review article UD C 591.145(262.3-17) 582:615.9(262.3-17) 
POISONOUS AN D VENOMOUS ORGANISMS 
OF THE NORTHERN ADRIATIC SEA 

Tom TURK 

Department of Biology, Biotecbnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Veina pot 111 
ABSTRACT 

Several poisonous (toxic) and venomous species are known to live or sporadically occur in the northern part of the Adriatic Sea . Despite the fact that they generally do not represent a major health hazard, they certainly deserve our attention and knowledge about their biology, ecology and harmful substances they possess. The majority of toxic organisms that could be found in the northern Adriatic belong to a targe group of single cell planktonic algae (Dinophyta). A vast number of toxic, species are members of sponges (Porifera). Under certain circumstances some fish from the Scombridae family could also become toxic due to the improper storage and subsequent massive re­lease of histamine in their bodies. Massive blooms of toxic dinoflagellat.es represent a major threat to human health due to the accumulation of their toxins in edible shellfish species like mussels fMytilus galloprovinciaiis ! Venomous animals (those who inject their toxins directly into the body of their victim) could be found in different groups of marine animals, most notably among coelenterat.es and fishes. 
Key words: venomous organisms, poisonous organisms, human health, Northern Adriatic 
INTRODUCTION 

Marine organisms are a vast source of toxic com­pounds with a broad spectrum of biological activities. Many are harmful to man, but only few of them can in­flict serious enough envenomation/int.oxi cation that could lead to the death of the inflicted person. In this regard, members of the dtnoflagellat.es, cnidarians, mol­luscs and fishes deserve our special consideration. It is known that certain species of dinoflagellates and some diatoms cause serious, sometimes massive intoxication due to the ingestion of otherwise edible shellfish, in their tissues they accumulate harmful biotoxins that are pro­duced during massive algal blooms and therefore be­come poisonous. Diarrheic (DSP), paralytic (PSP) and neurotoxic (NSP) intoxication are produced by different dinoflageilate species, while amnesic (ASP) symptoms are caused by diatom biotoxins. Ciguatera is another well-known disease with rather bizarre neurological symptoms. It occurs in tropics and subtropics and is caused by ingestion of poisonous predatory fish. These fish accumulate biotoxins through the food web. The source of biotoxins is the toxic benthic dinoflageilate Gambierodiscus toxicus. Sometimes it causes massive intoxication that is seldom fatal but could last for ex­tended period of time (up to several months). Certain tissues of the notorious fugu fish (Tetraodontidae, puffer fish), which are considered a delicacy in Japan, are a prime source of tetrodotoxin, although this toxin could be also found in some other marine and even terrestrial organisms. The exact origin of the toxin is not known, although the growing evidence shows that certain bacte­ria are the source of the toxin. Tetrodotoxin blocks so­dium channels in nerves and causes fatal respiratory paralysis. Venomous marine animals can inflict moder­ate to serious envenomation. Some of their toxins are powerful enough to kill an adult within a couple of min­utes. Most venomous marine animals belong to cnidari­ans, molluscs, fishes and sea snakes. In this paper we will focus on the toxic and venomous organisms that inhabit the Northern Adriatic Sea, 

TOXIC ALGAE AND THEIR BLOOMS 

The Adriatic has been for a long time considered relatively safe in terms of toxic marine plankton blooms. However, the increased eutropbicaiion in the Northern Adriatic basin during the last two decades resulted in 
To m TURK : POISONOU S AN D VENOMOU S ORGANISM S O F TH E NORTHER N ADRIATI C 5EA, IS9-16 6 
occurrence of several toxic clinoflagellate species and their blooms which affected mariculture production (Boni el al-, 1990; Male) et al., 1997; Sedmak & Obal, 1998). The maricultures were periodically closed and shellfish sale was temporally banned by the public health authorities due to the serious threat to the human health. The unicellular algae implicated in the production of diathetic shellfish poison (DSP) mainly belong to the genus Dinophysis (Sedmak & Fanuko, 1991). The first documented occurrence of a massive toxic bloom in the Slovenian part of the Adriatic was in October 1984. A massive occurrence of potentially harmful Gymnodinium and Alexandrium species was detected and several gastrointestinal intoxication reported (Fanuko etai., 1989; Mozetič etai, 1997). From there on toxic blooms occur­red almost on a regular basis. Due to the detection of biotoxins in mussel's tissue and identification of harmful toxic algae in the Slovenian part of the Adriatic in the last decade, maricultures were not. temporary closed only in 1991 and 1992. In all cases toxic blooms occurred in mid or late summer or early autumn, except in 1993 when maricultures were closed from mid October to the end of November and in 1989 when production and sale of mussels were banned for almost half a year, from late September to the beginning of March 1990 (Sedmak & Obal, 1998). In 1996, two human intoxication by DSP were reported in Slovenia, while many others probably passed unnoticed because of the similarity of DSP symptoms to other gastrointestinal infections (Malej etai, 1994). The shellfish species that accumulate the largest amounts of toxins are edible mussels (Mytilus gallopro­vincialis). These mussels are also the main mussels grown in maricultures. Other shellfish that appear on the fish-markets and are commonly eaten are Pilgrim's scallops (Pecten jacobeus), oysters (Ostrea edulis), warty venus shells (Venus verrucosa), and checkerboards (Venerupis decussata). These could also be affected by harmful toxins, but generally accumulate less toxins and are less often available on the fishmarkets for larger consumption. 
Toxins implicated in DSP intoxication are acidic okadaic acid (a strong tumor promoter and protein phosphatase inhibitor), dinophysis toxin-1, -2 and -3 (DTX-1, DTX-2, DTX-3) and several poiyether lactons named pectenotoxins (PTX). Another class of poiyether toxins - yessotoxins (VTX) - were also found in the Adriatic mussels from the Emiglia-Romagna coast (Ciminiello et al., 1997). Ingestion of YTX could also in­duce neurological symptoms in intoxicated persons al­though so far, other toxins that cause amnesic (ASP), paralytic (PSP) or neurotoxic (NSP) symptoms have not been detected in the Adriatic mussels. 
The periodical but regular occurrence of toxic algal blooms in the northern Adriatic is a serious threat to public health and to the local economy. It is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss problems associated with toxic algal blooms but a suitable measures of protection, monitoring and legislature are required in order to con­trol this phenomena {e.g. Sedmak & Obal, 1998). 


Marine sponges 
Marine sponges are known to be true "chemical factories" producing an impressive number of unique substances with a broad spectrum of biological activi­ties. Some tropical species are known to produce severe contact dermatitis and itching (Mebs, 1995; fisher, 1978) but the majority is considered harmless and no harmful effects on man from the Adriatic sponges have been reported so far. There are, however, well docu­mented reports from the Mediterranean on the so-called sponge divers disease which in fact occurs due to re­petitive stings by an anemone (Sagartia elegans) at­tached to the sponges at the depth of 25-45 metres (Zervos, 1934; Halstead, 1988). With a decline of com­mercial sponge collecting, this disease became ex­tremely rare. Treatment is symptomatic: non-ineffective but unresponsive skin reaction may respond to a short (up to 3 days) course of systemic steroid application un­der medical supervision. 
The lack of appropriate structures for injection of toxic substances and the fact that sponges are not eaten by humans put sponges far from being considered a hazard to human health. Nevertheless, sponges are one of the prime targets in search of novel substances that might be useful in treatment of various diseases from AIDS to cancer. As an example, in aqueous extracts of just 21 northern Adriatic sponges we found hemaggluti­nating, haemolytic, antibiotic, cytotoxic and anti­cholinesterase activity (Sepcid et a!., 1997) With no doubt we can conclude that what we know about sponges is just a scratch under their surface. Many new and important chemical substances could be expected from their bodies in the future. 


Coelenterates 
Coelenterates (Cnidaria: sea anemones, jellyfish and hydroids) represent, with no doubt, toxicologically the most important group of marine organisms. Some of their venoms are so powerful that can kill an adult within minutes. There are several members of the class that inflict upon contact painful stings with sometimes serious consequences (see Williamson & Burnett, 1995). In the Northern Adriatic there are several cnidarians that could be harmful to man, but usually envenomation is mode­rate and does not presenta serious threat to the victim. 
The most notorious example of the venomous jelly­fish from the Adriatic is the massive occurrence of Mauve stinger jellyfish {Peiagia noctiluca) in the !ate seventies and early eighties (Maretic etai, 1980; Maretic & Russel, 1983). This species was so abundant that rep­resented a serious threat to the tourist economy of the 

Tom TURK : POISONOU S AN D VENOMOU S ORGANISM S O f TH E NORTHER N AORIATÍ C SEA , 159-5 66 
Mediterranean countries. Thousands of people were stung by this relatively small jellyfish. Most of the vic­tims developed only focal reactions, in some hyperpig­mentation of the skin developed that persisted for month, and there were few reports of systemic reaction and even anaphylactic shock (Togias etai., 1985). 
Other potentially dangerous jellyfish that occurred along the north Italian Adriatic coast is the cubomedusa Carybdea marsupialis (Avian et a!., 1992; Rottini ef ai., 1995). Contact with this jellyfish has been reported to cause erythematous-vesicuiar eruptions over the skin, accompanied by pain and a strong burning sensation. Skin lesions my also be observed in more susceptible individuals (Kokelj eta!., 1992, 1993). 
Other species of jellyfish that are sporadically com­mon in the Northern Adriatic are Cotylorhiza tubercu­lata, Rhizostoma pulmo, Aurelia aurita, and Chrysaora hysosceifa. Although some reports list these species as stingers (e.g. Kokelj etai., 1989), a personal experience of the author cannot confirm these reports. However, it is possible that in susceptible individuals these jellyfish may also inflict a painful sting and one should be cau­tious in handling them with bare hands. Most of the jel­lyfish venoms contain cytolysins, but they are difficult to isolate in pure form since they are extremely heat labile and prone to the denaturation from various other rea­sons. The ambiguity in this field of research is therefore large and no firm conclusions about the composition of jellyfish venom have been made. 
Sea anemones (Actiniaria) are another representative of the cnidarians that can inflict a painful sting. Al­though all sea anemones contain very powerful and even lethal toxins in their nematocysts, there are only few species that can pierce human skin and cause en­venom ation. Anemoriia sulcata is one such species liv­ing in shallow waters and rocky pools of the Adriatic, sometimes covering large areas. This species is photo­phylic and could persist even in polluted waters. Small children that often play in the rocky pools are especially prone to the envenomation since their skin and mucosa are more tender. The affected area of the skin takes on a reddened and slightly raised appearance, bearing irregu­larly scattered pin-head size vesicles and sometimes an edema may develop around the injured skin. On lips and child skin larger blisters can develop. The area be­comes painful, particularly to touch and heat (Maretid 1975; Mareti. & Russel, 1983). There are some other sea anemones that could cause unpleasant conse­quences upon contact with their tentacles, i.e. the al­ready mentioned Sagartia elegans and two rare species whose existence in the Northern Adriatic is doubtful: Alicia mirabilis and Cladastis costae. The touch of the latter (PeljeSac peninsula, Southern Adriatic, personal experience, 1987) was quite painful and a burning sen­sation with erythrema of the hand lasted for several hours. Most sea anemones possess peptide neurotoxins that block sodium or potassium channels in nerves. Many also possess protein cytolytic toxins that are, however, different from those found in jellyfish. No special treatment of sea anemone stings is needed. In most cases a topical ointment like Kamagel will ease the pain and the symptoms, in small children precaution is needed in order not to spread undischarged nematocysts over the body and in the vicinity of mouth and eyes. 
In the case of jellyfish stings, treatment of the victim depends on species involved. 
For Pelagia stings washing with sea (not tap) water and application of ice is recommended. If symptoms persist or worsen one should seek medical attention, and especially if signs of anaphylactic shock develop this should be done without any hesitation. In the case of a Carybdea sting, the remaining nematocysts should be first neutralised by vinegar and then by ice packs for pam relief. One should seek medica! help if symptoms persist or worsen. 

MOLLUSCS (MOLLUSCA) 

The only toxic molluscan species in the Northern Adriatic is the Mediterranean cone snail (Conus mediter­raneus). However, no reports exist about the composi­tion of its venom and possible envenomation in humans. Nevertheless, one should be careful in handling this cone since some of its tropical cousins are known to possess in their venoms a vast array of peptide toxins that can easily cause human death. The Mediterranean cone is a greenish brown cone shaped snail, but its shell is often variable and covered with bryozoans. 

ANNELIDA (POLYCHAETA) 

Some of the bristle worms are capable of inflicting painful wounds by their hollow and brittle setae, filled with toxins. Such species are those from the genera F.u­rythoe, Aphrodita and Herrnodice. Fire worm (Hermo­dice caruncuiata) is a large up to 25 cm long segmented worm. Each of the segments bears on both sides numerous white setae that are extremely fragile upon contact. According to Penner (1970), the contact with bristleworm H. caruncuiata produced pain and transient numbness of the hand when setae were broken off in the skin. The pain or stinging sensation persisted for more than 12 hours, and the numbness of the entire extremity lasted for about 30 minutes. He suggested that the setae be filled with neurotoxin, which was emptied into the wounds when the bristles broke off. Herrnodice carun­cuiata could be found at various depths. Because the worm is a scavenger, it could be usually found over dead marine creatures. People (except SCUBA divers) only occasionally come in close contact with this worm. Care should be exercised to avoid touching this and other polychaete worms with bare hands. 
Tom TURK : POISONOU S AN D VENOMOU S ORGANISM S O F TH E NORTHER N ADRIATI C SEA, 159-166 
ECHINODERMATA 

Sea urchins are a nuisance well known to bathers who dare to venture into the water barefooted. Although the majority of sea urchins are not toxic, their fragile broken spines that were not entirely removed from the skin tend to get inflamed due to the bacterial infection. Granuloma and vesiculation of the skin around the bro­ken particle are common, and sometimes surgical ap­proach is needed to remove the spine. In the Adriatic the usual culprits are the violet sea urchin (Paracentrotus lividus) and black sea urchin (Arbacia lixula). The latter is less common, but contact with its extremely fragile spines tends to be more painful and broken particles are more difficult to remove. The only sea urchin in the Adriatic possessing venomous glands is the one that could be handled with bare hands without any conse­quences. Sphaerechinus granulans belongs to the Toxopneustidae family of sea urchins, which are toxic. 
S. granulans is no exception, but its venomous pedicel­laria (Peres, 1950) are too weak to pierce the human skin, its spines are blunt and difficult to break. Another potentially dangerous species because of its extremely long spines is the Mediterranean diadema urchin (Centrostepbanus longispinus). However, this sea urchin lives only in the southern part of the Adriatic. It is un­likely for us to encounter its spines since its habitat is bellow 50 m. This species belongs to the diadema sea urchin family whose members are a real threat to the unaware tourists in the tropics. 
Among other echinoderms sea stars and holothurians are known to possess or excrete different toxic sub­stances with predominant hemolytic activity. The ma­jority of them are saponins, holothurin being probably the most examined substance of this class (Habermehl & Volkwein, 1971). The noxious taste of these compounds probably repel potential predators, but they do not affect human beings. 
Fig. 1: Snake locks anemone (Anemonia sulcata) pos­sesses several neurotoxins. A touch by its tentacles could be painful, especially with small children. SI. 1: Voščena morska vetrnica (Anemonia sulcata) vse­buje številne nevrotoksine. Dotik njenih lovk je lahko boleč, zlasti pri majhnih otrocih. Fig. 2: Compass jellyfish (Chrysaora hysoscella) is quite common, but its stings are very mild. SI. 2: Kompasni klobučnjak (Chrysaora hysoscella) je razmeroma pogost, dotik z lovkami pa ne pušča hujših posledic. Fig. 3: Mediterranean cone shell (Conus mediterraneus) is the only venomous gastropod in the Mediterranean. SI. 3: Sredozemski stožec (Conus mediterraneus) je edi­na strupena vrsta polža v Sredozemlju. 
Fig. 4: Purple sea urchin (Sphaerechinus granulans) is the only venomous sea urchin in the Adriatic. However, its spines are blunt and venomous pedicellarea too weak to pierce the human skin. SI 4: Pegasti ježek (Sphaerechinus granulans) je edini strupeni morski ježek v Jadranu. Ker pa so njegove bo­dice tope, ščipci pa šibki, človeku ni nevaren. Fig. 5: Wee vers are without much doubt the most ven­omous fish in the Mediterranean. Streaked weever (Tra­chinus radiatus) can reach the length of 50 cm and should be treated with respect. Envenomation is extre­mely painful, but fortunately its venom is thermolabile. SI. 5: Morski zmaji so nedvomno n.ijbolj strupene sredo­zemske ribe. Črnoglavi morski zmaj (Trachinus radia­tus) lahko doseže do 50 cm dolžine, zato moramo biti ob srečanju z njim še posebno previdni. Vbod morskega zmaja je ekstremno boleč, k sreči pa je strup termola­bilen. 
Fig. 6: A related species is the greater weever (Trachinus draco). In the Northern Adriatic this species is more abundant but is usually smaller. Its venom is equally efficient as the venom of its relative, the streaked weever. Greater weevers are usually buried in the sand. SI. 6: Sorodna vrsta je morski zmaj (Trachinus draco). V severnem Jadranu je ta vrsta bolj pogosta, vendar doseže nekoliko manjšo velikost. Strup morskega zmaja je enako učinkovit kot strup sorodnega črnoglavega morskega zmaja. Morski zmaji so pogosto popolnoma vkopani v pesek. 
Fig. 7: Scorpion fish are a common sight underwater, but can be easily overlooked due to their cryptic colo­ration while lying motionless on the sea bottom. There are several species with venomous spines that can inflict painful wounds, although less serious compared to the weevers stings. The biggest species in the Adriatic is the red scorpionfish (Scorpaena scrofa). SI. 7: Z bodikami se pod vodo pogosto srečamo, čeprav jih zaradi njihove barvne prilagojenosti okolju in ne­premičnemu ležanju na dnu velikokrat tudi spregle­damo. Poznamo nekaj vrst, vse imajo strupene bodice, ki lahko povzročijo boleče rane, čeprav so te manj hude od vbodov z bodicami morskih zmajev. Največja bodika v Jadranu je rdeča bodika (Scorpaena scrofa). Fig. 8: Sting rays and eagle rays possess one or two long venomous spines protruding from the base of their tails. Encounters with these fishes are, except on fishing boats, rather rare. Common sting ray (Dasyatis pasti­naca) is the most common stingray in the Adriatic. It can reach the length of up to 1.5 m. (All photos by T. Turk) 
SI. 8: Strupene ribe v Jadranu so še morski biči in morski golobi. Obe skupini rib imata po eno ali dve dolgi stru­peni bodici, ki štrlita iz repnega korena. Srečanja s temi ribami, razen na ribiških ladjah, so redka. Na sliki je morski bič (Dasyatis pastinaca). Največji ulovljeni ose­bek je bil dolg 1,5 m. (Vse fotografije: T. Turk) 
Tom TURK: POISONOUS AND VENOMOUS ORGANISMS OF THE NORTHERN ADRIATIC SEA, 159~ 
Turi? TURK: POISONOUS AND VENOMOUS ORGANISMS OF THE NORTHERN ADRIATIC SEA. 159-166 


FISH 
Venomous fish 


Venomous fish are probably of the greatest medical importance in the Northern Adriatic since they are fre­quently encountered by fishermen, divers and bathers. Without much doubt the most venomous fish of the times screaming incoherence (Halstead, 1988). Local swelling and erythema quickly follow and in neglected wounds significant local tissue damage, protracted morbidity of the limb and secondary bacterial infection may occur. Death cases are documented (Skeie, 1962a, 1962b; Carlisle, 1962; Maretic, 1988) but at least three of them were due to delayed septicemia. 
Mediterranean are weever fishes. There are four species Fortunately, because venom components are ex-living in the Adriatic: very common greater weeverfisb tremely heat sensitive and labile, hot water immersion is Trachinus (recently renamed to Ec.hichthysj draco, fairly an effective remedy for weeverfish (as well as other 
common streaked keever (T. radiatus), (ess common spotted weever (J. araneus), and very rare lesser weever (T, vipera). The latter is also the smallest but considered the most venomous. Weevers are small to medium sized fish, the largest documented one caught near Puia was a specimen of T. radiatus, measuring 53 cm and weighting 1 550 g (Maretic & V'ejnovid, 1990). They are benthic fish lying motionless on the sea bed; frequently they bury themselves into the sand with eyes, head and dorsal and opercular spines exposed. They live at various depths, but in summer when spawning takes place, they could be found in very shallow water. The common features of ail weevers are their venomous spines of the dorsal fin (Dl) and an additional dagger-like opercular spine on each side of the head. Grooved spines are lined with glandular cells that produce venom. The isolation of fish toxins from crude venom preparations is one of the most challenging problems in toxinology. Weevers are no exception in this regard. Toxic components of the venom are extremely unstable at room temperature. It was not until 1992 when dracotoxin, a main toxic component of crude T. draco venom preparation, has been isolated. Dracotoxin is 105 Kda hemolytic protein showing high affinity for rabbit red blood cells. It causes depolarisation of rat brain particles and is lethal to mice (Chhatwal & Dreyer, 1992a, 1992b). It is quite possible that draco­toxin possesses also additional biological activities that may be responsible for the clinical picture seen in human envenomations. 
Envenomation with weevers most often occurs in in­experienced tourist fishermen who are not aware that grabbing and handling a struggling weever on the hook line may end with serious consequences. Less common, but still important, are accidents in sandy shallow waters where bathers are swimming arid wading barefooted on the sea bed and being stung by stepping on the buried weever. in the Pula Medical Centre, out of 257 patients stung by different species of weevers only 41% were local people, while the rest were tourists (Maretic, 1982). The weeverfisb sting is extremely painful, victim may scream of the excruciating pain. The instantaneous burning pain is probably due to the large amounts of 5­hydroxytriptarnine and histamine in the venom (Carlisle, 1962; Chhatwal & Dreyer, 1992b). Soon pain comes to involve the entire affected limb and within 30 min or so increases to reduce the patient to writhing and some-venomous fish) stings. The temperature of the water should be comfortable enough for the patient, hot enough to provide relief but not too hot to cause burns. In more serious cases an antivenin against Trachinus, Scorpaena and Uranoscopus that effectively relief the symptoms within minutes is available, produced by the imunološki institut in Zagreb. 
5targazers (Uranoscopus spp.) are closely related to weevers but the reports about their toxicity are ambigu­ous. They have two sharp dorsal spines and an opercu­lar spine, but according to Halstead (1988) they do not possess venomous glands, therefore they are considered nonvenomous. However, Gerhardt and Delange (1999) claim that the Mediterranean stargazer (Uranoscopusscaher) possesses venomous spines. In man, accidental stings provoke acute pains and twinges that, last, if un­treated, for about 24 hours. Nevertheless, stargazer venom seems to be far less toxic than that of weevers or the scorpion fish. 
Scorpion fishes (Scorpaenidae) are well known for their venomous spines in their front dorsal fin and nu­merous opercular spines. Scorpion fish are masters of camouflage and lie motionless on the sea bottom. Ac­cording to Maretic (1982a), most accidents occur with housewives who clean the fish and accidentally get. stung. There are four species living in the Northern Adriatic: black scorpionfish (Scorpaena porcus), red scorpionfish 
(S. scrofa), small red scorpionfish (S. notata 5. ustuiata) and Madeira rockfish (Sebastes maderensis). Symptoms of envenomation due to the sting are painful and similar to those of weevers, but generally milder. Recommended treatment is the same as in weaver's sting. 
It is quite unlikely to get stung by one of the mem­bers of eagle rays (Myliobatidae) or stingrays (Dasya­tidae). Since this animals can reach considerable size one should be aware of their venomous, harpoon like, barbed spines (transformed dorsal fins) protruding from their tails. In large specimens these spines can reach up to 20 cm and are a respectable weapon that is not only venomous but can also cause deep traumatic injuries. Because these fishes are cautious and usually five in greater depths, accidents in the Adriatic are very rare. However, in certain part of the world, like in California, they contribute to the majority of fish envenomation. The major culprit there is the stingray Urobatis hailed (Maretic, 1982a). Eagle ray or stingray stings cause acute 
To m TURK : POISONOU S AN D VENOMOU S ORGANISM S O F TH E NORTHER N ADRIATI C SEA , 159-166 
pain, redness and edema around the wound. General content of histamine released from the flesh of macker­symptoms are malaise, nausea and sweating. Anxiety, els and other fish of the Scombridae family. The reason salivation, vomiting, diarrhoea, troubles in respiration, is improper storage of fish that enables bacteria in re-blurred vision, paresthesias and shock have also been leasing histamine from the fish muscles. A peppery taste described (Halstead, 1970). Treatment is symptomatic, of the fish indicates a high level of histamine. Symptoms immersion in hoi water is recommended for pain relief, are typical of histamine poisoning, including headache, but larger wounds should be also treated surgically. To dizziness, nausea, vomiting, generalised erythema and avoid accidents with stingrays and eagle rays, great care urticaria, followed by diarrhoea, extensive pruritus, and should be exercised, especially with large caught speci-in severe cases bronchospasm and respiratory distress. mens that can trash around with their tail and cause Shock and even death my follow in untreated severe injuries of vital organs. cases (Taylor et ai, 1989). Treatment is carried out with antihisfaminic drugs, in the former Yugoslavia a case of Fish poisoning massive scombrotoxic poisoning was reported in 1981 (Maretici, 1982b). Scombrotoxism is an important public health issue and canned fish may also be implicated 
Moray eels, to the contrary of their fierce and evil look (Murray eta I., 1982). 
and popular belief that they are venomous, do not possess any venom glands. Nevertheless, their bite could cause serious bacterial infection. Mediterranean moray eel {Mu-CONCLUSIONS raena helena) that is rare in the Northern Adriatic, conger eel (Conger conger), an d eel (Anguilla anguilla) are, We can conclude that marine organisms in the however, cryptotoxic since they have poisonous blood. Northern Adriatic usually do not represent a serious 
Another form of fish poisoning (ichthyotoxism) is threat to public health. Nevertheless, the knowledge also possible by ingesting certain fish of Scombridae about their biology, ecology and harmful substances family which is, however, due to the improper storage of they possess is important in order to act properly when the catch and not to their endogenous toxins. Scornbro-individuals or even larger population are affected by toxism or scombroid fish poisoning is due to the large their toxins or venoms. 
STRUPEN I ORGANIZM I SEVERNEG A JADRAN A 
Tom TURK 

Oddelek za biologijo, Biotehniška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani, SI -1000 Ljubljana, VeC.na pot 1 
POVZETEK 

V severnem Jadranu živi občasno ali stalno nekaj vrst strupenih morskih organizmov. Čeprav ne pomenijo resne nevarnosti za zdravje ljudi, si zaslužijo našo pozornost in znanje o njihovi biologiji, ekologiji in strupenih snoveh, ki jih najdemo bodisi v njihovih telesih bodisi v slrupnih žlezah. Veliko večino organizmov v vodah severnega Jad­rana, ki v določenih razmerah lahko postanejo strupeni, prištevamo k drobnim enoceličnim planktonskim oklepnim bičkarjem (Dinophvta). Množična cvetenja dinoflagelatov so najhujša grožnja zdravju ljudi, saj se ti toksini kopičijo v tkivih školjk, kot so npr. klapavice (Mytilus galloprovincialis) . Veliko toksičnih snovi vsebujejo tudi spužve (Porifera). Tu in tam lahko postanejo strupene tudi nekatere ribe iz družine skuš (Scombridae), kar pa je v glavnem posledica nepravilnega shranjevanja ulova in posledično velike vsebnosti histamina v tkivu ujetih rib. Tiste strupene živali, ki imajo strupni aparat in strup direktno vbrizgajo v telo žrtve, spadajo v različne skupine, tudi v severnem Jadranu pa jih je največ med ožigalkarji in ribami. 
Ključne besede: strupeni organizmi, zdravje ljudi, severni Jadran 
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L. (Cnidaria: Cubozoa). Proc. 54 Cong. UZt-Perugia, 155-162. 
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