L. GUSEL et al.: EVALUATION OF THE MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF Ag-Au-Pd-Cu DENTAL ALLOYS
249–255
EVALUATION OF THE MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF Ag-Au-Pd-Cu
DENTAL ALLOYS
OVREDNOTENJE MAGNETNIH LASTNOSTI Ag-Au-Pd-Cu
DENTALNIH ZLITIN
Leo Gusel
1
, Peter Majeri~
1,2
, Gli{i} Mirko
3
, Aleksandra Kocijan
4
,
Rebeka Rudolf
1,2,5*
1
University of Maribor, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Maribor, Smetanova ul. 17, Slovenia
2
Zlatarna Celje d.o.o., Kersnikova ul. 19, Celje, Slovenia
3
University of Belgrade, School of Dental Medicine, dr. Suboti}a 8, Belgrade, Serbia
4
Institute of Metals and Technology, Lepi pot 11, Ljubljana, Slovenia
5
Pomurje Science and Innovation Centre, Lendavska ulica 28, Raki~an, 9000 Murska Sobota, Slovenia
Prejem rokopisa – received: 2024-02-29; sprejem za objavo – accepted for publication: 2024-03-11
doi:10.17222/mit.2024.1126
The paper discusses four Ag-Au-Pd-Cu dental alloys, with different chemical compositions, which are used to produce fixed
dental-prosthetic structures. These dental alloys must have a low level of biological risk after being implanted in the oral cavity,
which means minimal release of ions from their surface, or the absence of corrosion, and, recently, the absence of ferromagne-
tism has been introduced as an additional requirement. The latter requirement is particularly important when magnetic reso-
nance (MR) is used in the medical diagnosis of a patient who has an implanted fixed dental-prosthetic structure. With this tech-
nique, the internal structure of the human body is imaged using a strong magnetic field, radio waves and computer technology.
Therefore, the absence of ferromagnetic, embedded biomaterials is necessary in the part of the body where medical diagnostics
are performed. Microstructural investigations of four Ag-Au-Pd-Cu dental alloys (Auropal S, Auropal SE, Midor S and Midor
SE) and measurements of their magnetic properties were carried out as part of the research. The results showed that
Ag-Au-Pd-Cu dental alloys have a stable microstructure, which allows them to be processed later into fixed prosthetic construc-
tions. The measurements of the magnetic properties showed that the Ag-Au-Pd-Cu dental alloys are diamagnetic.
Keywords: magnetic properties, noble dental alloys, characterisation
Prispevek obravnava {tiri Ag-Au-Pd-Cu dentalne zlitine razli~nih kemijskih sestav, ki se uporabljajo za izdelavo fiksnih
zobno-proteti~nih konstrukcij. Te dentalne zlitine morajo po implantaciji v ustno votlino imeti nizko stopnjo biolo{kega
tveganja, kar pomeni minimalno spro{~anje ionov z njihove povr{ine oziroma odsotnost korozije, v zadnjem ~asu pa je kot
dodatna zahteva uvedena tudi odsotnost feromagnetizma. Slednja zahteva je {e posebej pomembna pri medicinski diagnostiki
pacienta z vgrajeno fiksno zobno-proteti~no konstrukcijo ob uporabi magnetne resonance (MR). S to tehniko slikamo notranjo
strukturo ~love{kega telesa s pomo~jo mo~nega magnetnega polja, radijskih valov in ra~unalni{ke tehnologije. Zato je na delu
telesa, kjer se izvaja medicinska diagnostika, nujna odsotnost feromagnetnih vgrajenih biomaterialov. V okviru raziskav so bile
izvedene mikrostrukturne preiskave {tirih Ag-Au-Pd-Cu dentalnih zlitin (Auropal S, Auropal SE, Midor S in Midor SE) in
meritve njihovih magnetnih lastnosti. Rezultati so pokazali, da imajo Ag-Au-Pd-Cu dentalne zlitine stabilno mikrostrukturo, ki
omogo~a njihovo kasnej{o predelavo v fiksne proteti~ne konstrukcije. Meritve magnetnih lastnosti pa so odkrile, da so
Ag-Au-Pd-Cu dentalne zlitine diamagnetne.
Klju~ne besede: magnetne lastnosti, plemenite dentalne zlitine, karakterizacija
1 INTRODUCTION
The strategy of developing dental materials is related
to the development of biomedical and biotechnical sci-
ences in the restorative disciplines.
1–3
These are closely
related to various types of dental materials, among which
dental alloys occupy a special place. The European Un-
ion Medical Devices Directive 93/42 EEC harmonised
the laws regarding medical devices on the European Un-
ion market, to achieve a high level of quality of these
products for patient safety. Products for the European
market that comply with the Medical Devices Directive
must bear the CE mark. In 2017, a new regulation for
medical devices was issued, (EU) 2017/745, which
brings innovations regarding the requirements for these
products. The transition period for the implementation of
the requirements of the new MDR (Medical Device Reg-
ulation) was 3 years, and ended on May 26, 2020.
Knowledge of the physico-mechanical properties, bi-
ological acceptability and functional properties of dental
alloys is crucial for dental use.
4,5
Functional properties
are highlighted here; they are not classified on the basis
of their origin, nature of bonding or processing tech-
niques, but on the functions that they can perform. In the
Periodic Table only some elements have magnetic
properties
6
. These elements are iron, nickel and cobalt.
In nature and in our immediate environment, these ele-
ments are most often found in mixtures or alloys. Mag-
netic properties are related to magnetism, which is a
physical phenomenon where certain substances exert a
repulsive or attractive force on other substances. This
causes the movement of charged particles, which causes
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 2, 249–255 249
UDK 616.314-77:52-334.7 ISSN 1580-2949
Original scientific article/Izvirni znanstveni ~lanek MTAEC9, 58(2)249(2024)
*Corresponding author's e-mail:
rebeka.rudolf@um.si (Rebeka Rudolf)

the formation of a magnetic field (Figure 1). Magnetism
is present in all substances, but in some substances it is
so weak that we cannot detect it without special prepara-
tions. The resulting magnetic field is a vector field
around permanent magnets or conductors, through which
an electric current flows. In this field we perceive the
magnetic force. It is illustrated by lines of force – lines
that originate from the north pole of a magnet and con-
verge to its south pole. The tangent to the line at each
point is the magnetic field density.
Several types of magnetism are known. Diamagne-
tism results from the movement of electrons in atoms. It
is a phenomenon that occurs when the density of the
magnetic field in a substance placed in a magnetic field
is slightly lower than the density of the magnetic field
outside this substance (this means that the substance
pushes the magnetic field out of itself). It is present in all
substances, except for paramagnetic and ferromagnetic
substances, where other, stronger phenomena dominate.
Perfect diamagnets include superconductors that push
out the magnetic field completely. Paramagnetism is a
phenomenon when the density of the magnetic field in a
substance placed in a magnetic field is slightly greater
than the density of the magnetic field outside this sub-
stance (it is considered that the relative permeability
μ
r
> 1). Such substances are called paramagnetic, and
usually μ
r
is only slightly greater than 1. The paramag-
netism originates from the electron’s own magnetic mo-
ment, which is not a consequence of its motion. In an ex-
ternal magnetic field, the magnetic moments in a
paramagnetic substance behave like magnetic fields, and
are partially arranged so that, on average, a few more of
them point in the direction of the external magnetic field.
Ferromagnetism is the phenomenon whereby the density
of the magnetic field in a substance placed in a magnetic
field is much greater than the density of the magnetic
field outside that substance. Ferromagnetism is the result
of the fact that magnetic dipoles in ferromagnetic sub-
stances within macroscopic regions arrange themselves
spontaneously and are arranged even outside the mag-
netic field. In an external magnetic field, the magnetic
moments of these domains are in the direction of the ex-
ternal magnetic field. Unlike paramagnetism, which is
present in both solids, liquids and gases, ferromagnetism
is only present in rare solids. Among them are iron, co-
balt, nickel and some alloys.
The magnetic properties for all types of dental alloys
in the form of fixed dental structures embedded in the
human body are important in medical diagnostics. One
of the non-invasive medical diagnostic methods is mag-
netic resonance (MR), in which the internal structure of
the human body is imaged with the help of a magnetic
field, radio waves and computer technology. The imag-
ing shows in detail the structures inside the skull, spine,
limbs, and especially the soft tissues of the head and
body. The results make it possible to detect and locate
any injuries, neoplasms, or other abnormalities, and thus
help to diagnose the patient’s health problems, and, con-
sequently, to the success of the treatment. In the general
instructions for the preparation and course of the MR ex-
amination, it is written that, before entering the examina-
tion room, it is necessary to remove all metal objects
from the body that are magnetic. Metals susceptible to
magnetic fields may cause movement or heating during
the examination, which can lead to a potential health and
safety risk for patients.
7
This is especially true when ex-
amining the head or neck, where patients may also have
dental prostheses fitted. The problem arises when the
dental prosthesis is fixed and cannot be removed. A key
role in this form of research is played by the phenome-
non of ferromagnetism, when the magnetic field density
in a substance placed in a magnetic field is much higher
than the magnetic field density outside this substance.
This phenomenon is characteristic of Fe, Co, Ni and
some alloys, while the phenomenon of ferromagnetism
should be completely absent in precious metals and al-
loys. However, it was shown that some ferromagnetic
impurities, present even in a precious metal alloy, may
cause MR examination artefacts, which may be mislead-
ing for the medical diagnosis.
8
The dental alloys produced by Zlatarna Celje d.o.o.
are noble, and in this study the following Ag-Au-Pd-Cu
based alloys were used for research: Auropal S, Auropal
SE, Midor S and Midor SE. Their microstructure and
magnetic properties were investigated with appropriate
research equipment. The aim was to investigate whether
these dental alloys have the property of being non-ferro-
magnetic, and thus not posing a risk in MR examina-
tions. This would mean that the investigated dental alloys
of Zlatarna Celje do not prevent the performance of MR
examinations, even if the patient has them embedded in
the oral cavity.
L. GUSEL et al.: EVALUATION OF THE MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF Ag-Au-Pd-Cu DENTAL ALLOYS
250 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 2, 249–255
Figure 1: Magnetic field

2 EXPERIMENTAL PART
2.1 Preparation of dental alloys
Metals with a purity of 99.99 % were used for the
preparation of the Ag-Au-Pd-Cu dental alloys. The
chemical compositions of the prepared Ag-Au-Pd-Cu
dental alloys are given in Table 1. The Ag-Au-Pd-Cu
dental alloys were melted in crucibles made of pure
Al
2
O
3
with Ar 5.0 blowing, so that casting took place at a
temperature of 1150 °C. The ingots were cast with a di-
ameter of!=10mm.
Table 1: Chemical composition of the prepared Ag-Au-Pd-Cu dental
alloys (in w/%)
Ag-Au-Pd-Cu
dental Alloy
Au Pd Ag Cu Zn Ir In
Midor S 46.0 6.0 39.5 7.5 <1 <1 /
Midor SE 40,0 4.0 47.0 7.5 <1 <1 <1
Auropal S 10.5 21.0 58.2 9.3 <1 / /
Auropal SE 2.0 25.0 64.0 8.0 <1 / /
The Ag-Au-Pd-Cu ingot casting was followed by a
thermo-mechanical treatment process from profile roll-
ing, annealing and strip rolling, whereby the process is
fully protected by national patents.
9–12
Figure 2 shows
the final Ag-Au-Pd-Cu dental alloy plates, ready to be
used by dental laboratory technicians for the further cast-
ing of dental restorations.
2.2 Microstructural characterisation of Ag-Au-Pt-Cu
dental alloys
The specimens for metallographic examination were
prepared according to the usual procedure: cold invest-
ment in a polymer mass, brushing with sandpapers from
grit 80# to 4000#, polishing with diamond paste with
granulation between 6 μm and 1 μm.
The microstructure was examined on a Nikon
Epiphot 300 Inverted Metallurgical Microscope (Nikon
Corporation, Tokyo, Japan), while the chemical analysis
was performed with an X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analy-
sis instrument NITON XL3t GOLDD+ (Thermo Scien-
tific NITON Analyzers LLC, Billerica, Massachusetts,
USA). XRF uses the emission of characteristic "second-
ary" (or fluorescent) X-rays from a material that has
been excited by being bombarded with high-energy
X-rays. The phenomenon is used widely for elemental
analysis and chemical analysis, particularly in the inves-
L. GUSEL et al.: EVALUATION OF THE MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF Ag-Au-Pd-Cu DENTAL ALLOYS
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 2, 249–255 251
Figure 2: Ag-Au-Pd-Cu alloys: Midor S, Midor SE, Auropal S and Auropal SE

tigation of metals, glass, ceramics and building materi-
als, and for research in geochemistry, forensic science,
archaeology and art objects.
2.3 Measurements of ferromagnetism
The measurements were carried out on a SQUID
magnetometer at the Institute of Physics, Belgrade, Ser-
bia. The Quantum Design MPMS 5XL SQUID Magne-
tometer with the Evercool system uses a SQUID (super-
conducting quantum interference device) detector to
measure very small changes in magnetic flux, and is ex-
tremely sensitive in all AC and DC magnetic measure-
ments. Magnetic moments up to 10
8
emu (10
–11
Am
2
) can
be measured reproducibly. MPMS works in the tempera-
ture range from 1.9 K to 400 K, and the superconducting
magnet can achieve magnetic fields between –5 T and 5
T. The Ag-Au-Pd-Cu dental alloy plates had dimensions
of2mm×2mmwith a thickness of 1 mm, and were
polished and cleaned in an ultrasonic cleaner before the
measurement of ferromagnetism. The measurements on
the Ag-Au-Pd-Cu dental alloys were performed in the
magnetic field range between –1 T and +1 T.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Microstructure and chemical composition
The binary Au–Ag, Au–Pd and Ag–Pd alloys of
Ag-Au-Pd dental alloys (Auropal S, Auropal SE, Midor
S and Midor SE) form a continuous series of solid solu-
tions over a wide range of compositions and tempera-
tures (Figure 3). The ternary Ag-Au-Pd alloys are, thus,
likely to form single-phase solid solutions.
13
Addi-
tionally, the fourth component in these alloys, Cu, is able
to form solid solutions with Au and Pd across all compo-
sitions, while it is soluble in Ag up to 14.1 at.% Cu,
14
in
the range of solubility for the examined dental alloys.
The resulting solidification temperature range of the al-
loys was narrow – as shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Melting intervals of the Ag-Au-Pt-Cu dental alloys
Ag-Au-Pd-Cu dental Alloy Melting interval (in °C)
Midor S 850 – 920
Midor SE 880 – 945
Auropal S 920 – 1060
Auropal SE 920 – 1060
L. GUSEL et al.: EVALUATION OF THE MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF Ag-Au-Pd-Cu DENTAL ALLOYS
252 Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 2, 249–255
Figure 3: Ag-Au, Ag-Pd and Au-Pd binary phase diagrams
14-17

Figure 4 shows the optical micrographs of the re-
vealed microstructure for all four investigated dental al-
loys. The dendritic crystals in the dental alloys of the
Midor type are smaller, while the microstructure of the
dental alloys of the Auropal type is branched much more
dendritically. Dental alloys of the Midor type belong to
low carat, as the chemical composition is based on a
higher content of Au (40-46 w/%), Ag (up to 47 w/%),
Pd (up to 6 w/%) and on the additions of Ir, In and Zn as
modifiers, which is reflected by the resulting extremely
fine microstructure, where the estimated grain size was
around 10 μm. Dental alloys of the Auropal type belong
to silver palladium alloys, and have Ag (up to 64 w/%)
and Pd (up to 25 w/%) as their main components. They
also contain Au (up to 10 w/%). The additions of Cu, Zn,
and Au lower the melting point of the dental alloy, and
Cu is important because Cu
3
Pd is precipitated in the
solid phase, which provides the ability to improve these
alloys, including homogenisation.
18
L. GUSEL et al.: EVALUATION OF THE MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF Ag-Au-Pd-Cu DENTAL ALLOYS
Materiali in tehnologije / Materials and technology 58 (2024) 2, 249–255 253
Figure 4: Optical microstructures: a) Midor S, b) Midor SE, c) Auropal S, d) Auropal SE
Figure 5: Magnetisation curves [B/H] for dental alloys
Table 3: Chemical composition of the cast Ag-Au-Pd-Cu dental alloys
(in w/%)
Ag-Au-Pd-Cu
dental Alloy
Au Pd Ag Cu Zn Ir In
Midor S 45.9 6.0 39.5 7.6 <1 <1 /
Midor SE 40,2 4.0 47.0 7.3 <1 <1 <1
Auropal S 10.3 21.0 58.2 9.5 <1 / /
Auropal SE 2.0 25.0 64.0 8.0 <1 / /

The measurements of the chemical composition of
the castings using the XRF method showed minimal de-
viation compared to the nominal chemical composition,
The deviation can be attributed to a measurement error
of the XRF method (± 10 %), as seen from Table 3.
3.2 Magnetic properties
Figure 5 shows the results of the magnetisation mea-
surements for all the tested Ag-Au-Pd-Cu alloys. All the
curves revealed that the Ag-Au-Pd-Cu alloys belong to
diamagnetic materials, where the magnetic flux density
inside is lower than the magnetic flux density outside.
The phenomenon of magnetism relates to the fact that
three magnetic moments differ in each atom: the orbital
magnetic moment of the electron, the magnetic moment
of the spin of the electron and the magnetic moment of
the spin of the nucleus. The final magnetic moment of an
atom (molecule) is determined by the sum of these three
moments, according to the rules of Quantum Mechanics.
Therefore, each atom (molecule) can be characterised by
only one magnetic moment
19
. In the absence of an exter-
nal magnetic field, and in the case when the material is
not magnetised permanently, the magnetic moments of
the atom (molecule) are oriented chaotically, so the mag-
netisation vector is the same at every point of the mate-
rial zeros.
20
When a material appears in a foreign mag-
netic field, due to the action of magnetic forces, the
orientation of the magnetic moments occurs, and, as a re-
sult, the magnetisation vector of the material becomes
different from zero. In addition to the magnetisation vec-
tor, the state of each point of the material in the magnetic
view can be described by the magnetic induction vector
B, and the magnetic field strength vector H. At each
point of the material between H, B and M, regardless of
whether the material is isotropic or not, and linear or
non-linear in the magnetic view, there is a connection:
H = B/μ
0
= M (1)
where μ
0
is the vacuum magnetic permeability (μ
0
=4"
×10
–7
H/m).
For linear materials, such as diamagnetic and para-
magnetic materials, there is a linear relationship between
the magnetisation vector at a point and the magnetic field
strength vector at the same point:
M = X
m
× H (2)
where X
m
is the magnetic susceptibility of the material.
The magnetic susceptibility of diamagnetic and para-
magnetic materials is a scalar quantity (an unnamed
number) where these materials are isotropic. In contrast,
in ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic
materials, there is no linear dependence between the vec-
tors M and H, nor a linear dependence between the vec-
tors B and H. The dependences M = M (H) and B = B (H)
in ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic
materials are non-linear. Therefore, with these materials,
we cannot even talk about magnetic permeability as a
permanent characteristic of the material that does not de-
pend on the strength of the magnetic field.
In diamagnetic materials, the magnetic moments of
the atoms and molecules of diamagnetic materials are
equal to zero in the absence of an external magnetic
field.
21
With the presence of an external magnetic field in
the atoms and molecules of diamagnetic materials, a
magnetic moment is induced, and the material becomes
magnetised.
As can be seen in Figure 4, the magnetisation curve
for all four Ag-Au-Pd-Cu dental alloys decreased with
increasing magnetic field [B] up to the value of a strong
magnetic field of 1 T. Such a magnetic field is very close
in value to the powerful permanent magnets or coils used
for MR imaging. The earth’s magnetic field is more than
10,000 times smaller than 1 T. The results show that the
investigated Ag-Au-Pd-Cu dental alloys manufactured
by Zlatarne Celje d.o.o. are non-ferromagnetic, and that
they do not pose a risk in MR examinations. This means
that Au-Pd dental alloys do not prevent MR examina-
tions, even if the patient has them fixed in the oral cavity.
For the purposes of MR examinations, patients who have
prosthetic Ag-Pd dental alloy replacements from
Zlatarna Celje implanted in their mouths can be issued
with an official statement on the non-ferromagnetism of
dental alloys, which they should submit to the question-
naire before the MR examination.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The study investigated the magnetic properties of
four Ag-Au-Pd-Cu dental alloys: Midor S, Midor SE,
Auropal S, Auropal SE, which differ in Au content and
have a dendritic microstructure after casting. The re-
search showed that Ag-Au-Pd-Cu dental alloys are dia-
magnetic, which means that the magnetic field density in
a substance placed in a magnetic field is slightly less
than the magnetic field density outside that substance.
This is very important information for users of
Ag-Au-Pd-Cu dental alloys in dentistry, where fixed
prosthetic structures are manufactured and if an exami-
nation with the MR diagnostic method is required, since
such a substitute for an MR examination is completely
safe for the patient and it is not necessary to remove it.
Acknowledgment
We thank Zlatarna Celje d.o.o. from Celje, Slovenia,
which enabled the research on the Ag-Au-Pd-Cu dental
alloys.
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