). In the empirical research, the frequency and areas of the self- evaluation of Slovenian pre-school teachers were examined. We were interested in the educators’ evaluation of the kindergarten climate, in the frequency of their involvement in research work and self-evaluation, and in their correlation. 2 Evaluation as an Element of Kindergarten Quality Assurance Apart from respecting human rights, autonomy and justice, quality is one of the general principles of education in the Republic of Slovenia, and the right to quality education is one of the fundamental rights. Ensuring accessible and high-quality early childhood education, which is the first step in the school system, is a prerequisite for enabling the child’s mental and physical development, his individuality, for reducing early school leaving, the risk of poverty and social exclusion, and for learning about the environment in which the child lives (White Paper, 2011; Campbell-Barr, 2017; Devjak & Berčnik, 2017; Jager, 2013). In this context, a quality kindergarten highlights the need for highly qualified staff, as it has been proved that the more the professional staff in the kindergarten is qualified, the higher the quality of services that the kinder- garten can provide. The so-called pedagogical quality focuses on the employment of pedagogical processes in kindergarten (how educators interact with children, what level of pedagogical awareness they possess, and what forms and methods of work they use) and their conformity with the curriculum goals. It is a multifaceted and intersubjective definition, which stems, on the one hand, from the pedagogical competencies of educa- tors and, on the other hand, from their experience (Sheridan et al., 2009). According to Sheridan (2007), quality as a pedagogical phenomenon consists of four dimensions that interact and co-exist: society, child, educator and learning context. Thus, a good kindergarten is a community of children, educators, and parents striving for a common goal (the development and growth of an individual who will be able to contribute to the well-being of society with his/her full potential in the future), who are connected by shared values and beliefs (Devjak & Berčnik, 2017; Jager, 2013; Marjanovič Umek, 2002; Sheridan, 2007; Sheridan et al., 2009). Although part of the general school system, pre-school education is specific in terms of the institutional functioning of a kindergarten, and in terms of kindergarten life organization; it is embedded in the local community, it contributes to the quality of family life, and it is also specific in terms of goals, content, and working methods. The field of pre-school education requires constant, planned professional and scientific work, which will contribute to maintaining the achieved quality of kindergartens and to developing a higher level thereof (Devjak & Berčnik 2017). According to Medveš (2000), the concept of quality assurance in educational institutions has evolved in pro- Devjak, PhD, Podgornik, PhD, Berčnik, PhD, Vogrinc, PhD: Importance of a Positive... 23 portion to the concept of their autonomy. In the process of enhancing autonomy, the responsibility for individual issues of organization and the content of work have moved from external, school inspection to local communities and institutions, and with the increased autonomy of the educator, his/her responsibility for quality pre-school educa- tion has also increased (Babič, 2011). Educators are thus faced with numerous profes- sional challenges and are expected to maintain quality at multiple levels. The educator must be able “to create appropriate interactions and learning situations, based on the knowledge of early and pre-school learning and child development, taking into account the child’s individuality” (Valenčič Zuljan & Blanuša Trošelj, 2014, p. 44). “Awareness of the importance of the child’s rights and their realization also necessitates the consid- eration of the research participation of children: i.e. to allow children to express their own experiences, feelings, views, as well as to properly protect them in the process, so that they can themselves decide on their role in the research, and that their participation does not produce any negative consequences for them” (Štemberger, 2019, p. 3). Along with the theoretical knowledge of different scientific branches (e.g. psychology, peda- gogy), professional competencies also include experiential knowledge, which comple- ments the theory and practice (ibid.). By systematically collecting the data on his/her work and through evaluation, the educator can verify the level of his/her achievement of the specific goals, thereby being motivated to change the work processes and to adapt them to the needs of children, parents, and the local and wider society. Through evaluation, the data on work effectiveness are collected, based on which further activi- ties are planned (Devjak & Berčnik, 2017; Marjanovič Umek, 2002; 2011). Both the Kindergarten Act (1996; 2005) and the Curriculum for Kindergartens (1999) “require further development of the pre-school field towards the development of modern quality concepts within which self-evaluation models are developed” (Babič 2001, p. 59). Self- evaluation, understood as systematic, structured and continuous attention paid to the quality of the work of educational institutions, should be carried out by internal quality control educators who should evaluate their own functioning and the programme im- provement (Babič, 2011; Devjak & Berčnik, 2017). Thus, critical reflection and self- evaluation are important elements contributing to the quality of the educational institu- tion. Self-evaluation, the advantage of which is better knowledge and understanding of one’s own work, the ability to promptly remedy the identified shortcomings and to pre- pare faster for change is thus part of the day-to-day tasks of educators and as such part of their professional development (ibid.). It is important for the educator to upgrade the information about effective ways of teaching children and working methods, to pursue the curriculum goals, and to learn about the knowledge needed to be successful in the changing world (Valenčič Zuljan & Blanuša Trošelj, 2014). Self-evaluation is thus an integral part of kindergarten life and covers all the main aspects of kindergarten work that are important for educators, children and parents. The main goal of self-evaluation is to create a culture (in this case in kindergarten) in which everyone can make a change, and in which it is believed that improving kindergarten is the right and responsibility of everyone involved (Macbeath, 2006). Self-evaluation, therefore, arises from the spe- cific kindergarten needs, so it is also necessary to adapt to the kindergarten conditions when performing self-evaluation. The self-evaluation process carried out in the course of the programme enables us to analyse the quality of the work of professionals, and its sensibly evaluated results serve as guidelines for further programme development (Babič, 2011; Možina, 2002). The teaching profession is thus “extremely complex, re- 24 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) quiring a high level of professional awareness and a wide range of competencies among which the ones to explore practice and to build a new theory based on common thinking are very important for professional development” (Valenčič Zuljan & Blanuša Trošelj, 2014, p. 45). The educator’s work should be based on theoretical knowledge and re- search work, whereby, as a member of the profession, he/she strives for the well-being of users, while at the same time is aware that he/she is entitled to an autonomous judg- ment, without external interference (Podgornik, Devjak & Vogrinc, 2010). Self-evalu- ation by which an educator can improve his/her professional functioning and thinking can, therefore, be reasonably regarded as an important element of a pre-school teacher’s professional development, which in turn influences the successful performance of his/ her role in kindergarten. 3 Organizational Culture and Kindergarten Atmosphere In his/her critical reflection, the educator as a competent professional should focus not only on teaching methods but also on attitudes, values, behaviour, and beliefs that are part of the kindergarten’s organizational culture. As Selimović, Opić and Selimović (2018) point out, it is necessary to satisfy specific preconditions for the institution’s good functioning and “among the significant elements of its successful functioning are the relationships between the elements of the educational system” (ibid. p. 66). The or- ganizational culture is composed of a set of values adopted by kindergarten employees, of the ways of performing activities, a management style, the relationship between the management, employees and service users – parents, of the ways of resolving conflicts, and communication. It is reflected indirectly in the institution by what we do and how we do it. All these factors are hidden; many times, one is not even aware of them, even though they importantly co-shape the life of the institution (Kavčič 2011). However, it should be pointed out that “departments in kindergarten can also draw up their own agreements on work and mutual relations according to their specifics, i.e. they can iden- tify their own values in the scope of the agreed ones, which should be in accordance with the national regulations and with the kindergarten policy” (Berčnik & Devjak, 2017, p. 71). The concept of organizational culture was extensively used in the last decade, when it became apparent that the institution’s management, the reactions of the employees to the institutional events and the environment were influenced not only by rational elements but also by symbols (rituals, beliefs, ideology, etc.) (cf. Ferjan, 2005; Černetič, 2007; Ivanko & Stare, 2007; Kavčič, 2011; Mihalič, 2007). Culture in an in- stitution thus represents a system of beliefs, habits and values of people, and is defined as the dynamic phenomenon unique to each institution (Možina, 2004; Mihalič, 2007; Schein, 2010). Kavčič (2003) notes that the strength of the organizational culture is expressed in the agreement of the employees on the values and norms and in the man- ner of their realization. A strong organizational culture applies when a majority of the employees agree with the values of the organization, and when equality, improvement, openness and change are promoted. Culture in an organization is, therefore, shaped by people, and it consists of communication, values, beliefs, products of every member of the organization, corporate architecture, role models, rituals and customs, and linguis- Devjak, PhD, Podgornik, PhD, Berčnik, PhD, Vogrinc, PhD: Importance of a Positive... 25 tic abilities. Management is crucial in shaping the organizational culture, as it should direct the employees towards new ways of thinking and acting. The relationships in the organization belonging to the organizational climate, which is an integral part of the organizational culture, also depend on the management (Kavčič, 2003; Možina, 2004). Organizational culture and climate are linked to different elements – culture is more tied to global, strategic and system elements, and thus to the development vision, capital goals, global interaction, system stability, organizational growth and system organiza- tion itself, whereas organizational climate is tied to process and operational elements, such as short-term goals, operationalization, procedures, ways of doing business/work, the structure of employees, and the internal environment (Mihalič, 2007). The organiza- tional climate reflects the individual’s experience of the organizational culture, and in- fluences the kindergarten atmosphere as a relationship between what people expect and what they actually get. It may include the employees’ attitudes towards the organization of work, the relationships with the organization, and individual systems within the or- ganization. The organizational atmosphere is primarily affected by positive or negative employees’ relationships. When employees within the organization understand each other, are satisfied with their work and salaries, they form positive relationships; on the other hand, when there is dissatisfaction, low productivity and conflicts in the organiza- tion, the relationships between the employees are negative, influencing the entire col- lective, and causing fluctuation and absenteeism (Ivančič, 2007; Ivanko & Stare, 2007; Lipičnik, 1998). The organizational climate may be open or closed, which is mainly due to the attitude of the management. In an open climate, the management listens to and accepts the employees’ suggestions and opinions, while in closed environments, it does not give the employees the opportunity to express their opinions. In the latter case, the employees do their jobs but do not help or support each other, which negatively affects the organizational climate (Ahghar, 2008). An unfavourable, negative or closed climate is not always a reason for poor performance, which can also be attributed to the ignorance and incompetence of the employees. In addition to relationships, the organi- zational climate is shaped by organizational affiliation, leadership, motivation, innova- tion, initiative, learning, competence, and knowledge of the mission, vision and goals of the organization (Ivanko & Stare, 2007; Siok, 2007; Škerget, 2016). According to Ahghar (2008), the organizational climate in education is relatively stable and is part of the school environment, which is influenced by leadership. Research (Polutnik, 2014) showed that a favourable organizational climate was a prerequisite for the effective functioning of the organization, which also affected the performance of the organization and its achievement of goals. Each organization uses different performance indicators that depend on the work, the employees’ attitude towards the work, and on the co-workers. Good associates and stimulating physical working conditions, an ef- ficient and successful working environment, strong management, substantial salary, as well as the possibility of professional and personal growth influence the individual’s satisfaction, which is a key element of the organizational climate. Clear goal setting, highlighting achievements, fostering self-initiative, establishing friendships, promot- ing solidarity, good communication, positive competitiveness and employee motiva- tion contribute to it as well. The latter is maintained through good workplace relations, autonomy, responsibility, performance, and successful work results, with the possibility of promotion, professional growth, including work knowledge, diversity, interest in and 26 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) the ability to use the knowledge (Lipičnik, 1998). All this, however, is influenced by the communication style and the leadership style. The kindergarten climate thus stands for the relationships between educators and the management, between educators, between children and educators, between children, between kindergartens and the environment, and as such, it also has a significant impact on the evaluation and self-evaluation of educators, and thus on improving their professional performance, and consequently, on improving the kindergarten education quality (Devjak, 2016; Devjak & Berčnik 2017; Ivanko & Stare, 2007). 4 Research 4.1 Research Purpose and Objectives The empirical research examined the frequency and areas of self-evaluation of Slo- venian kindergarten teachers, their assessment of their qualification to carry out self- evaluation, their perception of the kindergarten climate, and the connection between their perception of the kindergarten climate and the self-evaluation frequency, as well as their participation in research work. The core research questions were as follows: □ R1: How do the educators evaluate the climate in the kindergarten in which they work? □ R2: How often are the educators involved in research work? □ R3: Who, in the opinion of the pre-school teachers, should carry out self-evaluation in kindergarten? □ R4: How often do the educators conduct self-evaluations, and which areas of their work do they evaluate most often? □ R5: What is the relationship between how the educators evaluate the kindergarten climate and how often they are involved in research work? □ R6: What is the relationship between how the educators evaluate the kindergarten climate and how often they conduct self-evaluation? □ R7: How do the educators evaluate their ability to conduct self-evaluation? □ R8: What is the relationship between the educators’ self-assessment of their knowl- edge of statistics, methodology, and self-evaluation? □ R9: What is the relationship between the educators’ assessment of their ability to conduct self-evaluation, the frequency of self-evaluation, and research work? 4.2 Research Method The descriptive and causal non-experimental research methods were applied. The research was based on the quantitative research paradigm. Devjak, PhD, Podgornik, PhD, Berčnik, PhD, Vogrinc, PhD: Importance of a Positive... 27 4.3 Sample The research was conducted on a representative sample of pre-school teachers, em- ployed in Slovenian kindergartens. 398 pre-school teachers, employed in 89 kinder- gartens all over Slovenia, of whom 96.7 % were female and 3.3 % were male, filled in the questionnaire. The average age of the pre-school teachers was 39.47 years (with a standard deviation of 10.02 years). On average, they had 17.19 years of work experi- ence (a standard deviation of 11.55 years). Approximately one-third of the respondents completed secondary school education (31.6 %), more than a quarter of them held a uni- versity degree (28.8 %), more than one-fifth of them completed higher professional edu- cation (22.0 %), and less than one-fifth of them completed higher education (17.6 %). 4.4 Data Collection The data were collected with a questionnaire constructed for pre-school teachers, based on the analysis of the literature on empirical research, self-evaluation and the pro- fessional growth of pedagogical workers (e.g. Teacher Researcher and Cross-Curricular Links, more by Krek and Vogrinc, 2007). Six questionnaires were submitted to the kindergartens. The kindergarten head teachers were asked to distribute the questionnaires to the teachers in alphabetical order. In the paper, the data collected using two scales will be presented on the following is- sues: How often pre-school teachers conduct self-evaluation of individual areas (rating scale 1), how pre-school teachers view the kindergarten climate (the Likert-type scale, rating scale 2), and some closed questions. The rating scales are based on Cronbach’s alpha with sufficient reliability (RS 1: α = 0.88, RS 2 α = 0.82) and validity (the first factor accounts for 40.35 % variance on RS 1, and 49.22 % variance on RS 2). 4.5 Data Processing The data from the questionnaires were processed using the descriptive and inferen- tial statistical methods. The statistical procedures employed were as follows: frequency distribution (f, f %) of the attributive variables; the basic descriptive statistics of the numerical variables (mean, median, standard deviation); the Pearson correlation coef- ficient; the chi-square test; the Kullback 2Î test (since the condition of the theoretical frequencies for the chi-square test was not fulfilled); factor analysis to test the instru- ment validity (% of the explained variance with the first factor); and Cronbach’s alpha as a measure of instrument reliability. The data are presented in a tabular form. The percentages are calculated for individual issues, depending on the number of respondents who answered a particular question (i.e. valid answers). 28 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) 5 Results and Interpretation 5.1 How do educators evaluate the climate in the kindergarten in which they work? The first question was dedicated to the assessment of the kindergarten climate by the respondents. The educators addressed eight statements, six of which referred to the collaboration between educators (“I think my kindergarten co-workers accept my ideas, tips, etc.”; “The educator who would like to get involved in a project can count on the moral support of his/her co-workers”; “The educators in our kindergarten collaborate well”; “The educators in our kindergarten help each other”; “The professional success of educators in our kindergarten is appreciated”; “The educator involved in projects in our kindergarten is misunderstood by his/her co-workers”). However, two statements referred to the collaboration of the pre-school teachers with the head teachers (“The educator who would like to introduce a novelty in our kindergarten can count on the moral support of the head teacher”; “The head teacher of our kindergarten is receptive of the pre-school teachers’ initiatives”). Table 1. Educators’ responses to the statements as regards the kindergarten climate I completely disagree I disagree I cannot decide I agree I completely agree f f % f f % f f % f f % f f % I think my kindergarten co-workers accept my ideas, tips, etc. 3 0.8 8 2.1 72 18.5 249 63.8 58 14.9 The educator who would like to get involved in a project can count on the moral support 4 1.0 17 4.3 57 14.5 227 57.9 87 22.2 of his/her co-workers. The educator who would like to introduce a novelty in our kindergarten can count on the 4 1.0 12 3.1 67 17.1 182 46.4 127 32.4 moral support of the head teacher. The head teacher of our kindergarten is receptive of the 2 0.5 8 2.0 49 12.5 178 45.3 156 39.7 pre-school teachers’ initiatives. The educators in our kindergarten collaborate well. 1 0.3 15 3.8 35 8.9 218 55.6 123 31.4 The educators in our kindergarten help each other. 0 0.0 12 3.0 33 8.4 216 54.8 133 33.8 The professional success of educators in our kindergarten 3 0.8 21 5.4 76 19.4 197 50.3 95 24.2 is appreciated. The educator involved in projects in our kindergarten is misunderstood 131 33.5 144 36.8 54 13.8 41 10.5 1 5.4 by his/her co-workers. Devjak, PhD, Podgornik, PhD, Berčnik, PhD, Vogrinc, PhD: Importance of a Positive... 29 From the presented data, it can be inferred that the majority of the educators con- sider the climate in the Slovenian kindergartens very positive, as 88.6 % of the surveyed educators completely agreed or agreed with the statement “The educators in our kinder- garten help each other.” More than four-fifths of the surveyed educators also completely agreed or agreed that the educators in their kindergarten collaborated well (87.0 %), that the head teacher of their kindergarten was receptive of the pre-school teachers’ initiatives (85.0 %), and that the educator who would like to participate in the project could count on the moral support of his/her co-workers (80.1 %). About three-quarters of the respondents completely agreed or agreed with the state- ment that co-workers in their kindergarten accepted their ideas, tips, etc. (78.7 %), that the educators who would like to introduce a novelty in their kindergarten could count on the moral support of the head teacher (78.8 %), and that the professional success of the educators in their kindergarten was appreciated (74,5 %). 70.3 % of the respondents disagreed or completely disagreed with the statement that the educators involved in the projects in their kindergarten were misunderstood by their co-workers. Almost a fifth of the surveyed educators were undecided about the following state- ments: “The educator’s professional performance is valued in our collective” (19.4 %); “I think that our kindergarten co-workers accept my ideas, tips, etc.” (18.5 %), and “The educator who would like to introduce a novelty in our kindergarten can count on the moral support of the head teacher” (17.1 %). Less than a tenth of the respondents completely disagreed or disagreed that the educator’s professional performance in their collective was appreciated (24 % or 6.2 %), and that the educator who would like to get involved in the project could count on the moral support of his/her co-workers in their kindergarten (21 % or 5.3 %). Slightly less than a fifth of the respondents (42 % or 15.9 %) completely agreed or agreed with the statement that the educators involved in the projects were misun- derstood by their kindergarten co-workers. The organization climate reflects an indi- vidual’s experience of a kindergarten atmosphere as a relationship between what people expect and what they actually get. When employees within the organization understand each other, are satisfied with their work and salaries, they form good relationships, resulting in a positive climate; on the other hand, when there is dissatisfaction, low productivity and conflicts in the organization, the relationships between the employees are negative, influencing the entire organization (Ivančič, 2007; Ivanko & Stare, 2007; Lipičnik, 1998). From the results presented, we can conclude that the majority of the educators are satisfied with the prevalent kindergarten climate, both as regards the collaboration with the educators and with the head teachers. Somewhat questionable, however, is the sup- port offered by the co-workers to the educators’ involvement in research work; there- fore, we examined the frequency of the educators’ involvement in research work; we were particularly interested in the frequency of the self-evaluation carried out by the educators, and in the relationship between the frequency of the self-evaluation and the manner in which the educators evaluated the kindergarten climate. 30 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) 5.2 Involvement in Research Work and Conducted Self-Evaluation in Kindergarten Firstly, we were interested in the involvement of the educators in research work. Table 2. Educators’ responses to how often they engage in research work How often do Very often Often Sometimes Rarely Never Total you engage in research work? f f % f f % f f % f f % f f % f f % Educators 16 4.1 111 28.5 158 40.6 84 21.6 20 5.1 389 100.0 Most of the surveyed educators (40.6 %) responded that they sometimes did re- search work, a third of them (32.6 %) answered that they did research work very often or often, and just over a quarter of the respondents (26.7 %) said they rarely or never conducted research work. The educators who responded that they did research work considered their participation in various research projects (e.g. in collaboration with the Faculty, and the Institute of Education of the Republic of Slovenia) or in big research teams and not necessarily the conducting of autonomous research, as only a quarter of the respondents (25.8 %) affirmed that they had already conducted research. On the other hand, three quarters of the educators (74.2 %) said they had had no research ex- perience so far. The research work of pedagogical workers, especially self-evaluation research, can be understood as an attempt to link teaching and research, so that they are no longer two separate tasks, but are developing into interrelated and complementary activities (Cole & Knowles, 2004). The Organization and Financing of Education Act (in Slo- venian ZOFVI 2008, Article 49), adopted in 2008, provides for quality assessment through self-evaluation, and the drawing up of an annual report on self-evaluation of the school and kindergarten. Since the idea that pre-school teachers should also conduct research, specifically self-evaluation research, is a rather novel one in Slovenia, and since there is much evi- dence that self-evaluation research can significantly contribute to improving the quality of work in pre-school institutions, we decided to analyse the current situation in this field (the self-evaluation frequency). We were further interested in who, in the opinion of the pre-school teachers, should conduct self-evaluation in kindergarten. When asked who should evaluate educational work, a great majority of the pre- school teachers (90.5 %) responded that pre-school teachers should assess whether they had achieved the set goals. 4.6 % of the respondents believed that the work of the pre- school teacher should be evaluated by the respective kindergarten head teacher. Ten pre-school teachers (2.6 %) believed that an external evaluation expert (e.g. from the National Education Institute of the Republic of Slovenia) should evaluate the work of the pre-school teacher, while nine surveyed pre-school teachers (2.3 %) responded that this should be done by some other pre-school teacher, e.g. a co-worker from the same kindergarten. It is important to realize that by systematically collecting data through an evaluation of his/her work, an educator can evaluate the extent to which specific goals Devjak, PhD, Podgornik, PhD, Berčnik, PhD, Vogrinc, PhD: Importance of a Positive... 31 have been achieved, thereby encouraging himself/herself to change the work processes and to adapt them to changes and different needs (Devjak & Berčnik 2017; Marjanovič Umek, 2002; 2011). Table 3. Pre-School Teachers’ Responses to their Self-Evaluation Frequency How often do you carry Very often Often Sometimes Rarely Total out self-evaluation? f f % f f % f f % f f % f f % Pre-school teachers 72 18.2 241 60.9 75 18.9 8 2.0 396 100.0 When asked how often pre-school teachers carry out self-evaluation, almost four- fifths of the pre-school teachers (79.1 %) answered that they carried out self-evaluation very often or often, slightly less than a fifth (18.9 %) of the respondents answered that they sometimes carried out self-evaluation, whereas only 2 % of the respondents at- tested to rarely carrying out self-evaluation. None of the respondents replied that they did not carry out self-evaluation. As mentioned in the theoretical part, self-evaluation, understood as systematic, structured and continuous attention given to the quality of their work, should be carried out by the internal quality control educators (Babič, 2011; Devjak & Berčnik 2017). We were further interested in how often the pre-school teachers carried out self- evaluation in individual areas of work with children. The respondents evaluated the frequency of the self-evaluation in individual areas, whereby grade 5 indicated that they carried out self-evaluation in the respective field very often, whereas grade 1 indicated that they did not carry out self-evaluation in the respective area. The pre-school teachers most often checked how children complied with the rules (x = 4.40), how the child was socially included in the group (x = 4.38), the state of the child’s welfare (x = 4.35), and how the curriculum was being implemented (x = 4.35). The pre-school teachers least often determined the child’s dispositions for learning, his/her academic achievements and knowledge (x = 3.22), the child’s health and the quality of his/her life (x = 3.75), as well as his/her cognitive development (x = 3.82). Self-evaluation should be a part of the day-to-day tasks of educators, a part of their professional development, and thus an integral part of kindergarten life which covers all the main aspects of kindergarten work that are important for educators, children and parents (Macbeath, 2006). 5.3 Relationship between Kindergarten Climate Perception, Frequency of Research Work and Conducting Self-Evaluation Afterwards, we were interested in the relationship between the manner in which the educators evaluated the kindergarten climate and the frequency of their involvement in research work, and of self-evaluation. To this end, we introduced a new “Climate” vari- able and added up the responses of the surveyed educators to the eight statements pre- sented in Table 1, with the answers to the statement “The educator involved in projects in our kindergarten was misunderstood by his/her co-workers” being contrary to the previous ones (the answer “I completely agree” was scored with 1 point and the answer 32 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) “I completely disagree” with 5 points). It was possible to score between 8 and 40 points, and the results ranged from 15 to 40 scored points (the average score was 32.25 points, whereas the standard deviation was 4.41 points). According to the data distribution, we divided the respondents into two groups in line with their kindergarten climate percep- tion (given the relatively high results, we called them “a very stimulating climate” and “an encouraging climate”), and we took a median of 32 points as the limit. Firstly, the data are presented on whether or not the educators who rated the kinder- garten climate higher were more likely to be involved in research work, followed by an analysis of the relationship between climate perception and the frequency of conducting self-evaluation. Table 4. Relationship between climate perception and the frequency of involvement in research work Very often Often Sometimes Rarely Never Total Climate f f % f f % f f % f f % f f % f f % Encouraging 6 3.1 52 26.7 78 40.0 46 23.6 13 6.7 195 100.0 Very stimulating 8 4.5 57 32.2 74 41.8 33 18.6 5 2.8 177 100.0 Total 14 3.8 109 29.3 152 40.9 79 21.2 18 4.8 372 100.0 There were no statistically significant differences between the responses of the edu- cators who rated the kindergarten climate higher and those who rated the kindergarten climate lower (χ2 = 5.457, df = 4, α = 0.244). Nevertheless, a specific trend can be in- ferred from the data presented, namely that the educators who perceived the kinder- garten climate as very stimulating responded that they did research work more often (36.7 % said that they were very often or often engaged in research work) and some- times (41.8 %), whereas the greater proportion of the educators who had less favourable perceptions of the kindergarten climate responded that they rarely or never did research work (30.3 % of the educators perceived the kindergarten climate as stimulating, and 21.4 % of the kindergarten teachers perceived the climate as very stimulating). Table 5. Relationship between the kindergarten climate perception and the self-evalua- tion frequency Very often Often Sometimes Rarely Total Climate f f % f f % f f % f f % f f % Encouraging 35 17.6 118 59.3 42 21.1 4 2.0 199 100.0 Very stimulating 32 17.8 115 63.9 29 16.1 4 2.2 180 100.0 Total 67 17.7 233 61.5 71 18.7 8 2.1 379 100.0 There were no statistically significant differences between the responses of the educators who rated the kindergarten climate higher and those who rated the kinder- Devjak, PhD, Podgornik, PhD, Berčnik, PhD, Vogrinc, PhD: Importance of a Positive... 33 garten climate lower, considering their self-evaluation frequency (2Î = 1.614, df = 3, α = 0.656). Most educators (79.2 %), regardless of how they rated the kindergarten climate, said that they very often or often conducted self-evaluation in kindergarten, but more respondents who perceived the kindergarten climate as very stimulating con- ducted self-evaluation in kindergarten (81.7 % of the respondents said that they very often or often conducted self-evaluation) than those who rated the kindergarten climate somewhat lower (76.9 % of the respondents said that they very often or often conducted self-evaluation). 5.4 Relationship between the Educators’ Self-Assessment of Self-Evaluation Knowledge and the Self-Evaluation Frequency and Research Work In order for educators to be able to explore their practice and to subject their work to the reviews and discussions of their co-workers or even the wider professional public (by reporting and publishing the results of their research), they need to be qualified to conduct research and reflect on their own practice. Niemi and Jakku-Sihvonen (2006) report that in Finland the education programmes for educators have been focusing on the development of professionalism based on the culture of research for several decades now. The education of pre-school teachers and teachers is based on the belief that edu- cators should be familiar with the latest research into education, teaching and learning, that they need to be able to apply the research results to practice in a meaningful way, and that they should be appropriately academically and professionally trained to con- duct research. How do pre-school teachers evaluate their knowledge to conduct self-evaluation? Almost half of the surveyed pre-school teachers (45.6 %) evaluated their knowl- edge of how to perform self-evaluation as medium, whereas less than a quarter of them (23.8 %) evaluated their knowledge thereof as very poor or poor. Almost one-third of the pre-school teachers (30.7 %) evaluated their knowledge in this field as good or very good. On average, the pre-school teachers rated their knowledge of performing self- evaluation as very high, even though less than a third (29.7 %) of the respondents an- swered that during their undergraduate studies self-evaluation had been addressed in one subject only. They acquired further self-evaluation knowledge in the framework of continuous professional training, as almost half of the surveyed pre-school teach- ers (43.6 %) responded that they had attended supplementary education programmes (seminars, workshops, lectures) on self-evaluation. Educators are faced with various professional challenges when they have to form proper interactions and learning situ- ations, based on their knowledge of early learning and child development. The educa- tors’ professional competence comprises theoretical and experiential knowledge. By systematically collecting data on his/her work, the educator can check the progress of achieving specific goals, thereby encouraging himself/herself to change work processes and adapt them to the needs of children, parents, the local and wider social environment (Valenčič Zuljan & Blanuša Trošelj, 2014, p. 44). On a five-point rating scale (the value of five points denotes wide knowledge, where- as the value of one point denotes slight knowledge), the educators rated, in addition to their self-evaluation knowledge, their knowledge of statistics and methodology. We were 34 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) interested in the relationship between the educators’ self-assessment of their knowledge of statistics, their methodological knowledge and their self-evaluation knowledge. The Pearson correlation coefficient showed a statistically significant positive medium cor- relation between the self-evaluation knowledge and the statistics knowledge (r = 0.40, α = 0.000), and between the self-evaluation knowledge and the methodology knowledge (r = 0.50, α = 0.000). The educators who rated their knowledge of statistics and method- ology as high also rated their knowledge of self-evaluation as high. The correlation between the self-assessment of the knowledge of statistics and the methodology knowledge is statistically significant, strong and positive. (r = 0.73, α = 0.000). The educators who scored more points for their statistical knowledge, also rated their methodological knowledge statistically significantly higher. In continuation, we were interested in whether the educators who rated their self- evaluation knowledge as higher also more often performed self-evaluation and were more often involved in research work. Table 6. How often do educators who assess their knowledge of self-evaluation differ- ently perform self-evaluation? Very often Often Sometimes Rarely Total Knowledge f f % f f % f f % f f % f f % Poor 11 12.4 41 46.1 34 38.2 3 3.4 89 100.0 Medium 23 13.5 114 67.1 28 16.5 5 2.9 170 100.0 Well 36 31.6 70 61.4 8 7.0 0 0.0 114 100.0 Total 70 18.8 225 60.3 70 18.8 8 2.1 373 100.0 Statistically significant differences regarding the estimate of their self-evaluation knowledge were shown between the responses of the educators who rated their self- evaluation knowledge as higher and those who rated their self-evaluation knowledge as lower (2Î = 48.909, df = 6, α = 0.000). The educators who scored higher on their self-evaluation knowledge were also more likely to perform self-evaluation. Slightly more than half of the educators (58.5 %) who assessed their self-evaluation knowledge as poor, responded that they very often and often conducted self-evaluation, the same as four-fifths of the educators (80.6 %) who assessed their self-evaluation knowledge as medium and as many as 93.0 % of educators, who assessed their self-evaluation knowledge as good. On the other hand, more than two-fifths of the educators (41.6 %) who assessed their self-evaluation knowledge as poor responded that they sometimes or rarely performed self-evaluation, while only 7.0 % of the educators who assessed their self-evaluation knowledge as good answered the same. It should be pointed out that none of the surveyed educators, regardless of their assessment of their self-evaluation knowledge, responded that they did not perform self-evaluation. It is the specific needs of the kindergarten that should encourage self-evaluation. The self-evaluation process carried out in the course of the programme enables us to analyse the quality of the work of professionals, and its sensibly evaluated results serve as guidelines for further pro- gramme development (Babič, 2011; Možina, 2002). Devjak, PhD, Podgornik, PhD, Berčnik, PhD, Vogrinc, PhD: Importance of a Positive... 35 We were also interested in the relationship between the educators’ self-assessment of their self-evaluation knowledge and the frequency of their involvement in research work. Table 7. How often are the educators who assess their knowledge of self-evaluation dif- ferently involved in research work? Very often Often Sometimes Rarely Never Total Knowledge f f % f f % f f % f f % f f % f f % Poor 1 1.1 10 11.5 34 39.1 31 35.6 11 12.6 87 100.0 Medium 2 1.2 47 28.1 76 45.5 37 22.2 5 3.0 167 100.0 Good 13 11.5 48 42.5 41 36.3 9 8.0 2 1.8 113 100.0 Total 16 4.4 105 28.6 151 41.1 77 21.0 18 4.9 367 100.0 Statistically significant differences regarding the frequency of involvement in re- search work were shown between the responses of the educators who rated their self- evaluation knowledge as higher and those who rated their self-evaluation knowledge as lower (χ2 = 69.414, df = 8, α = 0.000). Just a little over a tenth of the educators who rat- ed their self-evaluation knowledge as poor (12.6 %), nearly one-third of the pre-school teachers who rated their self-evaluation knowledge as medium (29.3 %) and just a little over half of the educators who rated their self-evaluation knowledge as good (54.0 %) responded that they were very often or often involved in research. Almost half of the educators who rated their self-evaluation knowledge as poor (48.2 %), a quarter of the educators who rated their self-evaluation knowledge as medium (25.2 %), and only a tenth of the educators who rated their self-evaluation knowledge as good (9.8 %) an- swered that they rarely or never did research work. According to the presented data, the educators who believed to possess more self-evaluation knowledge responded that they were also more likely to engage in research work. 6 Conclusion Every educational institution has a responsibility to create a collaborative climate and reach a consensus on common beliefs and values, and on its vision and mission, with which every member of the group can identify. It is essential for every educational staff member to be aware of his/her responsibility or role in the process of compre- hensive quality assurance, and for educational institutions to identify the research and especially self-evaluation as fundamental elements in ensuring the quality of education. We assumed that a proper climate for research and self-evaluation would be the one fos- tering mutual assistance, support and collaboration between the institution’s employees, in which professional performance would be valued, ideas, advice, etc. from individu- als well accepted by the collective, and the educators who would like to take part in a project or introduce a specific work innovation could count on the moral support of the 36 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) head teacher and their co-workers, etc. From the empirical research data, it can be in- ferred that the majority of the educators considered the Slovenian kindergarten climate very positive. When they were asked how frequently they examined their pedagogical practice, most of the surveyed educators (40.6 %) responded that they sometimes did research work, a third of them (32.6 %) responded that they very often or often did re- search work, although some of them considered their participation in various research projects or in big research groups and not necessarily the conducting of autonomous research. Quality assessment and assurance in the field of Slovenian education has been for- malized by the Organization and Financing of Education Act, which provides for the quality assessment and assurance of schools and kindergartens, also through self-evalu- ation. Thus, self-evaluation is gaining in importance in the process of education quality assessment and assurance. When asked who should evaluate educational work, the great majority of the pre-school teachers in the survey (90.5 %) responded that pre-school teachers should assess themselves whether they had achieved the set goals. Almost four- fifths of the pre-school teachers (79.1 %) responded that they very often or often car- ried out self-evaluation. They most often checked how children complied with the rules (x = 4.40), how the child was socially included in the group (x = 4.38), the state of the child’s welfare (x = 4.35) and how the curriculum was being implemented (x = 4.35). When considering the conditions for conducting research and self-evaluation, we need to focus not only on the kindergarten climate but also on the education of the research staff. It is crucial for the educational staff involved in research to obtain at least the basic methodological knowledge in the scope of their formal studies (under- graduate and postgraduate), in order to be able to carry out research and self-evaluation. Later on, they should have the opportunity to complement and upgrade their knowl- edge in the scope of ongoing education and training programmes for education pro- fessionals. On average, the pre-school teachers rated their knowledge of performing self-evaluation as very high, even though less than a third (29.7 %) of the respondents answered that during their undergraduate studies self-evaluation had been addressed in one subject only. Self-evaluation knowledge was further acquired in the framework of continuous professional training, as almost half of the surveyed pre-school teach- ers (43.6 %) responded that they had attended supplementary education programmes (seminars, workshops, lectures) on self-evaluation. A statistically significant positive correlation between the self-evaluation knowledge and the statistics knowledge, and between the self-evaluation knowledge and the methodology knowledge was estab- lished. The educators who assessed their knowledge of statistics and methodology as high also assessed their self-evaluation knowledge as high. The correlation between the self-assessment of the knowledge of statistics and the knowledge of methodology is the strongest (r = 0.73, α = 0.000). The educators who scored more on their knowledge of statistics also had a statistically significantly higher rating on their methodology knowl- edge. We subsequently studied the relationship between the educators’ self-assessment of their self-evaluation knowledge and the self-evaluation frequency and research work. Statistically significant differences regarding the estimate of their knowledge of self- evaluation were shown between the responses of the educators who rated their self- evaluation skills as higher and those who rated their self-evaluation skills as lower. The educators who scored higher on their self-evaluation knowledge were also more likely Devjak, PhD, Podgornik, PhD, Berčnik, PhD, Vogrinc, PhD: Importance of a Positive... 37 to perform self-evaluation. Statistically significant differences regarding the frequency of their research work were shown between the responses of the educators who rated their self-evaluation knowledge as higher and those who rated their self-evaluation knowledge as lower. The educators who assessed that they had more self-evaluation knowledge responded that they were also more likely to engage in research work. Self-evaluation can become an important element of quality assurance in kindergar- ten; however, a proper atmosphere should be created to carry it out. The essence of the climate which can assure quality lies in the kindergarten striving to improve its work as a permanent expert activity and a part of the day-to-day tasks of educators. Dr. Tatjana Devjak, dr. Vesna Podgornik, dr. Sanja Berčnik, dr. Janez Vogrinc Pomen pozitivne klime za izvajanje samoevalvacije v vrtcu Ob spoštovanju človekovih pravic ter avtonomiji in pravičnosti spada kakovost med splošna načela vzgoje in izobraževanja v Republiki Sloveniji, pravica do kakovostnega izobraževanja pa je ena izmed temeljnih pravic. Zagotavljanje dostopne in visokoka- kovostne predšolske vzgoje, ki je prvi korak v šolskem sistemu, je tako nujen pogoj, da omogočimo otroku duševni in telesni razvoj, razvoj njegove individualnosti, zmanjšamo osip v rednem šolanju in tveganja za revščino in socialno izključenost ter da otrok spo- zna okolje, v katerem živi (Bela knjiga, 2011; Jager, 2013). V tem kontekstu se znotraj kakovostnega vrtca poudarja potreba po visoko usposobljenem kadru, saj je dokazano, da višje kot je strokovno osebje v vrtcu usposobljeno, višja je kakovost storitev, ki jo vrtec lahko ponuja. Dober vrtec je tako pojmovan kot skupnost otrok in vzgojiteljev ter staršev, ki de- lajo za skupen cilj (razvoj in rast posameznikov, da bodo v prihodnosti pripomogli z vsem svojim potencialom k blaginji družbe), vse skupaj pa povezujejo v celoto skupne vrednote in prepričanja. Dober vrtec vodi človek z vizijo in empatijo, dober vrtec ima vzgojitelje, ki jim je vzgoja in učenje otrok poslanstvo, izziv, so razmišljajoči praktiki, se ne obnašajo kot edina avtoriteta in vir informacij, temveč so posredniki med otrokom in znanjem ter vsakemu izmed njih omogočajo in zagotavljajo optimalne možnosti oseb- nostnega razvoja. Dober vrtec pripravlja otroke za kakovostno življenje in delo, v njem delajo vsi tako, ne zato, ker to morajo, temveč zato, ker tako sami želijo (Sentočnik, 1999; Marjanovič Umek, 2002; Sheridana in sod., 2009; Jager, 2013). Ob tem pa se je še treba zavedati, da je predšolska vzgoja, čeprav je del celotnega šolskega sistema, specifična z vidika delovanja vrtca kot institucije ter organizacije življenja v vrtcu, saj je vpeta v lokalno skupnost, daje podporo kakovosti življenja v družinah, specifična pa je tudi vidika ciljev, vsebin in metod dela. Področje predšolske vzgoje potrebuje stalno načrtno strokovno in znanstveno delo, ki bo prispevalo k ohranjanju dosežene in razvijanju višje ravni kakovosti delovanja vrtcev. S pomočjo evalvacije, ki je opredeljena kot sistematično zbiranje podatkov o nekem pojavu oziroma kot proces, s katerim preverjamo, v kolikšni meri so določeni cilji doseženi, spodbujamo nenehno spreminjanje procesov dela in prilagajanje le-tega potrebam otrok, staršev, lokalnega okolja ... Z evalvacijo pridobimo podatke o učin- 38 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) kovitosti dela, na osnovi katerih načrtujemo nadaljnje delovanje (Marjanovič Umek, 2002; 2011). Koncept zagotavljanja kakovosti v vzgojno-izobraževalni ustanovi se je po besedah Medveša (2000) razvijal premosorazmerno s pojmovanjem avtonomije vzgoj- no-izobraževalnih ustanov. V procesih krepitve avtonomije se je tako odgovornost za posamezna vprašanja organizacije in vsebine dela preselila iz zunanje, šolske inšpekci- je na krajevne skupnosti in ustanove same. Za izvajanje notranjega nadzora kakovosti lastnega delovanja ter izboljšanje programa se tako izvaja samoevalvacija kot sistema- tična, strukturirana in nenehna pozornost, ki jo vzgojno-izobraževalne institucije na- menjajo kakovosti svojega dela. Z večanjem avtonomije vzgojitelja se veča tudi njegova odgovornost za kakovostno izvajanje pedagoške prakse, na podlagi česar sta kritična refleksija in samoevalviranje postala pomembna dejavnika zagotavljanja kakovosti vzgojno-izobraževalne ustanove. Samoevalviranje, katerega prednosti so boljše pozna- vanje in razumevanje lastnega pedagoškega dela, možnost sprotnega odstranjevanja ugotovljenih pomanjkljivosti ter hitrejša priprava sprememb, je tako del vsakodnevnih nalog vzgojiteljev in kot tako del njihovega profesionalnega razvoja (prav tam). Kompetenten profesionalec pa se pri svoji kritični refleksiji ne usmerja zgolj na metode poučevanja, ampak tudi na odnose, vrednote, stališča, vedenja, prepričanja, ki so tudi del organizacijske kulture vrtca. Organizacijska kultura vrtca je vzorec prepri- čanj in vrednot, ki jih člani neke organizacije razvijejo v daljšem času in se izražajo v materialnih simbolih in vedenjih. Gre torej za skupek vrednot, sprejetih s strani zapo- slenih v vrtcu, način izvajanja dejavnosti, način vodenja, odnos vodstva do zaposlenih in uporabnikov storitev – staršev, načine reševanja konfliktov, komunikacijo ipd. Kaže se posredno v tem, kaj počnemo in kako, kakšni so odnosi v organizaciji. Vsi ti dejavniki so prikriti, velikokrat se jih niti ne zavedamo, čeprav pomembno (so)oblikujejo življenje v organizaciji. Pojem organizacijske kulture se intenzivno uporablja šele v zadnjem desetletju, ko smo prišli do spoznanja, da razmerij pri vodenju organizacije, reakcije zaposlenih na dogajanje v organizaciji in okolju ne določajo zgolj racionalni elementi, temveč tudi simboli (obredi, prepričanja, ideologija …) (prim. Ferjan, 2005; Ćernetič, 2007; Mi- halič, 2007). Sestavni del organizacijske kulture je klima, ki odraža posameznikovo doživljanje organizacijske kulture in se čuti v vzdušju v vrtcu kot skladnost med tistim, kar ljudje pričakujejo, in tistim, kar dejansko dobijo. Klima v vrtcu je odnos med otroki, med otroki in vzgojitelji, med vzgojitelji, med vzgojitelji in vodstvom, med vrtcem in okoljem. Z merjenjem klime ugotavljamo vzroke in posledice vedenja ljudi v organiza- ciji (Ivanko in Stare, 2007; Devjak, 2016). Klima v vrtcu torej vpliva tudi na izvajanje evalvacije in samoevalvacije vzgojiteljev ter s tem na izboljšanje njihovega profesio- nalnega delovanja. Vzgojiteljevo profesionalno delo mora namreč temeljiti na teoretič- nem znanju in raziskovalnem delu, kjer si kot pripadnik profesija prizadeva za dobrobit klientov, pri tem pa se zaveda, da ima pravico do avtonomne presoje brez zunanjega vmešavanja. Samoevalviranje, s katerim lahko vzgojitelj izboljša svoje profesionalno delovanje in razmišljanje, lahko torej upravičeno pojmujemo kot enega izmed pomemb- nih dejavnikov vzgojiteljevega profesionalnega razvoja, ki povratno vpliva na uspešno opravljanje njegove vloge v vrtcu. V empirični raziskavi nas je zanimalo področje samoevalvacije vzgojiteljev pred- šolskih otrok v slovenskih vrtcih, in sicer njihova ocena lastnih samoevalvacijskih spre- tnosti, njihovo dojemanje klime v vrtcu in odnos med klimo v vrtcu ter zaznavanjem in Devjak, PhD, Podgornik, PhD, Berčnik, PhD, Vogrinc, PhD: Importance of a Positive... 39 pogostostjo izvajanja samoevalvacije ter raziskovalnega dela. Raziskava je bila izvede- na na reprezentativnem vzorcu vzgojiteljev predšolskih otrok, zaposlenih v slovenskih vrtcih. Vprašalnik je izpolnilo 398 vzgojiteljev predšolskih otrok, zaposlenih v 89 vrtcih iz vse Slovenije, od tega 96,7 % žensk in 3,3 % moških. Povprečna starost predšolskih vzgojiteljev je bila 39,47 leta, v povprečju so imeli 17,19 leta delovnih izkušenj, pribli- žno tretjina jih ima končano srednješolsko izobrazbo (31,6 %), več kot četrtina pa jih ima univerzitetno izobrazbo (28,8 %). Najprej nas je zanimalo, kako vzgojitelji ocenjujejo klimo v vrtcu. Iz predstavljenih rezultatov sklepamo, da je večina vzgojiteljev zadovoljna s klimo, ki vlada v vrtcih, tako s sodelovanjem z vzgojitelji kot tudi z ravnatelji. Nekoliko vprašljiva pa je bila podpora sodelavcev, kadar se vzgojitelji vključujejo v raziskovalno delo, zato smo v nadaljeva- nju preučili, kako pogosto se vzgojitelji vključujejo v raziskovalno delo, še posebej pa nas je zanimalo, kako pogosto vzgojitelji izvajajo samoevalvacijo in kakšen je odnos med pogostostjo samoevalvacije in oceno klime v vrtcu. Večina anketirancev (40,6 %) je odgovorila, da včasih opravljajo raziskovalno delo, kar lahko razumemo kot poskus povezovanja poučevanja in raziskovanja, ki se razvijata v medsebojno povezani in do- polnjujoči se dejavnosti. Ker je v Sloveniji ideja, da bi vzgojitelji predšolskih otrok morali izvajati tudi raziskave, razmeroma nova in ker obstaja veliko dokazov, da lahko samoevalvacijsko raziskovanje bistveno pripomore k izboljšanju kakovosti dela v predšolskih ustanovah, smo se odločili analizirati trenutno stanje na tem področju (pogostost samoevalvacije). Skoraj štiri petine anketirancev (79,1 %) so odgovorile, da izvajajo samoevalvacijo zelo pogosto ali pogosto. Najpogosteje preverijo, kako otroci upoštevajo pravila ( x = 4,40) in kako je otrok vključen v skupino, najredkeje pa preverjajo otrokovo naklonjenost učenju, njegovim učnim dosežkom in znanju ( x = 3,22) ter otrokovo zdravje in kakovost njegovega življenja ( x = 3,75). V nadaljevanju nas je zanimalo tudi razmerje med tem, kako vzgojitelji ocenjujejo klimo v vrtcu in kako pogosto se vključujejo v raziskovalno delo in samoevalvacijo. Med odzivi vzgojiteljev, ki so klimo v vrtcu ocenili višje, in ti- stimi, ki so klimo v vrtcu ocenili nižje, ni bilo statistično pomembnih razlik (χ2 = 5.457, df = 4, α = 0.244). Ravno tako ni bilo statistično pomembnih razlik med odzivi vzgoji- teljev, ki so klimo v vrtcu ocenili višje, in tistimi, ki so klimo v vrtcu ocenili nižje glede na to, kako pogosto izvajajo samoevalvacijo (2Î = 1.614, df = 3, α = 0.656). Statistično pomembne razlike glede ocene znanja o samoevalvaciji so se pojavile med odgovori vzgojiteljev, ki so svoje samoevalvacijsko znanje ocenili višje, in tistimi, ki so svoje samoevalvacijsko znanje ocenili nižje (2Î = 48,909, df = 6, α = 0,000). Vzgojitelji, ki na samoevalvacijskem znanju dosežejo višje ocene, izkazujejo tudi večjo verjetnost za izvajanje samoevalvacije. Statistično pomembne razlike pa so se pojavile tudi glede tega, kako pogosto vzgojitelji opravljajo raziskovalno delo, in sicer med odgovori vzgo- jiteljev, ki so svoje samoevalvacijsko znanje ocenili višje, in tistimi, ki so svoje samoe- valvacijsko znanje ocenili nižje (χ2 = 69.414, df = 8, α = 0.000). Vsaka vzgojno-izobraževalna ustanova je odgovorna za razvijanje skupne klime in doseganje soglasja o skupnih prepričanjih in vrednotah ter o viziji in poslanstvu vzgoj- no-izobraževalne ustanove, s katero se lahko poistoveti vsak član skupine. Ključnega pomena je, da se vsak član zaveda svoje odgovornosti ali vloge v procesu celovitega zagotavljanja kakovosti, pri čemer sta raziskovanje in zlasti samoevalvacija temeljna dejavnika zagotavljanja kakovosti. Ugotovili smo, da lahko samoevalvacija postane 40 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) pomemben dejavnik zagotavljanja kakovosti v vrtcu, potrebno pa je ustvariti primerno vrtčevsko klimo. REFERENCES 1. Ahghar, G. (2008). The role of school organizational climate in occupational stress among se- condary school teachers in Tehran. International journal of occupational medicine and enviro- nmental health, 21 (4), pp. 319–329. 2. Babič, D. (2011). Samoevalvacija: orodje nenehnega izboljševanja. Vodenje, 9 (1), pp. 59–71. 3. Berčnik, S., Devjak, T. (2017). Partnerstvo s starši kot del vzgoje in izobraževanja za trajnostni razvoj. Didactica Slovenica, 32 (2), pp. 67–81. 4. Bela knjiga o vzgoji in izobraževanje (2011). Ljubljana: MIZŠ 5. Campbell-Barr, V. (2017). Knowledge for a Quality Early Years Workforce. In: Devjak, T. (Ed.). Kakovost v vzgoji in izobraževanju. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta, pp. 12–27. 6. Černetič, M. (2007). Management in sociologija organizacij. Kranj: Moderna organizacija v okviru FOV. 7. Devjak, T., Berčnik, S. (2017). Ali lahko skupni ocenjevalni okvir kakovosti v javnem sektorju CAF prenesemo v vrtce in šole. In: Devjak, T. (Ed.). Kakovost v vzgoji in izobraževanju. Lju- bljana: Pedagoška fakulteta, pp. 45–60. 8. Ivančič, A. (2007). Ocenjevanje organizacijske klime – osnova za vzpostavljanje medsebojnih odnosov. Socialna pedagogika, 11 (4), pp. 473–490. 9. Ivanko, Š., Stare, J. (2007). Organizacijsko vedenje. Ljubljana: Fakulteta za upravo. 10. Jager, J. (2013). Vloga kakovostnih predšolskih programov pri zagotavljanju socialne vključe- nosti ogroženih otrok. Šolsko polje, 24 (3–4), pp. 11–39. 11. Kavčič, B. (2003). Uspešna organizacijska kultura. Retrieved on 10.10.2019 from world wide web: https://www.google.si/search?q=uspe %C5 %A1na+organizacijska+kultura+2015&oq=u spe %C5 %A1na+organizacijska+kultura+2015&aqs=chrome..69i57.8426j0j8&sourceid=chro me&ie=UTF-8. 12. Kavčič, B. (2011). Organizacijska kultura. Celje: Fakulteta za komercialne in poslovne vede. 13. Lipičnik, B. (1998). Ravnanje z ljudmi pri delu. Ljubljana: Gospodarski vestnik. 14. Marjanovič Umek, L., Fekonja, U., Kavčič, T., Poljanšek, A. ur. (2002). Kakovost v vrtcih. Ljubljana: Znanstveni inštitut Filozofske fakultete. 15. Medveš, Z. (2000). Kakovost v šoli. Sodobna pedagogika, 51 (4), pp. 8–28. 16. Mihalič, R. (2007). Upravljajmo organizacijsko kulturo in klimo. Škofja Loka: Mihalič in Par- tner d.n.o. 17. Možina, S. (2004). Vloga zaposlenih v učeči se organizaciji. Retrieved on 12.09.2019 from world wide web: http://www.delavska-participacija.com/strokovni-clanki/?Sklop= %25&besede=U %C4 %8 De %C4 %8Da+se+organizacija&letnik= %25&stevilka= %25&sort=1&nacin=1&Submit=Iskan je&search=1. 18. Polutnik, B. (2014). Organizacijska klima. Retrieved on 10.09.2019 from world wide web: https://www.mojstatus.si/index.php/2014-04-30-13-55-56/2014-05-02-08-37-44/37-organiza- cijska-klima. 19. Schein, Edgar H. (2010). Organizational Culture and Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 20. Selimović, Z., Opić, S., Selimović, H. (2018). The quality of pedagogical climate in schools. Didatica Slovenica, 33 (3–4), pp. 66–81. 21. Sheridan, S. (2007). Dimensions of pedagogical quality in preschool. The International Journal of Early Years Education, 15 (2), pp. 198–217. 22. Sheridan, S., Giota, J., Han, Y., Kwon, J. (2009). A cross-cultural study of preschool quality in South Korea and Sweden: ECERS evaluations, Early Childhood Research Quarterly 24 (2), pp. 142–156. Devjak, PhD, Podgornik, PhD, Berčnik, PhD, Vogrinc, PhD: Importance of a Positive... 41 23. SiOK. (2007). Projekt primerjalnega raziskovanja organizacijske klime v slovenskih organiza- cijah. Retrieved on 27.12.2018 from world wide web: http://www.biro-praxis.si/media/uploads/ files/krovno-interent2.pdf. 24. Škerget, T. (2016). Organizacijska kultura in klima v storitvenem podjetju. Retrieved on 27.12.2018 from world wide web: http://journal.doba.si/letnik-8-2016-st-2/organizacijska-kul- tura-in-klima-v-storitvenem-podjetju. 25. Štemberger, T. (2019). Raziskovanje o otrocih/z otroki: vprašanje participativnega raziskovanja z otroki. Didactica Slovenica, 34 (1), pp. 3–19. 26. Valenčič Zuljan, M., Blanuša Trošelj, D. (2014). Profesionalni razvoj vzgojiteljev z vidika vzgojiteljevih pojmovanj. Andragoška spoznanja, 20 (1), pp. 43–60. Tatjana Devjak, PhD (1955), Associate Professor of Educational Theory and Pre-School Pedagogy at the Faculty of Education in Ljubljana. Address: Cereja 11, 1315 Velike Lašče, Slovenija; Telephone: (+386) 01 189 22 00 E-mail: tatjana.devjak@guest.arnes.si Vesna Podgornik (1972), Assistant Professor for Methodology in Education, Faculty of Philosophy in Ljubljana. Address: Marčenkova 13, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija; Telephone: (+386) 040 536 064 E-mail: vesna.podgornik@ff.uni-lj.si Sanja Berčnik, PhD (1981), Assistant Professor of Educational Theory and Pre-School Pedagogy at the Faculty of Education in Ljubljana. Address: Ljubljanska cesta 20a, 3000 Celje, Slovenija; Telephone: (+386) 041 369 496 E-mail: Sanja.bercnik@pef.uni-lj.si Janez Vogrinc, PhD (1977), Associate Professor of Methodology in Education and Statistics, Faculty of Education, Ljubljana. Address: Jurčkova cesta 5a, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija; Telephone: (+386) 040 536 039 E-mail: janez.vogrinc@pef.uni-lj.si Bojana Perić Prkosovački, PhD, Milica Popović Stijačić, MA, Nina Brkić Jovanović, PhD Educational Workshops: Positive Impact on Teaching and Learning Prejeto 29.09.2019 / Sprejeto 10.02.2020 Received 29.09.2019 / Accepted 10.02.2020 Znanstveni članek Scientific paper UDK 37.091.33-027.22 UDC 37.091.33-027.22 KLJUČNE BESEDE: učne delavnice, zdravstvena KEYWORDS: educational workshop, health care ed- vzgoja, inovativno izobraževanje, interaktivni pouk, ucation, innovative education, interactive teaching, evalvacija učnih delavnic educational workshop evaluation POVZETEK – V raziskavi, ki jo predstavljamo, smo ABSTRACT – The research discussed in this paper proučevali učinke uporabe učne delavnice v okviru sought to explore the effects of the implementation of predmeta zdravstvena nega na srednji zdravstveni an educational workshop in the Health Care course šoli. Uporabili smo model raziskovanja paralelnih at a vocational medical school. We applied the par- skupin, v okviru katerega smo primerjali učinke učne allel group design where we compared the effects delavnice z učinki tradicionalnega načina poučeva- of the educational workshop with the effects of the nja. Zanimali so nas predvsem taksonomske stopnje traditional teaching mode in the Health Care course. znanja, ki so jih učenci usvojili, stopnje miselnih ak- In this study we investigated the levels of knowledge tivnosti, nivo pedagoške komunikacije in možnosti acquisition, the students’ active thought process, individualiziranega in diferenciranega dela. Ugoto- pedagogical communication, and the process of in- vili smo, da didaktično organizirane učne delavnice dividualization and differentiation in the teaching of omogočajo povečano miselno aktivnost učencev, professional medical school subjects. By means of kakovostnejšo učno interakcijo, boljšo didaktično iz- an empirical study, we sought to learn whether there rabo učnega časa in večjo stopnjo sodelovanja učen- are differences in the quality, efficiency and impact of cev. Rezultati kažejo, da so rezultati v skladu z našimi the educational process. We observed an increase in predhodnimi teoretičnimi raziskavami in predstavlja- the participants’ active thought process, interaction, jo dobro osnovo za nadaljnja tovrstna raziskovanja. pedagogical organization and collaboration. The re- sults of our study are partly in accordance with our preliminary assumptions and they can be the basis for further research in the field of teaching. 1 Introduction Health Care is a basic course in the professional education of nurses at a vocational medical school. It is an obligatory course extending through four years of secondary nursing education. In the first two years of professional nursing education, the course setting involves school cubicles, which are equipped with all the necessary apparatuses needed for practical training. In the third and fourth year of nursing education, the Health Care course is essentially organized at primary, secondary and tertiary health- care institutions. During these courses, students are primarily introduced to the theoreti- cal background, and later, they are guided by a healthcare teacher through the practical implementation (Ranković Vasiljević, 2003). However, in past decades, the traditional form of teaching Health Care courses was criticized and some other interactive models Perić Prkosovački, PhD, Popović Stijačić, MA, Brkić Jovanović, PhD: Educational... 43 of teaching were advocated. Critical thinking has advanced, in contrast to the tradi- tional memorizing of course material. Additionally, in the modern practice of healthcare professionals, it is expected that nurses are acquainted with professional literature and the up-to-date findings within the health care profession (Zhang et al., 2012). In line with this, workshops can be introduced into formal education as a method of interac- tive teaching, which has long-term effects on learning: students are more attracted to learning, retain more information and, consequently, are more satisfied (Kutbiddinova, Eromasova & Romanova, 2016; Steinert & Snell, 1999). Some previous studies indicated the importance of workshops as a teaching mode in healthcare education (Allcock, 1992; Grugnetti et al., 2014; Hutnik & Gregory, 2008; Steinert & Snell, 1999; Treisman, 1992; Zhang et al., 2012). Educational workshops are methodical solutions that belong to interactive and student-centred learning aimed at developing skills and/or strengthening sensitivity to specific problems. The work- shop is designed according to the model of experiential learning (Kolb, 1984), which focuses on the process and acquisition of skills, rather than the immediate outcome and acquired knowledge. During the workshop, cooperative and experiential learning are encouraged. Teachers as educational leaders create a warm sociable climate, and provide better and varied feedback on achievement. They prepare additional learning materials and provide students with more opportunity to respond and to be involved in the learning process (Knapp & Hall, 2006; Steinert & Snell, 1999). The greatest chal- lenge of a programme which provides cooperative learning is being thought-provoking and emotionally supporting pedagogical communication. According to Assilkhanova, Tazhbayeva and Ilimkhanova (2014), pedagogical communication is the key instrument in a teaching process, and Tubbs and Moss (2006) stated that effective communication is characterized by understanding, satisfaction, influence on attitudes and relationships, and triggering action (Tubbs & Moss, 2006; Toseland & Rivas, 2005). Sork (1984) defines a workshop as a short-term, intensive, problem-focused learn- ing from experience that actively involves the participants in the identification and analysis of the problem, but also in the development and evaluation of the solution. Furthermore, Fleming’s (1997) definition of a workshop emphasizes the development of competencies, interactive learning, practical work opportunities, intensive interac- tion, work in small groups and the application of new knowledge and skills. According to these previous studies, it could be concluded that workshops are most beneficial in acquiring particular skills. For example, Zhang et al. (2012) point out that some skills, such as searching for literature, are not greatly encouraged at the secondary level of nursing education. In their study, nursing students were given a scientific paper to review. Later, during the workshop section, students were encouraged to provide comments on the article. The authors believed that students utilized critical thinking during this interactive process. Furthermore, the students’ level of satisfaction with the workshop was very high, and consequently the authors concluded that the workshop, as a teaching technique, should be promoted in healthcare education. Grugnetti et al. (2014) applied Clinical Skills Workshops in order to train and to improve drug dosage calculation skills. In this study, nurses attended 30 hours of workshops over a two-week period. During that period, participants learned new innovative calculation techniques. Pre-test and post-test differences showed significant improvement in mathematical skills. Allcock (1992) implemented experiential workshops for developing assessment 44 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) skills, which is a very important part of the nursing process. Hutnik & Gregory (2008) utilized workshops in the interest of the development of cultural sensitivity of health- care professionals. Born, Revelle and Pinto (2002) implemented the full experimental design in their research. They conducted a two-year experimental study, in order to explore the effects of peer-led workshop groups on the performance of undergraduate Biology students. In particular, they sought out the effects of workshops in student minority groups. They assumed that the workshop environment would encourage minority students towards interpersonal interaction, which would consequently lead to an improvement in Biology study performance. The results of their study confirmed this presumption. In this study, we wanted to compare the quality, efficiency and effects of two teach- ing models at a vocational school: the model of an educational workshop and the tradi- tional teaching model. The quality of our study is reflected in the fact that we utilized a control group in our design, and that we introduced follow-up measures after six months. In line with previous studies (Adcock, 1992; Grugnetti et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2012), it was assumed that significant differences would be recorded in the quality, efficiency and effects of the educational process between the experimental and the control group. Specifically, we hypothesized that the experimental group would achieve a higher score in solving the knowledge and skills test immediately after the implementation of the programme, and after the six months’ follow-up. Furthermore, we expected that the quality of the teaching time and the students’ active participation would benefit most from the implementation of the workshop programme. 2 Method 2.1 Participants The participants were students who attended the second year of the vocational med- ical school “7. April”. All of them were enrolled in the Health Care – Theory course. The final sample consisted of 111 students: 56 of them were assigned to the experimen- tal group and 55 were assigned to the control group. 2.2 Study Design We applied the 2 × 3 mixed factorial design. The between-subject factor was the teaching model with two levels – the traditional teaching mode applied in the control group and the workshop mode applied in the experimental group. The within-subject factor was the time of testing. Namely, two groups were tested at three time points: before the intervention (baseline measurement), immediately after the intervention, and six months after the end of the programme. We recorded eight dependent variables: the level and quality of knowledge operationalized as a score (percentage) on the knowl- edge test; three components of the protocol for monitoring teaching – students’ thinking activity defined as a score on the activity protocol checklist; pedagogical communica- Perić Prkosovački, PhD, Popović Stijačić, MA, Brkić Jovanović, PhD: Educational... 45 tion expressed as a score on the scale which evaluates didactic organization and class interaction; and individualization and differentiation of the educational process defined as a score on the scale which evaluates the individualization of teaching. Furthermore, the four components of the protocol for teaching time were also collected: communi- cation and cooperation, rationality and organization, encouragement of students, and application of knowledge (all of them represented as a score on the subscale). The control variables were the overall school achievement expressed as an average mark from all the courses attended by the students, the mark in a particular subject defined as a number from one to five, where five denotes the highest mark, the attitude towards the course, and their opinion of the teacher. 2.3 Instruments The initial test was designed to collect basic data about the participants (gender, year of schooling, class, general achievement, mark from a specific course) and to re- cord the initial levels of knowledge relating to the educational units of diagnostics, which is part of the Health Care course. This test contained 16 questions and was rated on a six-point scale. Parallel forms of tests were created to measure the level of student competence immediately after the intervention and six months after the intervention. Additionally, students evaluated teachers and the degree of satisfaction with the Health Care course in general. Independent observers – pedagogical specialists – evaluated teaching time in the Health Care course in both the experimental and the control group. They observed the time according to an original protocol for monitoring teaching. This protocol evaluates four aspects of teaching time: communication and cooperation, rationality and organi- zation, encouragement of students, and application of knowledge. The protocol contains 26 items; Table 1 presents an analysis of the reliability of the used scales expressed by Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. Table 1. Protocol for monitoring teaching time – Reliability of the used scales expressed by Cronbach’s alpha coefficient Teaching time α Communication and cooperation (8) 0.81 Rationality and organization (7) 0.85 Encouragement of students (7) 0.78 Application of knowledge (4) 0.68 Legend: The number in brackets represents the number of items in each subscale. The teachers also evaluated the course with the protocol for teaching. The proto- col for teaching consists of 40 items, which we followed in order to measure students’ thinking activities, pedagogical communication, and individualization and differentia- 46 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) tion of the teaching process. Table 2 presents data on the reliability of questionnaires for measuring mental activity, pedagogical communication, individualization and dif- ferentiation expressed by Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. We have concluded that the reliability of the obtained data is satisfactory. Table 2. Reliability of questionnaires for measuring mental activity, pedagogical com- munication, and individualization and differentiation expressed by Cronbach’s alpha coefficient Mental activity α Thinking activity (32) 0.93 Pedagogical communication (38) 0.85 Individualization and differentiation (8) 0.67 Legend: The number in brackets represents the number of items in each subscale. 2.4 Statistical Analysis The data collected were processed in the statistical software SPSS 11.5 for Win- dows. The data were analysed with the t-test, chi-squared test, and analysis of covari- ance for repeated measures. 2.5 Procedure The survey was conducted during the 2013–2014 school year. Six teachers par- ticipated in the study; half of them utilized the traditional form of teaching, and half of them implemented the educational workshop in their course. The control group was educated in the traditional manner, where two lessons lasted 45 minutes each. In the experimental group, students were taught according to a special programme, which lasted 90 minutes. In the workshop mode, the following teaching methods were applied: monologue, dialogue, modified lecture, plenary work, group work, and individual work. An over- head projector, a computer, whiteboard, multimedia presentation, and various workshop material were used as tools. The aim of the methodical unit was an Introduction to Nursing Interventions in Laboratory Diagnostics (Curriculum of Vocational Subjects of Secondary Vocational Education in the Field of Health and Social Welfare, 2015). It was expected that the students would acquire basic knowledge about the procedures in which the nurse and technician participate in laboratory diagnostics. Additionally, another expected outcome was the development of humanity and altruism as necessary values for healthcare professionals. In Table 3, an example of the methodical lesson structure in the workshop mode is presented, without the learning content. Perić Prkosovački, PhD, Popović Stijačić, MA, Brkić Jovanović, PhD: Educational... 47 Table 3. Example of the methodical lesson structure in the workshop mode in the expe- rimental programme for the implementation of educational workshops in nur- sing teaching unit models Methodical lesson structure Time Activity Activity – short description Writing students’ expectations, fears and previous Introduction experience on Post-Its; The teacher reads the students’ answers and together they discuss their 20’ expectations, fears and previous experience; Defining a “Contract” Creation of expected behaviour in a group and characteristics of group dynamics; Highlighting the goal of a lesson The teacher introduces the students to the title of the methodical unit; Students’ individual work Writing students’ first associations about the importance of the unit on Post-Its; The teacher summarizes the students’ 40’ Short discussion in plenum answers by developing a short discussion and concludes with the importance of the unit; Modified lecture After the students’ responses and the discussion, the teacher presents a part of the new lesson material; Cooperative learning in small groups Cooperative learning of new group material; Working in plenum Students present the results of group work. Each group has the right to create a presentation method; The teacher summarizes the presented results Discussion in plenum of students’ small group work and develops a generalization of the new knowledge; 30’ Student evaluation time – asking Students anonymously write one question a question in plenum about the unit; The teacher reads them and together they search for answers; “Outgoing message” – students write a message “Check-out” – giving feedback about how they felt and what they think about the lesson on paper and place it on the door. 3 Results 3.1 Testing the Effects on Knowledge Adoption and Retention At the beginning of our study, we tested the participants from the experimental and control groups on four aspects: initial knowledge test, overall school achievement, and participants’ opinion on the Health Care course curriculum and their opinion of the teacher. Table 4 presents the average score, the t-test and its significance. It can be noticed that the experimental and control groups were matched for initial test achieve- ment, the overall school achievement, and the score from the participant. 48 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) Since a statistically significant difference in the students’ opinion on the course between groups was recorded (Table 4), this variable was statistically controlled in sub- sequent analyses (Table 6). Table 4. Descriptive statistics of the control variables and the difference testing Group N M t df P Control 56 54.57 Initial knowledge test 0.344 109 0.73 Experimental 55 53.43 Control 56 4.21 Overall achievement –0.99 109 0.32 Experimental 55 4.33 Control 56 8.93 Opinion of the course 2.44 109 0.016 Experimental 55 8.45 Control 56 8.48 Opinion of the teacher 0.34 109 0.73 Experimental 55 8.40 N M χ2 df P Control 56 4.68 Score from the participant 4.28 3 0.23 Experimental 55 4.62 Legend: N – number of participants; M – mean; t – t-test; df – degrees of freedom; p – p value. Table 5. Mean scores for knowledge tests at three measuring time points Group N M ± SD Control 56 54.57 ± 19.2 Initial knowledge test Experimental 55 53.43 ± 15.5 Control 56 55.95 ± 16.4 Test 2 (immediately after intervention) Experimental 55 50.42 ± 15.5 Control 56 70.53 ± 15.7 Test 3 (six months’ follow-up) Experimental 55 72.61 ± 16.3 Legend: N – number of participants; M – mean; SD – standard deviation. Table 6. Multivariate effects of the group and opinion on achievement at the initial kno- wledge test, the test immediately after the completed programme, and the test six months after the conducted programme Wilks’ λ F-test P-value Measurement 0.95 2.78 0.06 Measurement x groups 0.96 2.01 0.29 Measurement x opinion on the subject 0.97 1.23 0.13 Perić Prkosovački, PhD, Popović Stijačić, MA, Brkić Jovanović, PhD: Educational... 49 We tested the benefits of the applied workshop with the mixed ANOVA. We tested the differences between three measurements. In Table 5, the average scores on knowl- edge tests are presented. Contrary to our prediction, the control group achieved a higher score compared to students from the experimental group (a score higher by 5.53 points). Although the experimental group achieved better results in the follow-up, there was no significant difference between measures (Table 6). In Table 6, multivariate effects of the group and measurement, as well as their interaction are presented. None of the effects were significant. According to these results, we cannot confirm the benefits of educa- tional workshops on knowledge adoption and retention. 3.2 Effects on the Teaching Process In the second part of our study, we explored the effects of an educational work- shop on the teaching process. Two independent pedagogical specialists recorded their answers in the protocol for monitoring the teaching process. Table 7 shows the average scores on the four components of the teaching process: communication and collabora- tion, rationality and organization, encouragement of students, correlation and applica- tion of knowledge. The independent t-test was applied; the values of tests and p-values are presented in Table 7. It can be noticed that significant differences between the ex- perimental and control group were recorded for all measured components. For every component, the experimental group performed better compared to the control group. Table 7. Protocol for monitoring teaching time – Differences between experimental and control group Component Group N M ± SD t df P Experimental 14 28.2 ± 3.5 Communication and collaboration 3.38 21 0.003 Control 9 23.6 ± 2.8 Experimental 14 24.9 ± 3.2 Rationality and organization 4.28 21 0.000 Control 9 19.3 ± 2.8 Experimental 14 21.8 ± 3.9 Encouragement of students 3.77 21 0.001 Control 9 16.0 ± 3.0 Correlation and application Experimental 14 11.5 ± 2.7 of knowledge 3.62 21 0.002 Control 9 8.0 ± 1.2 Legend: N – number of participants; M – mean; t – t-test; df – degrees of freedom; p – p-value. In the second protocol for monitoring teaching, we measured students’ thinking activity, pedagogical communication, and individualization and differentiation of their activity. The results of the difference tests, as well as the average scores recorded in each group, are presented in Table 8. For all three components, the experimental group 50 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) showed an advantage compared to the control group. An independent t-test showed that these differences are statistically significant (Table 8). Table 8. Protocol for monitoring teaching – Differences between experimental and con- trol group Variable Group N M ± SD t df p Experimental 14 57.4 ± 10.0 Thinking activity 3.49 21 0.002 Control 9 43.4 ± 8.2 Experimental 14 65.0 ± 9.0 Pedagogical communication 3.29 21 0.003 Control 9 51.4 ± 0.7 Experimental 14 25.5 ± 5.3 Individualization and differentiation 4.58 21 0.000 Control 9 15.7 ± 4.4 Legend: N – number of participants; M – mean; t – t-test; df – degrees of freedom; p – p-value. 4 Discussion In this study, we wanted to explore the effects of implementing an educational workshop in the Health Care course at a vocational medical school. We applied a cor- responding group design study where we compared the effects of the educational work- shop with the effects of the traditional teaching mode in the Health Care course. Previous research on workshop implementation, as a teaching method in health care education, showed that the application of this teaching method is beneficial from several aspects (Allcock, 1992; Grugnetti et al., 2014; Hutnik & Gregory, 2008; Treis- man, 1992; Zhang et al., 2012). In the present study, we investigated the implementation of a workshop as a teaching method for knowledge acquisition, and for teaching and student activity. According to some of the previous studies in which the effects of workshops in the acquisition of specific skills were recorded (Grugnetti et al., 2014), we assumed that stu- dents from the experimental group would show a greater level of knowledge acquisition immediately after the intervention and in the follow-up testing. However, our results have not shown such an improvement. In conclusion, from the aspect of knowledge acquisition the workshop was as good as the traditional form of teaching. Furthermore, similar results were recorded six months after the intervention. The reason why there were no dissimilarities could lie in the fact that students talk about the new method of teaching, and that the control group were extra motivated to show good results on their final test. The second part of this study examined the teaching process as well as students’ activity during the workshop and during the traditional lessons. Two independent peda- gogical specialists observed the lessons and recorded their answers as part of the pro- Perić Prkosovački, PhD, Popović Stijačić, MA, Brkić Jovanović, PhD: Educational... 51 tocol for monitoring teaching and student activity. One protocol measured four aspects of teaching activity: communication and collaboration, rationality and organization, en- couragement of students’ activity, and application of knowledge. Significant differences were noted in all of these aspects. It was noted that in the experimental group the major- ity of the students were creative and acquainted with their independent work (talking, writing, illustrating, exploring, discovering, solving, concluding, etc.). Teachers who led the workshops stimulated thinking activity. They did not raise rhetorical questions nor present the facts or an opinion on the content or the procedure. Furthermore, the evaluation of the didactic organization and social interaction showed that, at the time of experimental teaching, a tense emotional atmosphere had not been achieved, that vari- ous forms and didactic ideas were used over time, and that the teacher did not structure or limit the situation. Differences between the experimental and the control group were recorded in the analyses of the second protocol, which was created for monitoring students’ activity: thinking activity, pedagogical communication, and individualization and differentia- tion. In all of these aspects, students who attended the workshop lessons were better than the students who took part in the traditional forms of teaching. The teacher in the experimental group encouraged students to ask and discuss, gave examples that were interesting and related to the students’ experience, stimulated a search for a solu- tion through group interaction, devoted attention to students who were less motivated, determined the work in accordance with the students’ abilities, and adjusted the pro- grammes according to the students’ interests. The teacher encouraged students to ex- press their opinions and observations, encouraged the use of knowledge and skills in other fields, used all available teaching materials, and applied different forms, methods and techniques. Also, the teacher told students to do research work, used the space and environment in accordance with the content, encouraged solidarity and responsibility in group work, and encouraged students to apply the learned content in nursing practice. Although the workshops were not beneficial to the cognitive aspect of the teaching process, they influenced pedagogical communication as a crucial part of the teaching process (Assilkhanova et al., 2014) and an essential link for learning. The results of our study are partly in accordance with our preliminary assumptions. Even though we did not confirm the workshop’s effects on knowledge acquisition when compared to the traditional mode of teaching, we clarified the significant contribution of the workshop implementation from several aspects. Firstly, we confirmed improved pedagogical communication through the social interaction during the lesson. Further- more, the workshop lessons provided better individual support to each student with a more individualized educational process in the field of formal higher education. Finally, in relation to the learning process, we observed greater students’ activity, motivated interaction in the classroom, and a higher quality of pedagogical organization and col- laboration. To sum up, the present study has demonstrated the need to build a pedagogy of learning – a pedagogy that will enable learners to learn. Our study showed that the im- plementation of an educational workshop as a method of interactive learning in formal secondary education develops pedagogical communication, which is essential for the learning process. The evaluation of educational workshops should be encouraged, not 52 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) only for this educational profile and subject – it could act as a platform for higher qual- ity formal methodical studies. Dr. Bojana Perić Prkosovački, mag. Milica Popović Stijačić, dr. Nina Brkić Jovanović Vpliv učnih delavnic na pouk in učenje V raziskavi, ki jo predstavljamo, smo proučevali učinke uporabe učne delavnice v okviru predmeta zdravstvena nega na srednji zdravstveni šoli. Uporabili smo model raziskovanja paralelnih skupin, v okviru katerega smo primerjali učinke učne delavnice z učinki tradicionalnega načina poučevanja. Zanimale so nas predvsem taksonomske stopnje znanja, ki so jih učenci usvojili, stopnje miselnih aktivnosti, nivo pedagoške komunikacije in možnosti individualiziranega in diferenciranega dela. Ugotovili smo, da didaktično organizirane učne delavnice omogočajo povečano miselno aktivnost učencev, kakovostnejšo učno interakcijo, boljšo didaktično izrabo učnega časa in večjo stopnjo sodelovanja učencev. Rezultati kažejo, da so rezultati v skladu z našimi pred- hodnimi teoretičnimi raziskavami in predstavljajo dobro osnovo za nadaljnja tovrstna raziskovanja. Nekatere predhodne študije so nakazovale pomembnost učnih delavnic kot način učenja in poučevanja v zdravstvenem izobraževanju. Učne delavnice so bile opažene kot metodično-didaktične rešitve, ki omogočajo interaktivno, procesno in na učence osredotočeno poučevanje. Proces učenja je v okviru interaktivnega učenja usmerjen na razvijanje spretnosti in krepitev občutljivosti na specifične probleme. Učne delavnice so oblikovane po modelu iskustvenega učenja, ki se osredotoča na proces in pridobivanje spretnosti v večji meri kot na pridobivanje znanja. V okviru teoretičnega dela raziskave smo opredelili osnovne koncepte raziskova- nja s filozofskim ozadjem s poudarkom na praktičnih tendencah raziskovanja v učnem procesu. Teoretični okvir vključuje teorije konstruktivističnih razsežnosti interaktivnega učnega procesa, koncept razvojnega pristopa pri delu z učenci, teorije interaktivnega učenja in pouka, modeliranje oblik učnih delavnic in tudi metode spremljanja in vre- dnostenja kakovosti učnega procesa. Za preverjanje hipotez smo uporabili deskriptivno metodo in izvedli raziskavo s pa- ralelnimi skupinami. Uporabili smo naslednje raziskovalne tehnike: analizo podatkov, intervju, anketiranje in načrtovano opazovanje učnih ur v eksperimentalni in kontrolni skupini. Podatke smo zbrali s testi znanja, vprašalniki, s pomočjo lestvic stališč za učen- ce in učitelje ter s pomočjo protokolov za spremljanje in ocenjevanje pouka. Uporabili smo deskriptivno statistiko, t-test, HI-kvadrat test in analizo kovariance. Glede na nekatere predhodne raziskave, v katerih so bili zaznani učinki učnih de- lavnic pri pridobivanju specifičnih spretnosti, smo sklepali, da bodo učenci iz eksperi- mentalne skupine dosegli višji taksonomski nivo usvojenega znanja takoj po izvedbi in v okviru ponovljenega testiranja. Vendar pa rezultati niso pokazali takega izboljšanja. Ugotovili smo, da so učenci v okviru učne delavnice pridobili oz. usvojili približno ena- ko znanje kot v okviru tradicionalnih didaktičnih pristopov. Podobni so bili tudi rezulta- ti vrednotenja po šestih mesecih. S pomočjo racionalnega pristopa smo poskušali dobiti Perić Prkosovački, PhD, Popović Stijačić, MA, Brkić Jovanović, PhD: Educational... 53 ustrezen odgovor. Menimo, da se ustrezne statistično pomembne razlike niso pojavile, ker so učenci o eksperimentu in novem didaktičnem pristopu razpravljali in da je bila kontrolna skupina dodatno motivirana za doseganje dobrih rezultatov na zaključnem preverjanju učne snovi. Drugi del te študije govori o učnem procesu in dejavnostih učencev med učnim pro- cesom, torej med izvajanjem učne delavnice in med tradicionalnimi didaktičnimi pri- stopi. Dva neodvisna pedagoška strokovnjaka sta opazovala pouk in zapisovala odzive učencev, kar je del protokola za spremljanje pouka in aktivnosti učencev. Prvi protokol je meril štiri vidike učne dejavnosti: komunikacijo in sodelovanje, racionalnost in or- ganiziranost, spodbude za aktivnost učencev in oblike povezovanje znanja. Pri vseh teh vidikih so bile opažene pomembne razlike. Opaženo je bilo, da je bila v eksperimentalni skupini večina učencev ustvarjalna in seznanjena s svojim samostojnim delom. Učitelji, ki so vodili delavnice, so spodbujali miselno aktivnost. Poleg tega je ocena didaktične organizacije in socialne interakcije pokazala, da med eksperimentalnim učenjem ni bilo doseženo napeto čustveno vzdušje in da so bili uporabljeni različni didaktični postopki in učne oblike. Učitelj ni natančno strukturiral učnega procesa in ni omejeval možnosti različnih učnih situacij pri učnih urah. Razlike med eksperimentalno in kontrolno skupino so bile zabeležene v analizah drugega protokola, ki je bil pripravljen za spremljanje miselne aktivnosti učencev, pe- dagoške komunikacije, individualizacije in diferenciacije učnega procesa. Na teh po- dročjih so bili dijaki, ki so se udeležili učnih delavnic, boljši od učencev, ki so pridobi- vali znanje v okviru tradicionalnih oblik poučevanja in učenja. Učitelj eksperimentalne skupine je učence spodbujal, da postavljajo vprašanja in se vključujejo v razpravo, navajal je primere, ki so bili zanimivi in so povezani z izkušnjami učencev, spodbujal je iskanje rešitev s skupinsko interakcijo, pozoren je bil na učence, ki so bili manj moti- virani, svoje delo je prilagajal sposobnostim učencev in učno snov interesom učencev. Učence je spodbujal, da izražajo svoja mnenja in ugotovitve, spodbujal je uporabo znanja in spretnosti na drugih področjih, pri čemer je uporabil vsa razpoložljiva učna gradiva in različne didaktične strategije, oblike, metode in tehnike učenja. Prav tako je učitelj učence spodbujal k raziskovalnemu delu, uporabljal prostor in okolje skladno z vsebino, spodbujal solidarnost in odgovornost pri skupinskem delu ter učence spodbu- jal k uporabi naučenih vsebin v strokovni praksi. Rezultati statistične analize vpliva učnih delavnic na kakovost, stopnjo pridoblje- nega znanja, kognitivno aktivnost učencev, pedagoško sporazumevanje ter proces in- dividualizacije in diferenciacije v poučevanju so se pokazali kot odločilni na podlagi treh od petih opredeljenih raziskovalnih spremenljivk. To nas pripelje do zaključka, da med temi spremenljivkami obstaja vzročna zveza. Raziskava je pokazala, da so učne delavnice kot metodološki model poučevanja strokovnih predmetov omogočile boljšo interaktivno izobraževalno komunikacijo. Če učitelj ustvari ustrezno interaktivno di- daktično podporo, postanejo učenci bolj aktivni in ustvarjalni dejavnik v učnem pro- cesu. Poleg tega smo ugotovili, da so v okviru učnih delavnic v večji meri upoštevana načela individualizacije in diferenciacije učnega procesa. Vendar pa podatki kažejo, da med pridobljenim znanjem med eksperimentalno in kontrolno skupino ne obstajajo statistično pomembne razlike. Analiza rezultatov raziskave je pokazala, da uporaba učnih delavnic kot metode interaktivnega učenja v formalnem srednješolskem izobraževanju večinoma razvija iz- 54 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) obraževalno komunikacijo. Komunikacija je bistvenega pomena za učni proces. Pou- čevanje vedno predpostavlja učenje in je funkcija učenja. Poučevanje obstaja zaradi učenja. Po drugi strani pa si učiteljeve dejavnosti ni mogoče predstavljati brez ustre- znih dejavnosti učencev. To pomeni, da se od učencev pričakuje intenzivno intelektualno delo, iskanje in odkrivanje novih rešitev, skratka ustvarjalen pristop. Vsekakor bi se morale izobraževalne institucije oz. učitelji v večji meri osredotočiti na procese pridobi- vanja znanja in ne toliko na same rezultate. Učence je treba v večji meri usposobiti, da iščejo in razvijejo lastne poti, algoritme do odgovorov in rešitev problema, ne pa da se rešitve samo naučijo. Vztrajanje pri zahtevi samostojnega iskanja odgovorov in rešitev prispeva k razvoju kognitivnih sposobnosti in ustvarjalnih potencialov, kar so temelji hevrističnega učnega pristopa. Nehevristični pristop od učenca zahteva izključno dober spomin. Iz vsega povedanega seveda ni mogoče sklepati, da sta proces in rezultat ločeni in medsebojno neodvisni kategoriji, pač pa da se v celovitem učnem proces dopolnjuje- ta in sta v komplementarnem odnosu. Učne delavnice kot didaktičen fenomen so primerna oblika dela na vseh stopnjah šolskega sistema, od predšolskih ustanov do visokošolskih institucij. Zagotovo predsta- vljajo platformo za oblikovanje in razvijanje novih specialno-didaktičnih pristopov, ki bodo bolj osredotočeni na učenca in sam učni proces. REFERENCES 1. Allcock, N. (1992). Teaching the skills of assessment through the use of an experiential wor- kshop. Nurse Education Today, 12, pp. 287–292. 2. Assilkhanova, M., Tazhbayeva, S., Ilimkhanova, L. (2014). Psychological Aspects of Pedagogi- cal Communication. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5 (20), pp. 2726–2728. 3. Born, W., Revelle, W., Pinto, L. (2002). Improving Biology Performance with Workshop Gro- ups. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 11(4), pp. 347–365. 4. Brooks-Harris, J., Stock-Ward, S.R. (1999). Workshop – Designing and Facilitating Experi- mental Learning. London: SAGE Publications. 5. Curriculum of vocational subjects of secondary vocational education in the field of health and social welfare (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia-Educational Gazette, 7/2014, 11/2014 and 9/2015). 6. Drane, D., Smith, H.D., Light, G., Pinto, L., Swarat, S. (2005). The gateway science workshop program: Enhancing student performance and retention in the sciences through peer-facilitated discussion. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 14(3), pp. 337–352. 7. Grugnetti, A.M., Bagnasco, A., Rosa, F., Sasso L. (2014). Effectiveness of a Clinical Skills Wor- kshop for drug-dosage calculation in a nursing program. Nurse Education Today, 34, pp. 619–624. 8. Hutnik, N., Gregory, J. (2008). Cultural sensitivity training: Description and evaluation of a workshop. Nurse Education Today, 28, pp. 171–178. 9. Knapp, M.L., Hall, J.A. (2006). Nonverbal communication in Human Interaction. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wardsworth. 10. Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning: experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 11. Kutbiddinova, R.A., Eromasova, A.A., Romanova, M.A. (2016). The Use of Interactive Me- thods in the Educational Process of the Higher Education Institution. International Journal of Environmental and Science Education, 11 (14), pp. 6557–6572. 12. Ranković Vasiljević, R. (2003). Metodika nastave zdravstvene nege. Beograd: Viša medicinska škola. (Methodology of teaching nursing. Belgrade: Higher Medical School). 13. Steinert, Y., Snell, L.S. (1999). Interactive lecturing: strategies for increasing participation in large group presentations. Medical Teacher, 21(1), pp. 37–42. Perić Prkosovački, PhD, Popović Stijačić, MA, Brkić Jovanović, PhD: Educational... 55 14. Toseland, R.W., Rivas, R.F. (2005). An introduction to group work practice, 5/e. Boston. Pe- arson. 15. Treisman, U. (1992). Studying students studying calculus: A look at the lives of minority mathe- matics students in college. The College Mathematics Journal 23, pp. 362–372. 16. Tubbs, S.L., Moss, S. (2006). Human communication principles and contexts. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. 17. Vilotijević, M. (1995). Evaluacija didaktičke efikasnosti nastavnog časa. Beograd: CURO. (Evaluation of didactic efficiency of teaching time. Belgrade: CURO.) 18. Zhang, Q., Zeng, T., Chen, Y., Li, X. (2012). Assisting undergraduate nursing students to learn evidence-based practice through self-directed learning and workshop strategies during clinical practicum. Nurse Education Today, 32, pp. 570–575. Bojana Perić Prkosovački, PhD (1979), Teaching Assistant of Pedagogical Subjects, Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad. Address: Resavska 1, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; Telephone: (+381) 064 207 07 79 E mail: bojana.peric-prkosovacki@mf.uns.ac.rs Milica Popović Stijačić, MA (1983), Associate at Laboratory of Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Philosophy, University of Novi Sad. Address: Dr. Zorana Đinđića 2, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; Telephone: (+381) 021 458 948 E mail: milica.p.stijacic@gmail.com Nina Brkić Jovanović, PhD (1982), Assistant Professor at Department of Psychology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad. Address: Hajduk Veljkova 3, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; Telephone: (+381) 021 420 677 E mail: nina.brkic-jovanovic@mf.uns.ac.rs Dr. Dubravka Kuščević, dr. Marija Brajčić, Nikolina Tomašević Medkulturnost pri pouku – učenčeve preference likovnih del Prejeto 10.09.2019 / Sprejeto 10.02.2020 Received 10.09.2019 / Accepted 10.02.2020 Znanstveni članek Scientific paper UDK 37.015.31:7:316.7 UDC 37.015.31:7:316.7 KLJUČNE BESEDE: kultura, medkulturnost, prefe- KEYWORDS: culture, interculturalism, preferences, rence, učenci students POVZETEK – Da bi otrok razvil pozitivni odnos ABSTRACT – In order for a child to develop positive do ljudi različnih kultur, je treba medkulturno ob- attitudes towards persons from different cultures, it is čutljivost spodbujati že od zgodnjega otroštva. Cilj necessary to promote intercultural sensitivity from an tega raziskovanja je bil preučiti preference učencev early age. The aim of this research was to examine stu- do japonske, kitajske, indijske in afriške umetnosti dents’ preferences for Japanese, Chinese, Indian, Afri- ter aboriginske umetnosti v povezavi z umetniškimi can and Aboriginal art, in relation to the artistic direc- usmeritvami zahodne kulture. Raziskava, v kateri je tions of Western culture. The study was conducted in sodelovalo 130 učencev, starih šest, deset in štirinajst one primary school and one preschool in Sinj, and in- let, je potekala v osnovni šoli ter v predšolski ustanovi volved 130 pupils aged six, ten and fourteen. We found v Sinju. Glede na rezultate raziskave je statistično po- that there are statistically significant influences of age memben vpliv starosti in kulture ter njune interakcije. and culture, as well as their interactions. In determin- Pri ugotavljanju razlik v preferencah otrok do likovne ing the differences in the children’s preferences in the umetnosti različnih kultur glede na spol smo ugotovi- fine arts of different cultures with regard to gender, it li, da v preferencah ni razlike med spoloma, vendar was determined that there were no differences between se dekleta in fantje znotraj skupin razlikujejo glede the genders as regards their preferences, but that the na preference do različnih likovnih umetnosti. Otroci girls and boys differed within the group according to imajo od umetnostnih smeri zahodne kulture raje re- their preferences for different fine arts. Of the Western nesanso kot realizem ter impresionizem kot realizem, cultural arts, children prefer Renaissance to Realism, predromaniko kot realizem, raje imajo barok, rene- Pre-Impressionism to Realism and Pre-Romanticism sanso, impresionizem in predromaniko kot abstraktne to Realism. They also prefer Baroque, Renaissance, umetnosti ter renesanso. Impressionism and Pre-Romanticism to abstract art, and prefer Renaissance to Baroque. 1 Uvod Svako ljudsko biće je vizualno biće. Naša vizualnost ogleda se u svakodnevnom životu, u svijetu koji nas okružuje. Paić (Paić, 2008) navodi kako je bit vizualnih komu- nikacija u interakciji suvremene informacijske tehnologije i vizualne kulture, što znači da su vizualne komunikacije rezultat društva i kulture odnosno da se u suvremenom društvu dogodio “slikovni zaokret”. U skladu s tim možemo govoriti o vizualnoj kon- strukciji kulture, a to znači da je “kultura kao slika zamijenila paradigmu kulture kao teksta” (Paić, 2008, str. 58). S obzirom da u suvremenom društvu prevladava “vizualno histerično okružje”, Huzjak (Huzjak, 2009) tvrdi da se vizualna kvaliteta treba ostvariti u likovno-umjetničkom djelu. Dr. Kuščević, dr. Brajčić, Tomašević: Medkulturnost pri pouku – učenčeve preference... 57 Komunicirajući s umjetničkim djelom, dijete razvija osjećaj za umjetnički lijepo, a na određen način i vlastiti ukus koji se može definirati kao “nedovoljno estetski razvije- na svijest o tome što je u umjetnosti dobro, a što nije” (Balić-Šimrak, Narančić-Kovač, 2011/2012, str. 11). Iste autorice navode da je potrebno razlikovati ono što je umjet- nički lijepo od onoga što je oku dopadljivo. Ono što je oku dopadljivo smatra se samo prihvatljivim te ne odgovara estetski razvijenom ukusu. Kako bi dijete razvilo likovni ukus, potrebno je pridati pažnju okruženju u kojem ono odrasta. Gledajući i doživljava- jući umjetnička djela učenici razvijaju estetski ukus te se susreću s različitim kulturama. Pojam interkulturalizma sve više susrećemo u suvremenom svijetu. To je pojam koji se “temelji na zamisli boljega i humanijega društva i budućnosti u kojem će rasizam i dominacija čovjeka nad čovjekom biti eliminirani” (Sablić, 2014, str. 12). Interkultu- ralizam podrazumijeva prihvaćanje, uvažavanje i suradnju među ljudima različitih kul- tura kako bismo naučili živjeti zajedno i u miru (Buterin i Jagić, 2013). Svijest o potrebi za interkulturalizmom treba stjecati i razvijati kod svakog čovjeka. To je neizostavna potreba koja se prirodno nameće u svakom društvu. To je svijest o tolerantnim oblici- ma ponašanja u svakodnevnom životu. Kako bi osvijestili nužnost interkulturalizma u suvremenom društvu, potrebno je krenuti od vrtića i škola. To znači da se kod svakog djeteta treba stvarati svijest o međukulturnim razlikama, ali i sličnostima te posebno- stima svake kulture. Kako bi dijete razvilo pozitivne stavove prema osobama različitih kultura, potrebno je već od rane dobi promicati interkulturalnu osviještenost (Pattnaik, 2003). Dijete u vrtiću započinje druženje sa širom grupom ljudi nego što je njegova obi- telj. To je početak procesa socijalizacije u kojem postoji mogućnost susreta i s ljudima koji ne pripadaju istoj kulturi kao i ono samo. Isto tako, dijete čija je kultura u manjini te dolazi u različitu sredinu, suočava se s različitim jezikom, običajima, navikama i slič- no. Stoga Perotti (1995) ističe važnost predškolskog odgoja te tvrdi da je to razdoblje u kojem mora započeti učenje djece da druge ljude trebaju doživljavati kao pojedince. Kroz obrazovanje, interkulturalizam ima zadaću pridonijeti i razvoju demokracije, za- štite ljudskih prava, suradnji, sigurnosti, miru, ali i osvijestiti nacionalni, jezični, vjerski i kulturni identitet pojedinca (Sekulić-Majurec, 1996). Kako bi to bilo uspješno prove- deno, Banks (prema Sablić, 2014) navodi pet dimenzija multikulturalnoga obrazova- nja. To su: integracija sadržaja, pedagogija jednakosti i pravednosti, izgradnja znanja, smanjenje predrasuda te osnaživanje školske kulture. Integracija sadržaja nam govori u kojoj mjeri treba koristiti materijale i sadržaje povezane s različitim kulturama, dok je pedagogija jednakosti i pravednosti usmjerena na prilagodbu nastavnikova poučavanja s obzirom na rasne, kulturne i socijalne razlike među učenicima. Kada govori o dimen- ziji izgradnje znanja, misli se na osviještenost o potrebi preispitivanja vlastitoga znanja i pogleda na svijet. Smanjenje predrasuda odnosi se na prilagodbu nastavnikovih mate- rijala i metoda poučavanja s ciljem mijenjanja stavova učenika o različitosti. Dimenzija koja govori o osnaživanju školske kulture naglašava potrebu za školom kao zajednicom u kojoj svaki pojedinac svojom različitošću pridonosi stvaranju školske kulture. Škola mora biti mjesto u kojem će se dijete naučiti nositi s izazovima koje svijet stavi pred njega, a to uključuje i prihvaćanje različitosti te solidarnost. U školi dijete treba naučiti suosjećati s onima koji su diskriminirani i čija su prava ugrožena, treba ojačati osjećaj solidarnosti. Stoga Perotti (1995) navodi komunikaciju kao sredstvo solidarnosti jer “najprimjereniji prostor solidarnosti upravo je komunikacijski sustav” (Perotti, 1995, str. 97). 58 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) Interkulturalizam treba provoditi kroz sve školske predmete. Kada govorimo o li- kovnoj kulturi, interkulturalizam je moguće provesti putem slika kroz koje nam različite etničke skupine i umjetnici iz različitih kultura šalju poruke. Također, vodeći učenike u muzeje i galerije na izložbe, utječemo na formiranje njihovih stavova o drugim ljudima (Sablić, 2014). Od iznimne je važnosti omogućiti učenicima susret s likovnim djelima iz različitih kultura, posebno onih s kojima se često ne susreću. Svaki autor ima svoju priču koju želi ispričati preko likovnog djela, a učenici trebaju doživjeti tu priču proma- trajući samo djelo. Učitelji im to mogu omogućiti na više načina, bilo reprodukcijom u razredu ili odlaskom na izložbu, a svaki način je dobar ukoliko služi promicanju me- đukulturne solidarnosti. Svi zajedno imamo jednaku odgovornost promicati vrijednosti interkulturalizma i učiti djecu da “nisu svi ljudi slični, nego je svaki čovjek različit.” (Ninčević, 2009, str. 60). Stoga ideju interkulturalizma trebamo osvijestiti kod svih lju- di, a najbolje je krenuti od djece. Svako dijete iskreno i neiskvareno prihvaća svakog čovjeka i to trebamo imati na umu kao polazište pri provedbi interkulturalizma u školi. Pojam preferencije obično se odnosi na stupanj sviđanja ili ne sviđanja pojedinog umjetničkog djela (Salkind i Salkind, 1997), a upravo su preferencije bile poticaj za nastanak ovoga rada jer smo pomoću stupnja preferiranja pojedinog umjetničkog djela željeli ispitati kako djeca u dobi od šest, deset i četrnaest godina reagiraju na djela ra- zličitih kultura. Osim što razvijaju osjećaj za umjetnički lijepo, komunicirajući s umjet- ničkim djelom djeca razvijaju i svoj odnos prema vremenu i kulturi kojoj djelo pripada. Odnos pojedinca prema umjetnosti i samom umjetničkom djelu se već dugo po- javljuje kao predmet istraživanja. Posljednjih trideset godina preferencije su u središtu mnogih socioloških istraživanja na području umjetnosti. Pojam preferencije obično se odnosi na stupanj sviđanja ili ne sviđanja pojedinog umjetničkog djela (Salkind i Sal- kind, 1997). Kao i sve što uključuje razumijevanje djetetova razvoja i aspekt estetike, preferencije mogu biti prilično složene. Upravo stoga, neki autori definiraju preferenci- je kao osobni fenomen koji ne ovisi o razvojnoj fazi pojedinca, ali je uvjetovan prethod- nim iskustvima, iskustvima učenja, socijalizacijom, kulturnim vrijednostima te zrelošću (Salkind i Salkind, 1997, str. 2). Kada govorimo o preferencijama u likovnoj umjetnosti, mnogi znanstvenici su uspjeli povezati određene kriterije sa stupnjem sviđanja nekog djela ili pak umjetnič- kog pravca. Tako Chamorro-Premuzic i sur. (2008) navode istraživanja u kojima je istaknuta povezanost preferencija s inteligencijom, spolom, dobi, razinom obrazovanja, ekstraverzijom itd. Razlike u preferencijama posebno možemo povezati s Petofaktor- skim modelom ličnosti. “Model “Velikih pet’’ baziran je na leksičkoj hipotezi, tj. na pretpostavci da se lič- nost najbolje može opisati terminima iz jezika” (Marić, 2010, str. 40). Ovaj model čine dimenzije ličnosti definirane kao ekstravertiranost, ugodnost, savjesnost, neuroticizam i otvorenost prema iskustvu. Chamorro-Premuzic i sur. (2008) su povezali ovih pet di- menzija s preferencijama u likovnoj umjetnosti. Tako za osobe otvorene prema iskustvu navode da su više usmjerene i angažirane oko likovnih aktivnosti i događaja, za razliku od osoba s niskim stupnjem otvorenosti. To potvrđuje i Wiersema (2011) tvrdeći da je otvorenost prema iskustvu najsnažniji preduvjet za sklonost umjetnosti te da takve osobe poštuju umjetnost, znatiželjne su, kreativne te imaju neobične ideje. Za osobe koje karakterizira ekstravertiranost, navode da su i pozitivno i negativno povezane sa sposobnošću prosuđivanja djela, ali iznimno cijene estetsku kvalitetu djela te preferira- Dr. Kuščević, dr. Brajčić, Tomašević: Medkulturnost pri pouku – učenčeve preference... 59 ju više djela s prepoznatljivim motivom. Savjesnost je povezana s preferiranjem umjet- ničkih djela s prepoznatljivim motivom te s manjim preferiranjem pop arta i apstraktne umjetnosti. Savjesne osobe su konvencionalne, staložene i samodisciplinirane, ne rea- giraju impulzivno i usmjerene su ka cilju. Međutim, stupanj sklonosti prema umjetnosti je nizak (Wiersema, 2011). Ugodnost je također povezana s preferiranjem umjetničkih djela s prepoznatljivim motivom te s manjim preferiranjem pop arta. Osim toga, osobe koje karakterizira ova dimenzija općenito manje sudjeluju u likovnim aktivnostima, ali posebno cijene estetiku samoga djela. Chamorro-Premuzic i sur. neuroticizam povezuju s preferiranjem apstraktne umjetnosti i pop arta. Također, nekoliko istraživanja je po- tvrdilo da žene imaju veći stupanj neuroticizma od muškaraca (prema Archbell i Stan- ge, 2012). Salkind i Salkind (1997) navode da preferencije, među ostalim, ovise i o mogućnostima pohađanja kvalitetne nastave likovne kulture, posjeta muzejima, sudje- lovanja na radionicama, stjecanju iskustva na putovanjima i slično. To su istraživali i Archbell i Stange (2012) te su zaključili da “izloženost umjetnosti”, obrazovanje i iskustvo s umjetničkim djelima utječu na preferencije, u ovom slučaju prema djelima s prepoznatljivim ili neprepoznatljivim motivom. Oni ističu važnost ove činjenice u procjeni preferencija jednako kao i važnost osobnosti pojedinca. Na sklonost prema umjetnosti utječu različite aktivnosti, na primjer, “posjećuje li osoba moderne muzeje ili arheološke, gleda li znanstveno-fantastične filmove ili romantične komedije, čita li trilere ili poeziju, gleda li klasični balet ili suvremeni ples itd.” (Wiersema, 2011, str. 8). Općenito uzevši, najčešće su preferirana ona djela s prepoznatljivim motivom čemu uzrok može biti utjecaj poznatosti, a samim time i pojedinčeva iskustva. Utjecaj pozna- tosti na preferencije potvrdila su mnoga istraživanja Cantor 1969, Bradbury 1975, Hutt, Forrest i Newton 1976 (prema Kuščević i sur., 2014). Kerlavege navodi da djeca predš- kolske i rane školske dobi pozitivno reagiraju na prikaz njima dragih i poznatih motiva, tj. bitno im je što je prikazano, a ne kako (prema Kuščević i sur., 2014). Prema istraživanju Kuščević, Kardum i Brajčić (2014) učenici bez obzira na dob i spol preferiraju umjetničke pravce prije 1900. te ona djela koja pripadaju 20. stoljeću. Također, preferiraju djela s prepoznatljivim figurativnim temama te ona s visokim stup- njem realizma. Osim toga, više su skloni preferiranju djela koja prikazuju ono što im je poznato te u kojima nije narušen prirodni prikaz stvarnosti. Kako navodi Selaković (2015), reakcija učenika nižih razreda na umjetnička djela ovisi o samim mogućnostima doživljavanja tih dijela od strane učenika. Također, i Gardner navodi (prema Selaković, 2015) da postoje razvojne faze unutar kojih djeca doživljavaju umjetnička djela, a te faze ovise o kognitivnom i emocionalnom razvoju djece i slične su onima koje opisuje Jean Piaget. Znanstvenici se ne mogu složiti o točnim obilježjima pojedine faze, ali sla- žu se u činjenici da na preferencije predškolske djece najviše utječu tema i boja. Prema Kerlavage (1995), djeca predškolskog uzrasta najviše preferiraju apstraktna djela zbog toga što još nemaju razvijenu sposobnost razlikovanja simbola. Naime, oni reagiraju intuitivno prema djelima privlačnih boja, ali ne mogu objasniti zašto su izabrali baš to djelo. U konkretnoj fazi razvoja djeca mogu objasniti izbor pojedinog likovnog djela, a preferiraju ona s višim stupnjem realizma. U ekspresivnoj fazi djeca mogu obrazložiti razlog izbora i to na temelju ekspresivnih i umjetničkih obilježja, točnije, shvaćaju da je cilj umjetničkog djela izraziti osjećaj, a ne prikazati stvarnost (Kuščević, 2015). Razlike u preferencijama između dječaka i djevojčica posebno su značajne za uči- telje koji poučavaju likovne sadržaje. Naime, i dječaci i djevojčice dio su likovnog 60 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) obrazovanja te bi svaka razlika u preferencijama s obzirom na spol trebala biti izvor razumijevanja kako unaprijediti umjetničke pristupe za ove dvije grupe (Salkind i Sal- kind, 1997). Istraživanja o povezanosti preferencija i spola su različita. Ona istraživanja u kojima su razlike u preferencijama između muškaraca i žena vidljive, uglavnom se odnose na sadržaj umjetničkog djela. Prema Furnham i Walker (2001), muškarci više preferiraju pop art, djela s prepoznatljivim motivima te djela japanske umjetnosti (Cha- morro-Premuzic i sur, 2008), dok u nekim drugim istraživanjima (McManus, 2006), takve razlike nisu pronađene. Žene više od muškaraca preferiraju djela s neprepoznat- ljivim motivom (Furnham i Walker, 2001). Prema McManusu (2006) možemo očekivati estetske razlike prema spolu i u bio- loškom i u psiho-socijalnom smislu. Međutim, u svojim istraživanjima McManus nije pronašao značajne korelacije između muškaraca i žena u razlici preferiranja umjetnič- kih djela. Prema istraživanju Kuščević, Kardum i Brajčić (2014), i djevojčice i dječaci jednako preferiraju umjetničke pravce 20. stoljeća, osim nadrealizma koji se više sviđa dječacima. Autori su to objasnili time da su dječaci naviknuti na neobično te ih nadrea- lizam asocira na akciju i opasnost. Vizualno-prostorne sposobnosti su također povezane s preferencijama. Stoga Salkind i Salkind (1997) povezuju promatranje umjetničkog djela s promatranjem okoline, tj. pronalazak vizualnih tragova i njihovo interpretiranje događa se i u svakodnevnom životu promatranjem onog što nas okružuje, ali i tijekom promatranja umjetničkog djela. Time se može objasniti i razlika u preferencijama iz- među dječaka i djevojčica. Naime, poznato je da su dječaci od rane dobi skloniji igri povezanoj s prostornom orijentacijom, kao i s različitim konstrukcijama. S druge strane, djevojčice su sklonije socijalnim interakcijama koje uključuju igranje lutkama ili igre u manjim skupinama. Stoga su kod djevojčica manje izražene vizualno-prostorne spo- sobnosti. Dakle, dječaci su u prednosti kada govorimo o matematičkim sposobnostima i prostornoj orijentaciji, a djevojčice kada govorimo o verbalnim i literarnim sposob- nostima. Ovu činjenicu treba uzeti u obzir i svaki nastavni plan i program, tj. individu- alnost učenika treba biti prioritet. Program treba ostvariti svrhu pomaganja dječacima u razvijanju verbalnih sposobnosti te djevojčicama u razvijanju vizualno-prostornih (Salkind i Salkind, 1997). Istraživanje Childa govori da je moguće utjecati na estetske kriterije kod vrjednova- nja umjetničkog djela kod učenika osnovnoškolske dobi, ali da onaj iskreni stav djece ostaje isti u odnosu na njihove osobne preferencije koje su usko povezane s uzrastom. (prema Selaković, 2015) 2 Metodologija 2.1 Cilj, zadatci i hipoteze istraživanja Cilj ovoga istraživanja je ispitati preferencije učenika četvrtog i osmog razreda te djece predškolskog uzrasta prema umjetnostima različitih kultura, točnije, preferenci- je prema afričkoj, indijskoj, kineskoj i japanskoj umjetnosti te umjetnosti Aboridžina. Osim povezanosti preferencija s obzirom na uzrast djece, ispitat ćemo i jesu li prefe- rencije povezane s obzirom na spol djeteta, a također ćemo ispitati i koji umjetnički Dr. Kuščević, dr. Brajčić, Tomašević: Medkulturnost pri pouku – učenčeve preference... 61 pravac zapadne kulture djeca najviše preferiraju. Kako bi navedeni cilj realizirali, pro- vest ćemo empirijsko istraživanje na tri navedene skupine učenika, a pokazivat ćemo im ista umjetnička djela te prema tome promatrati njihove preferencije. To će od djece zahtijevati vrjednovanje svakog prikazanog djela na ljestvici procjene. Djela će biti prikazivana u parovima u kojima je uvijek jedno djelo iz zapadne kulture, a drugo iz prethodno navedenih kultura. Postavljeni zadatci istraživanja su: □ ispitati postoje li razlike u preferencijama djece prema likovnim umjetno- stima različitih kultura s obzirom na uzrast □ ispitati postoje li razlike u preferencijama djece prema likovnim umjetno- stima različitih kultura s obzirom na spol □ ispitati koji umjetnički pravac zapadne kulture djeca najviše preferiraju U skladu s formuliranim ciljem i zadatcima istraživanja postavili smo sljedeće hi- poteze: □ Hipoteza 1: Pretpostavljamo da će postojati razlike u preferencijama djece prema likovnim umjetnostima različitih kultura s obzirom na uzrast. □ Hipoteza 2: Pretpostavljamo da će postojati razlike u preferencijama djece prema likovnim umjetnostima različitih kultura s obzirom na spol. □ Hipoteza 3: Pretpostavljamo da će djeca najviše preferirati umjetnička djela realizma. 2.2 Sudionici istraživanja Istraživanje je provedeno u Sinju na uzorku od 130 djece (M = 65, Ž = 65) četvrtih i osmih razreda osnovne škole te predškolskog uzrasta (Tablica 1). Istraživanje je pro- vedeno u razdoblju od 22. veljače do 4. ožujka 2016. godine. Tablica 1. Struktura uzorka (N = 130) Dob N % 6 40 30,8 10 40 30,8 14 50 38,5 Ukupno 130 100,0 2.3 Instrument i postupak istraživanja Istraživanje kod učenika četvrtih i osmih razreda provedeno je na način da je učeni- cima na ekranu prikazano trideset umjetničkih djela u parovima. U paru su uvijek jedno djelo zapadne kulture (realizam, impresionizam, renesansa, predromanika, barokna i apstraktna umjetnost) i jedno djelo ostalih kultura (afrička, indijska, kineska, japanska i umjetnost Aboridžina). Kod djece predškolskog uzrasta istraživanje je provedeno indi- vidualno s istim redoslijedom djela kao i kod učenika četvrtog i osmog razreda. 62 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) Učenicima je rečeno da nakon što pogledaju svaki prikazani par, trebaju zaokružiti koje im se djelo više sviđa (A ili B) te oba ocijeniti na skali od 1 do 5 gdje 1 znači uopće mi se ne sviđa, a 5 jako mi se sviđa. Djeca predškolskog uzrasta umjesto brojeva od 1 do 5, birali su “smajliće”, a u skladu s pokazanim “smajlićem”, ispitivač je zaokruživao odgovarajući broj. Vrijeme promatranja bilo je 20 sekundi, a učenicima je rečeno da pokušaju “što brže ocijeniti svako djelo”. Učenici su stupanj sviđanja određivali na sljedećim djelima: Likovna djela različitih kultura □ Japanska umjetnost: Hiroshige, Moonlight view of Tuskada with Lady on a balcony, 1850; Ito Shinsui, Gifu paper lantern, 1930; Kiyotaka Kaburagi, Scarlet Peach, 1909. □ Kineska umjetnost: Shitao, Self portrait, 1674; Emperor Huizong: Women prepai- ring silk, 1100; Chen Hongshou, Self portrait (detail), 1635. □ Afrička umjetnost: Mask (Kifwebe), DR Congo 19.–20. st.; Helmet Mask, Camero- on, prije 1880; Marionette: Female, Nigeria, 19 st. □ Indijska umjetnost: Raja Ravi Varma, Painting of the Goddess Saraswati, 1896; Raja Ravi Varma Lakshmi, the Goddess of wealth, 1906; Raja Ravi Varma, Arjuna and Subharda, 1890. □ Umjetnost Aboridžina: Bark Painting, Australia, Ingura people; Kangaroo Drea- ming, Australia; The Aboriginal Tree of Life, Australia. Likovna djela zapadne umjetnosti Pod likovnim djelima zapadne umjetnosti podrazumijevali smo umjetnička djela različitih stilova i likovnih pravaca te različitih vremenskih razdoblja. Neka su likovna djela tipični predstavnici stila dok smo pod drugim likovnim djelima podrazumijevali način izražavanja koji više ili manje odstupa od realnog načina prikazivanja. Tako smo pod pojmom realizam pokazali one likovne radove zapadne umjetnosti koji vrlo zorno očituju realnost u svom izričaju bez obzira na vrijeme nastanka djela, dok smo pod poj- mom apstraktna umjetnost izabrali radove koji imaju odmak od figuracije, dakle neka se djela ne odnose samo likovni pravac već na način prikazivanja. Učenicima su prezentirana sljedeća likovna djela: □ apstraktna umjetnost: Kandinsky, W., Untitled, 1910; Matisse H., The Snail, 1953; Miro, J., The Red Disk, 1960; Moore, H. Family group, 1948–1949; □ impresionizam: Renoir, P. A., Romaine Lascux, 1864; Monet, C., Victor Jacquemont Holding a Parasol, 1865; realizam: Marc, F., Portrait of Artist’s Mother, 1902; Picasso, P., Portrait of artist’s mother, 1896; Meštrović, I., My Mother, 1883; Millet, J. F., The Gleaners, 1857; □ renesansa: Botticelli, S., Madonna of the Rosegarden, 1469; Mantegna, A., Madonna with Child, 1475; Masaccio, T., Madonna with Child and Saint Ana, 1420–1424; □ barok: Murillo, B. E., The Young Beggar, 1650; □ predromanika: hrvatska predromanička umjetnost, Reljef s likom kralja iz Splitske krstionice. Dr. Kuščević, dr. Brajčić, Tomašević: Medkulturnost pri pouku – učenčeve preference... 63 3 Rezultati i diskusija Hipoteza 1: Pretpostavljamo da će postojati razlike u preferencijama djece prema likovnim umjetnostima različitih kultura s obzirom na uzrast. Kako bismo utvrdili postoji li statistički značajna razlika u preferencijama prema likovnim umjetnostima s obzirom na različite kulture umjetnosti i uzrast djece, prove- dena je dvosmjerna analiza varijance za nezavisne uzorke (Tablica 2 i Tablica 3). Rezultati su pokazali da postoji statistički značajan utjecaj uzrasta i kulture kao i njihove interakcije. Za post-hoc ispitivanje je korišten Scheffeov test koji je pokazao da postoje sljedeće značajne razlike: razlika s obzirom na uzrast djece postoji samo između šestogodišnjaka i četrnaestogodišnjaka u preferencijama baroka s tim da ga četrnaesto- godišnjaci više preferiraju od šestogodišnjaka. Nadalje, jedino kod četrnaestogodišnjaka postoje značajne razlike u preferencijama i to su: više preferiraju renesansu od umjetnosti Aboridžina, apstraktne umjetnosti, ki- neske umjetnosti i afričke umjetnosti; više preferiraju barok od apstraktne umjetnosti; više preferiraju indijsku od afričke umjetnosti; više preferiraju barok od kineske umjet- nosti te, konačno, više preferiraju barok od afričke umjetnosti. Time je ova hipoteza potvrđena. Sve ostale razlike u preferencijama likovnih um- jetnosti različitih kultura su statistički neznačajne, odnosno djeca se ne razlikuju u nji- hovim preferencijama, jednako ih preferiraju. Tablica 2. Deskriptivni parametri preferencija šestogodišnjaka (N = 40), desetogodiš- njaka (N = 40) i četrnaestogodišnjaka (N = 50) prema likovnim umjetnosti- ma različitih kultura Šestogodišnjaci Desetogodišnjaci Četrnaestogodišnjaci M SD M SD M SD Japanska umjetnost 3.74 0.78 3.91 0.57 3.34 0.70 Realizam 3.11 0.88 4.08 0.52 3.42 0.84 Umjetnost aboridžina 3.53 0.92 4.08 0.78 3.15 0.98 Apstraktna umjetnost 3.30 0.76 3.66 0.71 2.95 0.64 Renesansa 3.75 0.77 4.68 0.43 4.41 0.58 Indijska umjetnost 3.63 0.87 4.36 0.62 3.91 0.67 Barok 3.05 1.41 4.28 0.85 4.26 0.75 Kineska umjetnost 3.38 0.86 3.94 0.51 3.09 0.75 Impresionizam 3.83 1.07 4.58 0.62 3.78 1.04 Afrička umjetnost 3.48 0.91 3.73 0.75 2.75 0.92 Predromanika 3.75 1.33 4.48 0.72 3.62 1.12 64 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) Tablica 3. Rezultati testiranja značajnosti razlika dvosmjernom analizom varijance u preferencijama prema likovnim umjetnostima s obzirom na različite kulture umjetnosti i uzrast djece Izvor varijabiliteta SS df MS F p BS 19640.20 1 19640.20 Uzrast 127.81 2 63.91 91.61 0.00* Kultura 130.75 10 13.08 18.74 0.00* Interakcija uzrast-kultura 75.12 20 3.76 5.38 0.00* Pogreška 974.52 1397 0.70 Napomena: * Razina statističke značajnosti je 5 % (p < 0.05) Mnoga istraživanja o utjecaju uzrasta na preferencije pokazuju kako uzrast utječe na stupanj sviđanja pojedinog umjetničkog pravca. Prema Archbell i sur. (2012), to je potvrđeno u istraživanju Furnham i Walker (2001a) te Chamorro-Premuzic (2009) gdje se pokazalo da preferencije pozitivno koreliraju s dobi ispitanika. Međutim, u nekim istraživanjima se pokazalo da nema razlike u preferencijama s obzirom na dob. Na primjer, u istraživanju Kuščević, Kardum i Brajčić (2014) ispitivane su preferencije učenika prema djelima 20. stoljeća te je utvrđeno da nema razlike s obzirom na uzrast učenika. Također, u istraživanju Salkind i Salkind (1997) pokazalo se da nema razlike u preferencijama s obzirom na dob. Neki znanstvenici tvrde da preferencije ne ovise o razvojnim procesima, nego su određene prethodnim iskustvima, iskustvima tijekom ob- razovanja, o socijalizaciji, kulturnim vrijednostima, prilikama za posjećivanje muzeja, za odlaske na putovanja i slično (Salkind i Salkind, 1997). Isti autori stoga navode da pomoću dobi možemo nešto opisati, ali ne i objasniti. Hipoteza 2: Pretpostavljamo da će postojati razlike u preferencijama djece prema likovnim umjetnostima različitih kultura s obzirom na spol. Kako bismo se utvrdilo postoji li statistički značajna razlika u preferencijama pre- ma likovnim umjetnostima s obzirom na različite kulture i spol djece, provedena je dvosmjerna analiza varijance za nezavisne uzorke (Tablica 4 i Tablica 5). Rezultati su pokazali da postoji statistički značajan utjecaj kulture te interakcije kulture i spola dok ne postoji značajan utjecaj spola. Drugim riječima, razlike između spolova u preferencijama ne postoje, već se djevojčice i dječaci razlikuju unutar grupa prema preferencijama različitih likovnih umjetnosti. Za post-hoc ispitivanje je korišten Scheffeov test koji je pokazao da postoje sljedeće značajne razlike: □ djevojčice se razlikuju u sljedećim preferencijama → više preferiraju re- nesansu od apstraktne umjetnosti, kineske umjetnosti i afričke umjetnosti; više preferiraju impresionizam od afričke umjetnosti; □ dječaci se razlikuju u samo jednoj preferenciji → više preferiraju renesan- su od apstraktne umjetnosti. Sve ostale razlike u preferencijama likovnih umjetnosti različitih kultura su statistički neznačajne, odnosno djeca se ne razlikuju u njihovim preferencijama, jednako ih preferiraju. Stoga odbacujemo ovu hipotezu. Dr. Kuščević, dr. Brajčić, Tomašević: Medkulturnost pri pouku – učenčeve preference... 65 Tablica 4. Deskriptivni parametri preferencija dječaka (N = 65) i djevojčica (N = 65) prema likovnim umjetnostima različitih kultura Djevojčice Dječaci M SD M SD Japanska umjetnost 3.72 0.71 3.55 0.74 Realizam 3.43 0.88 3.62 0.84 Umjetnost aboridžina 3.44 1.05 3.66 0.88 Apstraktna umjetnost 3.33 0.73 3.21 0.77 Renesansa 4.33 0.72 4.24 0.71 Indijska umjetnost 4.07 0.65 3.86 0.88 Barok 4.11 0.90 3.68 1.35 Kineska umjetnost 3.32 0.80 3.57 0.79 Impresionizam 4.22 0.88 3.85 1.09 Afrička umjetnost 3.21 0.92 3.34 0.99 Predromanika 3.94 1.03 3.91 1.25 Tablica 5. Rezultati testiranja značajnosti razlika dvosmjernom analizom varijance u preferencijama prema likovnim umjetnostima s obzirom na različite kulture umjetnosti i spol djece Izvor varijabiliteta SS df MS F p BS 19686 1 19686 Spol 1.20 1 1.20 1.46 0.22 Kultura 143.51 10 14.35 17.44 0.00* Interakcija spol-kultura 17.93 10 1.79 2.18 0.02* Pogreška 1158.32 1408 0.82 Napomena: * Razina statističke značajnosti je 5 % (p < 0.05) Neka istraživanja pokazuju razlike među spolovima kada je riječ o preferencijama dok većina istraživanja ne potvrđuje tu pretpostavku. U istraživanju vizualnih preferen- cija učenika nižih razreda Kuščević, Kardum i Brajčić (2014) došli su do zaključka da dječaci i djevojčice jednako preferiraju djela 20. stoljeća, a iznimka je jedino nadreali- zam kojeg više preferiraju dječaci. To je objašnjeno činjenicom da dječaci imaju osjećaj za trodimenzionalnost prostora, a također su se sa sličnim prikazima susretali i u crtanim filmovima, igračkama te im je takav prikaz već poznat. U istraživanju Salkind i Salkind (1997) pokazalo se da razlike među dječacima i djevojčicama postoje te se odnose na to da dječaci više preferiraju kompleksnost i asimetričnost, dok se djevojčicama više sviđa linearani stil. Također, istraživanje koje su proveli Chamorro-Premuzic i Burke (2010) o preferencijama s obzirom na složenost umjetničkoga djela, žene preferiraju impresio- nizam te jednostavne prikaze bogate bojama, dok muškarci preferiraju složene prikaze s geometrijskim elementima te tužnoga ugođaja. 66 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) Hipoteza 3: Pretpostavljamo da će djeca najviše preferirati umjetnička djela realizma. Kako bismo utvrdilo postoji li statistički značajna razlika u preferencijama prema umjetničkim pravcima zapadne kulture provedena je jednosmjerna analiza varijance za zavisne uzorke (Tablica 6 i Tablica 7). Rezultati su pokazali da postoji statistički značajan utjecaj vrste umjetničkog prav- ca zapadne kulture na preferencije likovnih umjetnosti. Za post-hoc ispitivanje je ko- rišten Scheffeov test koji je pokazao da postoje značajne razlike za neke umjetničke pravce. Kod sve djece postoje razlike u preferenciji sljedećih likovnih umjetnosti: više preferiraju renesansu od realizma više preferiraju impresionizam od realizma, više pre- feriraju predromaniku od realizma, više preferiraju barok, renesansu, impresionizam i predromaniku od apstraktne umjetnosti, te više preferiraju renesansu od baroka. Sve ostale razlike su neznačajne te postavljenu hipotezu odbacujemo. Tablica 6. Deskriptivni parametri preferencija djece (N = 130) prema različitim likov- nim umjetničkim pravcima zapadne kulture Umjetnički pravac M SD Realizam 3.53 0.86 Apstraktna umjetnost 3.27 0.75 Renesansa 4.29 0.71 Barok 3.89 1.16 Impresionizam 4.04 0.99 Predromanika 3.92 1.15 Tablica 7. Rezultati testiranja značajnosti razlika jednosmjernom analizom varijance u preferencijama prema različitim likovnim umjetničkim pravcima zapadne kulture (N = 130) Izvor varijabiliteta SS df MS F p BS 11403.60 1 11403.60 Umjetnički pravac zapadne kulture 87.14 5 17.43 19.09 0.00* Pogreška 706.67 774 0.91 Napomena: * Razina statističke značajnosti je 5 % (p < 0.05) Preferencije realizma u odnosu na druge umjetničke pravce posebno su značajne kod učenika nižih razreda jer potvrđeno je i brojnim istraživanjima da djeca preferiraju djela s većim stupnjem realizma. Većina istraživanja ističe stupanj realizma u djelu kao jednu od odrednica za preferiranje samoga djela. U istraživanju Whitea i Johnsona (prema Kuščević i sur., 2014) ispitivane su preferencije predškolske djece prema razli- čitim djelima impresionizma i realizma, a rezultati su pokazali da djeca ovog uzrasta više preferiraju realizam. Istraživanje Rumpa i Southgatea (1971) pokazalo je da djeca u dobi od sedam, jedanaest i petnaest godina preferiraju djela koja realistično prikazuju Dr. Kuščević, dr. Brajčić, Tomašević: Medkulturnost pri pouku – učenčeve preference... 67 njihovo okruženje. Na pretpostavku da će djeca više preferirati realistična djela utječe i činjenica da u tim djelima jasno vide motiv, a posebno ako je motiv djeci poznat ili pak blizak. Više istraživanja potvrdilo je utjecaj poznatosti na djetetov kriterij odabira. Također, Gardner (1981) je potvrdio da djeca školske dobi bolji prikaz stvarnosti ocje- njuju većom ocjenom, dok odstupanje od stvarnosti smatraju “glupim i smiješnim”. Salkind i Salkind (1997) ističu realizam kao kriterij koji se odnosi na sva umjetnička djela, bez obzira na kulturu kojoj pripadaju. 4 Zaključak Život u svijetu prepunom različitih vizualnih podražaja, utječe na naš ukus i stupanj preferencije viđenog. Promatrajući likovno djelo, dijete komunicira s umjetnikom, a također se upoznaje i s vremenom u kojem je ono nastalo te produbljuje svoje shvaćanje svijeta. Osim toga, svako umjetničko djelo u djetetu pobuđuje njegov vlastiti, unutarnji svijet. Odnos pojedinca prema umjetnosti je individualan i specifičan. Stoga su prefe- rencije zanimljivo polazište brojnim istraživanjima. Prema rezultatima ovog istraživanja, postoji statistički značajan utjecaj uzrasta i kulture kao i njihove interakcije. Postoje razlike u preferencijama između šestogodiš- njaka i četrnaestogodišnjaka, a kod četrnaestogodišnjaka nalazimo također i statistički značajne razlike u preferencijama prema umjetnostima različitih kultura i zapadne kul- ture. U utvrđivanju razlika u preferencijama djece prema likovnim umjetnostima razli- čitih kultura s obzirom na spol utvrdili smo kako razlike između spolova u preferencija- ma ne postoje, već se djevojčice i dječaci razlikuju unutar grupa prema preferencijama različitih likovnih umjetnosti. Ukoliko želimo djecu upoznati s umjetničkim izričajem različitih kultura potrebno je djecu dovesti u doticaj sa umjetnošću različitih naroda jer vidimo kako djeca dobro prihvaćaju takva likovna djela. Dubravka Kuščević, PhD, Marija Brajčić, PhD, Nikolina Tomašević Interculturalism in Teaching – Pupils’ Preferences for Art Works In order for children to develop a positive attitude towards people of different cul- tures, it is necessary to promote intercultural sensitivity from an early age. Observation of artworks in primary school should enable pupils to become familiar with works of different cultures. By watching and experiencing works of art, pupils learn about differ- ent cultures. Namely, a child who has been practising various artistic activities from an early age has had the opportunity to get acquainted with similar techniques and visual arts, and thus develop a sense of appreciation for the artistic values of the work he/she is observing. As the necessity of interculturalism in contemporary society has become clear, it is necessary to begin discussing it in kindergartens and schools. This means that every child should be aware of the intercultural differences, but also of the similari- ties and particularities of each culture. 68 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) Through education, interculturalism has the task of contributing to the development of democracy, the protection of human rights, cooperation, security and peace, as well as to awaken the national, linguistic, religious and cultural identity of an individual. Banks talks about the five dimensions of multicultural education. These are: integration of content, pedagogy of equality and justice, building knowledge, reducing prejudices, and empowering school culture. Content integration speaks to the extent to which materials and content associ- ated with different cultures should be used, while the pedagogy of equality and justice is geared towards adapting the teaching to the racial, cultural and social differences among pupils. The dimension of knowledge building concerns the awareness of the need to re-examine one’s own knowledge and views on the world. Reducing prejudice refers to the adaptation of teaching materials and teaching methods with the aim of changing the attitudes of pupils about diversity. The dimension that emphasizes the empowerment of school culture emphasizes the need for school as a community in which each individual contributes to the creation of school culture with his/her diversity. The school must be a place where the child will learn to cope with the challenges the world is facing, including the acceptance of diversity and solidarity. In school, the child needs to learn to sympathize with those who are discriminated and whose rights are endangered; a sense of solidarity needs to be strengthened. Interculturalism should be implemented across all school subjects. In the case of art culture, interculturalism can be implemented through artworks of different ethnic groups and artists from different cultures. It is of utmost importance to provide pupils with artworks from different cultures, especially those they do not often encounter. Each author has his/her own story that he/she wants to elucidate through the artwork, and pupils need to experience that story by looking at the work alone. Teachers can do this in many ways, either by using a reproduction in classroom or by going to an art exhibi- tion; either way is good if it serves to promote intercultural solidarity. The idea of inter- culturalism should be promoted among all people, and it is best to start with children. Every child honestly and inevitably accepts every person, and we should keep this in mind as a starting point for the implementation of interculturalism in school. Preferences as a degree of liking a particular piece of art can also be seen as indi- vidual differences based on personality traits. Art is part of the everyday life of every human being and as such is exposed to the estimates of individuals. We all express our own preferences, from a child to an elderly man. Hence, they are the starting point for many research studies and catch the attention of many scientists. Although the research either shows or does not show differences in age- or gender-related preferences, an important point we must keep in mind is the individuality of each person which predates our personality, and thus our preferences. When we talk about preferences in art, many scientists have been able to link cer- tain criteria to the degree of liking an artwork or art style. In these studies, preferences are linked to intelligence, gender, age, education level, extraversion, etc. Differences in preferences can be linked specifically to the Fifth Factor Personality Model. This model defines five dimensions of personality as extraversion, comfort, conscience, neuroticism and openness to experience. Dr. Kuščević, dr. Brajčić, Tomašević: Medkulturnost pri pouku – učenčeve preference... 69 Some authors associate these five dimensions with preferences in art. Thus, people who are open to experience say that they are more focused and engaged around visual arts and events, unlike those with a low degree of openness. Openness to experience is the most powerful precondition for liking art, and such a person respects art, is curious, creative and has unusual ideas. For persons characterized by extraversion, they state that it is both positively and negatively related to their ability to judge the work, but that they exemplarily estimate the aesthetic quality of the work and prefer more works with a recognizable motif. Consciousness is associated with the preference for artworks with recognizable motifs and with a lower preference for Pop art and abstract art. Conscientious people are conventional, pretentious and self-disciplined, do not react impulsively and focus on the goal. Openness is also associated with a preference for artworks with recognizable motifs and with a lower preference for artistic directions such as Pop art. In addition, people who are characterized by this dimension generally participate less in artistic activities, especially in terms of the aesthetics of the work itself. Some authors associate neuroticism with the preference for abstract art and Pop art. Also, several studies have confirmed that women have a higher degree of neuroticism than men. Some authors argue that preferences, among other things, depend on the pos- sibilities of attending quality art education courses, visiting museums, participating in workshops, acquiring travel experiences, and the like, and conclude that “art exposure”, education and experience with artworks affect preferences, in this case, for works with a recognizable or unrecognizable motif. They emphasize the importance of this fact in assessing preferences just as well as the importance of the individual’s personality. Generally speaking, works with a recognizable motif are often preferred, the cause of which can be the influence of familiarity, and hence the individual’s experience. The influence of popularity on preferences has been confirmed by many researchers, and some authors indicate that preschool and early-school-age children react positively to the presentation of motifs that are dear and well-known to them, that is to say, what is depicted rather than how. Differences in preferences between boys and girls are especially important for teachers teaching visual arts. Both boys and girls are part of the art education and every gender-related difference in preferences should be the source of understanding how to improve artistic approaches for these two groups. Research on the relationship between preference and gender varies. Those studies in which differences in preferences between men and women are visible, mainly refer to the content of the work of art. Ac- cording to some authors, men prefer Pop art, works with recognizable motifs and works of Japanese art, while in other studies, such differences have not been found. Some stud- ies have shown that women, more than men, prefer works with unrecognizable motifs. The aim of this study is to examine the preferences of fourth and eighth grade pupils and children of preschool age for the arts of different cultures, more precisely, prefer- ences for African, Indian, Chinese and Japanese art and Aboriginal art. In addition to age-related preferences, the influence of gender, and of the artistic orientation of Western culture, which pupils prefer most, were studied. In order to achieve this goal, an empirical study was carried out with the three aforementioned groups of pupils. All the groups were shown the same works of art. The pupils evaluated each piece of art on a scale, and the artworks were shown in pairs in which there was always one work from Western culture and another from the aforementioned cultures. 70 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) The study was conducted in one primary school and one preschool in Sinj, in which 130 pupils, aged six, ten, and fourteen, participated. The results showed that there is a statistically significant influence of age and culture, as well as their interaction. There are, also, differences in preferences between pupils aged 6 and 14, and when we consider 14-year-olds, there are statistically significant differences in preferences for art periods of different cultures. Also, there is no statistically significant difference in preferences between boys and girls, but that varies within each group. When we consider the art peri- ods of European culture, pupils prefer Renaissance, Impressionism and pre-Romanesque to Realism; they prefer Baroque, Renaissance, Impressionism and pre-Romanesque to abstract art, and Renaissance to Baroque. Also, it was concluded that the highest per- centage of examinees visit museums, galleries or exhibitions with their parents, while a certain percentage of them have never been to a museum, gallery or exhibition. If we want children to get acquainted with the artistic expression of different cul- tures, it is necessary to bring them in touch with the art of different nations, because children accept such works of art. In this way, we will show them the importance of their own culture, but also awaken in them a sense of respect for other cultures. LITERATURA 1. Archbell, K., Stange, K. (2012). Relationship of Personality to Preference for Representational Versus Non-representational Art. Ontario, Canada: Nipissing University. 2. Balić-Šimrak, A., Narančić-Kovač, S. (2011). Likovni aspekti ilustracije u dječjim knjigama i slikovnicama. Dijete, vrtić i obitelj, br. 66. 3. Buterin, M., Jagić, S. (2013). Školovanje i kulturalni pluralizam – stavovi srednjoškolskih uče- nika. Školski vjesnik 62, 2–3, str. 175–190. 4. Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Burke, C. (2010). Personality Predictors of Artistic Preferences as a Function of the Emotional Valence and Perceived Complexity of Paintings. Psychology of Ae- sthetics, Creativity, and the Arts. Vol. 4, No. 4, str. 196–204. Pridobljeno dne 01.07.2019 s svetovnega spleta: http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/aca/4/4/196/. 5. Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Burke, C. (2010). Personality Predictors of Artistic Preferences as a Function of the Emotional Valence and Perceived Complexity of Paintings. Psychology of Ae- sthetics, Creativity, and the Arts. Vol. 4, No. 4, str. 196–204. Pridobljeno dne 10.07.2019 s svetovnega spleta: http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/aca/4/4/196/. 6. Furnham, A., Walker, J. (2001a). The influence of personality traits, previous experience of art, and demographic variables on artistic preference. Personality and Individual Differences, 31, str. 997–1017. Pridobljeno dne 02.07.2019 s svetovnega spleta: http://www.sciencedirect.com/ science/article/pii/S0191886900002026. 7. Gardner, H. (1981). Children’s perceptions of works of art: A developmental portrait. In D. O’Hare (Ed.), Psychology and the arts, str. 123–147. Brighton, Sussex: Atlantic Highlands. 8. Huzjak, M. (2009). Učimo gledati 1–4, Priručnik za učitelje. Zagreb: Školska knjiga. 9. Kerlavage, S.M. (1995). A bunch of naked ladies and a tiger: Children’s responses to adult works of art. In C. M. Thompson (ur)., The visual art and early childhood learning. Champaign, IL: National Art Education Association. 10. Kuščević, D. (2015). Likovno – umjetnička djela u nastavi likovne kulture. Zbornik radova Dani osnovne škole Splitsko-dalmatinske županije. Split: Filozofski fakultet. 11. Kuščević, D., Kardum, G., Brajčić, M. (2014). Visual Preferences of Young School Children for Paintings from the 20th Century. Creativity Research Journal, 26 (3), str. 297–304. 12. McManus, I. (2006). Measuring the culture of C. P. Snow’s two cultures. Empirical Studies of the Arts, 24, str. 219–227. Pridobljeno dne 02.07.2019 s svetovnega spleta: http://art.sagepub. com/content/24/2/219.full.pdf+html. Dr. Kuščević, dr. Brajčić, Tomašević: Medkulturnost pri pouku – učenčeve preference... 71 13. Marić, M. (2010). Osobine ličnosti, životni događaji i anksioznost adolescenata. Primijenjena psihologija. Novi Sad: Filozofski fakultet. Vol. 3, br. 1, str. 39–57. Pridobljeno dne 27.06.2019 s svetovnega spleta: http://digitalna.ff.uns.ac.rs/sites/default/files/db/books/2010, %20vol. %20 3, %20br. %201.pdf#page=35. 14. Ninčević, N. (2009). Interkulturalizam u odgoju i obrazovanju: drugi kao polazište. Nova pri- sutnost, Vol 7, br. 1, str. 59–84. 15. Pattnaik, J. (2003). Learning abouth the “Other”: Building a Case for Intercultural Under- standing among Minority Children. Childhood Education, 79:4, str. 204–211. Pridobljeno dne 20.06.2019 s svetovnega spleta: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00094056.2003. 10521194?journalCode=uced20. 16. Perotti, A. (1995). Pleodaje za interkulturalni odgoj i obrazovanje. Zagreb: Educa. 17. Sablić, M. (2014). Interkulturalizam u nastavi. Zagreb: Naklada Ljevak. 18. Salkind, L., Salkind, N. (1997). Gender and Age Differences in Preference for Works of Art. Studies in Art Education. Vol. 38, No. 4, str. 246–256. 19. Sekulić-Majurec, A. (1996). Interkulturalizam u odgoju i obrazovanju – osnova multikultural- nog društva. Obnovljeni život, 51, 6, str. 677–687. 20. Selaković, K. (2015). Umjetničko djelo u funkciji poticanja razvoja likovnih sposobnosti kod učenika mlađeg školskog uzrasta, doktorski rad. Novi Sad: Filozofski fakultet, Sveučilište u Novom Sadu. 21. Paić, Ž. (2008). Vizualne komunikacije – uvod. CVS – Centar za vizualne studije. 22. Rump, E.E., Southgate, V. (1971). Variables affecting aesthetic appreciation in relation to age. British Journal of Psychology, 61(1), str. 105–110. 23. Wiersema, D. (2011). Not just a matter of taste: Individual differences in aesthetic preferences. United Academics, Journal of Social Sciences: Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam. Dubravka Kuščević, PhD (1964), Assistant Professor, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Uni- versity of Split. Address: Spinčićeva 18, 21000 Split, Croatia; Telephone: (+385) 091 574 33 02 E-mail: kuscevic@ffst.hr Marija Brajčić, PhD (1961), Assistant Professor, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Split. Address: Gajeva 9, 21000 Split, Croatia; Telephone: (+385) 095 865 46 80 E-mail: mbrajcic@ffst.hr Nikolina Tomašević (1992), Elementary school teacher, Elementary school Ivana Lovrića, Sinj. Address: Serdara Tomaševića 47, 22230 Sinj, Croatia; Telephone: (+385) 099 501 02 54 E-mail: nikolina.tomasevic@skole.hr Dr. Jernej Kovač, Ljiljana Radovanović, dr. Marija Javornik Krečič Vključevanje šolskih svetovalnih delavcev v različne oblike supervizije Prejeto 11.09.2019 / Sprejeto 10.02.2020 Received 11.09.2019 / Accepted 10.02.2020 Znanstveni članek Scientific paper UDK 37:364-785+159.964 UDC 37:364-785+159.964 KLJUČNE BESEDE: šolski svetovalni delavci, indi- KEYWORDS: school counselors, individual supervi- vidualna supervizija, skupinska supervizija, timska sion, group supervision, team supervision, intervi- supervizija, intervizija sion POVZETEK – Šolski svetovalni delavci zaradi pogo- ABSTRACT – Owing to the frequent work overload ste preobremenitve na delovnem mestu, ki je rezultat because of continuous contact and work with people, nenehnega stika in dela z ljudmi, potrebujejo različne school counselors need various kinds of support. In oblike pomoči. V zadnjih letih se v Sloveniji vse bolj recent years, supervision has become an increas- uveljavlja supervizija kot metoda strokovne pomoči, s ingly common type of professional support. It helps katero udeleženci reflektirajo lastno delo, prepozna- the participants to reflect on their own work, identify vajo pomanjkljivosti v svojem delu, hkrati pa iščejo the shortcomings and find new strategies for further in spoznavajo nove strategije za nadaljnje delo. V work. To date, no studies have been carried out that Sloveniji do zdaj še ni bila izvedena raziskava, ki bi would investigate the inclusion of school counselors ugotavljala vključevanje šolskih svetovalnih delav- in various forms of supervision. The aim of the article cev v različne oblike supervizije. Namen prispevka is to research the inclusion of school counselors in je raziskati vključevanje šolskih svetovalnih delavcev supervision. The study first and foremost wanted to v supervizijo, kjer nas je predvsem zanimalo, katerih determine in which types of supervision school coun- oblik supervizije se šolski svetovalni delavci udele- selors participate and potential differences depend- žujejo in ali obstajajo razlike glede na izobrazbo in ing on their education and the institution for which ustanovo zaposlitve. Rezultati so pokazali, da se tisti they work. The results showed that school counselors šolski svetovalni delavci, ki se udeležujejo supervizi- mostly participate in group supervision; in contrast, je, po večini udeležujejo skupinske supervizije, indvi- individual supervision is used the least. The study dualna supervizija pa je nasprotno najmanj obiskana also showed that education and institutional back- oblika supervizije. Prav tako so se v raziskavi poka- ground also have an influence on the form of supervi- zale nekatere razlike v udeležbi supervizijskih oblik sion in which the counselors participate. glede na izobrazbo in ustanovo zaposlitve. 1 Uvod Delo šolskih svetovalnih delavcev je razgibano, psihično utrujajoče, stresno in predvsem nepredvidljivo, kajti pri svojem delu se srečujejo z raznolikimi situacijami, katerih rešitve vedno ne poznajo. Njihova temeljna naloga je sodelovanje pri oblikova- nju kakovostnega vsakdanjega življenja otrok, kar pa od njih zahteva ogromno energije, znanja in potrpežljivosti. Zaradi omenjenega lahko pride do razvoja slabše samopo- dobe, ki po mnenju T. Strniša in M. Juriševič (2018) usmerja naše razmišljanje o sebi in svetu, naše čustvovanje ter vpliva na odnose z drugimi, zato ima ključni pomen pri spoprijemanju s problemi in izzivi v življenju. Prav tako so svetovalni delavci zaradi Dr. Kovač, Radovanović, dr. Javornik Krečič: Vključevanje šolskih svetovalnih delavcev... 73 same dinamike dela pogostokrat podvrženi stresu. Stres na delovnem mestu predstavlja nadvse aktualno raziskovalno področje, saj se posledice prevelikih delovnih obremeni- tev pogosto odražajo v različnih težavah, ki se kažejo na telesnem in duševnem zdravju (Dolenc in Virag, 2019). Po Depolli Steiner (2016) lahko privede visoka stopnja dalj časa trajajočega stresa do izgorelosti, ki je še posebej značilna za poklice pomoči, med katere spada tudi delo šolskega svetovalnega delavca. Da bi lahko šolski svetovalni delavci svoje delo opravljali učinkovito ter kar se da poklicno in osebno kakovostno delovali, jim je pogostokrat potrebno nameniti strokovno pomoč. Vse bolj se kot učin- kovita metoda pomoči uveljavlja supervizija, ki šolskim svetovalnim delavcem omogo- ča profesionalno in osebnostno rast, predvsem pa psihično razbremenitev. V Sloveniji do danes ni bilo opravljene večje raziskave na temo vključevanja šolskih svetovalnih delavcev v različne oblike supervizije, zato s tem prispevkom zapolnjujemo omenjeno raziskovalno vrzel na področju šolskega svetovalnega dela. Prispevek je sestavljen iz dveh delov. V teoretičnem delu je podrobneje opredeljen pojem supervizija, sledi še podrobnejša predstavitev različnih supervizijskih oblik in prikaz nekaterih raziskav, ki se osredotočajo na vključevanje šolskih svetovalnih de- lavcev v supervizijski proces. V empiričnem delu uvodoma metodološko opredelimo raziskavo, sledi vrednotenje rezultatov o vključevanju šolskih svetovalnih delavcev v različne supervizijske oblike. Pri tem nas je zanimalo, v katere oblike supervizije se šolski svetovalni delavci vključujejo, in sicer v celoti, in obstoj razlik glede na njihovo izobrazbo in ustanovo zaposlitve (osnovna in srednja šola). Prispevek zaključujemo s sklepnimi ugotovitvami empirične raziskave in podaja- mo predloge za nadaljnje raziskave na področju šolskega svetovalnega dela. 1.1 Opredelitev pojma supervizija Začetki supervizije segajo v drugo polovico 19. stoletja in se dotikajo področja so- cialnega dela v ZDA. Namen prvotne supervizije je bil nadzor, podpora in organizacija socialnega dela (Kobolt, 1999). Kaslow (1977, po Miloševič Arnold, 1999) navaja, da se je metoda supervizije najprej uporabljala v medicini, a so jo ob razvijanju socialnega dela kmalu prenesli tudi vanj. V Evropo se je iz ZDA razširila po drugi svetovni vojni. Z največjim odobravanjem so jo sprejeli Nizozemci in jo s področja socialnega dela prenesli na ostala poklicna področja, katerih cilj je pomoč ljudem v stiski (prav tam). Najširša opredelitev supervizijo definira na področju socialnih in pedagoških dejav- nosti kot refleksijo o lastnem poklicnem delovanju, ki temelji na skladni komunikaciji in se izmika klišejskim in vrednostnim sodbam (Kobolt in Žorga, 1999b). Koboltova (1994) supervizijo pojasnjuje kot nadzor lastnega dela z razdalje, kar nam omogoča novo, drugačno in boljše razumevanje dogodkov. Supervizijo razume kot proces učenja, proces refleksije in rast profesionalne kompetentnosti. Pojavlja se v poklicih, kjer je v ospredju neposredno delo z ljudmi. Ker gre pri takih poklicih za nepredvidljive situa- cije, za katere ni načrtnih in vnaprej pripravljenih rešitev, se je potrebno odzvati hitro in odločati samostojno, brez posvetovanja z drugimi (Žorga, 1994, po Demšar, 2008). Hess (Hawkins in Shohet, 1989, po Rupar, 2009) supervizijo vidi kot medsebojno in- terakcijo udeležencev. Supervizor pomaga supervizantu, da s klientom dela bolj kako- vostno in učinkovito. Hawkins in Smith (2006, prav tam) pa supervizijo definirata kot 74 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) proces, pri katerem supervizant s pomočjo supervizorja spremlja, izboljšuje in razume odnos s svetovancem ter hkrati spreminja svoja ravnanja. V Sloveniji se je supervizija pojavila šele v šestdesetih letih prejšnjega stoletja na področju kliničnopsihičnega in psihoterapevtskega dela. Prvi, ki je pričel z uvajanjem supervizije v prakso, je bil prof. Leopold Bregant (Kobolt, 1999). Postopoma se je tudi pri nas supervizija razvila in širi- la s področja socialnega dela na pedagoško področje in področje zdravstvene nege (prav tam). V literaturi torej najdemo vrsto definicij z različnih zornih kotov. Raznolikost poj- movanja supervizije v svojem delu Kaj je in kaj ni supervizija potrjuje tudi Ivo Škoflek, ki predstavi definicije sedemnajstih uglednih slovenskih strokovnjakov. V zaključku poudari, da nobena definicija ni nepravilna, saj naj po njegovem vsak posameznik naj- de tisto svojo, za katero meni, da je prava. Kljub raznolikim definicijam in razlikam v razumevanju supervizije pa Kobolt in Žorga (1999b) ugotavljata, da se v vseh modelih supervizije pojavljajo naslednje skupne točke: □ “supervizija je proces učenja, □ je analiza poklicnega polja, □ je evalvacija lastne udeležbe v tem polju, □ usmerjena je na odnose s klienti, procese v teh odnosih in □ na analizo dinamike in odnosov med člani profesionalnega tima (kadar gre za timsko supervizijo)”. 1.2 Oblike supervizije Poznamo več oblik supervizije: individualno, skupinsko, vrstniško ali intervizijo in timsko supervizijo. Individualna supervizija V individualno supervizijo sta vključena le dva udeleženca: supervizor in super- vizant, ki mu je posvečena vsa supervizorjeva pozornost (Kobolt, 1994b). Med njima poteka izredno intenziven odnos in poglobljeno obravnavanje vprašanj, zato je po mne- nju Miloševič Arnoldove (1994) individualna supervizija posebej primerna za priprav- nike ali strokovnjake, ki se šele uvajajo v delo na nekem novem strokovnem področju. Zaradi intenzivnosti v odnosu se pri individualni superviziji pojavljajo transferne in kontratransferne vsebine (Rupar, 2003). Transfer je pojav, kjer se vsebine in reakcije iz odnosov s pomembnimi osebami v preteklosti nezavedno ponovijo in prenesejo na odnose z drugimi osebami v sedanjosti (Greens, 1967, po Praper, 1999). Po Švaganovi (2010) se transfer izraža kot “nezrelo vedenje”. Kot odgovor na transfer se lahko pojavi kontratransfer, ki ga definiramo kot nezrele odzive supervizorja na transferne vsebine supervizanta. Supervizorjev kontratransfer je rezultat nekih preteklih nerešenih sporov in njegovih odrinjenih teženj (prav tam). Pühl (1994, po Kobolt in Žorga, 1999a) deli posameznike, ki se udeležujejo individualne supervizije, na skupino posameznikov, ki želijo reflektirati neko določeno praktično situacijo, saj menijo, da niso dovolj dobri za nadaljnje obravnave, in drugo skupino posameznikov, do katerih ima okolica različna pričakovanja, s katerimi se ne znajo spoprijeti (prav tam, str. 160). Dr. Kovač, Radovanović, dr. Javornik Krečič: Vključevanje šolskih svetovalnih delavcev... 75 Skupinska supervizija Skupinska supervizija je v praksi najpogosteje uporabljena oblika supervizije, kjer je v ospredju izkustveno učenje in sodelovanje vseh članov, ki izmenjujejo svoje izkušnje, mnenja, znanja (Rupar, 2003). Med avtorji prihaja do razhajanj glede velikosti skupine: Hawkins in Shohet (1999, v Kobolt, 2002a) priporočata od 3 do 7 udeležencev, medtem ko je po Koboltovi (prav tam) dovoljeno še od 12 do 14 članov. Za Belardija (1994, prav tam) pa je zgornja meja celo 20 članov. Koboltova in Žižakova (2010) opozarjata, da je v manjši skupini večja možnost za doseganje zadostne stopnje varnosti in zaupanja. Člani so v manjših skupinah lahko veliko bolj aktivni in posledično dosegajo več ciljev, saj se v večji skupini izgubi intimno ozračje in osebni pristop (prav tam). Pečjakova in Koširjeva (2005) poudarjata pomembnost dinamike v skupini, ki omogoča medsebojno učenje, smisel skupinske supervizije pa vidita še iz ekonomskega vidika, čeprav obstaja nevarnost, da se aktivnost med udeleženci neenakomerno porazdeli in udeleženci ne dobijo možnosti aktivnega sodelovanja ali se temu celo izognejo (prav tam). Timska supervizija Timska supervizija se izvaja v okviru ustanov, kot so šola, vrtec, vzgojni zavod, dijaški dom (Pečjak in Košir, 2005). Udeleženci so posledično medsebojno že delovno povezani, imajo oblikovane medsebojne odnose, supervizijski proces pa je usmerjen na njihovo skupno delo (Kobolt, 2002b). Pri timski superviziji vključitev ni vedno prosto- voljna (Kobolt in Žorga, 2000, po Klemenčič, 2006), prav tako pa obstaja v supervi- zijskem procesu nevarnost obuditve medsebojnih konfliktov in zamer (Kobolt in Žor- ga, 1999a). Cilji timske supervizije so izboljšanje vzdušja v timu, boljše sodelovanje, izboljšanje učinkovitosti in kakovosti dela udeležencev (Kobolt in Žižak, 2007). Za supervizijo tima se navadno odločajo iz naslednjih razlogov: □ člani tima se sprašujejo o učinkovitosti dela, ki ga želijo skupaj izboljšati; □ mnenje, da obstoječe konflikte in spore ne zmorejo rešiti sami; □ obstoj konfliktov z vodjo tima in med člani; □ želja po bolj podpornem vzdušju in izboljšanju medsebojnih odnosov (Kobolt in Žorga, 1999a). Intervizija “Intervizija je metoda učenja, kjer v majhni skupini sodelavcev s približno primer- ljivim nivojem profesionalnega treninga in delovnih izkušenj ti podajajo supervizijo drug drugemu in prispevajo vprašanja, ki izhajajo iz delovnih izkušenj.” (Hanekamp 1994). Intervizija temelji na bolj kolegialnem in podpornem odnosu med udeleženci, kjer ni hierarhične strukture v smislu “strokovnjak in učenec” (Borders, 1991; Crutch- field in Borders, 1997, po Gruman in Nelson, 2008). Intervizija lahko poteka individualno ali v skupini, vlogo supervizorja pa nima le eden, ampak se člani izmenjujejo (Wilkins, 1997). Vsebina intervizije je pogojena z aktualnimi izkušnjami sodelujočih, kar omogoča učenje iz izkušenj drugih in skupno iskanje rešitev (Miloševič Arnold, 2012). Za Hanekampa (1994) je intervizija bolj per- 76 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) sonalen proces, ki nastane na podlagi želja sodelujočih. Opisuje tudi metode, ki se v intervizijskem procesu izvajajo: □ Incident method: ta metoda temelji na določenem problemu iz prakse razlagalca, kjer vsi skupaj iščejo rešitve. □ Identifikacijska metoda: eden izmed sodelujočih po kolegovi razlagi zgodbe prevza- me vlogo njegovega dvojnika z namenom analize dogodka z obeh perspektiv. □ Vsebina v ospredju: ob poslušanju zgodbe sodelujoči izrazijo besede in misli, ki jih utesnjujejo, in nato ugotavljajo, katera možnost je zanje najboljša. □ Sosvetovanje: sodelujoči se osredotočijo na refleksijo razlagalčevega dogodka in analizo osebe v zgodbi. □ Analiza zgodbe: po razlagi dogodka sodelujoči podrobno analizirajo zgodbo po ko- rakih in skušajo ugotoviti, kaj se je zgodilo ter kaj bi lahko spremenili (prav tam). 1.3 Vključevanje šolskih svetovalnih delavcev v supervizijo V šolskem svetovalnem delu ne obstaja knjiga vseh možnih situacij in enoličnih rešitev, saj se že v enem samem delovnem dnevu lahko pojavi vrsta raznolikih dogod- kov (Gruman in Nelson, 2008). Prav zaradi kompleksnosti situacij in predanosti delu se po mnenju Klemenčič Rozmanove (2010) pri svetovalnih delavcih pojavlja potreba po superviziji. Supervizija predstavlja eno izmed najpomembnejših komponent profesionalnega razvoja svetovalnih delavcev. Z vključevanjem v supervizijski proces razvijajo čut za svojo profesionalno osebnost in preučujejo lastna prepričanja in stališča v odnosu s kli- enti in terapijo (The Importance of Counselling Supervision, 12.03.2010). Učinkovitost supervizije pri strokovnih delavcih potrjuje analiza (Žorga, 1997a, po Kobolt in Žorga, 1999c) 14 evalvacijskih poročil strokovnih delavcev, ki so jih zapisali po dveh do treh letih udeleževanja supervizije in intervizije. Analiza kaže, da so določeni supervizanti prvič v svojem delovnem obdobju pregledali, spoznali in reflektirali svoje delo in učin- kovitost. Spoznali so, da za vsako situacijo obstaja več kot le ena rešitev, se soočili z ra- znolikimi načini in možnostmi reševanja težav in se naučili na težave gledati z različnih vidikov. Med drugim jim je supervizija zagotovila spodbudo, podporo, učenje empatije in strpnosti, izboljšanje komunikacijskih veščin, ustreznejše izražanje čustev in razu- mevanje razlike med tem, kaj si želijo doseči in kaj lahko dejansko storijo (prav tam). Po številnih raziskavah v tujini se je pokazala velika potreba svetovalnih delavcev po superviziji (Gruman in Nelson, 2008). Roberts in Borders (1994, prav tam) sta v svoji raziskavi dobila naslednje rezultate: 79 % anketiranih si želi udeležbe v supervi- ziji, ostalih 21 % pa potrebe po superviziji ne vidi. 37 % šolskih svetovalnih delavcev v superviziji dejansko sodeluje, pri čemer gre za večjo zastopanost administrativne kot klinične supervizije. Po Nacionalni ameriški raziskavi (Perera-Diltz in Mason, 2012), ki so jo izvedli med 1557 svetovalnimi delavci, so ugotovili, da kar 41,1 % svetovalnih delavcev nudi supervizijo. Čeprav jih je kar 89 % takih, ki se udeležujejo supervizije, jih med njimi supervizijo s strani drugih svetovalnih delavcev tedensko prejema le 10,3 %. Večina svetovalnih delavcev (68 %) prejema supervizijo s strani ravnateljev. O vklju- čevanju svetovalnih delavcev glede na oblike supervizije obstaja raziskava s 493 sode- lujočimi svetovalnimi delavci, kjer rezultati kažejo, da jih je le 20 % vključenih v indi- Dr. Kovač, Radovanović, dr. Javornik Krečič: Vključevanje šolskih svetovalnih delavcev... 77 vidualno obliko supervizije, 40 % pa v intervizijo. Od vseh sodelujočih jih 63 % izraža potrebo po superviziji, ki je po njihovem mnenju pomembna za izboljšanje lastnega dela in pridobivanje novih delovnih spretnosti (Sutton in Page, 1994, po Kovač, 2013). Ob natančnem pregledu literature smo ugotovili, da v Sloveniji še ni bila opravljena večja raziskava na temo supervizije, zato smo se oprli na ugotovitve raziskav v tujini. Rezultati kažejo na povpraševanje po superviziji v tujini, zato predvidevamo, da je pov- praševanje po superviziji podobno tudi pri nas. 2 Metodologija V nadaljevanju predstavljamo del rezultatov širše raziskave, kjer se bomo osredo- točili na vprašanje, v kolikšni meri se šolski svetovalni delavci vključujejo v različne supervizijske oblike. 2.1 Opredelitev raziskave Namen raziskave je bil ugotoviti, katerih oblik supervizije se šolski svetovalni de- lavci sploh udeležujejo in v kolikšni meri. Pri tem nas je zanimal obstoj razlik glede na izobrazbo in ustanovo zaposlitve. 2.2 Raziskovalni vzorec Raziskava temelji na neslučajnostnem priložnostnem vzorcu svetovalnih delavcev slovenskih osnovnih in srednjih šol s področja celotne Slovenije. V raziskavi je sode- lovalo 113 šolskih svetovalnih delavcev, ki predstavljajo raziskovalni vzorec. Od vseh anketiranih močno prevladuje delež ženske populacije (92,2 %), preostali delež pred- stavljajo moški svetovalni delavci (7,1 %). Po izobrazbi izstopajo pedagogi (36,3 %), sledijo jim psihologi (27,4 %) in socialni delavci (19,5 %), najmanj je socialnih in spe- cialnih pedagogov (16,8 %). Glede na ustanovo zaposlitve je v vzorcu prevladujoč delež svetovalnih delavcev, ki so zaposleni v osnovnih šolah (71,7 %), svetovalnih delavcev, zaposlenih v srednjih šolah, je občutno manj (28,3 %). 2.3 Postopki zbiranja podatkov Anketni vprašalnik smo prvotno sondažno uporabili na manjšem vzorcu šolskih svetovalnih delavcev in v nadaljevanju odpravili pomanjkljivosti in napake. Sledilo je končno anketiranje s spletnim vprašalnikom, ki smo ga po elektronski pošti posredovali svetovalnim delavcem osnovnih in srednjih šol s področja celotne Slovenije. V elek- tronskem sporočilu smo šolskim svetovalnim delavcem predstavili tudi vse podrobnosti o namenu raziskave. Izpolnjene vprašalnike so šolski svetovalni delavci vrnili po elek- tronski pošti. Tako smo pridobili 113 anketnih vprašalnikov. 78 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) 2.4 Vsebinsko-metodološke značilnosti Uporabili smo spletni anketni vprašalnik, namenjen svetovalnim delavcem osnov- nih in srednjih šol, ki je bil anonimen. Sestavljen je bil iz vprašanj zaprtega tipa in treh vsebinskih sklopov. V prvem delu so zajeti podatki o spolu, izobrazbi, ustanovi zapo- slitve in delovni dobi. Sledijo vprašanja o vključevanju v različne oblike supervizije, v zadnjem sklopu pa sledijo vprašanja, ki so vezana na vključevanje v različne supervizij- ske oblike glede na izobrazbo in ustanovo zaposlitve. 2.5 Obdelava podatkov Podatke smo obdelali s pomočjo programa SPSS (verzija 20) na ravni deskriptivne in inferenčne statistike. Pri tem smo uporabili naslednje statistične metode: frekvenčne porazdelitve (f, f %) in χ2-preizkus za preverjanje obstoja razlik med odvisnimi spre- menljivkami glede na neodvisni spremenljivki, kjer smo pri izračunu večinoma upošte- vali Likelihood Ratio koeficient. 3 Rezultati Predstavljamo rezultate analize vprašanja o (ne)vključevanju šolskih svetovalnih delavcev v različne supervizijske oblike v celoti in razlike glede na izobrazbo in usta- novo zaposlitve. Tabela 1: Število (f) in strukturni odstotki (f %) po udeležbi šolskih svetovalnih delav- cev v superviziji Odgovor f f (%) Da 54 47,8 Ne 59 52,2 Skupaj 113 100,0 Iz tabele lahko ugotovimo, je delež šolskih svetovalnih delavcev, ki so se že kdaj udeležili supervizije (47,8 %), blizu deležu tistih, ki se je niso še nikoli (52,2 %). Odgo- vor je pričakovan, saj metoda supervizije v šolskem svetovalnem delu iz različnih ra- zlogov, predvsem finančnih, še ni postala ena izmed glavnih metod podpore in pomoči za šolske svetovalne delavce. Rezultat pa sovpada z eno izmed raziskav (Page in sod., 2001; Roberts in Borders, 1994; Sutton in Page, 1994; povz. po Gruman in Nelson, 2008, str. 313), po kateri je le 24 % anketiranih svetovalnih delavcev dejansko vključe- nih v supervizijo. Dr. Kovač, Radovanović, dr. Javornik Krečič: Vključevanje šolskih svetovalnih delavcev... 79 Tabela 2: Število (f) in strukturni odstotki (f %) glede na obliko supervizije, ki so se je šolski svetovalni delavci že udeležili Da Ne Skupaj Odgovor f f % f f % f f % Individualna supervizija 5 8,8 52 91,2 57 100,0 Skupinska supervizija 43 75,4 14 24,6 57 100,0 Intervizija ali vrstniška supervizija 18 31,6 39 68,4 57 100,0 Timska supervizija 8 14,0 49 86,0 57 100,0 Supervizije se je od 113 v raziskavi sodelujočih šolskih svetovalnih delavcev ude- ležilo le 57, kar predstavlja 50,4 % vseh skupaj. Po rezultatih sodeč je skupinska su- pervizija najpogosteje zastopana oblika supervizijskega procesa, tej sledi intervizija ali vrstniška supervizija (31,6 %). Manjši delež anketiranih se je do sedaj vključil v timsko supervizijo (14,0 %), najmanj jih je imelo izkušnjo z individualno supervizijo (8,8 %). Tabela 3: Izid χ2-preizkusa razlik po obliki supervizije, ki so se je šolski svetovalni de- lavci že udeležili, glede na izobrazbo Specialni Odgovor Pedagog in socialni Psiholog Socialni Izid pedagog delavec χ2-preizkusa f 3 1 0 1 DA Individualna f % 12,5 9,1 0,0 7,7 χ2 = 2,046 supervizija f 21 10 9 12 P = 0,563 NE f % 87,5 90,9 100,0 92,3 f 19 9 6 9 DA Skupinska f % 79,2 81,8 66,7 69,2 χ2 = 1,051 supervizija f 5 2 3 4 P = 0,789 NE f % 20,8 18,2 33,3 30,8 f 3 5 5 5 DA f % 12,5 45,5 55,6 38,5 χ2 Intervizija = 8,165 f 21 6 4 8 P = 0,043 NE f % 87,5 54,5 44,4 61,5 f 4 3 0 1 DA Timska f % 16,7 27,3 0,0 7,7 χ2 = 4,670 supervizija f 20 8 9 12 P = 0,198 NE f % 83,3 72,7 100,0 92,3 Skupinska supervizija je v skladu s pričakovanji najbolj obiskana oblika supervi- zije, saj je z vidika finančnega in časovnega okvira tudi bolj smiselna kot individualna supervizija. Intervizija je presenetljivo redko obiskana oblika supervizije, kljub temu 80 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) da se izvaja na željo sodelavcev in ne potrebuje zunanjega strokovnjaka, saj temelji na kolegialnem odnosu. Kolektivi v naših šolah verjetno niso dovolj povezani v poklicnem smislu in nihče izmed sodelavcev ne upa dati pobude ali pa je težava organizacijske na- rave. Glede na pridobljene rezultate, kljub podpori in vzpodbudi za nadaljnje poklicno delovanje, le redki posamezniki prevzamejo vlogo pobudnika in organizatorja intervi- zijske skupine. Prav tako nas je nekoliko presenetilo, da je dokaj majhen odstotek šol- skih svetovalnih delavcev vključen v timsko supervizijo, saj gre za obliko supervizije, ki je podobno kot intervizija z vseh vidikov dokaj lahko dostopna. V skladu z našimi pričakovanji se najmanj udeležencev raziskave udeležuje individualne supervizije, ki je s finančnega in tudi časovnega okvira najtežje dostopna. Izid χ2-preizkusa kaže, da statistično značilne razlike obstajajo samo pri intervi- ziji ali vrstniški superviziji (P = 0,043). Tabela kaže, da pri vključevanju v intervizijo prevladujejo psihologi (55,6 %), sledijo jim specialni in socialni pedagogi (45,5 %) ter socialni delavci (38,5 %). Najmanj se v intervizijo vključujejo pedagogi (12,5 %), kar je zanimivo glede na to, da predstavljajo največji delež anketiranih. Največjo udeležbo opazimo pri skupinski superviziji, ki se je svetovalni delavci udeležujejo kar podobno. Rezultat ni v skladu z našimi pričakovanji, saj smo pričakovali največjo udeležbo v interviziji. Morda pa je v ozadju problem organizacije intervizije v samem kolektivu zaradi strahu pred neodobravanjem vodstva in ostalega kolektiva ali strahu pred preiz- kušanjem v vlogi supervizorja glede na to, da je za intervizijo značilno menjavanje vlog supervizorja in supervizanta. Tabela 4: Izid χ2-preizkusa razlik po obliki supervizije, ki so se je šolski svetovalni de- lavci že udeležili, glede na ustanovo zaposlitve Odgovor Osnovna šola Srednja šola Izid χ2-preizkusa f 5 0 DA Individualna f % 11,4 0,0 χ2 = 2,728 supervizija f 39 13 P = 0,099 NE f % 88,6 100,0 f 34 9 DA Skupinska f % 77,3 69,2 χ2 = 0,338 supervizija f 10 4 P = 0,561 NE f % 22,7 30,8 f 16 2 DA f % 36,4 15,4 Intervizija χ2 = 2,252 f 28 11 P = 0,133 NE f % 63,6 84,6 f 5 3 DA Timska f % 11,4 23,1 χ2 = 1,037 supervizija f 39 10 P = 0,309 NE f % 88,6 76,9 Dr. Kovač, Radovanović, dr. Javornik Krečič: Vključevanje šolskih svetovalnih delavcev... 81 Pozornost vzbuja razlika pri vključevanju šolskih svetovalnih delavcev v intervizi- jo. Predvidevamo, da so psihologi v okviru študijskega programa posvečali več pozor- nosti supervizijskim temam kot svetovalni delavci, ki so z drugih študijskih smeri. Pri študiju psihologije je verjetno predvidenega tudi več praktičnega usposabljanja, dela na sebi in dela z ljudmi. Sklepamo lahko, da psihologi tako pridobijo več izkušenj in so verjetno tudi zato pripravljeni prevzeti pobudo in organizacijo pomoči svojim sode- lavcem, nasprotno pa ostalim sodelavcem drugih poklicnih smeri verjetno primanjkuje samoiniciative in poguma. Izid χ2-preizkusa kaže tendenco razlik (P = 0,099) pri vključitvi svetovalnih de- lavcev v individualno supervizijo glede na ustanovo zaposlitve. Rezultati kažejo, da se še nobeden izmed srednješolskih svetovalnih delavcev ni udeležil individualne super- vizije, čeprav tudi delež osnovnošolskih svetovalnih delavcev ni visok (11,4 %). Spet ugotovimo, da je najpogosteje obiskovana oblika skupinska supervizija, ki ji sledi inter- vizija. Opazimo, da se srednješolski svetovalni delavci intervizije udeležujejo v manjši meri (15,4 %) kot osnovnošolski (36,4 %). Če smo pri tabeli 3 ugotovili, da pri vključevanju v intervizijo prevladujejo psiho- logi, lahko tukaj sklepamo, da je v osnovnih šolah zaposlenih več psihologov kot v sre- dnjih šolah. V bodoče bi bilo zanimivo to domnevno povezavo tudi raziskati. Domne- vamo lahko še, da so sodelavci v osnovnošolskih kolektivih bolj povezani in dovzetni za vključevanje v intervizijski proces kot sodelavci v srednješolskih kolektivih, ki so navadno tudi večji in manj povezani. 4 Sklep Raziskava je pokazala precej nizek delež šolskih svetovalnih delavcev, ki so ka- darkoli sploh imeli izkušnjo s katerokoli izmed oblik supervizije. Podatek opozarja na vprašanje (ne)dostopnosti supervizije za šolske svetovalne delavce v Sloveniji. Tukaj bi bilo v prihodnosti morda smiselno raziskati vzroke, ki so razlog za nedostopnost do supervizije. T. Strniša in M. Juriševič (2018) v svoji raziskavi ugotavljata, da strokovni razvoj pedagoških delavcev najbolj ovirajo naslednji dejavniki: pomanjkanje časa zara- di pisanja priprav, pomanjkanje finančnih sredstev, pomanjkanje ponujenih programov za usposabljanje in premajhna ponudba aktualnih tematik. Analiza (ne)vključevanja v supervizijske oblike kaže, da je skupinska supervizija med šolskimi svetovalnimi delavci obiskana v največji meri. Kljub pričakovanju, da se intervizije poslužuje večina šolskih svetovalnih delavcev, smo ugotovili ravno naspro- tno. Intervizije se je udeležila manj kot tretjina anketiranih svetovalnih delavcev. Na drugi strani smo potrdili dejstvo, da je individualna supervizija najmanj pogosta oblika supervizijskega procesa med šolskimi svetovalnimi delavci. Odstopanja v rezultatih so se pokazala pri odgovorih glede na izobrazbo. Psihologi namreč predstavljajo največji delež udeležencev v interviziji, pedagogi pa nasprotno najmanjšega. Hkrati le-ti pred- stavljajo največji delež anketiranih šolskih svetovalnih delavcev, pa vendar se jih inter- vizijske pomoči poslužuje najmanj. 82 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) V nadaljevanju se nam pojavlja vprašanje, zakaj je v raziskavi prišlo do razlik med psihologi in ostalimi profili pri izvajanju intervizijske oblike supervizije. Zanimivo bi bilo raziskati, ali so te razlike povezane s študijskim programom ali pa gre za pomanj- kanje samoiniciative in premalo izkušenj z delom z ljudmi. Manjše odstopanje pa predstavlja tudi razlika pri vključevanju v individualno su- pervizijo glede na ustanovo zaposlitve. Rezultati kažejo, da srednješolski svetovalni delavci nimajo nikakršnih izkušenj z individualno obliko supervizijskega procesa. Sklenemo lahko, da je supervizija pri nas še vedno premalo raziskana. S tem na- menom smo izvedli raziskavo, s katero bi spodbudili in okrepili njeno uporabo. O superviziji in njenih možnih oblikah izvajanja vemo premalo, hkrati pa večina izmed supervizijskih oblik zahteva finančno podporo, ki je razlog več za nedostopnost. Pred- vsem pa ostaja odprto vprašanje, kaj je razlog za pomanjkanje samoiniciative v šolskih kolektivih za organizacijo supervizije in predvsem intervizije, ki ne zahteva stroškov, le voljo in željo sodelavcev po medsebojni pomoči in podpori. Zato bi bilo v prihodnosti smiselno raziskati, kje so razlogi za tako slabo vključevanje v intervizijo. Ljiljana Radovanović, Jernej Kovač, PhD, Marija Javornik Krečič, PhD Inclusion of School Counselors in Various Types of Supervision The work of school counselors is dynamic, psychologically demanding, stressful and, above all, unpredictable because they have to deal with diverse situations. This is why school counselors frequently find themselves in distress. In order to be able to per- form their tasks effectively and well in professional and personal terms, school counse- lors need professional support. One increasingly efficient type of support is supervision, which allows the school counselors to grow as professionals and individuals and, above all, relieves them psychologically. The beginnings of supervision go back to the second half of the 19th century and are connected with the area of social care in the USA. The objective of original supervi- sion was to control, support and organize social work (Kobolt, 1999). Kaslow (1977, cit. in Miloševič Arnold, 1999) points out that the supervision method was first used in medicine; however, it soon spread to the developing field of social work. It spread from the US to Europe after World War Two. It was warmly welcomed by the Dutch, who transferred it from the field of social work to other professions that help people in need (ibid.). Leopold Bregant was the one who introduced supervision in Slovenia. Soon, supervision developed and spread from the field of social work to pedagogy and healthcare (Kobolt, 1999). In most general terms, supervision in social and pedagogical areas is defined as re- flecting upon one’s own professional performance based on mutual communication that avoids clichés and value judgements (Kobolt and Žorga, 1999b). Kobolt (1994) defines supervision as control of one’s own work from a distance, which allows us to see events from a new, different and better perspective. She sees supervision as a learning process, a process of reflecting and growth of professional competence. Supervision is found in professions that involve a direct interaction with people. Given that such professions Dr. Kovač, Radovanović, dr. Javornik Krečič: Vključevanje šolskih svetovalnih delavcev... 83 involve unpredictable situations with no planned and available solutions, it is necessary to act quickly and make independent decisions, without consulting others (Žorga 1994, cit. in Demšar, 2008). Hess, Hawkins and Shohet (1989, cit. in Rupar, 2009) see super- vision as mutual interaction. A supervisor helps the supervisee work better with their clients. Hawkins and Smith (2006, cit. in ibid.) define supervision as a process where the supervisor helps the supervisee monitor, improve and understand the relationship with the supervised person and adapt their actions accordingly. There are several types of supervision: individual supervision, group supervision, peer supervision or intervision, and team supervision. Individual supervision includes only two participants: the supervisor and the su- pervisee, who is at the center of the supervisor’s attention (Kobolt, 1994b). The two engage in an extremely intensive relationship and address issues together; for this rea- son, Miloševič Arnold (1994) believes individual supervision is particularly useful for trainees or experts who are being introduced to a new professional area. Pühl (1994, cit. in Kobolt and Žorga, 1999a) divides individuals who participate in individual su- pervision into a group of individuals who want to reflect on a particular practical situ- ation because they think they are not good enough for additional sessions; and another group of individuals whose surroundings have different expectations which they cannot handle. In practice, group supervision is the most frequently used type of supervision. At the forefront is experiential learning and cooperation of all members, who exchange their experience, opinion and knowledge (Rupar, 2003). The authors have different views about group size: Hawkins and Shohet (1999, in Kobolt 2002a) recommend from 3 to 7 participants, while Kobolt (ibid.) allows 12 to 14 members. Belardi (1994, ibid.) sets the upper limit at 20 members. Kobolt and Žižakova (2010) point out that a small group is more likely to achieve a sufficient level of security and trust. Members in small groups can be more active and consequently are more successful in reaching the objec- tives because intimacy and a personal approach get lost in a larger group (ibid.). Team supervision is practiced at institutions, e.g. school, kindergarten, residential treatment institution, boarding house (Pečjak and Košir, 2005). Participants are interconnected through their work, their mutual relations already exist, and the supervision process focuses on their collaborative work (Kobolt, 2002b). In team supervision, inclusion is not always voluntary (Kobolt and Žorga 2000, cit. in Klemenčič, 2006). “Intervision is a learning method where a small group of co-workers with comparable professional training and work experience supervise one another and ask questions based on their work experience.” (Hanekamp 1994). Intervision is based on a collegial and supportive relationship among participants lacking the hierarchical structure of an expert and stu- dent (Borders, 1991; Crutchfield and Borders 1997, cit. in Gruman and Nelson, 2008). Supervision is one of the most significant components of professional development of school counselors. Inclusion in the supervision process helps them develop their professional personality and examine their own convictions and opinions regarding their clients and therapy (The Importance of Counselling Supervision, 12 March 2010). Efficiency of supervision in professionals has been confirmed by an analysis (Žorga 1997a, cit. in Kobolt and Žorga, 1999c) of 14 evaluation reports of education profes- sionals, who generated them in the course of two or three years of engaging in super- vision and intervision. The analysis shows that certain supervisees examined, got to know and reflected upon their work and efficiency for the first time in their careers. 84 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) They realized that there was more than one solution for every situation; they faced various methods and ways of solving problems and they learned to examine problems from various perspectives. Among other things, supervision encouraged and supported them; helped them learn empathy and tolerance, improve their communication skills, express feelings, and understand differences between their objectives and their actual performance (ibid.). International studies have shown that school counselors need supervision (Gruman and Nelson, 2008). A study by Roberts and Borders (1994, cit. in ibid.) yielded the fol- lowing results: 79 % of respondents wanted to participate in supervision; the remaining 21 % did not see a need for supervision. 37 % of school counselors actually partici- pated in supervision, whereby administrative supervision was more common than clini- cal supervision. The American National Survey (Perera Diltz and Mason, 2012), which included 1557 school counselors, found that as many as 41.1 % of school counselors provided supervision. Although 89 % of them participated in supervision, only 10.3 % of school counselors were supervised by other school counselors. The majority of school counselors (68 %) were supervised by the principals. A study on the inclusion of school counselors with regard to the type of supervision with 493 participating school counse- lors showed that only 20 % were included in individual supervision, and 40 % in intervi- sion. 63 % of all participants saw a need for supervision, which in their opinion helped them improve their own work and gain new work skills (Sutton and Page, 1994, after Kovač, 2013). In Slovenia, no major study has been done about the participation of school coun- selors in various forms of supervision. The present article aims to fill this research gap in the area of school counseling. The main objective of the study was to establish what types of supervision school counselors attend and to what extent. We also wanted to establish potential differences regarding their education and the institution at which they work. The study is based on a non-random ad-hoc sample of school counselors from elementary and high schools from all over Slovenia. The research sample comprised 113 school counselors. The respondents were surveyed with an anonymous online questionnaire with closed-type questions. The questionnaire comprised three groups of questions. The first group com- prised data about the respondents’ gender, education, employer and work experience. This was followed by questions about participation in various types of supervision. The final group included questions that were related to participation in different forms of supervision depending on the counselors’ education and the institution at which they worked. The data was processed using SPSS (version 20) at the level of descriptive and inferential statistics. The study showed a low proportion of school counselors with any kind of experience with any type of supervision. The result highlighted the problem of the (in)accessibility of supervision for school counselors in Slovenia. An analysis of (non)participation in supervision shows that school counselors most frequently participate in group supervision. Contrary to our expectations, it was found that most school counselors did not use intervision. On the other hand, the study con- firmed the fact that individual supervision was the least frequent form of the supervision process among school counselors. A deviation in the results also appeared in the an- swers depending on the respondents’ education. It should be pointed out that the largest proportion of intervision participants comprised psychologists and not pedagogues. A Dr. Kovač, Radovanović, dr. Javornik Krečič: Vključevanje šolskih svetovalnih delavcev... 85 minor deviation also appeared in the participation of school counselors in individual supervision in relation to the school at which they worked. It can be concluded that supervision has not yet been exhausted as a subject of study. For this reason, we conducted a study whose aim was to highlight its importance. Too little is known about supervision and its available forms; at the same time, most types of supervision require financial support, which is why it is not available. The main question remains what is the reason for the lack of self-initiative in schools for organ- izing supervision and particularly intervision, which does not require funding but only good will and the willingness of workers to help and support one another? This is why it is necessary to examine the reasons for such poor participation in intervision. LITERATURA 1. Demšar, I. (2008). Pomen socialne opore pri preprečevanju izgorelosti učiteljev. Sodobna peda- gogika, 59, št. 3, str. 124–140. 2. Depolli Steiner, K. (2016). Odnos med delovnimi stresorji in izgorelostjo osnovnošolskih uči- teljev. Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja, 31, št. 3–4, str. 84–97. 3. Dolenc, P., Virag, Š. (2019). Stres, soočanje s stresom in poklicno zadovoljstvo pedagoških delavcev. Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja, 34, št. 1, str. 73–85. 4. Gruman, D., Nelson, M.L. (2008). Supervision of Professional School Counselors. V: Hardin L. K. Coleman, Jean Yeh, Ch. (ur.). Handbook of School Counseling. New York; London: Rou- tledge, str. 309–319. 5. Hanekamp, H. (1994). Intervizija. Ptički brez gnezda, 17, št. 33, str. 63–66. 6. Klemenčič, M.M. (2006). Primerjalna analiza supervizije, moderacije in debriefinga kot supor- tivnih metod pri strokovnem delu. Socialna pedagogika, 9, št. 1, str. 1–20. 7. Klemenčič Rozman, M.M. (2010). Pomen supervizije za razvoj strokovnjaka v poklicih pomo- či. V: Kobolt, A. (ur.). Supervizija in koučing. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta: Zavod Republike Slovenije za šolstvo, str. 249–266. 8. Kobolt, A. (1994a). Supervision – Professional Reflection and Learning. The School Field, 5, št. 1, str. 5–14. 9. Kobolt, A. (1994b). Supervizija – pomoč pri razvoju poklicne identitete in kompetence. V: Ško- flek, I., Kobolt, A., Kristančič, A. in Kolenec, F. M. (ur.). Didaktični vidiki supervizije: referati s seminarja. Ljubljana: Zavod Republike Slovenije za šolstvo in šport, str. 25–37. 10. Kobolt, A. (1999). Supervizija skozi prizmo razvoja. V: Kobolt, A. in Žorga, S. (ur.). Supervizi- ja – proces razvoja in učenja v poklicu. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta. 11. Kobolt, A. (2002a). Je možno supervizijsko delo v večjih skupinah? V: Žorga, S. (ur.). Modeli in oblike supervizije. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta, str. 77–100. 12. Kobolt, A. (2002b). Timska supervizija. V: Žorga, s. (ur.). Modeli in oblike supervizije. Ljublja- na: Pedagoška fakulteta, str. 101–113. 13. Kobolt, A., Žižak, A. (2007). Timski rad i supervizija timova. Ljetopis socialnog rada, 14, št. 2, str. 367–386. 14. Kobolt, A., Žižak, A. (2010). Prispevek supervizije k uspešnosti in vzdušju v delovnih skupi- nah. V: Kobolt, A. Supervizija in koučing. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta: Zavod Republike Slovenije za šolstvo, str. 151–188. 15. Kobolt, A., Žorga, S. (1999a). Delovne oblike supervizijskega procesa. V: Kobolt, A. in Žorga, S. Supervizija – proces razvoja in učenja v poklicu. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta, str. 186–215. 16. Kobolt, A., Žorga, S. (1999b). Supervizija – beseda z več pomeni. V: Kobolt, A. in Žorga, S.. Supervizija – proces razvoja in učenja v poklicu. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta, str. 13–17. 17. Kobolt, A., Žorga, S. (1999c). Vloga supervizije pri poklicnem in osebnostnem razvoju stro- kovnega delavca. V: Kobolt, A. in Žorga, S. Supervizija – proces razvoja in učenja v poklicu. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta, str. 89–109. 86 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) 18. Kovač, J. (2013). Supervizija, stres in poklicna izgorelost šolskih svetovalnih delavcev. Ma- ribor: Mednarodna založba Oddelka za slovanske jezike in književnosti, Filozofska fakulteta. 19. Miloševič Arnold, V. (1994). Supervizija – metoda za profesionalce. Socialno delo, 33, št. 6, str. 475–487. 20. Miloševič Arnold, V. (1999). Predstavitev supervizijske metode. V: Miloševič Arnold, V., Vo- deb Bonač, M., Erzar Metelko, D. in Možina, M. (ur.). Supervizija – znanje za ravnanje. Lju- bljana: Socialna zbornica. 21. Miloševič Arnold, V. (2012). Intervizija kot prostor za refleksijo učiteljev. Šolsko svetovalno delo, 16, št. 1/2, str. 41–50. 22. Pečjak, S., Košir, K. (2005). Profesionalni razvoj svetovalca – supervizija. V: Pečjak, S. in Ko- šir, K. (ur.). Šolsko psihološko svetovanje. Ljubljana: Filozofska fakulteta, Oddelek za psiho- logijo, str. 210–225. 23. Perera Diltz, D.M., Mason, K.L. (2012). A National Survey of School Counselor Supervisi- on Practices: Administrative, Clinical, Peer and Technology Mediated Supervision. Journal of School Counseling, 10, št. 4, str. 1–34. 24. Praper, P. (1999). Transfer in kontratransfer v razvojni analitični psihoterapiji. Psihološka ob- zorja, 8, št. 1, str. 67–76. 25. Regojević, L. (2014). Stališča šolskih svetovalnih delavcev o potrebah supervizije pri šolskem svetovalnem delu. Magistrsko delo. Maribor: Univerza v Mariboru, Filozofska fakulteta. 26. Rupar, B. (2003). Evalvacija razvojno-edukativnega modela skupinske supervizije med peda- goškimi delavci. Socialna pedagogika, 7, št. 1, str. 53–70. 27. Rupar, B. (2009). Svetovalni proces skozi prizmo supervizije. Šolsko svetovalno delo, 13, št. 3–4, str. 18–22. 28. Strniša, T., Juriševič, M. (2018). Razvoj strokovne samopodobe specialnih in rehabilitacijskih pedagogov. Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja, 33, št. 1, str. 116–130. 29. Škoflek, I. (1994). Kaj je in kaj ni supervizija. V: Škoflek, I., Kobolt, A., Kristančič, A. in Kole- nec, F. M. (ur.). Didaktični vidiki supervizije: referati s seminarja. Ljubljana: Zavod Republike Slovenije za šolstvo in šport, str. 7–24. 30. Švagan, J. (2010). Dejavniki, ki vplivajo na supervizijske poteke in izkušnje supervizantov. V: Kobolt, A. (ur.). Supervizija in koučing. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta: Zavod Republike Slovenije za šolstvo, str. 59–90. 31. Wilkins, P. (1997). Personal and Professional Development for Counsellors. London; Thousand Oaks; New Delhi: Sage. Dr. Jernej Kovač (1975), docent za področje pedagogike na Filozofski fakulteti Univerze v Mariboru. Naslov: Borštnikova ulica 45, 2000 Maribor, Slovenija; Telefon: (+386) 031 482 111 E-mail: jernej.kovac@um.si Ljiljana Radovanović (1990), magistra profesorica pedagogike, Sodexo GmbH, Gradec. Naslov: Dogoška cesta 64, 2000 Maribor, Slovenija; Telefon: (+386) 040 567 122 E-mail: mistresslili@gmail.com Dr. Marija Javornik Krečič (1976), izredna profesorica za pedagogiko na Filozofski fakulteti v Mariboru. Naslov: Zgornje Hoče 67a, 2311 Hoče, Slovenija; Telefon: (+386) 02 229 36 67 E-mail: marija.javornik@um.si Mija Marija Klemenčič Rozman, PhD, Olga Poljšak Škraban, PhD The Context-Sensitive Processes of School-Family Partnership Prejeto 18.09.2019 / Sprejeto 10.02.2020 Received 18.09.2019 / Accepted 10.02.2020 Znanstveni članek Scientific paper UDK 37.064.1-051 UDC 37.064.1-051 KLJUČNE BESEDE: partnerstvo med šolo in druži- KEYWORDS: school-family partnership, process- no, procesno usmerjeno delo, kontekst, učitelji oriented work, context, teachers POVZETEK – Konstruktivno sodelovanje med šolo in ABSTRACT – Constructive school-family collabora- družino je pomemben dejavnik otrokovega razvoja in tion is an important factor of a child’s development njegove uspešnosti v šoli. Starši in učitelji prepozna- and school achievement. Parents and teachers iden- vajo to sodelovanje kot pomembno, vendar raziskave tify school-family collaboration as significant, but the pogosto kažejo nezadovoljstvo z ene ali druge strani. research findings often show dissatisfaction on one Namen članka je pojasniti temeljne koncepte znotraj or both sides. The aim of the paper is to explicate the partnerskega modela, ki prispevajo k učinkovitemu main concepts that contribute to an efficient school- sodelovanju med šolo in družino. Omenjeni model family collaboration within the partnership model. It predstavljava z vidika dveh temeljnih teoretičnih iz- is presented from the viewpoint of two basic theoreti- hodišč: kontekstualizma in procesno usmerjenega cal foundations: contextualism and process-oriented dela. Predstaviva pregled teoretskih konceptov v po- collaboration. We present the overview of theoretical vezavi s podatki, ki sva jih pridobili pri predmetih in concepts linked to the empirical data which we ob- usposabljanjih na temo procesnega sodelovanja med tained in the courses and trainings on the process of šolo in družino. Predstavljeni koncepti so: enakovre- collaboration with parents and families. The presented den odnos in predpogoji zanj, vloga otroka v procesu concepts are: equal relationship and its preconditions, soustvarjanja, reflektirano ravnanje z močjo in vloga the role of the child in the co-creation process, reflec- dialoga. V zaključkih predlagava, da naj prevladujo- tive dealing with power and the role of dialogue. In či instrumentalni pristop nadomesti bolj prožen in za the conclusions we suggest that the predominant in- kontekst občutljiv pristop tudi že na preddiplomski strumental approach should be replaced with a more stopnji študijskih programov, ki izobražujejo študente flexible and context-sensitive approach already on the za pedagoške poklice, in (posledično) v praksi. undergraduate level of educational study programmes and (consequently) in practice. 1 Introduction “School-family partnership” is a concept in which at least three big spheres of everyday life interact, i.e. school, family and community (Epstein, 2011). Two and a half decades of research into the cooperation between school and family (ibid.) has shown the importance successful cooperation has in a child’s development (Moorman Kim & Sheridan, 2015). During that time, different concepts and models of coopera- tion with parents emerged. In the paper we present the partnership from two basic di- mensions: contextualism and process-oriented collaboration. Our perspective is based on Bronfenbrenner’s theory which takes into account that within and among each of the ecological levels depicted one may conceive of bi-directional relationships existing 88 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) among the people populating the network (Lerner et al., 2002). According to the model, research must focus on relations (processes) among levels, and not on any one level per se. The family-school link is also an integral part of a set of interconnected systems that contribute to a child’s development and his/her school achievement. Therefore, we have to understand this link as a dynamic and constantly changing process. In the next sections, we present the overview of theoretical concepts which are connected to the empirical data that we obtained in the courses on the process of col- laboration with parents and families. These concepts will be explicated through the most common challenges or themes that were reported by students or educators whom we have worked with over the past six years on the topic of collaboration with par- ents and families (workshops for school counsellors and preschool teachers, under- and postgraduate courses and trainings that we have taught at the Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, between 2012 and 2018 – approximately 100 students a year). 2 Preconditions for Establishing Equal Relationships One of the basic elements that are significantly linked to the way family and school collaborate are beliefs (Clarke, Sheridan & Woods, 2010), which reflect the wider social and cultural context of all parties involved (parents, children, teachers and school coun- sellors). Subjective beliefs are shaped by their experiences in the family, with institu- tions, etc., and influence the manner of entering into the collaboration, and affect it in a unique way. We are often not aware of them, at least not of their influence on our points of view and attitudes, and consequently on how we establish collaboration (Marentič Požarnik, 2018). They are most visible when they are concerned with the different cul- tural or social backgrounds of the participants (McWayne, 2015). Inaccurate beliefs often limit a teacher’s actions and lead to a number of problems in communication and relationships. Many authors (e.g. Korthagen, 2009; Valenčič Zuljan, 2004) stress the importance of raising awareness about inaccurate beliefs, and develop various ways to devise different, reflected upon, and higher-quality methods, linked with professional identity development. The ability to reflect is necessary for de- veloping collaborative relationships with families because it facilitates the change and growth of professionals, e.g. the awareness of experiences in their families projected onto their professional relationships. Subjective beliefs determine how the professional will approach the collaboration. Slovenian research (e.g. Kalin et al., 2009; Turnšek, 2008; Turnšek, 2016) shows that most of the implicit, subjective beliefs held by teachers and students are still instru- mental. We are convinced that the instrumental approach restricts collaboration. For example, when students ask about what office hours, parent-teacher meetings, etc. are supposed to look like, we cannot find a suitable response while searching for answers only in terms of instrumentally naming the activities. The question is limiting because it is based only on form – a predetermined form of collaboration that fails to see the uniqueness of each situation. Working with families creates its own, new, and unique context every time, which means that we must consider the context and rethink the pa- rameters of the collaboration every time as well. The methods, techniques, and various Klemenčič Rozman, PhD, Poljšak Škraban, PhD: The Context-Sensitive Processes of... 89 approaches should only serve as guidelines for how we act and should be used only if suitable within the context. Opposite to the instrumental approach, the process-oriented approach delves into the expectations of everyone involved, which can change continuously and contribute to common meaningful and attainable collaboration goals for everyone involved (Clarke et al., 2010; Jensen & Jensen, 2011). If we understand collaboration as a process, in line with developmental contextualism (Lerner et al., 2002), goals change with the changing individual and the changing environment. The goals should be personally significant for all the participants. Therefore, an effective, comprehensive approach requires that all parties (including the child) are included in the process, and goals need to be updated and even redefined if necessary (Micucci, 2009). Most research exposes the importance of the congruence of the teachers’ and the parents’ view of collaboration (e.g. D’Haem & Griswold, 2017; Dusi, 2012; Epstein, 2011; Moorman Kim & Sheridan, 2015). This is the most frequent challenge profession- als face in practice. Minke, Sheridan, Moorman Kim, Hoon Ryoo and Koziol (2014) find that by exploring the consistency or congruence in the perceptions between mem- bers of the dyad, and understanding the ways in which congruence affects the child’s outcomes, it may be possible to direct interventions more efficaciously. The research in Razpotnik, Turnšek, Rapuš Pavel and Poljšak Škraban (2015), dealing with collabora- tion with vulnerable families, also found that differences in views result in less effective approaches if these are not reflected on. 3 Equal Relationship and the Role of the Child in the Co-Creation Process We understand the role of the child similar to Lerner et al. (2002, p. 320), who defined it as “a source of her or his own development; the child may play a major role in influencing the actions of his or her environment.” Čačinovič Vogrinčič (2008) simi- larly defines the child’s role as an active expert in experience, which is why it is impera- tive that children are equal participants in the processes that concern them. Čačinovič Vogrinčič (2013) highlights how necessary it is to make sure collaboration between adults does not exclude the child or threaten their autonomy or interests. In the process of collaboration, we might come to think we are speaking about the child’s views and opinions, while we are actually talking about a parent’s or a teacher’s construct of the child’s views (Šugman Bohinc, 2013). Jensen and Jensen (2011) emphasize the im- portance of the pedagogue’s ability to “see” the individual child on their own terms, to attune their behaviour accordingly without giving up leadership or the ability to be authentic in their contact with the child. We have found that of all the participants in a school-family collaboration, the child is still the one who is afforded the least power of participation despite the fact that the results of the collaboration will affect the child the most. An equal position of the child in the collaboration is possible when we follow the directions of the so-called co-crea- tion process. Co-creation as a term characterizes shared interests and the possibilities to 90 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) create something that does not yet exist, where all parties collaborate as equals with a clear definition of each party’s responsibilities (Čačinovič Vogrinčič, 2008). In line with the conditions for co-creating processes where each member is heard, Jensen (2009) pointed out that a relationship being equal means that the points of view, feelings, expe- riences, and self-understanding of all parties is considered equally important for estab- lishing and developing that relationship. This is possible only when the relational values and relational competence of the professionals have been developed (ibid.). Satisfactory relationships enable a personal way of leading the process. As Jensen (2009) explains, “personal leading” means that the professional clearly expresses their impressions, ex- pectations, wishes, etc., which helps their interlocutors become aware of their expecta- tions and needs; this consequently encourages communication. Individuals are prepared to collaborate if they are invited into a dialogue that ensures their inclusion and a feeling of connectedness. Effective dialogue is based on the ability and desire of the adult to respond openly, sensitively, and inclusively to the inner reality and self-understanding of the person in the dialogue (ibid.). The process-oriented approach allows us to develop equal relationships, which, according to Jensen and Jensen (2011), in turn create a space where parents are seen as engaged and productive dialogue partners. The importance of establishing an equal relationship with the parents is also affirmed by McWayne (2015, p. 118), who writes that “seeking to support non-hierarchical and reciprocal dialogue between parents and teachers is always necessary.” In practice, professionals often perceive the parents as part of the problem (e.g. Bequedano-Lopez, Alexander & Hernandez, 2013), which is the consequence of the instrumental approach. A Slovenian study, entitled The Challenges and Guidelines for Quality Coopera- tion between Schools and Parents (Kalin et al., 2009), found that the relational level was the biggest problem when it came to collaboration. This was pointed out by both teachers and parents, and was particularly noted by parents with a lower level of educa- tion and those whose children achieved lower academic results, whom the researchers also saw as being more passive when it came to collaboration. Furthermore, the views concerning mutual expectations showed that the most common type of relationship was one in which the parents were in an inferior position (most parents were critical of that, but some even considered it appropriate). These results are not surprising because the prevalent practice does not include the process-oriented aspect that makes developing a relationship possible. The prevalent approach makes it difficult to understand what is behind the passive attitude of certain parents or the needs of families from diverse cultural and social backgrounds; instead of establishing a dialogue with them, we cat- egorize them, for example, as being passive. Based on this, we conclude the approach was not sufficiently culturally or socially sensitive. One of the obstacles that stands in the way of being prepared to adopt the process- oriented approach is the fear of entering an equal relationship, as both students and teachers often see the relationship as an issue. Teachers are afraid that establishing a relationship weakens their position and that they lose authority. This is consistent with the findings of Dusi (2012) who states that the idea of parental involvement triggers the teachers’ fears of losing their professional autonomy, their educational-didactic man- agement and authority. Klemenčič Rozman, PhD, Poljšak Škraban, PhD: The Context-Sensitive Processes of... 91 In the discussions with professionals, some of them argue for the standpoint that cooperation with parents can never be equal due to the professional status of the teach- ers as experts in the field of education and their professional autonomy. We disagree with this standpoint and argue for a clear definition of the positions in the dialogue and the responsibilities for it. Having an equal position means professionals and parents are included as human beings, and therefore both have the same competency to engage in the dialogue; they are also both working towards the same aim: to support the child in their development. In terms of responsibilities, the professional is responsible for the quality of the relationship (Jensen, 2009) and for leading the process, while both are responsible for their cooperation. 4 Awareness in Reflective Dealing with Power Establishing an equal relationship opens up the question of power and responsibil- ity of all involved (Juul & Jensen, 2009). In the school system, teachers are holders of authority; they have the institutional power over children and parents. Due to this position of power, it is always the responsibility of the professional (Dusi, 2012; Jens- en & Jensen, 2011) to provide space for and ensure the realization of a partnership. Dec- ades ago, Bronfenbrenner (1979) stated that most families are doing their best under the circumstances and that it is important for the professional to understand the families and their circumstances and try to affect, first and foremost, those circumstances that will make it possible for the families to change as well. Otherwise, parents often develop a tough attitude towards institutions and are afraid to show vulnerability. Understanding collaboration as a process is thus always contextualized. Dusi (2012) writes that a decontextualized understanding of processes and the transformation of social problems into individual or educational problems reduces the parents and children to the objects of an intervention. Based on an analysis of working with vulnerable families, Razpotnik, Turnšek, Rapuš Pavel and Poljšak Škraban (2016) come to similar conclu- sions. This is more often the case in the instrumental approach where not all participants have a chance to express their viewpoints. Instead of creating new, flexible approaches of working with these families and revealing systemic social injustice, individualization pathologizes the families, frequently ones that are facing poverty, are of a different race, or are immigrants (Bequedano-Lopez et al., 2013). The individualization of systemic inequalities and injustices, and the resulting pathologizing manifests as tension in the school-family collaboration. Unresolved tension in the collaboration with families is often the consequence of an unequal distribution of resources and structures of power (ibid.). 5 The Role of Dialogue in Flexible Responses Dusi’s (2012) and Jensen and Jensen’s (2011) concept of promoting dialogue is a suitable point of view for fully understanding the complexity of everyday reality in the classroom. “Promoting dialogue with parents does not mean merely looking for con- 92 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) sensus; it means allowing for confrontation, reflecting on various points of view and creating a dialogue with perspectives that are often in contrast.” (Dusi, 2012, p. 15). Therefore, an open dialogue is accompanied by insecurity and discomfort because this kind of dialogue is not necessarily predictable (Jensen & Jensen, 2011). Not knowing where the conversation may lead us is often experienced as a threat. Good dialogue is equal, although the participants are not in equal roles, and is not meant to reveal a truth that already existed, but to create a new truth (ibid.). The glue that holds everything together in the collaboration is the language used, as many authors emphasize (e.g. Clarke et al., 2010; Verbnik Dobnikar, 2002). The essence is the manner of communication and not just the content, thereby signalling an important shift from what needs to be said to how it needs to be said in order to be comprehended. Beside the language aspect, Čačinovič Vogrinčič (2013) also notes the importance of leading the conversation from talking about problems to talking about solutions that are based on the strengths perspectives of those involved. The language used by the professionals shows the constructs or preconceived no- tions they have when establishing cooperation with the family. By being process-orient- ed, we are able to give ourselves the space for changing, and for changing our language and actions as well. Personal and professional development (Jensen, 2009; Korthagen, 2009) is an ongoing process in which we examine, acknowledge, and engage the pat- terns of thought and behaviour that impede and obstruct our way to fulfilling our pro- fessional commitment and potential in relation to others (Jensen, 2009), which are also important aspects of the processual approach to collaborating with families. Reflec- tion is an important element of professional and personal development and needs to be trained systematically (Korthagen, 2009). This was also confirmed by findings in the research conducted among Slovenian teachers and head teachers (Erčulj & Škodnik, 2013). Klobučar, Ajdukovič and Šincek (2011) stress not only the importance of a pro- fessional’s development, but also the development of the institution, with supervision playing an important role; both would merit some consideration in the Slovenian educa- tion system as well. The current lack of a system of supervision represents an untapped resource for empowering the teaching staff. 6 Conclusion The context-sensitive and process-oriented approach offers some new aspects of collaboration. According to Bronfenbrenner (1979), it focuses on the processes on each level of the system and among them (micro, mezzo, exo, macro, and chrono) and al- lows us to consider the historical and cultural diversity of families, which requires new forms of collaboration. In our view, this approach makes it possible to reach diverse families more easily because an entire spectrum of variability and its dynamic nature are taken into account. Hence, it does not favour any of the existing family forms and family functioning. The paradigm of the process-oriented approach leads us to answer the question of how we do our work rather than what we do. In order to achieve that, we need to de- scribe what each party involved is doing instead of characterizing or labelling all parties Klemenčič Rozman, PhD, Poljšak Škraban, PhD: The Context-Sensitive Processes of... 93 (persons) involved; therefore, we have to be careful about the language we use. We are compelled to provide the possibility to comprehend changes in a timeline, including an understanding of the developmental nature of all persons involved. The person who is responsible for leading a process is the professional, whereas the responsibility to cooperate on an equal level lies on all sides. The professional creates the space for each participant to have a chance to express their views and share them, instead of implement- ing different schemas of work. When working in a process-oriented way, we co-create new solutions, ideas, and outcomes together, instead of just informing, organizing, and working one-way. This is the case when the instrumental approach is implemented. The teachers or other professional workers in school often come up with ideas or organize ac- tivities, etc. which is a one-way offer of services or a set of demands imposed by schools on families (Klemenčič Rozman, 2017). In the process-oriented approach it is rather the opposite: the professionals ask and listen to what the children and parents in each classroom are dealing with, what their needs and conditions are, and how all of them (in- cluding the teacher) can learn from each other. To sum up, the process-oriented approach of the school-family partnership primarily focuses on how the process unfolds in an ongoing partnership when activities and relationships are a function of the process itself. The process-oriented approach, where an important element is building and main- taining relationships between equal participants, is often criticized as having the el- ements of a therapy. We would argue against this as the process-oriented approach, along with the equal position of all participants, also requires assigning responsibility to everyone, formulating common goals, finding solutions, and respecting the autonomy of the subsystems. Collaborating does not mean losing autonomy because autonomy does not mean the inability to collaborate. Last but not least, a process-oriented and context-sensitive school-family partnership does not focus on (psycho)therapeutic work but focuses on the agreement of all participants with the aim of the child’s well-being in the school system. In order to develop and establish a process-based understanding of family-insti- tution collaboration, a comprehensive shift of the pedagogical process into a context- based, processual-response orientation is required beforehand. Unfortunately, the in- strumental approach is still predominant on all levels of education in Slovenia; it is the simplest and easy to prepare for, but at the same time it has the highest probability of unsatisfactory results. Studying and training for the process-oriented approach requires experiential process learning. We conclude that the paradigm of the context-sensitive process-oriented approach needs to be developed among teachers and school counsellors in order to empower pro- fessionals in an important area of their work, i.e. collaborating with families. Fear of the latter is highly correlated to a lack of education in this area from university courses on- wards. In a study conducted in Slovenia (Rizman Herga & Šrot, 2013), a large percent- age of teachers (especially younger teachers) expressed the need for additional train- ing on cooperating with parents. At this point in time, Bogdan Zupančič and Krajnčan (2019) stress the role of the development of relational and general social-emotional competency. It would help if university courses for pedagogues and school counsellors put more focus on it and included the required courses on this subject. Education in this area is developing, but it is nowhere near where it needs to be. We aim at creating a 94 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) model that would be as inclusive, culturally and socially sensitive, and empowering as possible with the notion that it would change dynamically according to context. Dr. Mija Marija Klemenčič Rozman, dr. Olga Poljšak Škraban Kontekstualno občutljivi procesi partnerstva med šolo in družino Partnerstvo med družino in šolo je koncept, znotraj katerega se prepletajo in sov- plivajo vsaj tri velike sfere vsakdanjega življenja, tj. šole, družine in skupnosti (Epstein, 2011). Dve desetletji in pol raziskovanja tega pojava je pokazalo pomen uspešnega sodelovanja za otrokov razvoj (Moorman Kim in Sheridan, 2015). V tem času so se po- rajali različni koncepti in iz njih nastali modeli sodelovanja. V prispevku predstavljava partnerstvo z vidika dveh temeljnih teoretičnih izhodišč: kontekstualizma in procesno usmerjenega sodelovanja. Najino razumevanje sloni na Bronfenbrennerjevi teoriji, iz katere sledi, da se morajo raziskave osredinjati na odnose (procese) med posamezinimi ravnmi sistema in ne na posamezne ravni per se. Prispevek nudi pregled posameznih teoretičnih konceptov, povezanih z empiričnimi podatki, ki sva jih avtorici v obdobju med letoma 2012–2018 pridobili od slušateljev pri izvajanju predmetov na Pedagoški fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani in strokovnih delavk na drugih strokovnih usposabljanjih o procesih sodelovanja med šolo in družino (približno 100 študentov v študijskem letu). Koncepti so predstavljeni skozi najpogosteje artikuli- rane izzive ali teme, izpostavljene na omenjenih oblikah izobraževanj in usposabljanj. Prvi izstopajoči koncept so subjektivna prepričanja, ki predstavljajo predpogoj za osnovanje enakopravnega partnerstva. Najbolj opazna postanejo pri soočenju z drugim kulturnim ali socialnim ozadjem udeleženih (McWayne, 2015). Določajo, kako bodo strokovnjaki pristopili k sodelovanju. Slovenske raziskave (Kalin in sod., 2009; Turnšek, 2008; Turnšek, 2016) kažejo, da je večina implicitnih, subjektivnih prepričanj učiteljev in študentov še vedno instrumentalno naravnanih. Osredinjajo se na to, kaj početi, in ne na to, kako ravnati pri strokovnem delovanju. Instrumentalna usmerjenost na formo oz. shemo delovanja ne zmore zaobjeti kompleksnosti vsakokrat novega in edinstvenega konteksta. Forme, sheme, metode in tehnike so lahko zgolj smernice za ravnanje, ki jih je smotrno izvajati zgolj v primeru, če so konstruktivne znotraj posameznega konteksta. Če razumemo sodelovanje kot proces, se skladno z razvojnim kontekstualizmom (Lerner in sod., 2002) cilji sodelovanja spreminjajo s spreminjajočim se posameznikom in spreminjajočim se okoljem. Cilji sodelovanja naj bi bili za vse udeležene osebno pomembni (Jensen in Jensen, 2011) in naj bi se jih v procesu sodelovanja posodabljalo in ponovno opredeljevalo, v kolikor se to izkaže za potrebno (Micucci, 2009). Večina raziskav prikazuje pomen skladnosti med pogledi učiteljev in staršev na sodelovanje (npr. D’Haem & Griswold, 2017; Dusi, 2012; Epstein, 2011; Moorman Kim & Sheri- dan, 2015) za uspešne izide. Čeprav sodelovanje med šolo in družino najbolj zadeva otroka, je temu dodeljena najmanjša participatorna vloga, na kar opozarja Čačinovič Vogrinčič (2013), ko oprede- ljuje otroka kot eksperta iz izkušenj in izpostavlja, da sodelovanje med odraslimi ne sme izključevati otroka ali ogroziti njegove avtonomije in interesov. V procesih sodelovanja Klemenčič Rozman, PhD, Poljšak Škraban, PhD: The Context-Sensitive Processes of... 95 se lahko zgodi, da mislimo, da govorimo o otrokovih pogledih in mnenjih, a dejansko go- vorimo o konstruktih staršev ali učiteljev o otrokovih pogledih (Šugman Bohinc, 2013). Enakopravni položaj otroka v procesu sodelovanja se vzpostavi, ko sledimo smernicam t. i. procesa soustvarjanja, kjer nastaja izid, pri katerem vsi udeleženi sodelujejo enako- pravno z jasno opredeljenimi odgovornostmi vsake strani (Čačinovič Vogrinčič, 2008). Jensen (2009) izpostavlja, da se enakopravni odnos vzpostavi šele takrat, ko so pogledi, občutja, izkušnje in samorazumevanje vseh udeleženih enako pomembni. Slovenska študija Izzivi in smernice kakovostnega sodelovanja med šolo in star- ši (Kalin in sod., 2009) je pokazala, da je ravno odnosna raven največji problem pri sodelovanju. Učitelji tudi na usposabljanjih izražajo strah, da bo vzpostavljanje odno- sa oslabilo njihovo pozicijo in bodo tako izgubili avtoriteto. Podobno ugotavlja Dusi (2012), da ideja vključenosti staršev naslavlja strahove učiteljev, da bodo izgubili stro- kovno avtonomijo, svoj izobraževalno-didaktični menedžment in avtoriteto. Avtorici zagovarjava stališče, da so tovrstni strahovi odveč in da je za omogočanje enakopravnega odnosa nujno potrebno jasno opredeliti pozicijo udeleženih v dialogu in odgovornosti zanj. Imeti enakopravno pozicijo pomeni, da smo strokovnjaki in starši vključeni kot človeška bitja in imamo zato enake kompetence za udeleženost v dialogu; oboji tudi delujemo z istim namenom – podpreti otroka in njegov razvoj. Če pa govori- mo o odgovornostih, pa je strokovnjak odgovoren za kakovost odnosa (Jensen, 2009) in za vodenje procesa, medtem ko sta obe strani odgovorni za sodelovanje. Vzpostavljanje enakopravnega položaja odpira vprašanje moči in odgovornosti vseh udeleženih (Juul in Jensen, 2009). V šolskem sistemu imajo učitelji institucionalno moč nad otroki in starši. Zaradi te pozicije moči je vedno odgovornost strokovnjaka (Dusi, 2012; Jensen in Jensen, 2011), da omogoča prostor in zagotavlja udejanjenje partnerstva. Gre torej za zavedanje pomena reflektirajočega ravnanja z močjo. Že pred desetletji je Bronfenbrenner (1979) navedel, da je pomembno, da se strokovnjak zave- da, da v danih okoliščinah večina družin deluje najbolje kakor lahko in da je potrebno vplivati na te okoliščine, kar bo omogočilo spremembe v družini oz. v njenem delovanju. Razumevanje partnerstva kot procesa je torej vedno kontekstualno. Dusi (2012) meni, da de-kontekstualizirano razumevanje procesa in spreminjanje socialnih proble- mov v individualne ali izobraževalne probleme zreducira starše in otroke na objekt intervencij. To je še toliko bolj verjetno pri instrumentalnem pristopu, kjer nimajo vsi udeleženi možnosti izraziti svojih pogledov. Namesto ustvarjanja novih, prožnih pristo- pov pri sodelovanju s temi družinami in razkrivanja socialne nepravičnosti individuali- ziranje patologizira družine, najpogosteje te, ki se soočajo z revščino, so druge rase ali so priseljeni (Bequedano-Lopez in sod., 2013). Individualizacija sistemskih neenakosti in nepravičnosti in iz tega izhajajoče patologiziranje se izkazuje v napetostih v sodelo- vanju med šolo in družino (prav tam). Kompleksnost življenjskih okoliščin vpliva tudi na kompleksnost vsakodnevnega ži- vljenja v razredu. Da bi tega zmogli v polnosti razumeti, nam služi koncept promoviranja dialoga (Dusi, 2012; Jensen in Jensen, 2011), pri čemer promoviranje dialoga ne po- meni “iskanja konsenza, temveč dovoljuje konfrontacijo, reflektira različna gledišča in ustvarja dialog s pogledi, ki so si pogosto v nasprotju” (Dusi, 2012, str. 15). Zato odprt dialog vedno spremljata negotovost in nelagodje, saj take vrste dialog ni nujno pred- vidljiv (Jensen in Jensen, 2011). Zanj je bistveno, da sogovorniki zmorejo preobrat od 96 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) osredinjenosti na vsebino k osredinjenosti na način komunikacije, tj. ne zgolj kaj govori- mo, temveč kako govorimo, da bo druga stran zmogla razumeti sporočilo. Poleg vidika jezika Čačinovič Vogrinčič (2013) izpostavlja tudi pomen vodenja pogovora, in sicer od govora o problemih h govoru o rešitvah, ki temelji na perspektivi moči udeleženih. Jezik, ki ga strokovnjaki uporabljajo, kaže konstrukte ali predsodke, ki jih imajo do vzpostavljanja sodelovanja z družino. Procesna usmerjenost omogoča prostor za stro- kovnjakovo spreminjanje; za spreminjanje rabe jezika in delovanja. Spreminjanje pa je gonilo osebnega in strokovnega razvoja (Jensen, 2009) in je po svoji naravi proces, ki nima končne točke. Če strnemo, kontekstualno občutljiv in procesno usmerjen pristop ponuja nekatere nove vidike sodelovanja. Po Bronfenbrennerju postavlja v ospredje procese na vsaki ravni sistema in med njimi (mikro-, mezo-, ekso-, makro- in krono-) in nam dovoljuje premislek o zgodovinskih in kulturnih raznolikostih družin. Avtorici meniva, da tak pri- stop omogoča lažji dostop do raznolikih družin, ker upošteva celoten spekter raznoliko- sti in njene dinamične narave, vendar pa ne protežira nobene od obstoječih družinskih oblik ali oblik družinskega delovanja. Paradigma procesno usmerjenega pristopa vodi do odgovora na vprašanje, kako delujemo, namesto kaj počnemo. Pri tem pristopu soustvarjamo nove rešitve, ideje in iz- ide skupaj in ne samo zgolj informiramo, organiziramo in enosmerno delujemo. Slednje je značilno za instrumentalni pristop. Procesno usmerjen pristop, kjer je pomemben element grajenje in vzdrževanje odnosov med enakopravnimi člani (ki pa nimajo enakih vlog!), je pogosto deležen kritike v smislu, da ima elemente terapije in kot tak zato ne sodi v šolo. Avtorici se ne strinjava s tem, saj ta pristop ob upoštevanju enakopravnih pozicij vseh udeleženih zahteva dogovor o odgovornostih vsakega udeleženega, formu- liranje skupnih ciljev, iskanje rešitev in spoštovanje avtonomije podsistemov. Enakovre- dno sodelovanje ne pomeni izgube avtonomije strokovnjaka, česar jih je pogosto strah, saj tudi avtonomija ne pomeni nezmožnosti sodelovanja. Gre torej bolj za drugače raz- porejeno moč sodelujočih. Nenazadnje, procesno usmerjeno in kontekstualno občutlji- vo sodelovanje med šolo in družino se usmerja na udejanjanje dogovorov udeleženih v dobrobit otrokovega delovanja v šolskem sistemu. Pogoj, da se lahko vzpostavi in razvija procesno usmerjeno razumevanje sodelo- vanja med družino in institucijo, je celovit obrat pedagoškega procesa v usmerjenost, ki temelji na upoštevanju vsakokratnega konteksta in procesnega odzivanja. Na žalost je instrumentalni pristop še vedno prevladujoč pristop na vseh ravneh izobraževanja v Sloveniji. Res je, da je najbolj preprost in se nanj zlahka pripravimo (se naučimo tehnik, metod), a hkrati najbolj verjetno vodi do nezadovoljivih rezultatov. Izobraže- vanje in usposabljanje za procesno usmerjen pristop terja izkustveno učenje o procesu delovanja. Strah strokovnjakov pred sodelovanjem z družino je v močni zvezi z umanjkanjem izobraževanja na tem področju vse od univerze dalje. V pomoč bi bilo, če bi univerzi- tetni študijski programi za (bodoče) strokovnjake, delujoče na pedagoškem strokovnem polju (učitelji, šolska svetovalna služba), temu posvečali več pozornosti in ponujali ob- vezne predmete o tej tematiki. Izobraževanje na tem področju se spreminja, a ni niti blizu temu, kjer bi moralo biti. Stremiva k razvoju takega modela sodelovanja, ki bi bil kar najbolj vključujoč, kulturno in socialno občuljiv in bi v največji možni meri spod- Klemenčič Rozman, PhD, Poljšak Škraban, PhD: The Context-Sensitive Processes of... 97 bujal opolnomočenje udeleženih ob upoštevanju dejstva, da se tudi ta model dinamično spreminja glede na kontekst. REFERENCES 1. Bequedano-Lopez, P., Alexander, R., Hernandez, S. (2013). Equity Issues in Parental and Com- munity Involvement in Schools: What Teacher Educators Need to Know. Review of Research in Education, 37, pp. 149–182. 2. Bogdan Zupančič, A., Krajnčan, M. (2019). Odnosna kompetenca strokovnih delavcev v osnov- ni šoli. Pedagoška obzorja–Didactica Slovenica, 34 (1), pp. 58–72. 3. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 4. Clarke, B.L., Sheridan, S.M., Woods, K.E. (2010). Elements of Healthy Family-School Relati- onships. In: Christenson S. & Reschly A. L. (Eds.) Handbook of School-Family Partnerships. New York, London: Routledge, pp. 61–79. 5. Čačinovič Vogrinčič, G. (2008). Soustvarjanje v šoli: učenje kot pogovor. Ljubljana: Zavod Re- publike Slovenije za šolstvo. 6. Čačinovič Vogrinčič, G. (2013). Spoštovanje otroštva. In: Kodele T. & Mešl N. (Eds.) Otrokov glas v procesu učenja in pomoči. Priročnik za vrtce, šole in starše. Ljubljana: Zavod Republike Slovenije za šolstvo, pp. 11–40. 7. D’Haem, J., Griswold, P. (2017). Teacher Educators’ and Student Teachers’ Beliefs About Pre- paration for Working with Families Including those from Diverse Socioeconomic and Cultural Backgrounds. Education and Urban Society, 49 (1), pp. 81–109. 8. Dusi, P. (2012). The Family-School Relationships in Europe: A Research Review. CEPS Jour- nal, 2 (1), pp. 13–33. 9. Epstein, J.L. (2011). School, Family, and Community Partnerships: Preparing Educators and Improving Schools (2nd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press, cop. 10. Erčulj, J., Škodnik, R. (2013). Spodbujanje refleksije pri učiteljih. Pedagoška obzorja–Didactica Slovenica, 28 (3–4), pp. 17–31. 11. Jensen, H. (2009). Razvijanje odnosnih kompetenc. Workshop, Familylab Ljubljana: Ljubljana, 20.–22.11.2009. 12. Jensen, E., Jensen, H. (2011). Dialog s starši. Ljubljana: Inštitut za sodobno družino Manami. 13. Juul, J., Jensen, H. (2009). Od poslušnosti do odgovornosti. Ljubljana: Didakta. 14. Kalin, J, Resman, M., Šteh, B., Mrvar, P., Govekar-Okoliš, M., Mažgon, J. (2009). Izzivi in smernice kakovostnega sodelovanja med šolo in starši. Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, Filo- zofska fakulteta. 15. Klemenčič Rozman, M.M. (2017). Process-oriented Approach in School-Family Partnership. In: Saqipi, B. & Vogrinc J. (Eds.) The Prospects of Reforming Teacher Education. Prishtinë: Shtëpia Botuese Libri Shkollor, pp. 260–280. 16. Klobučar, J., Ajdukovič, M., Šincek, D. (2011). Očekivanja, percepcija potrebe i poteškoća pri uvođenju supervizije iz perspektive ravnatelja centara za socijalnu skrb. Ljetopis socijalnog rada, 18 (2), pp. 281–303. 17. Korthagen, F. (2009). Praksa, teorija in osebnost v vseživljenjskem učenju. Vzgoja in izobraže- vanje, 40 (4), pp. 4–14. 18. Lerner, M.R., Rothbaum, F., Boulos, S., Castellino, D.R. (2002). Developmental Systems Per- spective on Parenting. In: Bornstein M.H. (Ed.) Handbook of Parenting, Vol. 2: Biology and Ecology of Parenting (2nd ed.). Mahwah, New Jersey, London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, publishers, pp. 315–344. 19. Marentič Požarnik, B. (2018). Psihologija učenja in pouka: od poučevanja k učenju. Ljubljana: DZS. 20. McWayne, C.M. (2015). Family-School Partnerships in a Context of Urgent Engagement: Rethin- king Models, Measurement, and Meaningfulness. In: Sheridan S. M. & Moorman Kim E. (Eds.) Foundational Aspects of Family-School Partnership Research. Cham: Springer, pp. 103–124. 98 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) 21. Micucci, J.A. (2009). The Adolescent in Family Therapy: Harnessing the Power of Relation- ships. New York: Guilford Press. 22. Minke, K.M., Sheridan, S.M., Moorman Kim, E., Hoon Ryoo, J., Koziol, N.A. (2014). Congru- ence in Parent-Teacher Relationships. In: Faculty Publications from CYFS (Paper 98, pp. 527– 546). Retrieved on 20.05.2019 from world wide web: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3dc8/96 22957504ce60b691b3eb6605b956a379d4.pdf. 23. Moorman Kim, E., Sheridan S.M. (2015). Foundational Aspects of Family-School Connecti- ons: Definitions, Conceptual Frameworks, and Research Needs. In: Sheridan S. M. & Moorman Kim E. (Eds.) Foundational Aspects of Family-School Partnership Research. Cham: Springer, pp. 1–14. 24. Razpotnik, Š., Turnšek, N., Rapuš Pavel, J., Poljšak Škraban, O. (2015). Potrebe ranljivih dru- žin in odzivi vzgojno-izobraževalnega sistema. In: Devjak T. (Ed.) Vpliv družbenih sprememb na vzgojo in izobraževanje. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta v Ljubljani, pp. 309–324. 25. Razpotnik, Š., Turnšek, N., Rapuš Pavel, J., Poljšak Škraban, O. (2016). Lifeworld-oriented Fa- mily Support. CEPS Journal, 6 (4), pp. 115–139. 26. Rizman Herga, N., Šrot, K. (2013). Mnenje osnovnošolskih učiteljev o usposobljenosti za sode- lovanje s starši. Revija za elementarno izobraževanje, 2/3 (6), pp. 223–239. 27. Turnšek, N. (2008). Subjektivne teorije o otroštvu in vzgoji. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta v Ljubljani. 28. Turnšek, N. (2016). Teachers’ Implicit Theories on Child Participation in Preschool. Athens Journal of Education, 3, pp. 7–18. 29. Šugman Bohinc, L. (2013). Otroštvo in otrokov glas v starih in novih raziskavah o otrocih. In: Kodele, T. & Mešl, N. (Eds.) Otrokov glas v procesu učenja in pomoči. Priročnik za vrtce, šole in starše. Ljubljana: Zavod Republike Slovenije za šolstvo, pp. 65–78. 30. Valenčič Zuljan, M. (2004). Pojmovanja učiteljeve in učenčeve vloge pri pouku kot del učitelje- ve profesionalne opreme. In: Marentič Požarnik B. (Ed.) Konstruktivizem v šoli in izobraževa- nje učiteljev. Ljubljana: Filozofska fakulteta, Center za pedagoško izobraževanje, pp. 527–544. 31. Verbnik Dobnikar, T. (2002). Razrednik na stičišču vlog. Socialna pedagogika, 6 (1), pp. 47–66. Mija Marija Klemenčič Rozman, PhD (1979), Assistant Professor for Social Pedagogy at Univer- sity of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education. Address: Kardeljeva ploščad 16, 1000 Ljubljana; Telephone: (+386) 01 589 22 00 E-mail: mija-marija.klemencic@pef.uni-lj.si Olga Poljšak Škraban, PhD (1957), Assistant Professor for Developmental Psychology at University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education. Address: Kardeljeva ploščad 16, 1000 Ljubljana; Telephone: (+386) 01 589 22 00 E-mail: olga.poljsak-skraban@pef.uni-lj.si Dr. Sonja Pečjak, dr. Tina Pirc Fazaniranje dijakov novincev z vidika spola fazanerjev Prejeto 17.09.2019 / Sprejeto 10.02.2020 Received 17.09.2019 / Accepted 10.02.2020 Znanstveni članek Scientific paper UDK 364-632:373.5 UDC 364-632:373.5 KLJUČNE BESEDE: fazaniranje, fantje in dekleta, KEYWORDS: hazing, boys and girls, hazing activi- fazaniranje, šolska klima pri medvrstniškem nasilju ties, school climate of school bullying POVZETEK – V prispevku prikazujemo iniciacijski ABSTRACT – In our paper we present the initia- obred sprejema dijakov novincev v srednjo šolo, znan tion rite of admission of student-novices to second- pod nazivom fazaniranje. Zanimale so nas razlike med ary school, which is known as pheasanting/hazing. fanti in dekleti pri izvajanju t. i. neuradnega fazani- We were interested in the differences between boys ranja, ki poteka izven okvira šol. V raziskavi, v kateri and girls in unofficial hazing that takes place out- je sodelovalo 458 dijakov 4. letnika srednjih šol, smo side schools. 458 4th year secondary school students ugotavljali, ali obstajajo med spoloma razlike v pogo- participated in our study. Our aim was to find out stosti in trajanju vloge fazanerja, v aktivnostih, s kate- whether there were gender differences in the frequency rimi so fazanirali novince, in v njihovi zaznavi šolske and duration of the role of hazer, in the hazing activi- klime, povezane z medvrstniškim nasiljem. Ugotovili ties aimed at newcomers, and in their perceptions of smo, da dekleta in fantje največ fazanirajo v drugem school climate regarding peer bullying. We found that letniku; da fantje ostajajo v vlogi fazanerja skozi vsa both girls and boys most frequently perform hazing in štiri leta šolanja, medtem ko se število deklet fazanerk their 2nd year; that boys remain in the role of hazers v tretjem in četrtem letniku pomembno zmanjša. Rezul- throughout the four years of schooling, while the num- tati nadalje kažejo, da tako dekleta kot fantje največ ber of girls who perform hazing declines significantly fazanirajo z nedolžnimi aktivnostmi, da pa fantje v pri- in the 3rd and the 4th year. The results further show that merjavi z dekleti pogosteje fazanirajo z bolj nasilnimi both girls and boys mostly perform innocent hazing ac- aktivnostmi ter da zaznavajo šolsko klimo kot takšno, tivities, but boys are more likely to be more violent than ki dopušča več agresivnosti. Na koncu izpostavljamo girls, and they perceive the school climate as one that pedagoške implikacije dobljenih ugotovitev. allows more aggression than the girls do. 1 Uvod V prispevku prikazujemo psihološke vidike iniciacijskega obreda sprejema novin- cev v srednjo šolo, v Sloveniji znanega kot fazaniranje (v nadaljevanju: F). Beseda fazaniranje ima svoj izvor v vojaški terminologiji, ko je bilo obvezno enoletno služenje vojaškega roka. Nove vojake, ki so prišli na to služenje, so stari vojaki, ki so bili že dalj časa v vojski, klicali “fazani”. Sam obred pa ima korenine v različnih iniciacijskih obredih, namen katerih je omogočiti posameznikom prehod iz ene skupine v drugo, praviloma iz nižjega na višji socialni položaj. Bauer Raposo, Nunes Caldeira, Martins, Mendes in Osvaldo (2015) v svojem preglednem članku pišejo, da lahko tovrstne ini- ciacijske obrede beležimo v šolskem prostoru povsod po svetu, največ jih najdemo v anglosaškem prostoru (kjer gre za sprejem v različne bratovščine in sestrščine), pa tudi ponekod v Evropi (npr. praxe na Portugalskem) in drugod (npr. trote v Braziliji). Ti ini- 100 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) ciacijski obredi so bili sprva omejeni zgolj na visoko šolstvo, zdaj pa se prenašajo tudi na nižje izobraževalne ravni – kot je to v primeru naše raziskave, ki zajema 15-letne učence novince ob vstopu v srednjo šolo. F (v tuji strokovni literaturi znano kot hazing) opredeljujejo avtorji na dva načina. Nekateri ga definirajo dokaj nevtralno kot ritualne iniciacije, katerih glavni namen je sprejem novincev (newcomer) v skupino (Dias in Sá, 2012) in vzdrževanje hierarhije v skupini (Lipkins, 2006). Pri tem pa Bauer Raposo in sod. (2015) opozarjajo, da pomanj- kanje strukture samega obreda F lahko pripelje do zlorab in raznih ekscesov. Pogosteje avtorji opredeljuje F kot aktivnost, katere namen je, da se posameznik pridruži določeni skupini, vendar na način, ki ga ponižuje, degradira, zlorabi ali je nevaren zanj, ne glede na to, ali je posameznik pri tem pripravljen sodelovati ali ne (Hoover in Pollard, 2000). Cimino (2011) pa dodaja, da je to “strošek”, ki ga mora nov član skupine “plačati”, da lahko vstopi v skupino, pri čemer pa izvajanje aktivnosti nima nobene zveze z dejavno- stjo same skupine. Za “nagrado” so potem novinci sprejeti kot pravnomočni člani neke skupnosti. Dejavnosti F sodijo v to drugo kategorijo opredelitev. Strokovna literatura navaja zelo raznovrstne aktivnosti hazinga, ki jih avtorji raz- lično kategorizirajo in jih lahko uporabimo tudi za razvrščanje. F. Hoover in Pollard (2000) navajata tri vrste hazinga: poniževanje (kjer gre za žaljivo ali nesodelovalno ve- denje do novincev ali izoliranje novincev od ostalih članov skupine za določeno obdo- bje), zloraba snovi (gre za zlorabo tobaka, alkohola ali prepovedanih drog pri novincih) in nevarna dejanja (boleča, agresivna in destruktivna vedenja do novincev). Lundeen (2013) pa piše o treh skupinah aktivnosti. Prvo predstavlja nedolžno F (subtle hazing), ki vključuje relativno neškodljive aktivnosti, katerih namen je predvsem smešenje, po- nižanje ali izzivanje občutka zadrege pri novincih. To so aktivnosti, pri katerih morajo biti novinci npr. daljše časovno obdobje tiho, nepremično stati v vrsti, prenašati neko stvar, ali aktivnosti, kjer označujejo novince z nekim znakom ali jih kličejo z raznimi neprijetnimi imeni. Motiv je po navadi zgolj izkazovanje moči starejših dijakov nad no- vinci. Druga skupina aktivnosti je F z elementi medvrstniškega nasilja (harassment ha- zing), ki vključuje aktivnosti, ki povzročajo novincem tako psihično kot fizično trplje- nje. Mednje sodijo aktivnosti, kot so npr. izpostavljenost novincev verbalnim zlorabam in grožnjam, posipavanje z moko in obmetavanje z jajci ali paradižniki, prikrajševanje za spanec ali različna prisilna antisocialna vedenja, kot npr. da so novinci osebni služab- niki starejšim dijakom in jim prenašajo torbe ali pa so prisiljeni v simulacijo spolnega odnosa itd. Motiv je izzvati občutja fizičnega ali psihičnega neugodja in vznemirjenja pri novincu. Tretji tip pa je nasilno F (violent hazing), kjer gre za aktivnosti, ki predsta- vljajo veliko tveganje za nastanek škodljivih posledic, tako na področju telesnega kot duševnega stanja novinca. Takšne dejavnosti so npr. siljenje novincev k prekomernemu uživanju alkohola ali drugih vrst psihoaktivnih substanc, siljenje k uživanju pripravkov/ zvarkov, ki se po navadi ne uživajo, različne oblike fizičnega nasilja – pretepanje, žigo- sanje z razbeljenimi železnimi pripomočki, dotikanje z električnimi napravami ali zah- teve, da novinec izvaja nezakonite/kriminalne aktivnosti, npr. da krade ali je vključen v druga antisocialna vedenja. S. Lipkins (2006) to zadnjo obliko hazinga imenuje nevarni hazing. F lahko torej obravnavamo na kontinuumu vedenj, ki ne sodijo v medvrstniško nasilje (nedolžno F), preko tistih vedenj, ki sodijo v medvrstniško nasilje (F z elementi medvrstniškega nasilja), do vedenj, ki presegajo medvrstniško nasilje in predstavljajo že kriminalna dejanja (nasilno F). Dr. Sonja Pečjak, dr. Tina Pirc: Fazaniranje dijakov novincev z vidika spola fazanerjev 101 Pri F (uradnem in/ali neuradnem) imamo tri skupine udeležencev: izvajalce inici- acijskega obreda (fazanerje), novince – tarče in opazovalce, ki niso aktivno vpleteni. Fazanerji so praviloma dijaki višjih letnikov, ki imajo – v primerjavi z novinci – višji socialni položaj in izkušnje, pridobljene v času šolanja. Med njimi so taki, ki so bili že v preteklosti fazanerji, pa tudi taki, ki so bili nekoč sami žrtve hazinga, pa so zdaj dobili priložnost, da bodo lahko to vrnili drugim – novincem (Lipkins, 2006). Tarče so dijaki prvih letnikov, ki imajo s prihodom v srednjo šolo avtomatično nižji socialni položaj v skupini. V želji, da postanejo člani neke skupine/skupnosti, so novinci pripravljeni spre- jeti najrazličnejše naloge, samo da dokažejo svojo predanost skupini in s tem pridobijo članstvo v njej ter si s tem zagotovijo višji status (Johnson, 2011) ali zaščito s strani skupine, potem ko so vanjo sprejeti (Cimino, 2013). S. Lipkins (2006) opozarja, da tudi ko F preraste v ustrahovanje in nasilno F, pri katerem se novinci počutijo nemočne, ti ne nasprotujejo aktivnostim, ki so jim podvrženi, če ni nasprotovanja s strani okolja (dru- gih učencev in učiteljev). S tem usmerja pozornost na pomembno vlogo najštevilčnejše skupine – opazovalce F, ki jo sestavljajo starejši dijaki ali novinci, ki niso tarče. Hkrati s tem izpostavlja tudi vlogo šolske kulture/klime v povezavi z dovoljeno stopnjo medvrstniškega nasilja na šoli. Šolska kultura naj bi bila namreč pomemben napovednik pojavnosti nasilnih vedenj na šoli (Gregory in Cornell, 2009; Pečjak in Pirc, 2017) – tudi pri neuradnem F. Gre za zaznave dijakov, koliko je šola (učitelji) naklonjena oz. tolerantna do agresivnih vedenj med dijaki, ali jih zaustavlja, kakšne so posledice za nasilneže, ali razvija kulturo medsebojne podpore in iskanja pomoči v primerih medvrstniškega nasilja ipd. Raziskav o razlikah med spoloma je na področju medvrstniškega nasilja veliko, manj pa jih je na področju F. Glede na to, da F lahko hitro preide od nedolžnih oblik k oblikam medvrstniškega nasilja in k še hujšim nasilnim dejanjem, izpostavljamo nekaj značilnih razlik med spoloma pri medvrstniškem nasilju. Ugotovitve različnih raziskav bi lahko povzeli v nekaj ključnih točkah (Pečjak, 2015): □ v medvrstniškem nasilju je udeleženih več fantov kot deklet tako v vlogi nasilnežev kot žrtev (Olweus, 1993); □ fantje so pogosteje udeleženi pri fizičnem, dekleta pri odnosnem nasilju (Polak, Smrtnik Vitulić in Vošnjak, 2011); □ število fantov izvajalcev ostaja skozi leta relativno enako, medtem ko šte- vilo deklet izvajalk s starostjo pomembno upade; □ dekleta nasilnice pogosteje izvajajo nasilje v skupinah kot fantje. Pri preučevanju medspolnih razlik pri hazingu raziskave kažejo, da med fanti in dekleti obstajajo razlike v aktivnostih, s katerimi ti iniciirajo novince. Fantje pogosteje izvajajo aktivnosti, s katerimi dokazujejo svojo dominantnost in moč nad novinci ter pogosteje iniciirajo novince moškega spola (Allan in Kinney, 2017). E. Allan in M. Madden (2008) pa sta v obsežni nacionalni študiji v ZDA ugotovili, da izvajajo dekleta manj nasilne aktivnosti kot fantje; če pa že, jih izvajajo v manjšem obsegu. Podobno ugotavljata tudi Johnson in Holman (2004) ter dodajata, da dekleta pogosteje kot fantje upoštevajo željo novincev, če ti ne želijo sodelovati v ritualu. Zaradi bolj nasilnega hazinga so posledice teh ritualov bolj usodne za fante, saj se pogosteje končajo celo s smrtjo (Nuwer, 2017). 102 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) V pričujoči raziskavi smo preučevali eno od dveh pojavnih oblik F – in sicer neura- dno F. V slovenskih srednjih šolah se pojavlja t. i. “uradno” in “neuradno” F. Uradno F se izvaja v mnogih šolah kot 1–3-urni program za novince (dijake 1. letnika), ki ga naj- večkrat organizirajo dijaki zadnjega (4.) letnika. Program poteka po določenih pravilih ob prisotnosti dijakov šole in pedagoških delavcev ter ima že relativno dolgo tradicijo. Druga oblika F pa je neuradno F, ki je v zadnjem obdobju močno v porastu. Gre za F, ki ga izvajajo starejši dijaki nad novinci, največkrat v šoli in okolici šol, v mestnih sre- diščih, na avtobusnih postajah, in traja dalj časa kot uradno F – od nekaj dni do enega tedna (Kebler, 2016; Pečjak in Pirc, 2019). Tovrstno F pa ob zmanjšani kontroli avto- ritet (učiteljev) lahko vodi v izživljanje nad dijaki novinci in ima lahko zanje hude po- sledice. V številnih primerih neuradnega F osnovni motiv fazanerjev ni sprejeti novince medse, pač pa pokazati dominantnost nad njimi, jih ponižati, ustrahovati ipd. Ta kultura neuradnega F, ki se je močno razširila v zadnjih letih med srednješolci, je potencialno nevarna še iz enega razloga. Tako dijaki kot tudi pedagoški delavci zaznavajo uradno in neuradno F kot dva ločena procesa. Pri tem se šola in učitelji čutijo odgovorne za ustrezno izvedbo uradnega, ne pa tudi neuradnega F. Med dijaki in pedagoškimi delavci so razširjena prepričanja, da slednje F ni “stvar šole”. Zato smo v članku želeli raziskati prav pojavne oblike “neuradnega” fazaniranja, pri čemer smo izhajali s perspektive fazanerjev. Ugotoviti smo želeli: □ razlike med fazanerji – fanti in dekleti glede na vzorec F (kdaj so bili prvič v tej vlogi, kako dolgo so fazanerji in koliko novincev so F v posa- meznih letnikih); □ katere iniciacijske aktivnosti so izvajali nad novinci v času njihovega šti- riletnega šolanja – zanimalo nas je, ali gredo v tem iniciiranju “predaleč” (v nasilje in kriminalna dejanja) in ali med fanti in dekleti obstajajo ka- kšne razlike v izvedenih aktivnostih neuradnega F; □ ali se fazanerji glede na spol razlikujejo v njihovi zaznavi šolske klime pri medvrstniškem nasilju (MVN). 2 Metoda 2.1 Udeleženci V priložnostnem vzorcu je sodelovalo 458 dijakov 4. letnikov iz 11 srednjih šol. Med njimi je bilo 263 fantov (57,4 %) in 195 deklet (42,6 %). Od celotnega vzorca sta bila 102 dijaka fazanerja, kar pomeni 25 % vseh dijakov. Od fazanerjev je bilo 58,8 % fantov in 41,2 % deklet, kar kaže, da je zastopanost fazanerjev v relativnem deležu ena- ka, kot je zastopanost dijakov glede na spol v celotnem vzorcu. 2.2 Instrumenti Uporabili smo dva vprašalnika – lastni vprašalnik o fazaniranju in vprašalnik šol- ske klime pri MVN. Dr. Sonja Pečjak, dr. Tina Pirc: Fazaniranje dijakov novincev z vidika spola fazanerjev 103 Vprašalnik o fazaniranju (Pečjak, 2016) je imel dva dela. Prvi del s 5 postavkami je spraševal dijaka o njegovi vlogi pri fazaniranju (fazaner – nefazaner); v katerem letniku je prvič fazaniral; v katerih letnikih je fazaniral; koliko novincev v posameznih letnikih je fazaniral in po katerih kriterijih jih je izbiral. Drugi del je imel 23 postavk z opisom posameznih aktivnosti F, od tega 9 postavk za nedolžno F (α = 0.85), 8 postavk za F z elementi MVN (α = 0.91) in 6 postavk za nasilno F (α = 0.88). Dijaki so odgovarjali s pomočjo 5-stopenjske lestvice (0 – nikoli; 1 – 1-krat, 2 – 2- do 3-krat, 3 – 4- do 7-krat in 4 – več kot 7-krat). Vprašalnik šolske klime pri medvrstniškem nasilju (Cornell, 2012, prevod v slo- venščino Pečjak in Pirc, 2017) ima štiri dele. Za namen raziskave smo uporabili samo del, ki sprašuje dijake po zaznavi šolske klime pri medvrstniškem nasilju. Ima 21 po- stavk, na katere dijaki odgovarjajo s pomočjo 4-stopenjske lestvice (1 – sploh se ne strinjam; 4 – popolnoma se strinjam) in meri tri faktorje: razširjenost medvrstniškega nasilja na šoli (5 postavk, α = 0.67); dopuščanje agresivnosti/agresivnih stališč (7 po- stavk, α = 0.72) in iskanje pomoči (9 postavk, α = 0.79). 2.3 Postopek zbiranja in obdelave podatkov Podatki so bili zbrani maja 2019. Po zbranih soglasjih šol in soglasjih dijakov za sodelovanje v raziskavi so ti odgovarjali na oba vprašalnika tipa papir-svinčnik med rednimi urami pouka. Za odgovarjanje so porabili približno 20 minut. Za ugotavljanje in testiranje pomembnosti razlik med spoloma v posameznih spremenljivkah smo upo- rabili χ2-test ter enosmerno analizo variance (ANOVO) in Mann-Whitneyev U-test. Za ugotavljanje velikosti učinka razlik med spoloma pa mero eta kvadrat (η2). 3 Rezultati 3.1 Razlike med spoloma v osnovnih značilnostih fazaniranja Najprej prikazujemo razlike med dekleti in fanti, ki so fazanirali, glede na to, kdaj so pričeli s F in koliko časa so bili v vlogi fazanerja (tabela 1), nato pa še glede na šte- vilo fazaniranih novincev in kriterije F (tabeli 2 in 3). Tabela 1: Število in odstotek fazanerjev po spolu glede na začetek F in dolžino vloge fazanerja Začetek fazaniranja M (f, f %) Ž (f, f %) 2. letnik 46 (76,7) 32 (76,2) 3. letnik 9 (15,0) 9 (21,4) 4. letnik 5 (8,3) 1 (2,4) χ2 (1, N = 102) = 2,07; p = 0.356 104 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) Trajanje vloge fazanerja M (f, f %) Ž (f, f %) samo 2. letnik 9 (24,3) 17 (68,0) 2., 3. in 4. letnik 28 (75,7) 8 (32,0) χ2 (1, N = 62) = 11,69; p = 0.001** Opombe: M – fantje; Ž – dekleta; f – število; f % – odstotek; χ2 – hi kvadrat; ** p ˂ 0.01 Iz tabele 1 lahko razberemo, da med spoloma ni razlik v tem, kdaj so pričeli s fa- zaniranjem – večina fantov in deklet je fazanirala že v drugem letniku, bistveno manj fantov in deklet pa je novince fazaniralo v 3. in 4. letniku. Tabela 2: Rezultati Mann-Whitneyevega U-testa o razlikah v številu fazaniranih novin- cev glede na spol Število fazaniranih N M SD U p η2 M 60 13.69 27.56 2. letnik 1082.00 0.402 0.01 Ž 40 7.90 7.96 M 60 12.29 27.59 3. letnik 923.00 0.048 0.04 Ž 40 5.53 7.56 M 60 12.70 30.44 4. letnik 707.50 0.000 0.14 Ž 40 1.65 3.94 Tabela 3: Enosmerne analize variance za razlike med spoloma glede na kriterije F Kriteriji fazaniranja novincev N M SD F df p η2 M 60 3.05 1.47 Mlajši videz 0.00 1 0.997 0.00 Ž 41 3.05 1.41 M 60 2.82 1.42 Manj upiranja 0.00 1 0.952 0.00 Ž 42 2.83 1.27 M 60 2.47 1.44 Prestrašenost 8.66 1 0.004 0.08 Ž 42 1.69 1.09 Odstopanje od M 59 2.00 1.13 povprečja 2.06 1 0.154 0.02 Ž 42 1.69 0.97 M 58 1.78 0.97 Socialna izoliranost 10.20 1 0.002 0.09 Ž 42 1.24 0.58 M 60 3.25 1.59 Delal se je “frajerja” 2.03 1 0.157 0.06 Ž 42 2.81 1.45 Slučajno je M 60 3.15 1.46 prišel mimo 0.00 1 0.980 0.00 Ž 42 3.14 1.42 Dr. Sonja Pečjak, dr. Tina Pirc: Fazaniranje dijakov novincev z vidika spola fazanerjev 105 Pri trajanju vloge fazanerja smo izbrali dve skrajni skupini fazanerjev – tiste, ki so fazanirali le v 2. letniku, in tiste, ki so fazanirali v vseh treh letnikih šolanja, zaradi česar je bil vzorec fazanerjev manjši. Ugotovili smo pomembne razlike med spoloma – po- membno večje število deklet je fazaniralo novince le v 2. letniku in pomembno več fantov v vseh letnikih šolanja. Ugotovimo lahko (tabela 2), da so fantje v vseh letih fazanirali v povprečju več no- vincev kot dekleta, pri čemer so bile razlike med spoloma pomembne v tretjem letniku (majhna velikost učinka) in četrtem letniku (velik učinek). Rezultati v tabeli 3 kažejo, da med spoloma obstajajo razlike le v dveh kriterijih pri izbiri tarč: fantje pomembno pogosteje kot dekleta izbirajo novince, ki delujejo ali pre- strašeno ali so socialno izolirani. V obeh primerih so velikosti učinkov razlik srednje. 3.2 Razlike med posameznimi vrstami fazaniranja glede na spol Najprej prikazujemo razlike med fanti in dekleti fazanerji glede na vrste F, kot jih navaja Lundeen (2013) (tabela 4). Tabela 4: Enosmerne analize variance za razlike med spoloma glede na Lundeenovo (2013) klasifikacijo F Vrste fazaniranja N M SD F df p η2 M 57 0.78 0.77 Nedolžno fazaniranje 4.44 1 0.038 0.04 Ž 41 0.49 0.48 Fazaniranje z M 59 0.55 0.78 elementi MVN 5.07 1 0.027 0.05 Ž 42 0.23 0.59 M 58 0.36 0.72 Nasilno fazaniranje 3.84 1 0.053 0.04 Ž 42 0.12 0.39 Opombe: 0 – nikoli, 1 – 1-krat, 2 – 2- do 3-krat, 3 – 4- do 7-krat, 4 – več kot 7-krat Iz tabele je razvidno, da se med spoloma pojavljajo pomembne razlike pri vseh treh vrstah fazaniranja – tako pri nedolžnem kot tistem z elementi MVN in tudi pri nasilnem fazaniranju. Fantje so pomembno pogosteje kot dekleta uporabljali vse vrste fazanira- nja, pri čemer je bila velikost učinka razlik med spoloma pri vseh vrstah F majhna. Ker pa posamezne vrste fazaniranja vključujejo različne dejavnosti, nas je podrob- neje zanimalo, pri katerih aktivnostih konkretno se fantje fazanerji razlikujejo od de- klet, ki fazanirajo (tabela 5). Rezultati kažejo, da pri večini aktivnosti F med dekleti in fanti, ki fazanirajo, ni pomembnih razlik. Ugotovili pa smo, da fantje pomembno pogosteje kot dekleta od novincev zahtevajo, da javno nastopajo, nosijo oblačila, ki jim povzročajo zadrego, in merijo velike razdalje z manjšimi predmeti. Fantje novince tudi pogosteje škropijo ali polivajo z vodo. 106 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) Tabela 5: Enosmerne analize variance za razlike med spoloma v posameznih aktivno- stih fazaniranja Zahteve fazanerjev in siljenje v aktivnosti N M SD F df p η2 Pisanje po koži in/ali oblačilih M 59 2.51 1.24 Ž 42 2.60 1.19 0.12 1 0.725 0.00 Klicanje s frrrr... M 58 1.28 1.46 Ž 42 1.00 1.29 0.96 1 0.330 0.01 Javno nastopanje M 58 0.55 1.08 Ž 42 0.17 0.70 4.11 1 0.045 0.04 Barvanje s pršilom M 58 0.47 0.90 Ž 42 0.29 0.86 1.00 1 0.319 0.01 Uprizoritev neke aktivnosti M 59 0.46 1.02 Ž 42 0.24 0.79 1.36 1 0.247 0.01 Stik z določeno znano/neznano M 59 0.53 1.16 osebo Ž 42 0.19 0.71 2.75 1 0.101 0.03 Izvedba aktivnosti z zavezanimi M 59 0.36 0.76 očmi Ž 41 0.17 0.70 1.52 1 0.220 0.01 Nošenje oblačil, ki povzročajo M 59 0.42 0.99 zadrego Ž 42 0.00 0.00 7.73 1 0.006 0.07 Merjenje velikih razdalj M 59 0.46 1.06 (npr. z vžigalico) Ž 42 0.00 0.00 7.87 1 0.006 0.07 Škropljenje/polivanje z vodo M 59 0.83 1.22 Ž 42 0.24 0.69 8.05 1 0.006 0.07 Uživanje ekstremno pekoče hrane M 59 0.37 0.89 Ž 42 0.07 0.26 4.54 1 0.036 0.04 Obmetavanje s hrano M 59 0.68 1.31 Ž 42 0.24 0.76 3.84 1 0.053 0.04 Polivanje z vodo in posipanje M 59 0.54 1.06 z moko Ž 42 0.26 0.80 2.10 1 0.150 0.02 Obmetavanje s koruzo M 59 0.86 1.28 Ž 42 0.45 0.99 3.05 1 0.084 0.03 Služenje starejšemu dijaku M 59 0.37 0.83 Ž 42 0.21 0.81 0.91 1 0.341 0.01 Simuliranje spolnega odnosa M 59 0.34 0.92 Ž 42 0.12 0.45 2.04 1 0.156 0.02 Nadlegovanje neznane osebe M 59 0.39 0.95 Ž 42 0.21 0.81 0.95 1 0.333 0.01 Pitje pretiranih količin alkohola M 59 0.44 0.84 Ž 42 0.21 0.56 2.32 1 0.131 0.02 Uživanje snovi, ki temu niso M 59 0.20 0.52 namenjene Ž 42 0.10 0.48 1.13 1 0.291 0.01 Brcanje, udarjanje M 59 0.25 0.66 Ž 42 0.07 0.34 2.71 1 0.103 0.03 Pranje glave v WC-školjki M 58 0.50 1.14 Ž 42 0.19 0.77 2.31 1 0.132 0.02 Kraja ali uničevanje tuje lastnine M 59 0.32 0.82 Ž 42 0.07 0.34 3.49 1 0.065 0.03 Pitje tako velike količine alkohola, M 59 0.44 1.07 da povzroči slabost ali nezavest Ž 42 0.10 0.43 2.91 1 0.051 0.04 Nasilno fazaniranje Fazaniranje z MVN Nedolžno fazanianje Dr. Sonja Pečjak, dr. Tina Pirc: Fazaniranje dijakov novincev z vidika spola fazanerjev 107 Omeniti velja še razliko med fanti in dekleti pri eni izmed aktivnosti nasilnega F – fantje pogosteje kot dekleta novince silijo k pitju tako velikih količin alkohola, da to povzroči slabost ali nezavest, pri čemer je razpršenost podatkov precejšnja. 3.3 Razlike med fanti in dekleti fazanerji v njihovi zaznavi šolske klime Zanimalo nas je, kako fazanerji (fantje in dekleta) zaznavajo šolsko klimo v pove- zavi z MVN (tabela 6). Tabela 6: Enosmerne analize variance razlik med spoloma glede na zaznano šolsko kli- mo pri MVN Šolska klima N M SD F df p η2 M 59 2.18 0.63 Razširjenost MVN 0.47 1 0.493 0.00 Ž 41 2.27 0.66 Dopuščanje/toleriranje M 59 2.23 0.58 agresivnosti/agr. stališč 34.37 1 0.000 0.26 Ž 42 1.60 0.45 M 58 2.78 0.57 Iskanje pomoči 1.25 1 0.266 0.01 Ž 40 2.91 0.51 Rezultati kažejo, da med spoloma obstaja pomembna razlika le pri dimenziji dopu- ščanje/toleriranje agresivnih stališč, in sicer fantje v pomembno večji meri zaznavajo, da šola tolerira agresivna stališča do drugih dijakov kot dekleta. 4 Diskusija V raziskavi smo preučevali pojavne oblike neuradnega F kot iniciacijskega obreda za dijake novince, ki vstopajo v srednjo šolo, z vidika dijakov, ki fazanirajo – fazener- jev. Namen uradnega iniciacijskega obreda je sprejem novincev v novo skupnost dolo- čene srednje šole z različnimi (zabavnimi) aktivnostmi, vprašanje pa je, kakšen je na- men neuradnega F. To F se praviloma dogaja izven šol (v njihovi okolici, na avtobusnih postajah in v mestnih središčih), izvajajo ga starejši srednješolci (ali pa tudi osebe, ki niso srednješolci) nad novinci, ki so velikokrat že v šoli označeni z znakom “F(azani)” in s tem identificirani kot novinci. Neuradne aktivnosti F pa se raztezajo na kontinuumu od tistih bolj blagih pa vse do nasilnih, včasih tudi kriminalnih iniciiranj. Problem tega pojava je še večji, ker se niti šole (in šolsko osebje) niti kdo drug ne čuti odgovornega za zaustavitev tovrstnega početja izven šol. Zato se zdi, da v zadnjih letih postaja to F vedno bolj priložnost za raznorazne oblike nasilništva in izživljanja nad vrstniki, ki ga nasilneži skrijejo pod krinko nekega legalnega obreda. V raziskavi, v kateri so nas zanimale razlike med fanti in dekleti, ki so bili v pre- teklosti fazanerji, smo si postavili tri raziskovalna vprašanja. Prvo je bilo, ali glede na spol obstaja nek značilni vzorec F v tem, kdaj so se prvič znašli v vlogi fazanerja, kako 108 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) dolgo so že fazanerji, koliko novincev so iniciirali v posameznih letnikih in po katerih kriterijih so izbirali novince za F. Ugotovili smo, da v tem, kdaj so pričeli s F, med spo- loma ni bilo razlik – kar tri četrtine fazanerjev, tako fantov kot deklet, so novince F že v drugem letniku. Bistveno manj deklet in fantov pa se je za prvo F odločilo v 3. oz. 4. letniku. “Kritični” letnik za F je torej drugi. Morda tiči razlog v tem, da so to dijaki, ki se jim je socialni status avtomatično povišal s tem, ko so na šolo prišli novinci, ki so v soci- alni hierarhiji zasedli najnižje mesto. Zato so nekateri starejši dijaki prepričani, da lahko z njimi ravnajo na bolj avtoritaren, dominanten način (Drout in Corsoro, 2003), in svojo nadvlado nad novinci skušajo potem pokazati tudi pri F. Hkrati pa npr. raziskava Bauer Raposo in sod. (2015) kaže, da že zgolj višja pozicija moči pri nekaterih starejših dija- kih povečuje njihovo nagnjenost k bolj agresivnemu ravnanju, kar se lahko odrazi pri neuradnem F, ki praviloma poteka ob odsotnosti avtoritet (učiteljev in drugih odraslih). In na še en motiv za prevlado fazanerjev iz 2. letnika opozarjajo avtorji – mnogi dru- gošolci so bili sami v vlogi tarč pri F v preteklem šolskem letu. Spomini na neugodna občutja, na poniževanje in podrejenost ter ob tem na stres so pri mnogih še precej živi in se morda želijo novincem maščevati oz. nanje “prenesti” ta negativna občutja (Johnson, 2011). Naslednja ugotovljena pomembna razlika med spoloma je, da je večina deklet (68 %) F samo v 2. letniku, kar 77 % fantov pa v vseh treh letnikih ter da so fantje v 3. in 4. letniku fazanirali pomembno več novincev kot dekleta. Dobljeni rezultat je skladen npr. z ugotovitvami raziskav o MVN. Te kažejo, da je med fanti že od predšolskega obdobja več nasilnežev, pri čemer se njihovo število z leti šolanja ne zmanjšuje (Olwe- us, 1995; O’Neill, 2008; Salmivalli in Voeten, 2004). To avtorji največkrat pripisujejo procesu socializacije, tj. učenju socialne vloge, vezane na spol. Od fantov večina (starši, vzgojitelji, učitelji) pričakuje, da bodo odločni, da se bodo sposobni ubraniti pred napa- di drugih, si pridobiti mesto v družbi, pri čemer ima agresivnost pomembno vlogo. Pri tem fantje pomembno pogosteje kot dekleta izbirajo novince, če ti delujejo prestrašeno in/ali so socialno izolirani. Zaključimo lahko, da je skupno obema spoloma, da največ fazanirajo v 2. letniku, razlika med fazanerji v spolu pa je, da fantje ostanejo v vlogi fazanerja vsa leta srednje šole in da fazanirajo v povprečju več novincev kot dekleta. Drugo raziskovalno vprašanje je bilo, ali obstajajo med fanti in dekleti kakšne raz- like v aktivnostih neuradnega F. Zaradi večje dopuščene agresivnosti pri fantih smo pričakovali morebitne razlike v tistih aktivnostih, ki jih Lundeen (2013) uvršča med F z elementi MVN in nasilnega F. Rezultati (tabela 5) potrjujejo te predpostavke, saj smo ugotovili, da se med spoloma pojavljajo pomembne razlike pri nedolžnem F in F z ele- menti MVN, pri nasilnem F pa so te na meji pomembnosti. Analiza spolnih razlik med njimi pri posameznih aktivnostih pa kaže, da so fantje pomembno pogosteje kot dekleta polivali novince z vodo, jih obmetavali s hrano, od njih zahtevali uživanje ekstremno pekoče hrane, da so javno nastopali pred publiko, da so nosili oblačila, ki so jim pov- zročala nelagodje, ter jih silili v uživanje alkohola, ki je vodilo v slabost oz. nezavest. Primerjava petih najpogostejših aktivnosti po spolu kaže, da so tako fantje kot de- kleta najpogosteje popisovali novince po koži (s F), klicali za njimi frrrr… in jih obme- tavali s koruzo. Potem pa so fantje še obmetavali novince s hrano in jih polivali z vodo, dekleta pa so jih polivala z vodo in barvala s pršilom. Primerjava posameznih aktivnosti kaže, da so vsi fazanerji, tako fantje kot dekleta, zahtevali od novincev podobne stvari, pri čemer pa so fantje to zahtevali od njih v povprečju dvakrat pogosteje kot dekleta. Ve- Dr. Sonja Pečjak, dr. Tina Pirc: Fazaniranje dijakov novincev z vidika spola fazanerjev 109 čjo pogostost izvajanja posameznih dejavnosti iniciiranja pri fantih kažejo tudi podobne tuje študije (npr. Allan in Madden, 2008). Ker je šolska klima/kultura pomemben napovednik MVN na šoli (Gregory in Cor- nell, 2009; Pečjak in Pirc, 2017) in ker smo pri dekletih ugotovili, da F v manjšem ob- segu in tudi krajši čas, je bilo naše tretje raziskovalno vprašanje, ali se fantje in dekleta razlikujejo v zaznavi šolske klime, povezane z MVN. Pomembne razlike med spoloma v zaznavi šolske klime, povezane z MVN, v kar se pogosto spreminja tudi F, smo ugo- tovili pri njihovi zaznavi, koliko šolsko okolje dopušča oz. tolerira agresivna stališča med dijaki. Pokazalo se je, da fantje v pomembno večji meri kot dekleta zaznavajo, da šola dopušča več agresivnosti med dijaki. To je verjetno delno povezano s pričakovanji šolskega osebja (predvsem učiteljev) v zvezi z vedenjem fantov. Zlasti drža učiteljev ob MVN (tudi pri F) je tista, ki sporoča nasilnežem in opazovalcem, koliko nasilja bodo dopustili in kako se bo to razmahnilo med učenci. Če ob pojavu nasilja učenca nasilneža takoj zaustavijo in mu jasno povedo, da takega vedenja ne bodo dopuščali, je to jasno sporočilo ne le nasilnežem, pač pa tudi opazovalcem, kakšno je pričakovano in želeno vedenje (Reyes Rodriguez, Noriega in Valdes Cuervo, 2017; Rigby, 2014; Yoon, 2004), kar velja tudi pri obredu F. Hkrati pa prakse direktnih intervencij s strani učiteljev po- večujejo tudi zaznave pri žrtvah, da lahko računajo na pomoč šole oz. učiteljev. Ta po- moč je lahko emocionalna (podprejo žrtve/tarče in jim pokažejo, da razumejo njihovo situacijo) ali instrumentalna (zaustavijo fazanerja, ki nasilno F sovrstnika). Učinkovita pomoč je tudi informiranje oz. ozaveščanje dijakov višjih letnikov takoj na prvi šolski dan. Razredniki se z njimi pogovorijo o F, jim postavijo jasna pravila glede uradnega in neuradnega F in opozorijo na posledice, ki jih bodo morali potencialni fazanerji pre- vzeti, kar je še bolj kot za dekleta pomembno za fante. K ukrepanju pa lahko spodbu- dijo tudi dijake, ki ne fazanirajo, temveč izvajanje aktivnosti z novinci le opazujejo. Ti učenci se v primerih tradicionalnega MVN najpogosteje postavijo v bran žrtvi (Pečjak in Pirc, 2015), zato sklepamo, da bi ta skupina dijakov lahko imela moč, da pomaga dijakom novincem tudi pri zoperstavljanju fazanerjem. Poleg ustvarjanja šolskega okolja, v katerem se spodbuja vzajemno spoštovanje, za- upanje in razumevanje, kar je pomemben dejavnik preprečevanja nasilja na šoli (Jevtić in Petrović, 2016), pa avtorji preventivnih programov poudarjajo (npr. Srabstein in sod., 2008), da bi poleg šole veljalo bolj aktivirati tudi starše dijakov ter širšo skupnost. Tu imamo v mislih predvsem medije in njihov domet pri ozaveščanju mladih glede F. Podob- no kot ob vstopu prvošolcev v osnovno šolo mediji vsako leto poročajo o potrebni skrbi voznikov in ostalih, da prvošolcem zagotovijo (fizično) varnost, bi lahko mediji bolj pro- movirali tudi take iniciacijske aktivnosti sprejema novincev v srednjo šolo, ki ne bi rušile občutka psihične varnosti dijakov novincev in jim puščale drugih negativnih posledic. Sonja Pečjak, PhD, Tina Pirc, PhD Hazing Student-Novices with Regard to Hazers’ Gender In our contribution, we present some psychological aspects of the initiation rite of accepting student-novices to secondary school, which is known as “pheasanting” in 110 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) Slovenia, but has similar characteristics as hazing. Pheasanting/hazing has its roots in different initiation rites, which enable individuals to pass from the group with lower so- cial status to the group with a higher one. Such rites are common all around the world, but were at first limited to tertiary education. Lately, the rites of passage occur more often also at lower educational levels, such was also in the case of our study, which focused on 15-year-old student-novices at their entry to secondary school. Hazing is often described as a process which aims at accepting newcomers into a group, but the activities used during that process are humiliating, degrading or danger- ous, without considering the newcomer’s willingness to participate in them. The reward, however, is being accepted as an equal member of a certain society (Hoover & Pollard, 2000). There are several classifications of hazing activities, which could be used also to categorize pheasanting activities. We derived from Lundeen’s classification (2013), which defines three groups of hazing activities. Subtle hazing includes relatively harm- less activities with their intention being to make fun of newcomers, to humiliate or to embarrass them with the main motive being to show the power of the older students over the younger ones (e.g. signing the skin of novices, calling them names, making them stand still for a long time). The second is harassment hazing with elements of peer bullying, which causes mental and physical suffering of the student-novices (e.g. verbal abuse and threats, throwing food at novices, depriving them of sleep). The last is violent hazing which involves activities with substantial risk of detrimental consequences for the physical and mental state of an individual (e.g. beating the novices, demanding them to perform criminal acts, forcing them to drink excessive amounts of alcohol). In hazing, we have three groups of participants – hazers/performers of hazing ac- tivities, novices – targets and the observers, who are not actively involved in the process of hazing. Hazers are usually older students with a higher social status and more ex- perience. Some of them were already hazers in the past, while some were once victims of hazing and are now given the chance to get even by taking it out on the novices (Lipkins, 2006). The targets are first-year students, which have the lowest social status by having just entered secondary school. In their desire to become part of the group, they are willing to get through diverse assignments to prove their devotion to the group and to gain a higher social status (Johnson, 2011) or to be protected by the members of the new group (Cimino, 2013). Student-novices often feel helpless and do not oppose the activities, which they have to endure if there is no opposition from the environment (older students, school staff). Therefore, Lipkins (2006) pointed out the important role of student-observers and school climate regarding the level of aggression and violence accepted in a certain school. In our study, we focused on one of the forms of hazing in Slovenia, namely unoffi- cial hazing, which takes place outside schools, in city centres, on bus stations and lasts longer (few days to a week) than the official hazing, which usually lasts for a few hours and is supervised by school staff. In the absence of authorities, the unofficial hazing might lead to torturing the student-novices, resulting in harmful consequences. Here the motives are to show dominance, humiliate the novices and to intimidate them rather than to accept them into the group. The problem is also that the school staff recognizes the two forms as two separate processes, not feeling responsible for the unofficial haz- ing being performed outside their reach. Dr. Sonja Pečjak, dr. Tina Pirc: Fazaniranje dijakov novincev z vidika spola fazanerjev 111 Therefore, we wanted to examine the case of unofficial hazing from the hazers’ point of view to determine: □ whether there were differences between girls and boys in the role of ha- zers (when they were hazers for the first time, how many years they per- formed hazing activities and how many novices they hazed in individual years of study); □ which hazing activities were performed and differences in these activities according to gender; and □ gender differences in the perceptions of school climate regarding peer bullying. There were 458 4th year students from 11 Slovenian secondary schools in our conveni- ent sample. Among them, 263 (57.4 %) were boys and 195 (42.6 %) were girls. Our sample encompassed 25 % of hazers (N = 102), 58.8 % of whom were boys and 41.2 % were girls. We used The Hazing Questionnaire (Pečjak, 2016) which consists of two parts. The first part defines the following: the role of hazers, the first year someone performed hazing, which years the hazing took place, how many novices someone hazed and the criterion by which the targets were chosen. The second part has 23 items with descrip- tions of different hazing activities. Subtle hazing comprises 9 items (α = 0.85), harass- ment hazing 8 (α = 0.91) and violent hazing 6 items (α = 0.88). Students responded on a 5-point scale (1 – never; 5 – more than 7 times). The second instrument was The School Climate Bullying Survey (Cornell, 2012, Slovenian translation by Pečjak & Pirc, 2017). It has four parts, but we used only the part that considers the perceptions of school climate regarding peer bullying. It has 21 items with a 4-point scale (1 – strongly disagree; 4 – strongly agree) and measures three factors: prevalence of teasing and bullying (5 items with α = 0.67), tolerating ag- gressive attitudes (7 items; α = 0.72) and willingness to seek help (9 items, α = 0.79). Our results indicate that most boys and girls start hazing in their 2nd year, however, the number drops significantly in the 3rd and 4th year regardless of gender. The reason might be that students in the 2nd year have a higher social status and are able to treat the newcomers more authoritatively or dominantly, which is displayed through haz- ing activities (Drout & Corsoro, 2003). It is also possible that their memories about themselves being targets in the previous year are still vivid and make them want to get revenge by taking their feelings of humiliation and embarrassment out on the novices (Johnson, 2011). However, when we compared the group of hazers who performed haz- ing only in the 2nd year with the group of students who performed hazing for three years, we found that there was a significantly higher number of boys who hazed for three years than of girls. These results are in line with the findings that from preschool onward there are more boys who are bullies, and that this number does not decrease over the years of schooling (Olweus, 1995; O’Neill, 2008; Salmivalli & Voeten, 2004). Authors most often interpret such results as a product of the socialization process, in which boys are expected to be able to defend themselves and to earn their place in society. We also found that boys on average hazed more students than the girls did in all three years, with differences being significant in the 3rd and 4th year. Regarding the crite- rion for picking a target, we discovered that boys hazed student-novices who appeared frightened or socially isolated significantly more than the girls did. 112 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) There were also gender differences in the severity of hazing activities. Boys used subtle, harassment and violent activities to a much greater extent than the girls. Tak- ing a closer look at these activities, we found that boys more frequently demanded that novices make public performances; they made them wear embarrassing clothes more often; and they made them measure long distances with small objects and poured water on them more often. With marginal significance, boys also more often forced the new- comers to drink excessive amounts of alcohol than the girls did. These findings are con- sistent with the results of other studies, which also revealed that boys more frequently perform hazing activities (e.g. Allan & Madden, 2008). With regard to the school’s attitude towards peer bullying, we found significant differences between genders in one factor, namely that boys perceived that the school tolerated aggressive attitudes towards other students more than the girls did. This could be explained by the school staff’s (especially teachers’) beliefs about boys’ behaviour and their actions towards it. If they stop the bully (hazer) when aggressive behaviour emerges and tell them they will not tolerate such behaviour, they make a clear state- ment on expected behaviour not only for the bullies (hazers), but also for the observers (Reyes Rodriguez, Noriega & Valdes Cuervo, 2017; Rigby, 2014; Yoon, 2004), which is the same in hazing activities. On the first day of a new school year, they should set clear rules about (official and unofficial) hazing and warn the potential hazers about the consequences which will follow if they do not obey the rules. This being even more important for boys than for girls. At the same time, it is important that student-targets perceive the school staff as emotionally and physically available for them. Finally, deriving from our results, we believe that, apart from raising the awareness of school staff, it is also important to engage the parents and the wider community. The media in particular could promote initiation activities of accepting newcomers into sec- ondary school which would not destroy their sense of psychological security or cause harm to the newcomers. LITERATURA 1. Allan, E.J., Kinney, M. (2017). Hazing and gender: Lenses for prevention. V: Nuwer, H. (ur.). Destroying Young Lives: Hazing in Schools and the Military. Bloomington, IN: Indiana Uni- versity Press, str. 163–178. 2. Allan, E.J., Madden, M. (2008). Hazing in view: College students at risk. Pridobljeno dne 10.07.2019 s svetovnega spleta: http://www.hazingstudy.org. 3. Bauer Raposo, B.Y., Nunes Calderira, S., Martins, M.J., Mendes M., Pinho Botehlo, S., Osval- do, S. (2015). About hazing in higher education. European Scientific Journal, Special edition. 4. Cimino, A. (2011). The evolution of hazing: Motivational mechanisms of the abuse of newco- mers. Journal of Cognition and Culture, 11, št. 3–4, str. 241–267. 5. Cimino, A. (2013). Predictors of hazing motivation in a representative sample of the Unites States. Evolution and Human Behavior, 34, št. 6, str. 446–452. 6. Dias, D., Sá, M.J. (2012). Initiation rituals in university as lever for group cohesion. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 38, št. 4, str. 447–464. 7. Drout, C.E., Corsoro, C.L. (2003). Attitudes toward fraternity hazing among fraternity members, sorority members, and non-greek students. Social Behavior and Personality, 31, št. 6, str. 535–544. 8. Gregory, A., Cornell, D. (2009). “Tolerating” adolescent needs: Moving away from zero tole- rance policies in high school. Theory into Practice, 48, št. 2, str. 106–113. Dr. Sonja Pečjak, dr. Tina Pirc: Fazaniranje dijakov novincev z vidika spola fazanerjev 113 9. Hoover, N.C., Pollard, N.J. (2000). Initiation Rites in American High Schools: A National Su- rvey. Final Report. 10. Jevtić, B., Petrović, J. (2016). Emotional education as the basis for peer violence prevention. Pedagoška obzorja, 31, št. 1, str. 113–126. 11. Johnson, J. (2011). Through the liminal: A comparative analysis of communitas and rites of passage in sport hazing and initiations. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 363, št. 3, str. 199–227. 12. Johnson, J., Holman, M. (ur.). (2004). Making the team: Inside the world of sport hazing and initiations. Toronto, ON: Canadian Scholars Press, str. 61–80. 13. Kebler, D. (2016). Stališča dijakov do fazaniranja v povezavi z njihovimi izkušnjami. Neobja- vljeno diplomsko delo. Ljubljana: Filozofska fakulteta. 14. Lipkins, S. (2006). Preventing hazing. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 15. Lundeen, R. (2013). Hazing, rituals of bondage. Charleston, SC: Create Space. 16. Nuwer, H. (2017). Hank Nuwer’s list of deaths by hazing. Pridobljeno dne 10.07.2019 s svetov- nega spleta: http://www.hanknuwer.com/articles/hazing-deaths/. 17. Olweus, D. (1993). Victimization by peers: Antecendents and long-term outcomes. V: Rubin, K. H. in Asendorpf, J. B. (ur.). Social withdrawal, inhibition, and shyness in childhood. Hillsdale, NJ: LEA, str. 315–341. 18. Olweus, D. (1995). Trpinčenje med učenci, kaj vemo in kaj lahko naredimo. Ljubljana: Zavod RS za šolstvo. 19. O’Neill, S. (2008). Bullying by tween and teen girls: A Literature, policy and resource review. Toronto: Kookaburra Consulting. 20. Pečjak, S. (2015). Medvrstniško nasilje v šoli. Ljubljana: Založba Filozofske fakultete v Ljubljani. 21. Pečjak, S. (2016). Vprašalnik o fazaniranju. Neobjavljeno gradivo. Ljubljana: Filozofska fakulteta. 22. Pečjak, S., Pirc, T. (2014). Sem opazovalec medvrstniškega nasilja: kaj lahko naredim? Peda- goška obzorja, 29, št. 1, str. 155–168. 23. Pečjak, S., Pirc, T. (2017). Bullying and perceived school climate: Victims’ and bullies’ perspec- tive. Studia psychologica, 59, št. 1, str. 22–33. 24. Pečjak, S., Pirc, T. (2019). Unofficial hazing in secondary schools: Prevalence, activities, and attitudes. Psychology in the Schools, 56, št. 2, str. 194–205. 25. Polak, A., Smrtnik Vitulić, H., Vošnjak, Š. (2011). Doživljanje različnih vlog v situacijah vrstni- škega nasilja. Socialna pedagogika, 15, št. 3, str. 205–222. 26. Reyes Rodriguez, A.C., Noriega, J.A., Valdes Cuervo, A.A. (2017). Teaching practices, school support and bullying. World Journal of Education, 7, št. 4, str. 50–59. 27. Rigby, K. (2014). How teacher address cases of bullying in schools: a comparision of five reac- tive approaches. Educational Psychology in Practice, 30, št. 4, str. 409–419. 28. Salmivalli, C., Voeten, M. (2004). Connections between attitudes, group norms, and behaviour in bullying situations. International Journal of Behavioural Development, 28, št. 3, str. 246–258. 29. Srabstein, J., Paramjit, J., Due, P., Wright, J., Leventhal, B., Merricj, J., Kim, Y-S. in sod. (2008). Prevention of public helath risk linkied bullying: A need a whole community approach. Internati- onal Journal of Adolescent Medical Helath, 20, št. 2, str. 185–199. 30. Yoon, J. (2004). Predicting teacher interventions in bullying situations. Education and Trerat- ment of Children, 27, št. 1, str. 37–45. Dr. Sonja Pečjak (1960), redna profesorica za pedagoško psihologijo na Filozofski fakulteti v Ljubljani. Naslov: Vrbnje 58, 4240 Radovljica, Slovenija; Telefon: (+386) 041 473 236 E-mail: sonja.pecjak@ff.uni-lj.si Tina Pirc (1982), docentka za pedagoško psihologijo na Filozofski fakulteti v Ljubljani. Naslov: Dolsko 112, 1262 Dol pri Ljubljani, Slovenija; Telefon: (+386) 040 842 211 E-mail: tina.pirc@ff.uni-lj.si Dr. Milena Kramar Zupan, dr. Karmen Erjavec Kompetence in potrebe po izobraževanju direktorjev slovenskih bolnišnic Prejeto 25.10.2019 / Sprejeto 10.02.2020 Received 25.10.2019 / Accepted 10.02.2020 Znanstveni članek Scientific paper UDK 614.21+005.336.2 UDC 614.21+005.336.2 KLJUČNE BESEDE: kompetenca, izobraževanje, bol- KEYWORDS: competence, education, hospitals, ma- nišnica, menedžment, zdravstvene organizacije nagement, health organization POVZETEK – Menedžerske kompetence so uporabne ABSTRACT – Managerial competencies are useful for za spremljanje in izboljšanje uspešnosti menedžerjev monitoring and improving the performance of managers zdravstvenih in drugih organizacij. Ker ne obstaja of health and other organizations. As there is a lack of študija o menedžerskih kompetencah direktorjev slo- studies on the managerial competencies of the directors venski javnih bolnišnic, je skušala ta raziskava za- of Slovenian public hospitals, this research tried to fill the polniti raziskovalno vrzel. Cilj študije je bil ugotoviti, research gap. The study aimed to find out which manage- katere menedžerske kompetence so direktorjem slo- rial competencies are important to the directors of Slo- venskih javnih bolnišnic pomembne, kako direktorji venian public hospitals, how the directors perceive their zaznavajo svojo menedžersko usposobljenost, kako competencies, how the perceived competence of directors se zaznana usposobljenost direktorjev razlikuje po differs according to the socio-demographic characteris- njihovih sociodemografskih značilnostih in katere tics, and what their needs for additional knowledge are. A potrebe po dodatnem znanju imajo direktorji sloven- descriptive method was used with an online survey ques- skih javnih bolnišnic. Uporabljena je bila deskriptiv- tionnaire. The final sample included all directors of Slo- na metoda s spletnim anketnim vprašalnikom. Končni venian public hospitals except one (N = 25). The survey vzorec vključuje vse direktorje slovenskih javnih bol- revealed a discrepancy between the importance of mana- nišnic razen enega (N = 25). Raziskava je pokazala gerial competencies and the perceptions of managerial diskrepanco med pomembnostjo menedžerskih kom- competence. While directors evaluated evidence-based petenc in dojemanjem menedžerske usposobljenosti. decision-making and leadership as their most important Medtem ko so direktorji kot najpomembnejši kompe- competencies, they rated communication as the highest tenci ocenili odločanje na podlagi dokazov in vode- perceived competence, while the least perceived was the nje, so kot najvišjo zaznano usposobljenost ocenili economic competence of managing and administrating komunikacijo, najmanj pa ekonomsko kompetenco an organization. The majority of directors stated that they upravljanje in poslovanje zavodov. needed additional training in the field of managing and administrating an organization. 1 Uvod Med znanstveniki in praktiki na področju menedžmenta obstaja soglasje, da so me- nedžerske kompetence uporabne za spremljanje in izboljšanje uspešnosti menedžer- jev različnih organizacij (Levenson in sod., 2006), tudi menedžerjev zdravstvenih or- ganizacij (Stefl, 2008; Kovač in Maze, 2019). Kompetence menedžerjev na področju zdravstva se zaradi številnih izzivov stalno spreminjajo. Najpomembnejši dejavniki, ki spodbujajo potrebo po razvoju menedžerskih kompetenc v Evropski uniji, so: drugačna pričakovanja nove generacije zaposlenih, reforma organizacij na področju zdravstvene- ga varstva glede zagotavljanja zdravstvenih storitev, naraščajoče zahteve po izboljšanju Dr. Kramar Zupan, dr. Erjavec: Kompetence in potrebe po izobraževanju direktorjev... 115 uspešnosti delovanja zdravstvenih organizacij, spremenjena pričakovanja bolnikov ter izzivi čezmejne oskrbe v Evropski uniji in vključevanje migrantov v zdravstveno var- stvo (Pihlainen in sod., 2016). Bolnišnična dejavnost ima v sistemu zdravstvenega varstva, katerega izdatki ne- nehno naraščajo, viri pa so omejeni, poseben pomen, saj v Sloveniji zavzema največji delež finančnih sredstev med dejavnostmi zdravstvenih organizacij (41,0 %) (SURS, 2019), drugod po svetu pa tudi do 60 % (Clay-Williams in sod., 2017). Med ključnimi omejitvami za doseganje optimalnih zdravstvenih in poslovnih rezultatov bolnišnic v večini držav v razvoju (Chen, 2004) in razvitega sveta (Clay-Williams in sod., 2017; Liang in sod., 2018) je pomanjkanje znanja in spretnosti na področju menedžmenta bol- nišnic. V kompleksnem in hitro spreminjajočem se okolju morajo menedžerji oziroma direktorji bolnišnic združiti vodstvene, podjetniške in upravne sposobnosti za ravnanje z družbeno-političnimi, gospodarskimi in tehnološkimi izzivi ter upoštevati pričakova- nja bolnikov, zdravstvenih delavcev, politikov in širše javnosti (Travis in sod., 2004; Piley, 2010). Stroka je soglasna, da brez dobrega menedžmenta bolnišnic ni mogoče izboljšati učinkovitosti, uspešnosti in odzivnosti izvajanja zdravstvenih storitev in obse- žnih ukrepov za doseganje zdravstvenih ciljev v teh velikih zdravstvenih organizacijah (Travis in sod., 2004; Piley, 2010; Liang in sod., 2018). Bolnišnice so pomembno orodje za zagotavljanje zdravstvenega varstva na sekun- darni ravni, menedžerji teh zavodov pa so v veliki meri odgovorni za uresničevanje vizi- je in zastavljenih strateških, poslovnih in strokovnih ciljev, s katerimi uresničujejo svoje poslanstvo (Rozman, 2019). Zaradi različnih razlogov, kot so povečevanje izdatkov za zdravstvene storitve, linearno zniževanje cen zdravstvenih storitev, preseganje pro- grama, ki ga zdravstvena blagajna ne plača, neenotno izpogajane cene v okviru javnih naročil in premajhna učinkovitost pri poslovanju, večina slovenskih bolnišnic posluje z izgubo (Pri državni zakladnici ostaja zadolženih pet bolnišnic, 2016). V letu 2018 je 15 slovenskih javnih bolnišnic od 26 poslovalo z minusom (ZZZS, 2019). Medijska podoba delovanja slovenskih bolnišnic je v glavnem negativna, saj jih mediji opisujejo kot zelo neuspešne, za kar naj bi bili predvsem odgovorni nekompetentni direktorji in pohlepni zdravniki (Erjavec, 2014; Repovž, 2018). Ker menedžerji oziroma direktorji bolnišnic pomembno prispevajo k (zaznanemu) uspehu zavoda (Piley, 2010; Kovač in Maze, 2019), se zastavlja vprašanje o potencialni vrzeli v menedžerskih kompetencah direktorjev slovenskih bolnišnic. Pri tem je pomembno prepoznati ključne menedžerske kompetence, ki so pomembne za učinkovito upravljanje zdravstvenega zavoda, pa tudi potrebe menedžerjev po dodatnem usposabljanju na področju celotnega procesa rav- nateljevanja zdravstvenemu zavodu. Oblikovanje ustreznih programov dodatnega izo- braževanja mora temeljiti na izkušnjah in potrebah vodstvenih delavcev (Piley, 2010). Glede na kompleksnost delovanja sodobnih zdravstvenih organizacij je težko doka- zati, ali so boljši upravljalci bolnišnic zdravniki ali menedžerji z ekonomsko izobrazbo. V sklepni ugotovitvi analize obstoječih znanstvenih študij, ki so iskale odgovor na to vprašanje, Clay-Williams in sod. (2017, str. 9) trdijo, da obstoječe študije niso ponudile dovolj informacij oziroma niso vključile ključnih spremenljivk. Ker sociodemografske značilnosti menedžerjev zdravstvenih organizacij vplivajo na zaznavanje pomembno- sti kompetenc in usposobljenosti (Piley, 2010), si zastavljamo naslednja raziskovalna vprašanja: katere menedžerske kompetence so pomembne za ravnateljevanje bolnišnic, kako direktorji slovenskih bolnišnic ocenjujejo raven svojih menedžerskih kompetenc 116 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) oziroma svojo usposobljenost, kako se samoocena usposobljenosti direktorjev razlikuje glede na sociodemografske značilnosti (spol, starost, izobrazba, področje izobrazbe, delovna doba) in kakšne potrebe po dodatnem usposabljanju imajo direktorji sloven- skih javnih bolnišnic. Prejšnje študije, ki so ugotavljale pomanjkanje usposobljenosti menedžerjev bolnišnic v različnih državah sveta (Piley, 2008, 2010; Leggat in sod., 2011; Townsend in sod., 2012; Clay-Williams in sod., 2017; Liang in sod., 2018) in tudi v Sloveniji pri strokovnih vodjih zdravstvenih organizacij (Kovač in Maze, 2019), pou- darjajo potrebo po oblikovanju menedžerskih kompetenc direktorjev bolnišnic in njiho- vem rednem preverjanju v praksi ter potrebo po identifikaciji potreb po izobraževanju in usposabljanju. Namen študije je bil prepoznati pomembnost posameznih kompetenc za menedžerje slovenskih bolnišnic, s samooceno direktorjev slovenskih javnih bolnišnic identificirati zaznane deficite menedžerskih kompetenc ter ugotoviti njihove potrebe po dodatnem znanju in načinih usposabljanja. Proučili smo tudi, kako se zaznana usposo- bljenost direktorjev razlikuje glede na njihove sociodemografske značilnosti. Izvedena je bila presečna raziskava z uporabo spletnega anketnega vprašalnika med direktorji slovenskih javnih bolnišnic. Prvo poglavje predstavlja teoretsko ogrodje z opredelitvijo menedžerskih kompe- tenc, pregledom ključnih obstoječih študij na področju menedžerskih kompetenc, izo- braževalnih možnosti na tem področju in predstavitvijo slovenskega konteksta menedž- menta v javnih bolnišnicah. Po metodologiji so predstavljeni rezultati, ki so v zadnjem delu članka interpretirani glede na rezultate obstoječih raziskav in kontekst, predlagane pa so tudi usmeritve za razvoj menedžerskih kompetenc direktorjev slovenskih javnih bolnišnic. 2 Teoretsko ogrodje 2.1 Menedžerske kompetence v zdravstvu Lucia in Lesinger (1999) sta opredelila menedžersko kompetenco kot “opisno orod- je, ki določa spretnosti, znanje, osebne lastnosti in vedenja, ki so potrebna za učinkovito izvajanje menedžerske vloge v organizaciji in pomagajo podjetju izpolnjevati strateške cilje.” (Lucia in Lesinger, 1999, str. 5). Kompetenca tudi določa usposobljenost oziro- ma uspešnost osebe na delovnem mestu glede na sprejete standarde (Lucia in Lesinger, 1999). Menedžerske kompetence so močno pozitivno povezane z uspešnostjo osebe ter šibkeje z uspešnostjo oddelka ali organizacije (Levenson in sod., 2006). Pregled literature kaže, da zdravstvene organizacije v različnih državah sveta niso bile uspešne pri identifikaciji in zaposlovanju kompetentnih menedžerjev (Ariss in sod., 2014). Globalno gledano so menedžerji zdravstvenih organizacij pogosto izbrani na podlagi delovne dobe v kliničnem okolju, ne pa na podlagi usposobljenosti oziroma uresničevanja menedžerskih kompetenc (Chen, 2004; Clay-Williams in sod., 2017; Liang in sod., 2018). Vse večja kompleksnost ravnanja na področju zdravstvenih or- ganizacij in nestabilnost zdravstvenega sistema in njegovega financiranja zahteva spre- minjanje kompetenc ter jasno oblikovane in uspešno izvedene menedžerske strategije (Liang in Howard, 2010). Dr. Kramar Zupan, dr. Erjavec: Kompetence in potrebe po izobraževanju direktorjev... 117 V Evropi, ZDA, Kanadi in Avstraliji so bili vzpostavljeni na kompetencah temelječi izobraževalni programi menedžmenta v zdravstvenih organizacijah (Pihlainen in sod., 2016), ki na primer temeljijo na Ogrodju kompetenc za medicinski menedžment (Medi- cal Menedžment Competency Framework, MLCF) in Ogrodju kraljevega avstralskega medicinskega menedžmenta (Royal Australian Medical Menedžment Framework). Li- teratura o menedžerskih kompetencah v zdravstvu je presenetljivo skopa. Steft (2008) poroča, da je Zveza zdravstvenega vodstva (Healthcare Leadership Alliance, HLA), konzorcij šestih večjih združenj iz ZDA, s pomočjo raziskav in prakse oblikovala pet ključnih kompetenc za menedžerje v zdravstvu: □ “komunikacija in upravljanje z odnosi”, □ “profesionalnost”, ki vsebuje sposobnost uskladitve osebnega in organi- zacijskega ravnanja z etičnimi in profesionalnimi standardi, □ “vodenje”, □ “znanje o zdravstvenem sistemu” in □ “poslovne spretnosti in znanje”, ki vključuje sposobnost uporabe poslov- nih načel, vključno s sistemskim razmišljanjem o zdravju v okolju. Obstajata dve aktualni raziskavi, ki sta merili kompetence menedžerjev v sloven- skem zdravstvu, nista pa vključili direktorjev bolnišnic. Kovač in Maze (2019) sta po Robbinsonu in Coulterju (2016) navedla razdelitev menedžerskega znanja in sposob- nosti na konceptualno, vodstveno-sodelovalno ali človeško in tehnično znanje. V svojo raziskavo sta vključila samo tiste menedžerje dveh splošnih bolnišnic v Sloveniji, ki imajo neposreden stik s pacienti in sodelujejo v temeljnem zdravstvenem procesu (ime- novala sta jih zdravstveni menedžerji), ki vključuje ravni zdravstvenega menedžmenta od vrhnje (strokovni direktor in glavna medicinska sestra bolnišnice oziroma pomoč- nik direktorja za zdravstveno nego) do nižje. Ugotovila sta, da dve tretjini anketiranih menedžerjev ocenjujeta, da nimata dovolj znanja s področja menedžmenta, da bi lahko ustrezno opravljali svoje delo. Podobno sta Erjavec in Starc (2017) merili kompetence medicinskih sester na vseh menedžerskih ravneh v različnih zdravstvenih organizacijah in ugotovili, da so se starejši menedžerji počutili bistveno bolj kompetentni v finanč- nem menedžmentu kot mlajši. Menedžerji, ki so delali v domovih za ostarele, so se precej pogosteje dojemali kot bolj kompetentni v vodenju in finančnem menedžmentu kot njihovi kolegi v drugih zdravstvenih organizacijah. Menedžerji, ki so imeli višje vodstvene položaje, so se zaznali kot bolj kompetentni v finančnem menedžmentu kot njihovi kolegi na nižjih vodstvenih položajih. Medicinske sestre v zasebnem sektorju so se počutile bistveno bolj kompetentne v finančnem menedžmentu kot medicinske sestre v javnem sektorju. Piley (2010) je oblikoval pet ključnih kompetenc in primerjal usposobljenost me- nedžerjev bolnišnic v zasebnem in javnem sektorju v Južni Afriki. Ugotovil je, da so menedžerji javnega in zasebnega sektorja ocenili kompetence na področju ravnanja z ljudmi, upravljanja in s cilji povezane spretnosti najvišje, sledita pa strateško načrtova- nje in zagotavljanje zdravja. Menedžerji v javnih bolnišnicah so bili manj usposobljeni za ravnanje z ljudmi, upravljanje in za s cilji povezane spretnosti kot menedžerji v za- sebnem sektorju. Menedžerji v zasebnem sektorju so imeli največji deficit pri ravnanju z ljudmi, upravljanju in zagotavljanju zdravja. 118 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) V nedavno objavljanem članku so Liang in sod. (2018) identificirali šest mene- džerskih kompetenc (odločanje na podlagi dokazov (dokazi); naloge, administracija in menedžment resursov (resursi), izkazano znanje o okolju in organizaciji zdravstvenega varstva (znanje), medosebne in komunikacijske kvalitete in upravljanje z odnosi (ko- munikacija), vodenje ljudi in organizacije (vodenje) in omogočanje in upravljanje s spremembami (spremembe)), katerih pomembnost pri njihovem delu je ocenilo 93 me- nedžerjev avstralskih bolnišnic. Ugotovili so, da so anketiranci najslabše ocenili svojo usposobljenost pri kompetencah dokazi in spremembe. 2.2 Izobraževanje in dodatno usposabljanje menedžerjev v zdravstvu Investicija v razvoj menedžerjev je dolgoročna naložba, katere koristi so v veliki meri odvisne od ustreznosti programov izobraževanja, usposabljanja in izpopolnjeva- nja menedžerskih kadrov (Blažič, 2008; Starc in Blažič, 2008a, 2008b; Burgar, 2011). Pomen usposabljanja in izobraževanja menedžerjev v zdravstvu za soočanje s komple- ksnimi in dinamičnimi zdravstvenimi sistemi je dobro prepoznan med praktiki in znan- stveniki (Liang in sod., 2013). Empirični dokazi kažejo, da usposabljanje učinkovito dviguje kompetence menedžerjev v zdravstvu (Landry in sod., 2012). Briggs (2008) navaja, da se razvoj menedžmenta na področju zdravstva lahko dose- že s številnimi mehanizmi, kot so zagotavljanje formalnega izobraževanja na univerzah, usposabljanje v organizaciji, vzpostavitev mentorjev in študijskih skupin v organizaciji, intenzivno usposabljanje izven organizacije, sodelovanje na seminarjih in konferen- cah. Landry in sod. (2018) poudarjajo, da je za lažji razvoj menedžmenta v zdravstvu treba okrepiti dejavnosti poklicnega razvoja v zdravstvenih organizacijah, možnosti za usposabljanje in razvoj v strokovnih ustanovah in različnih neformalnih izobraževalnih telesih, kratke tečaje usposabljanja, ki so jih razvile univerze in strokovne ustanove, in razvoj formalnih univerzitetnih programov na področju menedžmenta v zdravstvu. 2.3 Menedžerji slovenskih bolnišnic Zakon o zavodih, ki se ni bistveno spremenil od leta 1991, ne zagotavlja primer- nega okolja za sodobno upravljanje (Pogačar, 2010, str. 156). Ena od večjih slabosti javnih zdravstvenih zavodov v Sloveniji je slabo opredeljeno razmerje med funkcijo upravljanja in funkcijo menedžmenta. Zdravstvenim ustanovam – bolnišnicam – so naloženi številni cilji, ki so večkrat medsebojno protislovni, ker socialni in politični cilji pogosto niso v skladu z ekonomskimi cilji. Organ upravljanja v bolnišnici je svet zavoda, ki ga sestavljajo predstavniki ustanoviteljev (država), zaposlenih zavoda ter zavarovancev. Kljub dejstvu, da imajo večino članov sveta in s tem možnosti izvajanja nadzora nad menedžmentom ustanovitelji, v večini primerov sveti zavodov ne opravlja- jo svoje nadzorne vloge. V delovanju nadzora niso vzpostavljeni poenoteni mehanizmi in enoten sistem, ki bi vseboval konkretnejše kazalce merjenja uspešnosti upravljanja in menedžmenta bolnišnic, zlasti z vidika preverjanja učinkov izrabe javnih sredstev in zasledovanja cilja, da zavod uporabniku s prejetimi javnimi sredstvi zagotavlja čim bolj kakovostne storitve. Direktor zavoda je glavni menedžerski organ, ki uravnava po- Dr. Kramar Zupan, dr. Erjavec: Kompetence in potrebe po izobraževanju direktorjev... 119 slovanje zavoda, zavod predstavlja in ga zastopa. Odgovarja za zakonitost dela zavoda. V bolnišnicah svet zavoda imenuje tudi strokovnega vodjo, ki odgovarja za vodenje strokovne plati dejavnosti zavoda (Rozman, 2019). Za slovenski zdravstveni sistem in s tem za slovenske bolnišnice je značilno, da se menedžment v primerjavi z menedžmentom v gospodarskem sektorju ni razvijal in prilagajal novim zahtevam in izzivom dovolj hitro in kakovostno. Obveljala je tehno- kratska miselnost, da je lahko uspešen menedžer bolnišnice le zdravnik, ki za vodenje zavoda sploh ne potrebuje poslovno-organizacijskih in menedžerskih znanj ter kom- petenc. Menedžerska znanja so bila tako povsem zapostavljena, še posebej funkcija vodenja, ki je prav v zdravstvenem sistemu, kjer je človeški faktor, predvsem z vidika motiviranosti in zavzetosti izjemnega pomena za učinkovito, kakovostno in uspešno delo. Posledice neprofesionalizacije menedžmenta v slovenskih bolnišnicah so nepri- merno, avtoritativno vodenje, neprimerna organiziranost in neučinkovito poslovanje zdravstvenih zavodov (Kramar Zupan, 2018). 3 Metodologija Cilj raziskave je bil ugotoviti, katere menedžerske kompetence so pomembne di- rektorjem slovenskih javnih bolnišnic, kako direktorji zaznavajo svojo usposobljenost, kako se zaznana usposobljenost direktorjev razlikuje glede na njihove sociodemograf- ske značilnosti in kakšne potrebe po dodatnem menedžerskem znanju imajo direktorji slovenskih bolnišnic. Pri raziskovanju smo uporabili deskriptivno metodo s presečno raziskavo med direktorji slovenskih javnih bolnišnic, pri čemer smo uporabili spletni anketni vprašalnik. Vabilo s povezavo na anketni vprašalnik smo 23. septembra 2019 poslali vsem 26 direktorjem slovenskih javnih bolnišnic. Po enem tednu smo jih ponov- no pozvali k izpolnjevanju. Končni vzorec vključuje vse direktorje razen enega, ki je bil bolniško odsoten (N = 25). Vprašalnik, ki ga sestavlja 11 vprašanj, temelji na preverjenem in visoko zane- sljivem vprašalniku, ki so ga v raziskavi o menedžerskih kompetencah menedžerjev avstralskih bolnišnic večkrat preverili Liang in sod. (2013, 2018). Vprašalnik smo pre- vedli iz originalne angleške različice v slovenščino in nato ponovno prevedli nazaj v an- gleški jezik. Prevod smo primerjali z originalom in vsebinsko uskladili manjša nesklad- ja med njima. Nato smo besedilo vprašalnika prilagodili slovenskemu kontekstu. Trije strokovnjaki s področja menedžmenta so prebrali vprašalnik in nam sporočili nekaj pri- pomb, ki smo jih smiselno vključili v končni vprašalnik. Prvi sklop sestavljajo sociode- mografska vprašanja (starost, spol, izobrazba, vrsta izobrazbe, dodatno usposabljanje, trajanje zaposlitve). Drugi sklop je vključeval pomembnost menedžerskih kompetenc in samooceno usposobljenosti. Vsaka od šestih menedžerskih kompetenc (odločanje na podlagi dokazov, znanje in spretnosti upravljanja in poslovanja zavodov, znanje in spretnosti o delovanju okolja in vseh deležnikov, komunikacijsko znanje in spretnosti ter upravljanje z odnosi, vodenje in upravljanje s spremembami) je vključevala po štiri trditve, skupaj torej obsegajo 24 trditev. Vprašanje o pomembnosti menedžerskih kom- petenc je vključevalo Likertovo 5-stopenjsko lestvico, pri čemer je 1 pomenila “zelo nepomembno”, 5 pa “zelo pomembno”, vprašanje o zaznani usposobljenosti pa lestvico 120 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) od 1 (“zelo slabo”) do 5 (“odlično”). Tretji sklop je vključeval potrebe po dodatnem izobraževanju in načine pridobitve znanja. Vprašanje o potrebah po dodatnem znanju je vključevalo 3-stopenjsko lestvico, pri čemer je 1 pomenila “ne potrebujem”, 3 pa “zelo potrebujem” dodatno znanje in spretnosti. Vprašanje o načinu pridobitve dodatnih kompetenc je vključevalo različne načine usposabljanja. Uporabili smo osnovno opisno statistična analizo in redukcijo podatkov na šest ključ- nih kompetenc. Odnos med spremenljivkami je bil analiziran z analizo variance (ANO- VA) z F-testom. Statistično analizo smo izvedli s statističnim programom SPSS 22.0. 4 Rezultati Vprašalnike je izpolnilo 25 od 26 direktorjev slovenskih javnih bolnišnic. Tabela 1: Sociodemografske značilnosti direktorjev slovenskih bolnišnic (N = 25) Sociodemografske značilnosti f f % moški 17 68 Spol ženski 8 32 univerzitetna 15 60 Izobrazba magisterij 7 28 doktorat 3 12 do 10 let 0 0 11–20 let 5 20 Skupna delovna doba 21–30 let 6 24 31 let in več 14 56 manj kot eno leto 2 8 1–4 let 11 44 Delovna doba direktorja 5–8 let 5 20 9–12 let 4 16 13 let in več 3 12 do 30 let 0 0 31–40 let 2 8 Starost 41–50 let 7 28 51–60 let 12 48 61 let in več 4 16 medicina 10 40 ekonomija 8 32 tehnika 2 8 Področje diplome naravoslovje 1 4 druge družbene in humanistične vede 3 12 druge vede: biologija in ekonomija 1 4 Dr. Kramar Zupan, dr. Erjavec: Kompetence in potrebe po izobraževanju direktorjev... 121 Tabela 1 kaže, da je večina anketirancev bila moškega spola (68 %), stara od 51 do 60 let (48 %), imela dokončano dodiplomsko univerzitetno izobrazbo (60 %) iz medicine (40 %), delala več kot 31 let (87,5 %) in od enega do štirih let kot direktor zavoda (44 %). Tabela 2: Srednje vrednosti pomembnosti menedžerskih kompetenc* Kompetence x SD Odločanje na podlagi dokazov 4,45 0,83 Uporabiti pravočasno in argumentirano prepoznavanje težav, pomembnih zadev in priložnosti 4,5 0,96 Uporabiti argumente pri izboljšanju obstoječih praks in procesov 4,5 0,96 Oblikovati in uporabiti merila za oceno odločevalskih izidov 4,3 0,55 Podpirati in spodbujati sodelavce za uporabo na podatkih temelječih odločitev 4,5 0,96 Znanje in spretnosti upravljanja in poslovanja zavodov 4,38 0,89 Razlagati osnovne poslovno-računovodske izkaze/rezultate 4,4 0,95 Pripraviti finančne načrte v skladu z organizacijskimi cilji 4,4 0,96 Oblikovati in razvijati ustrezno organizacijsko strukturo, vključno z odgovornostmi 4,6 0,96 Izvajati redne dvosmerne ocene uspešnosti zaposlenih in podporo zaposlenim 4,1 0,68 Znanje in spretnosti o delovanju okolja zdravstvenega varstva in vseh deležnikov v sistemu 4,25 0,93 Razumeti pomene vlog ključnih deležnikov v zdravstvu in njihovo medsebojno povezanost 4,3 0,96 Uveljavljati visoko profesionalizacijo zaposlenih v zdravstvu 4,2 0,91 Upoštevati ustrezno zakonodajo in okvire odgovornosti, specifične za zdravstvene zavode 4,1 0,94 Učinkovito upravljati z organizacijskimi strukturami, vlogami in odnosi za dosego ciljev 4,4 0,96 Komunikacijsko znanje in spretnosti ter upravljanje z odnosi 4,18 0,93 Samozavestno in konstruktivno verbalno in neverbalno komunicirati z deležniki 4,4 1 Skrbeti za pripravo pisnih poročil/gradiv, ki ustrezajo deležnikom in namenu 3,9 1,08 Vložiti čas in trud v delo in sodelovanje z vsemi deležniki 4,2 0,96 Pokazati zavedanje in občutljivost za občutke deležnikov (empatija) 4,2 0,69 Vodenje 4,4 0,93 Uravnotežiti vrednote in prioritete organizacije in strok/-e 4,6 0,58 Voditi, razvijati in motivirati za uspešno oblikovanje učinkovitega tima 4,5 0,96 Prilagoditi način vodenja ustrezni situaciji 4,4 1 Vzpostaviti in vzdrževati osebno in profesionalno socialno omrežje 4,1 1,19 Upravljanje s spremembami 4,35 0,88 Na učinkovit način predstaviti potrebo po spremembah 4,4 1 Skrbeti za lasten osebni in strokovni razvoj 4,3 0,94 Proučiti in oceniti procese in rezultate sprememb 4,4 1 Prepoznati in dopustiti drugačnost 4,3 0,57 Opombi: * 1 – “zelo nepomembno”, 5 – “zelo pomembno” 122 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) Tabela 3: Srednje vrednosti samoocene menedžerske usposobljenosti* Kompetence x SD Odločanje na podlagi dokazov 3,87 0,74 Uporabiti pravočasno in argumentirano prepoznavanje težav, pomembnih zadev in priložnosti 4,1 0,62 Uporabiti argumente pri izboljšanju obstoječih praks in procesov 3,9 0,85 Oblikovati in uporabiti merila za oceno odločevalskih izidov 3,4 0,76 Podpirati in spodbujati sodelavce za uporabo na podatkih temelječih odločitev 4,1 0,74 Znanje in spretnosti upravljanja in poslovanja zavodov 3,75 0,78 Razlagati osnovne poslovno- računovodske izkaze/rezultate 4 0,82 Pripraviti finančne načrte v skladu z organizacijskimi cilji 4,1 0,88 Oblikovati in razvijati ustrezno organizacijsko strukturo, vključno z odgovornostmi 3,8 0,54 Izvajati redne dvosmerne ocene uspešnosti zaposlenih in podporo zaposlenim 3,1 0,85 Znanje in spretnosti o delovanju okolja zdravstvenega varstva in vseh deležnikov v sistemu 3,88 0,73 Razumeti pomene vlog ključnih deležnikov v zdravstvu in njihove medsebojne povezanosti 4,2 0,6 Uveljavljati visoko profesionalizacijo zaposlenih v zdravstvu 3,7 0,81 Upoštevati ustrezno zakonodajo in okvire odgovornosti, specifične za zdravstvene zavode 3,9 0,78 Učinkovito upravljati z organizacijskimi strukturami, vlogami in odnosi za dosego ciljev 3,7 0,73 Komunikacijsko znanje in spretnosti ter upravljanje z odnosi 4,02 0,89 Samozavestno in konstruktivno verbalno in neverbalno komunicirati z deležniki 4,1 1,05 Skrbeti za pripravo pisnih poročil/gradiv, ki ustrezajo deležnikom in namenu 3,8 0,92 Vložiti čas in trud v delo in sodelovanje z vsemi deležniki 4,1 0,81 Pokazati zavedanje in občutljivost za občutke deležnikov (empatija) 4,1 0,81 Vodenje 3,87 0,79 Uravnotežiti vrednote in prioritete organizacije in strok/-e 3,9 0,71 Voditi, razvijati in motivirati za uspešno oblikovanje učinkovitega tima 3,9 0,81 Prilagoditi način vodenja ustrezni situaciji 4,2 0,69 Vzpostaviti in vzdrževati osebno in profesionalno socialno omrežje 3,5 0,69 Upravljanje s spremembami 3,95 0,73 Na učinkovit način predstaviti potrebo po spremembah 4,1 0,81 Skrbeti za lasten osebni in strokovni razvoj 3,7 0,81 Proučiti in oceniti procese in rezultate sprememb 3,9 0,62 Prepoznati in dopustiti drugačnost 4,1 0,66 Opombi: * 1 – “zelo slabo”, 5 – “odlično” Dr. Kramar Zupan, dr. Erjavec: Kompetence in potrebe po izobraževanju direktorjev... 123 Kot kaže tabela 2, so anketirani direktorji v povprečju podali visoke ocene po- membnosti vsem menedžerskim kompetencam. Najvišje so ocenili pomembnost kom- petenc odločanje na podlagi dokazov (x = 4,45) in vodenje (x = 4,4), najmanj pa komu- nikacijsko znanje in spretnosti ter upravljanje z odnosi (x = 4,18), ki pa so jo še zmeraj ocenili visoko. Posamično so anketiranci kot najpomembnejše ocenili naslednje kompetence: oblikovati in razvijati ustrezno organizacijsko strukturo, vključno z odgovornostmi (x = 4,46), uravnotežiti vrednote in prioritete organizacije in strok/-e (x = 4,46), upo- rabiti argumente pri izboljšanju obstoječih praks in procesov (x = 4,45), podpirati in spodbujati sodelavce za uporabo na podatkih temelječe odločitve (x = 4,45) ter voditi, razvijati in motivirati za uspešno oblikovanje učinkovitega tima (x = 4,45). Najslabše so posamično ocenili kompetenco skrbeti za pripravo pisnih poročil/gradiv, ki ustrezajo deležnikom in namenu (x = 3,9). Anketiranci so bili razmeroma enotni pri vseh menedžerskih kompetencah, najbolj pa posamično pri oceni pomembnosti kompetenc oblikovati in uporabiti merila za oce- no odločevalskih izidov (SD = 0,55), prepoznati in dopustiti drugačnost (SD = 0,57) in uravnotežiti vrednote in prioritete organizacije in strok/-e (SD = 0,58). To pomeni, da so si pri slednjih kompetencah anketirani direktorji razmeroma enotni, da gre za zelo pomembne kompetence. Kot kaže tabela 3, so anketirani direktorji v povprečju podali nižje povprečne ocene pri samooceni menedžerske usposobljenosti v primerjavi z ocenami pomembnosti kom- petenc. Najvišje so ocenili svojo usposobljenost na področju komunikacijskega znanja in spretnosti ter upravljanja z odnosi (x = 4,02), najmanj pa na ekonomskem področju znanje in spretnosti upravljanja in poslovanja zavodov (x = 3,75). Posamično se jim zdi, da so najmanj strokovno usposobljeni izvajati redne dvosmerne ocene uspešnosti zaposlenih in podporo zaposlenim (x = 3,31) ter vzpostaviti in vzdrževati osebno in profesionalno socialno omrežje (x = 3,35). Tabela 4: Potrebe bo izboljšanju menedžerskih kompetenc (%)* Kompetence Ne potrebujem Ne vem Zelo potrebujem Odločanje na podlagi dokazov 0 50 50 Znanje in spretnosti upravljanja in poslovanja zavodov 6 11 83 Komunikacijsko znanje in spretnosti ter upravljanje z odnosi 5 16 79 Znanje in spretnosti o delovanju okolja zdravstvenega varstva in vseh deležnikov v sistemu 28 33 39 Vodenje 11 11 78 Upravljanje s spremembami 5 26 68 Drugo (zakonodaja, zavarovalništvo, menedžment zdravstvenih procesov, krizni menedžment, strateški menedžment, lasten profesionalni razvoj iz 0 0 20 zdravstvenega menedžmenta – praksa v tujini) Opomba: * Več možnih odgovorov. 124 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) Anketiranci so bili razmeroma enotni pri samooceni menedžerske usposobljenosti, najbolj pa posamično pri oceni kompetenc oblikovati in razvijati ustrezno organizacij- sko strukturo, vključno z odgovornostmi (SD = 0,55), in prepoznati in dopustiti drugač- nost (SD = 0,54), najmanj pa pri kompetenci samozavestno in konstruktivno verbalno in neverbalno komunicirati z deležniki (SD = 1,05). Največji delež anketirancev se je odločil, da najbolj potrebuje ekonomske kompe- tence znanje in spretnosti upravljanja in poslovanja zavodov (83 %), komunikacijsko znanje in spretnosti ter upravljanje z odnosi (79 %) in vodenje (78 %), najmanj pa kom- petenco znanje in spretnosti o delovanju okolja zdravstvenega varstva in vseh deležni- kov v sistemu (39 %). Vsi anketirani direktorji so izjavili, da potrebujejo dodatno usposabljanje za dvig menedžerske usposobljenosti, kot kaže tabela 5. Največji delež direktorjev se je odločil za krajši izobraževalni program (do 6 mesecev) (60 %) ter skoraj enak delež za daljši izobraževalni program (6–12 mesecev) in seminar (1–3 dni) (56 %). Tabela 5: Oblika morebitnega dodatnega usposabljanja* Oblike dodatnega usposabljanja f f % Univerzitetno izobraževanje na 2. stopnji (magistrski študij) 6 24 Univerzitetno izobraževanje na 3. stopnji (doktorski študij) 9 36 Daljši izobraževalni program (6–12 mesecev) 14 56 Krajši izobraževalni program (do 6 mesecev) 15 60 Seminar (1–3 dni) 14 56 Delavnica (1 dan) 9 36 Redno in kratko svetovanje ali konzultacije 1 4 Ne potrebujem dodatnega usposabljanja 0 0 Opomba: * Več možnih odgovorov. V tabeli 6 so prikazani rezultati bivariantne analize med kategoričnimi spremen- ljivkami in samoocena menedžerske usposobljenosti. Tabela kaže, da ni statistično zna- čilnih razlik med zaznano usposobljenostjo in različnimi skupinami direktorjev glede na delovno dobo in področje izobrazbe, obstajajo pa statistično razlike med zaznano usposobljenostjo in skupinami direktorjev glede na spol, starost in izobrazbo. Moški menedžerji so se precej pogosteje dojemali kot bolj kompetentni na vseh področjih menedžerskih kompetenc v primerjavi s svojimi kolegicami. Starejši direktorji so se počutili bistveno bolj kompetentni pri kompetencah odločanje na podlagi dokazov, zna- nje in spretnosti o delovanju okolja in vseh deležnikov ter upravljanje s spremembami kot mlajši kolegi. Višje izobraženi direktorji so se precej pogosteje dojemali kot bolj kompetentni na vseh področjih razen pri kompetenci upravljanje s spremembami. Dr. Kramar Zupan, dr. Erjavec: Kompetence in potrebe po izobraževanju direktorjev... 125 Tabela 6: Bivariantne povezave med menedžersko usposobljenostjo in kategoričnimi spremenljivkami (ANOVA) Kompetence Spol Starost Izobrazba Področje Delovna doba izobrazbe direktorja F-vred. 9,45 4,35 5,98 3,42 0,93 Odločanje na podlagi dokazov Sig. 0,001 0,011 0,004 0,23 0,47 Znanje in spretnosti upravljanja F-vred. 0,82 3,96 5,24 3,77 1,00 in poslovanja zavodov Sig. 0,002 0,16 0,007 0,15 0,43 Znanje in spretnosti o delovanju F-vred. 10,37 4,72 6,55 3,29 1,16 okolja in vseh deležnikov Sig. 0,001 0,008 0,003 0,26 0,36 Komunikacijsko znanje in F-vred. 8,89 4,09 3,57 3,40 0,93 spretnosti ter upravljanje z odnosi Sig. 0,001 0,14 0,005 0,23 0,47 F-vred. 9,58 4,21 5,84 3,43 1,05 Vodenje Sig. 0,001 0,12 0,005 0,22 0,40 F-vred. 9,95 4,53 6,34 3,55 1,06 Upravljanje s spremembami Sig. 0,001 0,009 0,03 0,20 0,40 4 Diskusija in zaključek Znanstveni prispevek tega prispevka se kaže v prvi raziskavi na področju menedžer- ske usposobljenosti direktorjev slovenskih javnih bolnišnic, v kateri so sodelovali vsi direktorji razen enega. Raziskava je pokazala diskrepanco med pomembnostjo mene- džerskih kompetenc in dojemanjem menedžerske usposobljenosti. Medtem ko so direk- torji kot najpomembnejši kompetenci ocenili odločanje na podlagi dokazov in vodenje, so kot najvišjo zaznano usposobljenost ocenili komunikacijo, najmanj pa ekonomsko kompetenco upravljanja in poslovanja zavodov, še posebej na področju izvajanja rednih dvosmernih ocen uspešnosti zaposlenih in podpore zaposlenim. Da imajo malo znanja na ekonomskem področju, so potrdili z največkrat navedeno potrebo po dodatni uspo- sobljenosti na tem področju poleg znanja na področju vodenja. Rezultat potrjuje, da se menedžment v slovenskem zdravstvu v primerjavi z menedžmentom v gospodarskem sektorju ni razvijal in prilagajal novim zahtevam in izzivom dovolj hitro in kakovostno. Menedžerska znanja in kompetence so bile zapostavljene, še posebej funkcija vodenja kot najpomembnejša menedžerska funkcija. Le-ta je še posebej za zdravstveni sistem, kjer je motiviranost in zavzetost zaposlenih zelo pomembna za učinkovito in uspešno delo, izjemnega pomena. Anketirani direktorji ta primanjkljaj zaznavajo in pogrešajo, zato so, kot kaže raziskava, pripravljeni na dodatno izobraževanje in usposabljanje. Če- prav so direktorji ocenili, da so dobro usposobljeni na področju komunikacije, je večina izrazila potrebo po dodatni usposobljenosti tudi na tem področju. Najmanj potreb po dodatni usposobljenosti so imeli na področju delovanja okolja zdravstvenega varstva in vseh deležnikov v sistemu, kar lahko razložimo z dejstvom, da ima večina direktorjev znanje iz medicine in dobro pozna okolje zdravstvenega varstva ter da je skoraj polo- 126 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) vica direktorjev starejših od 50 let. To pa pomeni, da že dalj časa delajo v obstoječem zdravstvenem sistemu in ga dobro poznajo. Naši rezultati so delno skladni z rezultati, ki so jih pridobili Liang in sod. (2018). Ti so prav tako ugotovili, da menedžerji bolnišnic zaznavajo najmanjšo usposobljenost na ekonomskem področju upravljanja in poslovanja zavodov, a tudi na področju upra- vljanja s spremembami. To nakazuje, da številnim menedžerjem po svetu primanjkuje ekonomskega znanja in spretnosti. Po drugi strani pa gre za velik pritisk na menedžerje v zdravstvu, ki naj bi z učinkovitim in uspešnim upravljanjem in vodenjem bolnišnic ublažili oziroma nadomestili naraščajoče stroške v zdravstvu. Le-ti skokovito naraščajo v vseh razvitih državah tako zaradi izjemno hitrega razvoja novih tehnologij v zdra- vstvu kot staranja prebivalstva. Vsi anketirani direktorji so izjavili, da potrebujejo dodatno usposabljanje za dvig menedžerske usposobljenosti, ki si jo v glavnem želijo pridobiti na krajših izobraže- valnih programih (do 6 mesecev), daljših izobraževalnih programih (6–12 mesecev) in seminarjih (1–3 dni). To pomeni, da se direktorji zavedajo pomanjkanja menedžerskih kompetenc in si želijo različnih oblik neformalnega usposabljanja. Rezultati kažejo, da v vrhnjem menedžmentu tudi v zdravstvu še vedno prevladu- jejo moški (68 % direktorjev), čeprav so v zdravstvu pretežno zaposlene ženske, saj je zdravstvo vse bolj feminiziran poklic. Moški direktorji se precej pogosteje dojemajo kot bolj kompetentni na vseh področjih menedžerskih kompetenc v primerjavi s kolegicami. Strebler in sod. (1997) razlagajo razlike v zaznavanju usposobljenosti s ponotranjeno stereotipno reprezentacijo žensk kot manj kompetentnih in z ugotovijo, da so ženske bolj kritične do svoje usposobljenosti kot moški. Ta ugotovitev zagotovo velja tudi za direk- torice slovenskih bolnišnic. Starejši direktorji so se počutili bistveno bolj kompetentni na področju odločanja na podlagi dokazov, znanja in spretnosti o delovanju okolja in vseh deležnikov ter pri upravljanju s spremembami v primerjavi z mlajšimi direktorji. Bolje izobraženi direktorji so se dojemali kot bolj kompetentni na vseh področjih kompetenc razen na področju upravljanja s spremembami. To je v skladu s pričakova- nji, saj raziskave potrjujejo, da se bolj izobraženi zdravstveni delavci dojemajo kot bolj kompetentni v primerjavi z manj izobraženi kolegi (Briggs, 2008). Raziskava je pokazala, da ni statistično značilnih razlik med usposobljenostjo raz- ličnih skupin direktorjev glede na delovno dobo in področje izobrazbe. Ta rezultat neko- liko preseneča, saj bi pričakovali, da bodo imeli direktorji z ekonomsko izobrazbo več menedžerskih kompetenc. Je pa dejstvo, da direktorjem slovenskih bolnišnic poleg me- nedžerskih kompetenc s področja vodenja in upravljanja manjkajo menedžerska orodja, kot sta kadrovanje in nagrajevanje. Status bolnišnic kot javnega zavoda je zastarel in neprilagojen sodobnemu okolju in menedžerjem bolnišnic ne omogoča menedžerskih orodij za učinkovito vodenje. To pa seveda velja za vse direktorje bolnišnic ne glede na to, ali gre za ekonomsko izobražene direktorje ali direktorje zdravnike. Strinjamo se s sklepom Kovača in Mazetove (2019, str. 60), da so ustrezna priza- devanja za izboljšanje menedžmenta v zdravstvenih organizacijah nujna. K izboljšanju deloma prispeva že izbira kandidatov za menedžerska mesta, ki se morajo zavedati, da s tem vstopajo na področje, ki zahteva vrhunska menedžerska znanja in še posebej odlično vodenje. Zato je potrebno pripraviti ustrezne oblike kratkega usposabljanja, ki bodo specializirane za to skupino menedžerjev. Dr. Kramar Zupan, dr. Erjavec: Kompetence in potrebe po izobraževanju direktorjev... 127 Ta študija ima nekatere omejitve. Temelji na samooceni, ki so jo izvedli direktorji slovenskih javnih bolnišnic. To pomeni, da je ocena subjektivna in ni potrjena od dru- gih. Kljub temu da smo zajeli skoraj vse direktorje slovenskih bolnišnic, je število enot razmeroma nizko (25). Kljub omejitvam pa ima raziskava praktični pomen za izbolj- šanje ravnateljevanja v slovenskih javnih bolnišnicah v Sloveniji in vzhodnoevropskih državah, ki imajo podoben zdravstveni sistem. Raziskava kaže na pomembnost vod- stvenih znanj in spretnosti oziroma na nujno potrebo po profesionalizaciji upravljanja in vodenja v slovenskih bolnišnicah. Če zaključimo, usposobljenost direktorjev slovenskih bolnišnic za učinkovito in uspešno upravljanje in vodenje ni optimalna. Direktorjem manjkajo menedžerske kom- petence s področja upravljanja in vodenja, kar kaže na zapostavljenost in prepočasen razvoj profesionalnega menedžmenta v slovenskem zdravstvu. To dokazuje tudi samo- ocena večine direktorjev, ki jasno izražajo potrebo po dodatnem usposabljanju. Najiz- razitejše področje potrebnega razvoja kompetenc je ekonomsko področje upravljanja in poslovanja zavodov ter vodenja. Razlike v kompetencah se kažejo glede na starost, spol in izobrazbo. Ugotavljanje in uresničevanje kompetenc direktorjev javnih zdravstvenih zavodov z uporabo pristopa, ki temelji na menedžerskih kompetencah, uveljavljenih v mednarodnih okvirih, zagotavlja temelje za kakovostno vključitev okvira menedžerskih kompetenc v uspešno izvajanje menedžmenta in strokovni razvoj direktorjev. Milena Kramar Zupan, PhD, Karmen Erjavec, PhD Competencies and Training Needs of Directors of Slovenian Hospitals There is a consensus among management scholars and practitioners that manage- rial competencies are useful for monitoring and improving the performance of managers of various organizations (Levenson et al., 2006), including managers of health organiza- tions (Stefl, 2008; Kovač & Maze, 2019). Due to the many challenges, the competencies of managers of health organizations are constantly changing. The most important factors driving the need to develop managerial competencies in the European Union are: dif- ferent expectations of the next generation of employees; reform of health organizations in the provision of healthcare services; increasing demands for improved performance of healthcare organizations; changing patient expectations; challenges of cross-border care in the EU and integrating migrants into the health system (Pihlainen et al., 2016). Hospital activity is of particular importance for the health system, whose expen- ditures are steadily increasing and resources are scarce, since it occupies the largest share of financial resources among the activities of health organizations (41.0 %) in Slo- venia (SURS, 2019), and elsewhere up to 60 % worldwide (Clay-Williams et al., 2017). One of the key constraints to achieving optimal health and business outcomes for hos- pitals in most developing countries (Chen, 2004) and the developed world (Clay-Williams et al., 2017; Liang et al., 2018) is a lack of hospital management knowledge and skills. In a complex and fast-changing environment, hospital managers or directors need to com- bine managerial, entrepreneurial and administrative skills to meet the socio-political, economic and technological challenges and to meet the expectations of patients, health- 128 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) care professionals, politicians and the general public (Travis et al., 2004; Piley, 2010). The scholars and practitioners agree that without the good management of hospitals, the efficiency, effectiveness and responsiveness of health care delivery and comprehensive measures cannot be improved (Travis et al., 2004; Piley, 2010; Liang et al., 2018). Considering the complexity of modern healthcare organizations, it is difficult to prove whether physicians are better hospital directors than the directors with a background in economics. In the conclusion of the analysis of existing scientific studies that sought to answer this question, Clay-Williams et al. (2017, p. 9) argue that the existing studies do not provide sufficient information or did not include the key variables such as managerial competencies, additional training, and the financial and health performance of hospitals. Since education influences the perceptions of the importance of competencies and profi- ciency (Piley, 2010), the following research questions were addressed: □ What kind of managerial competencies are important for directors of Slovenian pu- blic hospitals? □ How do Slovenian hospital directors assess their managerial competencies or their managerial proficiency? □ How does the self-assessment of directors’ competencies differ with regard to the socio-demographic characteristics (gender, age, education, field of education)? and □ What are their needs for additional training? Previous studies that identified a lack of competence of hospital managers in dif- ferent countries of the world (Piley, 2008, 2010; Leggat et al., 2011; Townsend et al., 2012; Clay-Williams et al., 2017; Liang et al., 2018), and of the Slovenian managers of health organizations (Kovač & Maze, 2019), emphasize the need to identify the mana- gerial competencies of hospital directors, to regularly monitor them in practice, and to identify their needs for education and training. As there is a lack of studies on the mana- gerial competencies of the directors of Slovenian public hospitals, this research tried to fill the research gap. The study aimed to find out which managerial competencies are important to the directors of Slovenian public hospitals, how the directors perceive their competencies, how the perceived competence of directors differs according to the socio-demographic characteristics, and what their needs for additional knowledge are. A descriptive method was used with a cross-sectional survey with an online ques- tionnaire. The final sample includes all available directors of Slovenian public hospitals. Questionnaires were completed by 25 of the 26 directors of Slovenian public hospitals. The majority of respondents were male (68 %), aged 51–60 (48 %), had undergraduate degrees (60 %) in medicine (40 %), have been working for more than 31 years (87.5 %) and have been working as a director from one to four years (44 %). The directors rated the importance of all managerial competencies relatively high. The highest scores were given to the importance of the competencies “Evidence-based decision making” ( x = 4.45) and “Leadership” ( x = 4.4), while the lowest score was given to “Communication skills and relationship management” ( x = 4.18), which is nevertheless rated high. Individually, the following competencies were evaluated by the respondents as the most important: “Design and develop an appropriate organiza- tional structure, including responsibilities” ( x = 4.46), “Balance organizational val- ues and priorities” ( x = 4.46), “Use arguments to improve existing practices and pro- cesses” ( x = 4.45), “Support and encourage employees to use data-driven decisions” Dr. Kramar Zupan, dr. Erjavec: Kompetence in potrebe po izobraževanju direktorjev... 129 ( x = 4.45) and “Lead, develop and motivate to successfully build an effective team” ( x = 4.45). Individually, the lowest score was given to the competence “Prepare written reports/materials relevant to the stakeholders and purpose” ( x = 3.9). In which field are the directors of Slovenian public hospitals the least qualified? On average, in the self-assessment of managerial competencies the directors gave lower aver- age scores compared to the ratings on the importance of competencies. The highest scores were given to their competence in the field of “Communication skills and relationship management” ( x = 4.02), and the lowest in the economic field of “Knowledge and skills in managing and administrating organizations” ( x = 3.75). Individually, they considered themselves to be the least competent in the following two competencies: “To carry out regular two-way employee performance assessments and employee support” ( x = 3.31) and “To establish and maintain a personal and professional social network” ( x = 3.35). The survey revealed a discrepancy between the importance of managerial com- petencies and the perceptions of managerial competence. While directors evaluated evidence-based decision-making and leadership as their most important competencies, they rated communication as the highest perceived competence, while the least per- ceived was the management and administration of an organization. The largest propor- tion of directors stated that they needed additional training in the field of “Managing and administrating an organization” (83 %), “Communication knowledge and skills and managing relationships” (79 %) and “Leading” (78 %), while they need it the least in the field of “Knowledge and skills about the functioning of the environment, health- care and all the stakeholders in the system” (39 %). All analysed directors stated that they needed additional training to improve their managerial competence, which they mainly wanted to obtain in short training pro- grammes (up to 6 months), longer training programmes (6–12 months) and seminars (1–3 days). This means that directors want different forms of non-formal training, rang- ing from several days to six months. The results show that male directors were more often perceived as more compe- tent in all areas of managerial competence than their female colleagues. Strebler et al. (1997) explain the differences in the perceptions of competence by internally stereotyp- ing women as less competent and by finding that women are more critical of their com- petence than men are. The senior directors felt significantly more competent in the field of evidence-based decision-making, knowledge and skills on how the environment and all stakeholders work, and change management than the younger ones. The directors with a higher education perceived themselves as more competent in all fields of competence except change management. This is in line with expectations, as research confirms that more educated healthcare professionals are perceived as more competent compared to their less educated colleagues (Briggs, 2008). The results show that there were no statistically significant differences between self- assessed competencies and different groups of directors in terms of seniority and field of education. We agree with the conclusion of Kovač and Mazet (2019, p. 60) that appropriate efforts to improve management in health organizations are necessary. The improvement could be partly realized by selecting candidates for management positions who are aware that they are entering a field that is different from medicine and for which they 130 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) need economic and other knowledge that they can gain through education and training. It is, therefore, necessary to develop appropriate forms of short training that will be specialized for this group of managers. This study has some limitations. It is based on a self-assessment carried out by the directors of Slovenian public hospitals. This means that the rating is subjective and not externally validated. Despite including almost all directors of Slovenian hospitals, the number of units is relatively low (25), which has reduced the possibilities for statistical processing. Despite this limitation, the research has shown practical importance for improving the management of Slovenian public hospitals in Slovenia and Eastern Euro- pean countries, which have a similar health system. The research shows the importance of managerial knowledge and skills in a profession characterized by poor resources. To conclude, the competence of the directors of Slovenian hospitals is appropriate for the role and responsibilities of hospital managers. However, the self-assessment of most directors also shows less than optimal competence that requires further support or guidance, as directors have clearly expressed the need for additional training. The most obvious field requiring further competence development is the economic field of man- aging and administrating an organization. Identifying and maintaining the competen- cies of directors of public health organizations using the competency-based approach established in international frameworks provides the basis for a qualitative integration of the management competency framework into the performance management and pro- fessional development of directors. LITERATURA 1. Ariss, A., Cascio, W., Paauwe, J. (2014). Talent management: current theories and future rese- arch directions. Journal of World Business, 49, št. 2, str. 173–179. 2. Blažič, M. (2008). Globalization process and education. Pedagoška obzorja, 23, št. 1, str. 74–85. 3. Briggs, D.S. (2008). SHAPE declaration on the organisation and management of health servi- ces: a call for informed public debate. Asia Pacific Journal of Health Management, 3, str. 10–13. 4. Chen, L.C. (2004). Harnessing the power of human resources for achieving the MDGs. Gene- va: World Health Organisation. Pridobljeno dne 09.09.2019 s svetovnega spleta: https://www. hrhresourcecenter.org/node/904.html. 5. Clay-Williams, R. et al. (2017). Medical leadership, a systematic narrative review: do hospitals and healthcare organisations perform better when led by doctors? BMJ Open, 7(9), e014474. Pridobljeno dne 09.09.2019 s svetovnega spleta: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2016-014474. 6. Erjavec, K. (2015). Slovenian online news sites and television daily news programs about doc- tors. Medicinski razgledi, 54, št. 1, str. 165–169. 7. Erjavec, K., Starc, J. (2017). Competencies of nurse managers in Slovenia: a qualitative and quantitative study. Central European Journal of Nursing and Midwifery, 8, št. 2, str. 632–640. 8. Kovač, J., Maze, H. (2019). Raziskava managerskega dela v zdravstvenih organizacijah. V: Rozman, R., Kovač, J., Filej, B. in Robida, A. (ur.). Management v zdravstvenih organizacijah. Ljubljana: GV Založba, str. 45–60. 9. Kramar Zupan, M. (2018). Primerjava značilnosti managementa v javnem in zasebnem sektor- ju – primer zdravstva. V: Rozman, R., Zupan, N., Svetic, A. (ur.). Izbrane teme organizacije in management. Ljubljana: Društvo slovenska akademija za management, str. 115–126. 10. Landry, A., Stowe, M., Haefner, J. (2012). Competency assessment and development among he- alth-care leaders. Health Service Management Research, 25, št. 2, str. 78–86. 11. Leggat, S.G., Balding, C., Anderson, J.A. (2011). Empowering health-care managers in Austra- lia: an action learning approach. Health Services Management Research, 24, št. 4, str. 196–202. Dr. Kramar Zupan, dr. Erjavec: Kompetence in potrebe po izobraževanju direktorjev... 131 12. Levenson, A.R., Van der Stede, W.A., Cohen, S.G. (2006). Measuring the relationship between managerial competencies and performance. Journal of Management, 32, št. 3, str. 360–380. 13. Liang, Z., Howard, P.F. (2010). Competencies required by senior health executives in NSW, 1990–1999. Australian Health Review, 34, št. 1, str. 52–58. 14. Liang, Z., Leggat, S., Howard, P., Koh, L. (2013). What makes a hospital manager competent at the middle and senior levels? Australian Health Review, 37, str. 566–573. 15. Liang, Z., Howard, P.F., Leggat, S., Bartram, T. (2018). Development and validation of health services management competencies. Journal of Health Organisations, 32, št. 2, str. 157–175. 16. Pillay, R. (2008). The skills gap in hospital management in the South African public health sector. Journal of Public Health Management Practice, 14, št. 5, str. 8–14. 17. Piley, R. (2010). A Comparative Analysis of Hospital Managers in the Public and Private Sec- tors in South Africa. Journal of Health Management, 12, št. 1, str. 1–18. 18. Pihlainen, V., Kivinen, T., Lammintakanen, J. (2016). Management and leadership competence in hospitals: a systematic literature review. Leadership in Health services, 29, št. 1, str. 95–110. 19. Pogačar, B. (2010). Izzivi na področju upravljanja v javnem sektorju. Zbornik referatov 13. letne konference notranjih revizorjev, Slovenski inštitut za revizijo, Ljubljana, 2010. Pridobljeno dne 10.09.2019 s svetovnega spleta: https://si-revizija.si/datoteke/notranji-revizorji/272/sp-pogacar.pdf. 20. Pri državni zakladnici ostaja zadolženih pet bolnišnic (2016). MMC. Pridobljeno dne 10.09.2019 s svetovnega spleta: https://www.rtvslo.si/zdravje/novice/pri-drzavni-zakladnici-ostaja-zadol- zenih-pet-bolnisnic/410360. 21. Repovž, M. (2018). Po krivici pljuvano zdravstvo. Vzajemnost. Pridobljeno dne 10.09.2019 s svetovnega spleta: https://www.vzajemnost.si/clanek/175308/po-krivici-pljuvano-zdravstvo. 22. Rozman, R. (2019). Uvod v management v zdravstvenih organizacijah. V: Rozman, R., Kovač, J., Filej, B. in Robida, A. (ur.). Management v zdravstvenih organizacijah. Ljubljana: GV Založba, str. 63–115. 23. Starc, J., Blažič, M. (2008a). Content needs assessment in training and education of manage- ment. Pedagoška obzorja, 23, št. 2, str. 24–41. 24. Starc, J., Blažič, M. (2008b). Didaktični vidiki izobraževanja in usposabljanja menedžerjev. Pedagoška obzorja, 23, št. 3–4, str. 92–104. 25. Stebler, M., Thompson, M., Heron, P. (1997). Skills, Competencies and Gender: Issues for pay and training. University of Sussex: The Institute for employment studies. 26. Stefl, M.E. (2008). Common competencies for all healthcare managers: the Healthcare Leader- ship Alliance Model. Journal of Healthcare Management, 53, št. 6, str. 360–373. 27. SURS (2019). Tekoči izdatki za zdravstveno varstvo so bili v 2017 višji kot v 2016. Pridobljeno dne 09.09.2019 s svetovnega spleta: https://www.stat.si/StatWeb/News/Index/8197. 28. Townsend, K., Wilkinson, A., Bamber, G., Allan, C. (2012). Accidental, unprepared, and unsu- pported: clinical nurses becoming managers. International Journal of Human Resource Mana- gement, 23, št. 1, str. 204–220. 29. Travis, P., Bennett, S., Haines, A., Pang, T. (2004). Overcoming health systems constraints to achieve the Millenium Development Goals. Lancet, št. 364, str. 900–906. 30. Zakon o zavodih – ZZ (1991). Uradni list RS, št. 12/91, 8/96, 35/00. 127/06. Pridobljeno dne 10.09.2019 s svetovnega spleta: http://pisrs.si/Pis.web/pregledPredpisa?id=ZAKO10. 31. Zavod za zdravstveno zavarovanje Slovenije – ZZZS (2019). Elektronska gradiva ZZZS. Pri- dobljeno dne 10.09.2019 s svetovnega spleta: http://www.zzzs.si/zzzs/internet/zzzs.nsf/o/89D2 5D80E227484FC1256D420036505D. Dr. Milena Kramar Zupan (1959), docentka za menedžment na Fakulteti za poslovne in upravne vede Univerze v Novem mestu. Naslov: V Ragov log 3, 8000 Novo mesto, Slovenija; Telefon: (+386) 031 324 324 E-mail: milena.kramar-zupan@sb-nm.si Dr. Karmen Erjavec (1971), redna profesorica na Fakulteti za ekonomijo in informatiko Univerze v Novem mestu. Naslov: Topniška 45, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija; Telefon: (+386) 07 393 00 25 E-mail: karmen.erjavec@uni-nm.si Olexandra Dubaseniuk, PhD, Alexander Voznyuk, PhD, Oksana Samoilenko, PhD Quality of Education – Ukrainian Experience Prejeto 13.08.2019 / Sprejeto 10.02.2020 Received 13.08.2019 / Accepted 10.02.2020 Znanstveni članek Scientific paper UDK 37:005.336.3 UDC 37:005.336.3 KLJUČNE BESEDE: kakovostna izobrazba, poklicne KEYWORDS: qualitative education, professional kompetence, mednarodna merila kakovosti izobraže- competences, international criteria of quality of edu- vanja, kontinuiteta izobraževanja, izobraževalni sistem cation; continuity of education; education system POVZETEK – Članek obravnava problematiko kako- ABSTRACT – The article deals with the problem of vosti izobraževanja v kontekstu sodobne globalizacije the quality of education in the context of modern glo- in evropskih integracijskih procesov. Koncept kako- balization and European integration processes. The vosti izobraževanja, analiziran na temelju različnih concept of “quality of education”, analyzed on the znanstvenih pristopov v pedagoški literaturi, je raz- basis of various scientific approaches in pedagogical iskan na naslednji način: kot kompleksna lastnost, literature, is considered in the following ways: as a ki odraža obseg in raven izobraževalnih storitev in complex characteristic that reflects the range and level izobraževalnega procesa; kot skupek lastnosti ose- of educational services and the educational process; be z visokošolsko izobrazbo, ki je značilna za njene as a set of qualities of a person with a higher educa- poklicne kompetence; kot sistemska kategorija, ki za- tion characterizing his/her professional competences; jema pojma “kakovost izobraževanja” in “kakovost as a system category that covers the concept of “qual- usposabljanja”; kot ocena stopnje znanja, veščin in ity of education” and “quality of training”; as an as- sposobnosti, ki jih pridobijo študenti; kot eden glav- sessment of the level of knowledge, skills and abilities nih kazalcev kakovosti življenja in gospodarske rasti obtained by students; as one of the main indicators of v državi; kot človeški kapital. V okviru raziskave je a country’s quality of life and economic growth; as hu- bila izvedena pedagoška diagnostika za identifikacijo man capital. In the course of the research, pedagogical pomena dejavnikov, ki vplivajo na kakovost znanja v diagnostics was implemented to determine the impor- srednjih in visokih šolah. tance of the factors influencing the quality of knowl- edge in institutions of secondary and higher education. 1 Introduction The spread of globalization and European integration processes to all areas of pub- lic life at the beginning of the 21st century has determined the need to reorient educa- tion as the leading social institution to the needs of the market for educational services, and to organize it on the basis of continuous education. In the context of Ukraine as a balanced European educational choice, the scientific community faces problems con- cerning the development of the quality of education, stemming from basic European education documents. These documents include the World Declaration on Higher Edu- cation for the Twenty-First Century (1998), the Lisbon Recognition Convention (the Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region) (1997), the Sorbonne (1998) and Bologna (1999) Declaration on Harmonization of the Architecture of the European Higher Education System, and the UNESCO Guidelines on Intercultural Education (2006). Dubaseniuk, PhD, Voznyuk, PhD, Samoilenko, PhD : Quality of Education – Ukrainian... 133 At the state level, in Ukraine this educational trend is implemented in the Ukrainian acts “On Education” (2017), “On Higher Education” (2017), in the Concept of Peda- gogical Education Development (2016), the Concept of Implementation of State Policy in the “New Ukrainian School” Reform of General Secondary Education for the period up to 2029 (2016), and in the professional standards, normative documents, etc. Solving the problem of the quality of education is in the center of the scientific ac- tivities of Ukrainian scholars (A. Aleksyuk, V. Andrushchenko, I. Bekh, L. Grinevich. O. Dubasenyuk, G. Vasyanovich, S. Goncharenko, Yu. Zinkovsky, I. Zyazyun, M. Lesh- chenko, N. Nychkalo, V. Rybalki, V. Semichenko, G. Trotsko, L. Khomych et al.) who have put forward two main approaches to determining the phenomenon of the quality of education. Within the framework of the first (normative) approach, the essence of the quality of education is considered from the point of view of meeting educational needs and achieving certain educational norms, standards and goals (for individuals, society, the state), which have been normatively approved by relevant documents (M. Potashnik, V. Nuzhdin, V. Panayuk, K. Isikava, V. Kalnei, O. Lokshina, S. Shishov, N. Seleznev et al) (Education Quality Monitoring, 2005). The second (managerial) approach consid- ers this category from the standpoint of modern theory and practice of management (T. Volobueva, O. Kasyanova, V. Kachalov, T. Lukin, O. Lyashenko et al.). Quality of education as an object of managerial influence is considered from the standpoint of the quality of the educational system, the quality of the educational process (as a process of consumption of the provided educational services), and the quality of the personality of the graduate as a result of the education system’s performance in terms of its education and formation of socially significant values (Education Quality Monitoring, 2005). Foreign scholars have reached considerable results in studying the major aspects of education quality (R. L. Thomdike, E. A. Hanushek, L. Woessmann, D. D. Kimko, M. Roser, M. Nagdy, E. Ortiz-Ospina et al.) (Hanushek, Kimko, 2000). Interesting, topi- cal and innovative experience is highlighted in the book World Class: How to Build a 21st-Century School System (2018) in which one of the most experienced educators in the world, Andreas Schleicher (Director for Education and Skills and Special Advisor on Education Policy to the Secretary-General, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development), gives striking, but convincing data on current trends in education, analyzing the reasons for the success of the most effective education systems that have led countries from decline to being the best in the world. It also gives advice on how to implement educational reforms. The Financial Times states the following in its review of the book: “Schleicher rightly stresses that PISA results should not be “about copying prefabricated solutions from other countries,” but rather exploring good practices do- mestically and abroad. While the debate on reform is far from settled, his effort to bring figures and comparisons to the discussion is extremely useful.” In this respect, the studies by Eric Hanusheck of Stanford University and Ludger Woessmann of the German Institute for Economic Research have shown that the quality of school education helps to accurately predict how prosperous the country will be in the long run (Hanushek & Woessmann, 2012; Hanushek & Kimko, 2000). The purpose of the study is to differentiate and analyze the indicators and influen- tial factors of the quality of education in the institutions of secondary and higher educa- tion of Ukraine in the context of European integration changes. 134 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) 2 Methodology of Research Objectives of the study: □ To analyze the essence of the concept of “quality of education” in scientific litera- ture by revealing existing problems. □ To carry out pedagogical diagnostics concerning the importance of the factors influ- encing the quality of knowledge in the institutions of secondary and higher education. □ To differentiate strategic directions for improving the quality of education in educa- tional institutions. The scientific search was carried out on the basis of the application of theoretical and empirical methods of scientific and pedagogical research, such as: the method of analysis and synthesis; the method of studying documentary and scientific and peda- gogical sources; the method of interpreting educational facts; the comparative pedagog- ical methods; the method of analyzing foreign-language sources being used to highlight the leading areas for improving the quality of education. 3 Results of Research The study of scientific literature has shown the existence of different approaches to the key concept (Kremen, 2008, p. 1016). The quality of higher education is considered a complex characteristic that reflects the range and level of educational services pro- vided by education systems in accordance with the interests of the individual, society and state. Thus, qualitative education should enable every individual to acquire a full- fledged, continuous education at appropriate levels in all its forms. The quality of higher education is understood as a person’s set of qualities, char- acterizing his/her professional competence, value orientation and social attitudes, thus determining the ability to satisfy both personal/spiritual and material needs, as well as the needs of society. At the same time, the quality of higher education in the framework of the Ukrain- ian education system is understood as a complex category that covers the concept of “quality of education” and “quality of professional training”. The first one is multi-com- ponent, as it involves a certain level of teachers’ qualifications, as well as the state of the material and laboratory foundation, the quality and quantity of scientific and meth- odological literature, the modern curricula, and the quality of students’ internship. The quality of professional training represents the students’ ability to meet the requirements of a certain branch of the national economy. The quality of education reflects the need to summarize the effectiveness of the educational process, the possibility of diagnosing the graduate’s professional competences, and therefore his/her readiness as a specialist to undertake production activities without long-term adaptation. Thus, the quality of education, as an assessment of the level of students’ knowledge, skills, and abilities, is a complex of characteristics of the educational process, determin- ing the consistent and practically effective formation of the competences and professional Dubaseniuk, PhD, Voznyuk, PhD, Samoilenko, PhD : Quality of Education – Ukrainian... 135 consciousness in prospective specialists. It is also the specific level of knowledge and skills, mental, physical and moral development being achieved by graduates in accord- ance with the planned goals of education or professional training (Sauh, 2011, pp. 10–17). The European system for assessing knowledge (based on the ESTS units) can be compared with the system existing in Ukraine. According to many scholars, qualitative education is considered today as one of the main indicators of quality of life, a tool of social and cultural harmony and of economic growth of any state. In the development of the information society, social intellect and the education system are decisive factors in the progress of humanity. Therefore, in a high-tech information society, the quality of education is a key argument in providing a standard of living and of a person’s professional competences that would meet the needs of the person’s development, and the needs of society and state (Education Quality Monitoring, 2005). Consequently, the quality of education as a system phenomenon can be viewed in the form of a multidimensional model of social norms and requirements placed on persons and the educational environment in which a person’s development is realized. The quality of education is estimated, firstly, as the social ideal of human education; secondly, as a result of its educational activities; and thirdly, as a criterion for the effec- tive functioning of the education system. Most research on the quality of education is carried out within the framework of pedagogical science. Often, the subject of this research is the quality of knowledge, the quality of educational achievements and the results of educational activities. In this context, the quality of education can be assessed by certain indicators. Among them are the Educational Indicators of the EU Council of Education, the Educational Indicators of the International Consultative Forum on Education for All, and the UNESCO Educa- tional Indicators (Kremen, 2008, p. 1048). Globalization and European integration trends in modern Ukrainian society and new socio-economic conditions necessitate the improvement of the system of higher teacher education in Ukraine, stimulate the search for new approaches to the organiza- tion of prospective teachers’ professional training, and the improvement of the skills of working teachers and lecturers. In recent years, there has been a certain tendency to decrease the quality of educa- tion in the world. This stems from the loss of social optimism in educators, from a de- creasing interest in education among the youth and their world-view conformism, from the loss of educational values, a nd from the rapid aging of the educational staff. For example, let us identify the trends that can be traced in teacher education in Ukraine due to changes in the structure and content of higher education (Sauh, 2011, p. 13). These include: a reduction in the number of class hours by several times com- pared with previous years, especially lecture hours in the main pedagogical disciplines; admission of people with non-pedagogical education to a master’s program since during the 1.5 years of master’s studies, the prospective masters are, in fact, only acquainted with the basics of pedagogical knowledge. Such training needs to deepen the quality of pedagogical education; it is necessary to strengthen the practice-oriented approach to teacher training, as well as to increase the number of hours not only for the seminars, but also for the practical classes in pedagogical disciplines, in which the experienced, creative teachers’ classes are attended and discussed by prospective teachers, and in 136 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) which the case methods are actively implemented. Laboratory classes are also needed which actively form students’ practical skills, abilities and creative thinking. In Ukrain- ian universities there is another problem concerning the lack of innovative forms, meth- ods and technologies that develop creative thinking in the students in accordance with the provisions of the Concept of Pedagogical Education Development of Ukraine. The content, forms and methods of pedagogical internship also require significant updat- ing and strengthening of pedagogical and methodological support. On the other hand, there is a positive trend, evident from the fact that in recent decades the number of educational disciplines has increased and educational pedagogical disciplines have been diversified, which is related to the lecturers’ scientific interests. Another problem of prospective teachers’ professional training is connected with a rather low level of their professional motivation, since some students do not think about the essence of the pedagogical profession, do not feel responsible for the fu- ture of the country, and do not show a strong desire for continuous lifelong learning. However, there are also positive trends: after students who study under an individual program complete online courses in accordance with the requirements of the concept “New Ukrainian School”, work according to a new program for elementary schools in Zhytomyr and the Zhytomyr region using updated educational aids, thus combining theoretical training with the practical one (Dubaseniuk, 2014, p. 25). Table 1. Factors influencing the quality of education (the result of experimental studies) Education quality is provided by f % Increasing the level of professional competences and the level of teachers’ creative skills 95 % Using new information and communication technologies 85 % Cooperating with various educational institutions 80 % Availability of the appropriate material and technical aids 80 % Developing up-to-date teaching and methodological aids 75 % Creating a supportive psychological climate in the pedagogical team 65 % Establishment of appropriate relations with students on the principles of partnership pedagogy 60 % Taking into account international criteria for the quality of knowledge in accordance with the requirements of the Bologna Process 45 % Independent external testing of graduates of secondary education institutions 40 % International cooperation 30 % Taking into account the peculiarities of the multicultural educational environment 25 % Ensuring conditions for professional career growth 25 % Another problem is connected with the fact that written examinations do not reveal the level of development of the creative potential in prospective teachers. Furthermore, during the short period of master’s studies it is difficult to form in the students’ an au- tonomy of thinking, a creative approach to pedagogical activity, and to develop a prop- er level of speech culture, since test assignments orient students towards reproductive Dubaseniuk, PhD, Voznyuk, PhD, Samoilenko, PhD : Quality of Education – Ukrainian... 137 thinking. The outlined trends do not contribute to improving the quality of knowledge in prospective professionals in the sphere of education. That is why we conducted a diagnostic experiment whose purpose was to identify the factors influencing the quality of education in the leading institutions of second- ary and higher education in the Zhytomyr region, which are part of the educational- scientific-production complex “Polissya” containing the Ivan Franko Zhytomyr State University as its leading center approved by the Ministry of Education of Ukraine in 2003 (Dubaseniuk, 2017, pp. 162–163). The experiment provided three main directions of research. These factors were supplemented with the revealed educational indicators affect- ing the quality of education. For this purpose, the activities of the institutions of the educational-scientific-production complex “Polissya” were studied over the course of 15 years, taking into account the result of the analysis of the essence of the “quality of education” concept, enabling us to determine the basic categorical features that were presented in the questionnaire. Based on this, a survey was conducted among the heads of the educational institutions in the higher and secondary education complex (78 per- sons). This made it possible to distinguish the factors influencing the quality of educa- tion in the above-mentioned educational institutions (Table 1). During the research process, the factors influencing the mobility of teachers and students in accordance with Ukraine as a balanced European educational choice were identified (Table 2). Table 2. Factors influencing the mobility of teachers and students (the result of experi- mental studies) Factors influencing the mobility of teachers and students f % Exchange of pupils and students with foreign general education and higher education institutions 70 % International cooperation with educational institutions and higher education establishments 65 % Developing joint international projects 65 % Exchange of teachers and scholars with foreign partners 65 % Access of Ukrainian citizens to national grants, scholarships 50 % Ukrainian students studying in foreign educational institutions 50 % Receiving grants 35 % Signing international agreements 20 % 4 Discussion It has been proved that the exchange of Ukrainian students with foreign educational establishments (70 %) and the exchange of teachers and scientists with foreign partners (65 %) play an important role in the process of increasing the quality of education. One 138 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) of the topical factors is the training of Ukrainian students in foreign educational es- tablishments (50 %). Respondents consider the following factors positive: international cooperation with institutions of secondary and higher education (65 %), development of joint international projects (65 %), access of Ukrainian citizens to national grants, scholarships (50 %), receiving grants (35 %), signing international agreements (20 %), and others. Furthermore, it has been made clear how well the trained teachers of secondary and higher education institutions implement the pedagogical process in accordance with the requirements of the Bologna Declaration. The opinions of respondents were distributed as follows: 35 % of the teachers have received a high level of training, 30 % – an ad- equate level, 20 % – an average level, 15 % – were uncertain. It is possible to agree with the opinion of the heads of educational institutions, teachers and lecturers that the level of professional competences and pedagogical skills of teachers is a priority, taking into account the decisive role of human capital in the socio-economic, scientific, technical and cultural development of society and the state. This is emphasized in the Concept of Pedagogical Education Development of Ukraine (2018) since school teachers create the school as a social institution. Only a highly professional teacher is able to train young people for work in a high-tech information society. Furthermore, the importance of the teacher’s role in the development of soci- ety is evidenced by the results of the research conducted within the framework of the scientific theme of the Zhytomyr Ivan Franko State University (Ukraine) “Formation of Professional Competences in the Prospective Future Teacher in the Context of Euro- pean Integration”, aimed at the professional training of competent, competitive teachers (Dubaseniuk, 2014, p. 54). The importance of the professional training of teachers, their qualifications and constant self-improvement is stated in the above-mentioned book by A. Schleicher, where it is emphasized that the effective education systems of highly developed coun- tries very carefully select the teachers and educational leaders; when deciding where to invest, they give priority to teacher qualifications, rather than the size of the class, thus showing teachers how to reach the higher levels of the career ladder (Schleicher, 2018, p. 128). This means that in the successful countries (Canada, Finland, USA) the empha- sis is placed on the teaching quality, since the teaching profession is very prestigious and respected there, and teachers have a high social status. Furthermore, there is great competition in the pedagogical sector, with only one candidate out of ten being chosen for a pedagogical career. This profession is not reserved only for graduates of peda- gogical universities, but also for those who have completed other master’s programs. Everything is done in order to attract the most talented graduates to schools. Teachers are trusted and have a high level of autonomy (Schleicher, 2018, p. 136). Let us note the positive role of international cooperation, the weight of which grows with each passing year, resulting in the development of various forms of cooperation, as has been proved by our research. However, let’s also emphasize the fact that every year the number of young Ukrainians studying abroad is increasing for various reasons, e.g. because in Western European countries there is affordable financing of educational services and quality education, the possibility of suitable employment, and the provi- sion of adequate living conditions. The latter contributes to the massive outflow of the most highly trained and talented youth from Ukraine to the rest of Europe. Therefore, Dubaseniuk, PhD, Voznyuk, PhD, Samoilenko, PhD : Quality of Education – Ukrainian... 139 in the near future, it is extremely necessary to develop a program in Ukraine at the state level with the aim of identifying the strategic directions for changing this situation; that is, to create proper conditions for the study and employment of graduates, presupposing fair financing and a decent salary, as well as provide the youth with jobs that suit their specialty. The strategic directions for improving the quality of education in Ukraine should be the following: 1. Recognition of education as the most important indicator of the quality of life in society, an instrument of social and cultural harmony and economic growth, and the foundation of social life, which involves serious changes to the strategy of the Ukrain- ian socio-economic policy (A. Schleicher), since scientists have proved the following: in countries with a small amount of natural resources (good examples are Finland, Japan and Singapore), the citizens understand that their country must rely on reason, knowl- edge and skills, and that these depend on the quality of education. So, if education is a priority for the country, it has an incentive to build a top-notch education system and a thriving economy. 2. Consideration of international, particularly European, experience for improving the quality of education in Ukraine, a widespread introduction of the latest information and communication technologies, the creation of proper information and educational materials, and a corresponding technological update of the educational process aimed at training competitive specialists, as well as a national elite (A. Schleicher). 3. Training highly skilled teachers is an important indicator of effective educa- tion systems in the world. Particular attention should be paid to the selection, training and employment of first-class teachers. This means that the most talented, motivated graduates of educational institutions should be involved in the teaching profession. It is necessary to develop a National Support Program for Gifted Children and Youth, which would provide, at the state level, clear mechanisms for their selection, financial support and training at the leading university centers of Ukraine. The effectiveness of this approach has been proved by the international experience of the USA, Japan, Fin- land and other countries of the world, where the professional development of teach- ers takes place throughout their career. So, for Ukraine it is important to increase the efficiency of research in the field of pedagogy, taking into account the experience of advanced education systems. Another important requirement is connected with creating the necessary conditions for implementing the achievements of pedagogical science into practice, since a large number of dissertations on education are defended annually in Ukraine, also before the specialized scientific council of the Zhytomyr Ivan Franko State University. 4. Constantly updating the content of education implemented in the state standards, curricula, textbooks and other teaching resources. The new modernized model of edu- cation should be based on two levels: normative (national) – state (obligatory) and re- gional (optional) standards of education. According to Ukrainian scholars, the national component of educational contents, which should provide a common level of basic education, should not exceed 70 %, and the variations should be about 30 %. Only such a model can enable the use of the acquired knowledge in real life (both professional and public), being mobile and open to educational change. 140 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) 5. Increasing the role of continuous education, teachers’ aspirations for constant self-improvement, self-development and self-education. In most high-tech countries, almost 50 % of the adult population is involved in a continuous education process. Therefore, one of the main resources of innovation development in Ukraine should be the creation of an up-to-date mechanism for the functioning of the system of pro- fessional development and, in general, for meeting the educational needs of a person throughout his/her life. Only under such conditions can Ukrainian education reach the required quality and become competitive in the European and world educational sphere. By taking these and other steps towards reforming education, in the coming years Ukrainian society will have the chance to ensure the introduction of innovative information technologies and get closer to achieving the standards of living of the developed countries. 5 Conclusions Thus, Ukrainian scholars and teachers are successfully pursuing strategies and methods for improving the quality of education, but this problem requires further study. Scientific research has a positive effect on the professional and pedagogical training of prospective teachers and promotes the development of the school as a social institution. An analysis of the current socio-cultural situation in Ukraine leads to the conclusion that secondary and higher education institutions should acquire a new systemic quality of education in the context of lifelong learning, which they must integrate into a system of continuous education. Dr. Olexandra Dubaseniuk, dr. Alexander Voznyuk, dr. Oksana Samoilenko Kakovost izobraževanja – ukrajinske izkušnje Širjenje procesov globalizacije in evropskih integracij na vsa področja javnega ži- vljenja na začetku 21. stoletja je pokazalo potrebo po preusmeritvi in prilagoditvi izo- braževanja kot vodilne družbene institucije potrebam trga po izobraževalnih storitvah in na tej osnovi po organiziranem vseživljenjskem izobraževanju. V Ukrajini se znanstvena skupnost sooča s težavami v razvoju kakovosti izobra- ževanja, ki izhajajo iz osnovnih evropskih izobraževalnih dokumentov. Ti dokumenti vključujejo Svetovno deklaracijo o visokem šolstvu za enaindvajseto stoletje (World Declaration on Higher Education for the Twenty-First Century, 1998), Lizbonsko kon- vencijo o priznavanju kvalifikacij v visokem šolstvu v evropski regiji (Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region, 1997), Sorbonsko (1998) in Bolonjsko (1999) deklaracijo o harmonizaciji postavitve evropskega sistema visokega šolstva (Declaration on Harmonization of the Architecture of the European Higher Education System) in Unescove smernice za medkulturno izo- braževanje (UNESCO Guidelines on Intercultural Education, 2006). Dubaseniuk, PhD, Voznyuk, PhD, Samoilenko, PhD : Quality of Education – Ukrainian... 141 Na državni ravni se je v Ukrajini ta izobraževalni trend implementiral v Zakonu o izobraževanju (2017), Zakonu o visokem šolstvu (2017), Konceptu razvoja pedagoške- ga izobraževanja (2016), Konceptu izvajanja državne reforme splošne srednješolske izobrazbe “Nova ukrajinska šola” v obdobju do leta 2029 (2016) ter v strokovnih stan- dardih, normativnih dokumentih itd. Reševanje problema kakovosti izobraževanja je v središču znanstvenih dejavnosti ukrajinskih znanstvenikov (A. Aleksyuk, V. Andrushchenko, I. Bekh, L. Grinevich, O. Dubasenyuk, G. Vasyanovich, S. Goncharenko, Yu. Zinkovsky, I. Zyazyun, M. Leshchen- ko, N. Nychkalo, V. Rybalki, V. Semičenko, G. Trotsko, L. Khomych idr.), ki so predstavili dva glavna pristopa k identifikaciji kakovosti izobraževanja. V okviru prvega (normativnega) pristopa je bistvo kakovosti izobraževanja obrav- navano z vidika zadovoljevanja izobraževalnih potreb in doseganja določenih vzgojnih norm, standardov in ciljev (za posameznike, družbo, državo), kar je bilo normativno potrjeno z ustreznimi dokumenti (M. Potašnik, V. Nuzhdin, V. Panayuk, K. Isikava, V. Kalnei, O. Lokshina, S. Shishov, N. Seleznev idr.) (Monitoring Quality Education, 2005). Drugi (menedžerski) pristop obravnava to kategorijo s stališča sodobne teorije in prakse upravljanja (T. Volobujeva, O. Kasjanova, V. Kačalov, T. Lukin, O. Ljašenko idr.). Kakovost izobraževanja kot predmet upravljanja je obravnavan z vidika kakovo- sti izobraževalnega sistema, kakovosti izobraževalnega procesa (kot procesa porabe opravljenih izobraževalnih storitev) in kakovosti osebnosti diplomanta (kot rezultat uspešnosti izobraževalnega sistema v smislu njegove izobrazbe in oblikovanja družbe- no pomembnih vrednot). Tuji znanstveniki so dosegli znatne rezultate pri proučevanju glavnih vidikov kako- vosti izobraževanja (R. L. Thomdike, E. A. Hanushek, L. Woessmann, D. D. Kimko, M. Roser, M. Nagdy, E. Ortiz-Ospina idr.) (Hanushek in Kimko, 2000). Zanimiva, aktualna in inovativna izkušnja je izpostavljena v knjigi Svetovni razred: Kako zgraditi šolski sistem 21. stoletja (2018), v kateri eden najbolj vplivnih učiteljev na svetu, Andreas Schleicher (direktor za izobraževanje in spretnosti ter posebni svetovalec za izobra- ževalno politiko generalnega sekretarja Organizacije za gospodarsko sodelovanje in razvoj), daje presenetljive, a prepričljive podatke o trenutnih trendih v izobraževanju in analizira vzroke za uspeh najbolj učinkovitih izobraževalnih sistemov, ki so države pri- vedli do svetovnega uspeha. Prav tako daje nasvete, kako izvesti izobraževalne reforme. Financial Times v svojem pregledu knjige navaja naslednje: “Schleicher pravilno poudarja, da rezultati PISA ne bi smeli spodbuditi kopiranja rešitev drugih držav, tem- več raziskovanje dobrih praks doma in v tujini. Medtem ko razprava o reformi še zdaleč ni uveljavljena, je njegovo prizadevanje, da bi spodbudil razpravo na podlagi številk in primerjav, izjemno koristno.” V zvezi s tem so študije Erica Hanushecka z Univerze Stanford in Ludgerja Woessmanna z Nemškega inštituta za ekonomska raziskovanja pokazale, da kakovost šolske izobrazbe pomaga natančno napovedati, kako uspešna bo država na dolgi rok (Hanushek in Kimko, 2000). Namen te študije je analizirati kazalnike in dejavnike vplivanja na kakovost izo- braževanja v institucijah srednjega in visokega šolstva v Ukrajini v okviru sprememb evropske integracije. 142 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) Cilji študije so: □ analizirati koncept “kakovosti izobraževanja” v znanstveni literaturi z razkrivanjem obstoječih problemov, □ izvesti pedagoško diagnostiko o pomembnosti dejavnikov, ki vplivajo na kakovost znanja v srednješolskih in visokošolskih zavodih, □ oblikovati strateške usmeritve za izboljšanje kakovosti izobraževanja v izobraževal- nih ustanovah. Raziskava je bila izvedena na podlagi uporabe teoretičnih in empiričnih metod znanstvenega in pedagoškega raziskovanja, kot so: metoda analize in sinteze, preuče- vanje dokumentov in znanstveno-pedagoških virov, razlaga učnih dejstev, primerjalna pedagoška metoda, metoda analize tujih jezikov, ki se uporablja za poudarjanje vodil- nih področij za izboljšanje kakovosti izobraževanja. Rezultati so pokazali, da imata pomembno vlogo pri povečanju kakovosti izobra- ževanja izmenjava ukrajinskih študentov s tujimi izobraževalnimi ustanovami (70 %) in izmenjava učiteljev in znanstvenikov s tujimi partnerji (65 %). Eden izmed aktual- nih dejavnikov je usposabljanje ukrajinskih študentov v tujih izobraževalnih ustano- vah (50 %). Anketiranci menijo, da naslednji dejavniki pozitivno vplivajo na kakovost izobraževanja: mednarodno sodelovanje s srednjimi in visokimi šolami (65 %), razvoj skupnih mednarodnih projektov (65 %), dostop ukrajinskih državljanov do državnih štipendij (50 %), prejem nepovratnih sredstev (35 %), podpisovanje mednarodnih spo- razumov (20 %) in drugo. Poleg tega smo ugotavljali, kako učitelji srednješolskih in visokošolskih zavodov izvajajo pedagoški postopek v skladu z zahtevami Bolonjske de- klaracije. Mnenja anketirancev so bila razdeljena na naslednji način: 35 % učiteljev je dejalo, da se je izobraževalo na visokokakovostni ravni, 30 % na primerni, 20 % na povprečni in 15 % na nezadostni ravni. Strinjamo se z mnenjem vodij izobraževalnih ustanov, učiteljev in predavateljev, da je raven poklicnih kompetenc in pedagoških spretnosti učiteljev prednostna naloga ob upoštevanju odločilne vloge človeškega kapitala v družbeno-ekonomskem, znanstve- nem oz. tehničnem in kulturnem razvoju družbe in države. To je poudarjeno v Konceptu razvoja pedagoškega izobraževanja v Ukrajini (2018), saj učitelji šolo ustvarjajo kot socialno institucijo. Samo visoko strokovni učitelj lahko usposobi mlade za delo v vi- sokotehnološki informacijski družbi. O pomembnosti učiteljeve vloge v razvoju družbe pričajo tudi rezultati raziskave, izvedene v okviru znanstvene teme Državne univerze Zhytomyr Ivan Franko (Ukrajina) Oblikovanje strokovnih kompetenc pri bodočem uči- telju v kontekstu evropske integracije, namenjen strokovnemu usposabljanju kompeten- tnih in tekmovalnih učiteljev. Pomen strokovnega usposabljanja učiteljev, njihova usposobljenost in nenehno iz- boljševanje je navedeno v prej omenjeni knjigi A. Schleicherja, kjer je poudarjeno, da učinkoviti izobraževalni sistemi visoko razvitih držav zelo skrbno izbirajo učitelje in vodje izobraževanja; pri odločanju, kam vlagati, dajejo prednost kvalifikacijam učite- ljev, ne pa velikosti razreda. To pomeni, da je v uspešnih državah (Kanada, Finska in ZDA) poudarek na kakovosti poučevanja, saj ima učiteljski poklic tam prestiž in spo- štovanje, učitelji pa imajo visok družbeni status. Poleg tega je v pedagoškem sektorju velika konkurenca, saj je za pedagoško kariero izbran le en kandidat od desetih. Ta poklic ni rezerviran samo za diplomante pedagoških univerz, ampak tudi za tiste, ki so Dubaseniuk, PhD, Voznyuk, PhD, Samoilenko, PhD : Quality of Education – Ukrainian... 143 končali druge magistrske programe. Te države veliko naredijo, da bi v šole privabile najbolj nadarjene diplomante. Učitelji imajo zaupanje in visoko stopnjo samostojnosti. Raziskava je pokazala pozitivno vlogo mednarodnega sodelovanja, katerega teža z vsakim letom raste, kar ima za posledico razvoj različnih oblik sodelovanja. Vendar naj poudarimo tudi dejstvo, da se vsako leto število mladih Ukrajincev, ki študirajo v tujini, iz različnih razlogov povečuje, npr. ker je v zahodnoevropskih državah dostopno financiranje izobraževalnih storitev in kakovostno izobraževanje in možnost primerne zaposlitve ter so zagotovljeni ustrezni življenjski pogoji. Slednje prispeva k množičnemu odlivu najbolj izobražene in nadarjene mladine iz Ukrajine v preostalo Evropo. Strateške usmeritve za izboljšanje kakovosti izobraževanja v Ukrajini bi morale biti naslednje: □ Priznavanje izobraževanja kot najpomembnejšega kazalnika kakovosti življenja v družbi. □ Upoštevanje mednarodnih, zlasti evropskih izkušenj za izboljšanje kakovosti izobra- ževanja v Ukrajini. □ Usposabljanje visoko izobraženih učiteljev je pomemben pokazatelj učinkovitih iz- obraževalnih sistemov v svetu. Posebno pozornost je treba nameniti izbiri, usposa- bljanju in zaposlovanju učiteljev. □ Nenehno posodabljanje vsebin izobraževanja, ki se jih posreduje prek državnih standardov, učnih načrtov, učbenikov in drugih učnih virov. □ Povečanje vloge vseživljenjskega izobraževanja, učiteljeve težnje po nenehnem iz- boljševanju, samorazvoju in samoizobraževanju. Zaključimo lahko, da ukrajinski strokovnjaki in učitelji uspešno sledijo strategijam in metodam za izboljšanje kakovosti izobraževanja, vendar ta problem zahteva nadalj- nje proučevanje. Znanstvene raziskave pozitivno vplivajo na strokovno in pedagoško usposabljanje bodočih učiteljev in spodbujajo razvoj šole kot družbene institucije. Ana- liza trenutnih socialno-kulturnih razmer v Ukrajini kaže, da bi morale srednješolske in visokošolske ustanove v okviru vseživljenjskega učenja pridobiti novo sistemsko kako- vost izobraževanja, ki jo morajo vključiti v sistem stalnega izobraževanja. REFERENCES 1. Dubaseniuk, O.A. (2014). Innovations in education: integration of science and practice: a col- lection of scientific and methodological works / Zhytomyr: Zhytomyr Ivan Franko State Uni- versity Publishing House, 492. 2. Dubaseniuk, O.A. (2017). Competency approach as a factor in the professionalisation of higher education. Updating the content, forms and methods of education and upbringing in educational institutions: a collection of scientific papers. Scientific notes of Rivne State Humanities Univer- sity. No. 15 (58). Rivne, pp. 161–164. 3. Education Quality Monitoring: Development in Ukraine: Educational Policy ecommendations. Under the editorship of Olena Lokshyna (2005). Kyiv: “K.I.S.”. 4. Hanushek, E.A., Woessmann, L. (2012). Do better school lead to more growth? Cognitive skills, economic outcomes, and causation. Journal of Economic Growth, 17, pp. 267–321. 5. Hanushek, E.A., Kimko, D.D. (2000). Schooling, labor force quality, and the growth of nations. American Economic Review, 90(5), pp. 1184–1208. 6. Kremen, V. H. (2008). Encyclopedia of Education. Academy of pedagogical Sciences of Ukrai- ne; Kyiv. Jurinkom Inter, 1040. 144 Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja (1, 2020) 7. Liashenko, O.I., Vashchenko, L.S., Polianskyi, P.B., Zhuk, O.Y. (2013) Organizational and me- thodological support of monitoring studies of the quality of general secondary education: Mo- nograph. Kyiv: Pedagogical Thought, 160. 8. Sauh, P.Y. (2011). Quality of education – an indicator of the standard of living of an innova- tive society. Innovation in higher education: problems, experience, perspectives: monograph. Zhytomyr: Zhytomyr Ivan Franko State University Publishing House, 444, pp. 10–17. 9. Schleicher, A. (2018). The best class in the world: how to create a 21st century education sy- stem. Translated from English by Anna Leliv. Lviv: Chronicle, 296. Retrieved on 10.07.2019 from world wide web: https://mon.gov.ua/storage/app/media/zagalna%20serednya/yakist-osviti/ shlyaykher-naykrashchiy-klas-u-sviti-yak-create-system-osviti-21-go-stolittya.pdf. Oleksandra Dubaseniuk, PhD (1945), Professor at Zhytomyr Ivan Franko State University, Ukraine. Address: Velyka Berdychivska street 40, 10008 Zhytomyr, Ukraine; Telephone: (+380) 967 338 165 E-mail: dubasenyuk@ukr.net Alexander Voznyuk, PhD (1958), Professor at Zhytomyr Ivan Franko State University, Ukraine. Address: Velyka Berdychivska street 40, 10008 Zhytomyr, Ukraine; Telephone: (+380) 967 002 903 E-mail: alexvox@ukr.net Oksana Samoilenko, PhD (1975), Deputy for Scientific Work of the Director at Institute of Vocational Education and Training of the National Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of Ukraine. Address: Vito-Litovsky Lane 98A, 03045 Kiev, Ukraine; Telephone: (+380) 966 816 255 E-mail: samoilenckooxana@gmail.com NAVODILA AVTORJEM INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja, znanstvena revija Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja, a scientific journal za didaktiko in metodike, objavlja članke, ki so razvrščeni for the didactics and methodology, publishes papers that are v naslednji dve kategoriji: znanstveni članek in strokovni classified into two categories: scientific papers and profes- članek. sional papers. Kategorijo članka predlaga avtor, končno presojo pa na osno- The category of the paper is proposed by the author, whereas vi strokovnih recenzij opravi uredništvo oziroma odgovorni the final assessment is based on peer reviewed and made by the urednik. Članki, ki so objavljeni, so recenzirani. Editor-in-Chief. The published papers are reviewed. Avtorje prosimo, da pri pripravi znanstvenih in strokovnih In the preparation of scientific paper, please observe the fol- člankov upoštevajo naslednja navodila: lowing instructions: 1. Članke v tiskani obliki z vašimi podatki in povzetkom v 1. Papers in printed form with your details and the abstract in skladu z navodili pošiljajte na naslov: Uredništvo revi- accordance with the instructions should be sent to the Edi- je Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja, Na Loko 2, torial Board of Didactica Slovenica – Pedagoška obzorja, p.p. 124, 8000 Novo mesto, Slovenija. Članke sprejemamo Na Loko 2, p.p. 124, SI-8000 Novo mesto, Slovenia. We tudi po elektronski pošti na elektronski naslov uredništva. also accept papers sent to our email address. The material Prejetega gradiva ne vračamo. received will not be returned. 2. Članek s povzetkom priložite na ustreznem podatkov- 2. The paper and the abstract should be submitted on the rel- nem mediju. Ime datoteke članka naj bo priimek avtorja evant data media. The file name should include the surname ali naslov članka – kar naj bo tudi jasno označeno tudi na of the author or the title of the paper – which should also be poslanem podatkovnem mediju. Članek naj bo napisan z clearly marked on the data media. The paper should be writ- urejevalnikom besedil Microsoft Word. V primeru, da nam ten with Microsoft Word text editor. If the paper is sent only članek posredujete izključno v elektronski obliki, nam mo- in electronic form (not in printed form as well), is should rate poslani material posredovati tudi v PDF obliki. also be sent in PDF format. 3. Znanstveni članki lahko obsegajo do 30.000 znakov. 3. Scientific papers may include up to 30,000 characters. 4. Vsak članek naj ima na posebnem listu naslovno stran, ki 4. Each paper should have a cover page on a separate sheet, con- vsebuje ime in priimek avtorja, leto rojstva, domači naslov, taining the author’s name and surname, year of birth, home številko telefona, naslov članka, akademski in strokovni na- address, telephone number, title, academic and professional slov, naslov ustanove, kjer je zaposlen in elektronski naslov. title, the address of the institution where the author works and V primeru, da je avtorjev več, se na list napiše zahtevane the email address. If there are several authors, the form should podatke za vsakega avtorja posebej. Vodilni avtor mora biti include the required information for each author separately. med avtorji napisan na prvem mestu. The primary author must be written in the first place. 5. Znanstveni in strokovni članki morajo imeti povzetek v slo- 5. Scientific and professional papers should have an abstract venskem (od 1.000 do 1.200 znakov s presledki) in v angle- in Slovene (from 1,000 up to 1,200 characters with spaces) škem jeziku. Povzetek in ključne besede naj bodo napisani and English. The abstract and key words should be written na začetku članka. Priložiti je treba tudi razširjeni povzetek at the beginning of the paper. There should also be an ex- (10.000 znakov s presledki) v angleškem jeziku. tended abstract (10,000 characters with spaces) in English. 6. Tabele in slike naj bodo vključene v besedilu smiselno, 6. Tables and figures should be included in the text where they kamor sodijo. Slike naj bodo tudi priložene kot samostoj- belong. As separate files, images should also be attached ne datoteke v ustreznem slikovnem (jpeg), oziroma vek- in the corresponding image (jpeg) or vector (eps, pdf, png) torskem (eps, pdf, png) zapisu v ločljivosti vsaj 600 pik format with the resolution of at least 600 dots per inch. Im- na palec. Na slikovno gradivo, ki ne zadošča minimalnim ages that do not meet the minimum requirements shall be zahtevam, posebej ne opozarjamo in ga v končni tehnični omitted in the final technical preparation of the Journal. pripravi zaradi neustreznosti izpustimo. 7. The list of references should be arranged in the alphabetical 7. Seznam literature uredite po abecednem redu avtorjev in order of authors as follows: sicer na naslednji način: □ For books: the author’s surname and name, year of pub- □ Za knjige: priimek in ime avtorja, leto izdaje, naslov, lication, title, place, publisher. For example: Novak, H. kraj, založba. Primer: Novak, H. (2020). Projektno učno (2020). Projektno učno delo. Ljubljana: DZS. delo. Ljubljana: DZS. □ For articles in journals: the author’s surname and name, □ Za članke v revijah: priimek in ime avtorja, leto objave, year of publication, title of the journal, volume, num- naslov revije, letnik, številka, strani. Primer: Strmčnik, ber, pages. For example: Strmčnik, F., Kramar, M. F., Kramar, M. (2017). Reševanje problemov kot poseb- (2017). Reševanje problemov kot posebna učna metoda. na učna metoda. Pedagoška obzorja, 12, št. 5, str. 3. Pedagoška obzorja, 12, No. 5, p. 3. □ Za članke v zbornikih: priimek in ime avtorja, leto ob- □ For articles in journals: the author’s surname and name, jave, naslov članka, podatki o knjigi ali zborniku, strani. year of publication, title, information about the book Primer: Razdevšek Pučko, C. (2013). Usposabljanje or the journal, pages. For example: Razdevšek Pučko, učiteljev za uvajanje novosti. V: Tancer, M. (ur.). Sto- C. (2013). Usposabljanje učiteljev za uvajanje novosti. letnica rojstva Gustava Šiliha. Maribor: Pedagoška fa- V: Tancer, M. (Ed.). Stoletnica rojstva Gustava Šiliha. kulteta, str. 234–247. Maribor: Pedagoška fakulteta, pp. 234–247. 8. Vključevanje reference v tekst: Če gre za točno navedbo, 8. The inclusion of references in the text: If it is an exact ref- napišemo v oklepaju priimek avtorja, leto izdaje in stran erence, the surname, the year of publication and the page (Kroflič, 2017, str. 15). Če pa gre za splošno navedbo, should be written in brackets (Kroflič, 2017, p. 15). If it is a stran izpustimo (Kroflič, 1997). general reference, the page is omitted (Kroflič, 1997). 9. V primeru spletnih referenc je obvezno navajanje točne sple- 9. In the case of online references, it is compulsory to state tne strani skupaj z imenom dokumenta ter datumom povze- the exact website together with the title of the document ma informacije. Primer: Brcar, P. (2018). Kako poskrbeti za and the date of extracted information. For example: Brcar, zdravje šolarjev. Inštitut za varovanje zdravja RS. Pridoblje- P. (2018). How do the health of schoolchildren. Institute of no dne 28.08.2019 s svetovnega spleta: http://www.sigov.si/ Public Health. Retrieved on 28.08.2019 from world wide ivz/vsebine/zdravje.pdf. web: http://www.sigov.si/ivz/vsebine/zdravje.pdf. Za vsa dodatna pojasnila ter informacije glede priprave in ob- For any further clarification and information regarding the jave člankov, za katere menite, da niso zajeta v navodilih, se preparation and publication of papers that are not included in obrnite na glavnega in odgovornega urednika. Za splošnejše these instructions, please contact the Editor-in-chief. For any informacije ter tehnično pomoč pri pripravi članka pa se lah- information and technical assistance in preparing the paper, ko obrnete na uredništvo oziroma na naš elektronski naslov please contact the Editorial board or submit your questions to info@pedagoska-obzorja.si. the email address editorial.office@didactica-slovenica.si.