MUZIKOLOŠKI Z B O R N I K MUSICOLOGICAL A N N U A L LX/1 Z V E Z E K / V O L U M E L J U B L J A N A 2 0 2 4 Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 1 7. 10. 2024 10:11:58 Glavni in odgovorni urednik • Editor-in-Chief Aleš Nagode (Univerza v Ljubljani) Asistentka uredništva • Assistant Editor Špela Lah (Univerza v Ljubljani) Uredniški odbor • Editorial Board Matjaž Barbo (Univerza v Ljubljani), Svanibor Pettan (Univerza v Ljubljani), Gregor Pompe (Univerza v Ljubljani), Leon Stefanija (Univerza v Ljubljani), Nejc Sukljan (Univerza v Ljubljani), Katarina Šter (ZRC SAZU), Jernej Weiss (Univerza v Ljubljani) Andrej Rijavec (Ljubljana), častni urednik • honorary editor Mednarodni uredniški svet • International Advisory Board Michael Beckermann (Columbia University, USA), Robert S. Hatten (Indiana University, USA), David Hiley (University of Regensburg, Germany), Thomas Hochradner (Mozarteum Salzburg, Austria), Helmut Loos (University of Leipzig, Germany), Jim Samson (Royal Holloway University of London, UK), Lubomír Spurný (Masaryk University Brno, Czech Republic), Jeff Todd Titon (Brown University, USA), Katarina Tomašević (Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Serbia), Michael Walter (University of Graz, Austria) Uredništvo • Editorial address Oddelek za muzikologijo Filozofska fakulteta Aškerčeva 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija e-mail: muzikoloski.zbornik@ff.uni-lj.si https://journals.uni-lj.si/MuzikoloskiZbornik Cena posamezne številke • Single issue price 10 € Letna naročnina • Annual subscription 20 € Založila • Published by Založba Univerze v Ljubljani Za založbo • For the publisher Gregor Majdič, rektor Univerze v Ljubljani Izdaja • Issued by Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete, Oddelek za muzikologijo Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani Za izdajatelja • For the issuer Mojca Schlamberger Brezar, dekanja Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani Tisk • Printed by Birografika Bori d. o. o., Ljubljana Naklada 150 izvodov • Printed in 150 copies Izdajo zbornika je omogočila Javna agencija za znanstvenoraziskovalno in inovacijsko dejavnost Republike Slovenije. / With the support of the Slovenian Research and Innnovation Agency. To delo je ponujeno pod licenco Creative Commons Priznanje avtorstva - Deljenje pod enakimi pogoji 4.0 Mednarodna licenca (izjema so fotografije). / This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (except photographs). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 2 7. 10. 2024 10:11:58 3 Vsebina/Contents Helena Filipčič Gardina Pregled življenjske poti in glasbenega delovanja Vladimirja Lovca (1922–1992) 5 Life and Musical Activities of Vladimir Lovec (1922–1992) Gregor Pompe »Hodim nekam svoja pota « Slogovna vprašanja ob simfoničnem opusu Vladimirja Lovca 23 “I Go My Own Way”: Stylistic Questions About Vladimir Lovec’s Symphonic Opus Tjaša Ribizel Popič Vladimir Lovec v vlogi glasbenega kritika 43 Vladimir Lovec as a Music Critic Sa Ra Park Domenico Scarlatti’s Musical Style: His Keyboard Sonata K 288 55 Glasbeni slog Domenica Scarlattija: njegova Sonata K. 288 Rytis Urniežius Edvard Grieg’s Norwegian Dances op 35: Two Orchestral Versions, Two Destinies 83 Norveški plesi op. 35 Edvarda Griega: dve orkestrski različici, dve usodi Mohd Fairuz Zamani Is It Chaotic? An Examination of the Harmonic Materials in Razak Abdul Aziz’s Etude No. 5 for Solo Piano 115 Je kaotično? Pregled harmonskega gradiva v Etudi št. 5 za klavir solo Razaka Abdula Aziza Klara Žnideršič, Peter Šavli, Matija Marolt, Matevž Pesek Trubadur: nadgradnja platforme za e-učenje glasbene teorije 153 Troubadour: Upgrading the Music Theory E-Learning Platform Wang Yi Revolutionizing Music Production with ChatGPT Applications: Accessibility, Creativity, and Impact on the Industry in China 175 Preobrat v ustvarjanju glasbe z uporabo ChatGPT aplikacij: dostopnost, ustvarjalnost in vpliv na dejavnost na Kitajskem Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 3 7. 10. 2024 10:11:58 Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 4 7. 10. 2024 10:11:58 5 DOI: 10.4312/mz.60.1.5-21 UDK: 78.071(497.4)"19":929Lovec V. Pregled življenjske poti in glasbenega delovanja Vladimirja Lovca (1922–1992) Helena Filipčič Gardina Samozaposlena v kulturi IZVLEČEK Vladimir Lovec (1922–1992) je pomembno soustvarjal glasbeno življenje Kopra in slovenske Istre v 2. polovici 20. stoletja kot skladatelj, dirigent, pedagog in ravnatelj koprske glasbene šole, glasbeni kritik in publicist ter dejaven pri organizaciji glasbenih dogodkov, s svojimi kompozicijami pa je prispeval tudi k slovenski glasbeni dediščini. Ključne besede: Vladimir Lovec, biografija, glasbena dejavnost, Slovenija, 20. stoletje ABSTRACT Vladimir Lovec (1922–1992) had significant impact on the musical life of Koper and Sloveni- an Istria in the second half of the twentieth century. He was active as a composer, conductor, pedagogue and principal of the Koper music school, music critic and publicist, producer of musical events. He also considerably contributed to the Slovenian musical repertoire with his compositions. Keywords: Vladimir Lovec, biography, musical activities, Slovenia, 20th century Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 5 7. 10. 2024 10:11:58 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lx/1 6 Prvi dekadi življenja Vladimir Lovec se je rodil v Mariboru 6. 4. 1922 Josipu Lovcu, rojenem v Klokočovniku pri Ločah na Štajerskem leta 1895, in Mariji (dekliškega pri- imka) Gregl, rojeni v Zg. Sušici na Dolenjskem leta 1894. Poročila sta se 23. 2. 1919 v Gradcu, septembra istega leta se jima je pred sinom Vladimirjem rodila hči Ljudmila. Uradnik Josip Lovec je deloval v upravah različnih bol- nišnic, ponekod tudi kot upravitelj,1 Marija je bila gospodinja.2 Družina Lovec se je večkrat selila, leta 1930 pa se je ustalila v Ljubljani. Vladimir Lovec je tako obiskoval prvi razred šestletne osnovne šole v Slovenj Gradcu (1928/29), drugega (1929/30) na IV. državni deški osnovni šoli v Mariboru, od šolskega leta 1930/31 dalje pa v Ljubljani najprej dve leti I. državno deško osnovno šolo (1930/31–1931/32), zatem II. državno realno gimnazijo (1932/33–1935/36), nakar I. državno realno gimnazijo (1937/38– 1941/42), ki se je pod italijansko okupacijo imenovala Iº Ginnasio reale ma- schile – I. moška realna gimnazija. Spričevalo zadnjega, osmega razreda je datirano 15. 6. 1942. Sledilo je 14 mesecev internacije v Italiji, kjer je Lovec tudi opravil maturitetni, oziroma višji tečajni izpit, in sicer 18. 3. 1943 v Monigu pri Trevisu.3 Vladimir Lovec je bil z ljubljanskih ulic odveden 29. 6. 1942 med petdnev- no racijo italijanskih vojaških karabinjerjev. Kot je razvidno iz odredb o raci- jah in drugih arhivskih dokumentov o drugi blokadi Ljubljane zgodaj poleti 1942, so Italijani na javnih mestih po Ljubljani pregledali kar 20.000 zdravih moških, starih med 16 in 50 let, in več kot 2.500 takih, ki so sodili med do- ločene »sumljive« kategorije (med temi so bili tudi šolajoči se fantje, kakršen je bil Lovec), še istega dne odpeljali.4 Najprej je pristal v koncentracijskem taborišču v Gonarsu, zatem je bil odveden v Monigo pri Trevisu, nakar so Lovca premestili vnovič v Gonars, od koder je bil izpuščen 3. 8. 1943, mesec pred kapitulacijo Italije.5 1 Pokrajinski arhiv Maribor, Enota za Koroško, SI PAM/1891, Splošna bolnišnica Slovenj Gradec 1898–1980, t. e. 582, a. e. 7. Arhivski viri navajajo za obdobje med letoma 1913–1930 zaposlitev državnega uradnika Josipa Lovca v upravah bolnišnic v Gradcu, Mariboru, Radgoni, Celju, Slo- venj Gradcu. 2 Martin Jevnikar, »Lovec, Vladimir«, Primorski slovenski biografski leksikon, 9. snopič, 2. knjiga (1983), 307. 3 Spričevala Vladimirja Lovca se hranijo v njegovi zapuščini v NUK (Narodna in univerzitet- na knjižnica, Glasbena zbirka, Zapuščina skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca, Kronika, IX. Osebni dokumenti.). 4 Na seznamu aretiranih v Ljubljani 29. 6. 1942 je Vladimir Lovec zaveden kot »studente« (SI AS 1784, Kraljevi karabinjerji 11. armadnega zbora, t. e. 221, a. e. 221/III), prav tako je »Lovec Vla- dimir di Josip 1922« naveden na seznamu študentov v taborišču v Gonarsu leta 1942 (AS 1840, Zbirka gradiva o žrtvah italijanskih okupacijskih oblasti, t. e. 3, a. e. 15). 5 SI AS 1840, Zbirka gradiva o žrtvah italijanskih okupacijskih oblasti, t. e. 8, a. e. 44. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 6 7. 10. 2024 10:11:58 Helena Filipčič Gardina: Pregled življenjske poti in glasbenega delovanja Vladimirja Lovca 7 Glasbena izobrazba in začetki glasbenega ustvarjanja Stik z glasbo je Lovec imel že doma, saj je po njegovem pričevanju njegov oče odlično igral citre, sestra klavir, sam pa se je nekaj malega naučil igrati klavir.6 Najzgodnejši najdeni vir o Lovčevem glasbenem pouku je predmet petje v dveh razredih II. realne gimnazije.7 Pri svojih trinajstih je Lovec za klavir napisal kratko »simfonično pesnitev« Krst pri Savici,8 pri sedemnajstih je začel in, ker ni prejel obljubljenega libreta Borisa Grabnarja, kmalu tudi opustil pisanje opere o kužnih časih Črna smrt,9 med internacijo v Gonarsu, kjer je sodeloval v tamkajšnjem taboriščnem zboru, pa napisal dve zborovski skladbi.10 Po nekaj skromnih skladateljskih poskusih v najstniških letih se je Lovče- vo skladateljevanje resneje začelo šele po vrnitvi iz internacije, ko je kot glas- beni samouk ustvaril svoje prve samospeve. Pokazal jih je Pavlu Šivicu, ki jih je označil za »izrazito erotično liriko«.11 Lovčev prvi glasbeni mentor, čeravno neformalni, je bil Samo Hubad, ki je Lovca začel sistematično poučevati.12 Poleg samospevov je Lovec v tistem času napisal tudi nekaj klavirskih skladb. Ker so bila nekatera Lovčeva dela iz leta 1944 izvedena, gre po njegovih besedah šteti to leto za začetek njegove skladateljske dejavnosti.13 Dirigenta Hubada je spoznal med honorarnim delom v ljubljanski Operi, kjer je deloval do septembra 1945 kot statist, pomožni arhivar,14 zunanji član zbora,15 kore- petitor.16 Hubad ga je tudi napotil na študij kompozicije in ga priporočil Lu- cijanu Mariji Škerjancu.17 Ta je po pregledu nekaterih kandidatovih skladb 6 Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Glasbena zbirka, Zapuščina skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca, Kronika, V. Izjave o lastnemu delu. Besedilo je Lovec prebral v oddaji Nevenke Leban Slovenski skladatelji o sebi na Radiu Slovenija leta 1987. 7 Izvestje II. državne realne gimnazije v Ljubljani... (1932/1933), http://www.dlib. si/?URN=URN:NBN:SI:DOC-XSQ9YP40. 8 Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Glasbena zbirka, Zapuščina skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca, Kronika, V. Izjave o lastnemu delu. Besedilo je Lovec prebral v oddaji Nevenke Leban Slovenski skladatelji o sebi na Radiu Slovenija leta 1987. 9 Lovčeva izjava v radijski oddaji. Branka Kljun, 60-letnica skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca (Koper: Ra- dio Koper, 31. 3. 1982). 10 Prav tam. 11 Prav tam. 12 Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Glasbena zbirka, Zapuščina skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca, Kronika, V. Izjave o lastnemu delu. Besedilo je Lovec prebral v oddaji Nevenke Leban Slovenski skladatelji o sebi na Radiu Slovenija leta 1987. 13 Prav tam. 14 Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Glasbena zbirka, Zapuščina skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca, Kronika, V. Izjave o lastnemu delu. 15 Lovčeva izjava v radijski oddaji. Kljun, 60-letnica skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca. 16 SI PAK KP 971, Glasbena šola Koper 1946–2007, t. e. 50, Personalne mape L–N. 17 Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Glasbena zbirka, Zapuščina skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca, Kronika, V. Izjave o lastnemu delu. Besedilo je Lovec prebral v oddaji Nevenke Leban Slovenski skladatelji o sebi na Radiu Slovenija leta 1987. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 7 7. 10. 2024 10:11:58 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lx/1 8 Lovca najprej napotil, da v letu dni opravi študij na srednji glasbeni stopnji pri Blažu Arniču in se zatem vpiše k njemu.18 Lovec je 14. 10. 1946 diplomiral na srednji stopnji kompozicijskega odseka umetniškega oddelka Akademije za glasbo v Ljubljani.19 Istočasno je bil vpisan tudi na študij zgodovine in zemljepisa na ljubljanski Filozofski fakulteti, kjer je 27. 2. 1946 iz teh smeri opravil diplomski izpit skupine 21 C.20 Zatem se je povsem posvetil glasbenemu študiju ter se vpisal na visoko stopnjo študi- ja kompozicije in dirigiranja, to je I. odseka umetniškega oddelka ljubljanske Akademije za glasbo, kjer so bili štiri leta njegovi sošolci Aleksander Lajovic, Janez Matičič in Klaro Mizerit. 19. 6. 1950 je z odličnim uspehom diplomiral iz kompozicije v razredu Lucijana Marije Škerjanca, in sicer z drugim stavkom svoje Klasične simfonije, 20. 2. 1951 pa s prav dobrim uspehom opravil še diplo- mo iz dirigiranja pri Danilu Švari.21 Pozneje, med službovanjem na koprski glasbeni šoli, je 28. in 29. 12. 1956 naredil strokovni izpit za naziv profesor glasbe srednje šole iz teorije glasbe (harmonija in kontrapunkt).22 Glasbeno delovanje v Ljubljani V študijskih letih je Vladimir Lovec delal v različnih službah, povezanih z glas- bo. Poleg že omenjenih zaposlitev v ljubljanski Operi, je vodil še scensko glasbo v ljubljanski Drami,23 od 1. 1. 1947 do 30. 6. 1948 je bil zaposlen kot glasbeni korektor na Radiu Ljubljana, od 1. 2. 1949 do 1. 4. 1951 pa kot glasbeni korek- tor v notni tiskarni Jugoreklam.24 Obenem je pisal glasbene kritike pri Ljudski pravici in vodil pevske zbore. Dokumentiran je uspeh z mešanim pevskim zborom železničarskega Sin- dikalnega kulturno umetniškega društva Tine Rožanc.25 Lovec je pevsko 18 Prav tam. 19 Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Glasbena zbirka, Zapuščina skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca, Kronika, IX. Osebni dokumenti. 20 Prav tam. 21 SI PAK KP 971, Glasbena šola Koper 1946–2007, t. e. 50, Personalne mape L–N. Izvirnika dip- lom hrani Lovčeva družina. 22 Spričevalo o opravljenem strokovnem izpitu datira 14. 1. 1957. Narodna in univerzitetna knjižni- ca, Glasbena zbirka, Zapuščina skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca, Kronika, IX. Osebni dokumenti. 23 SI PAK KP 971, Glasbena šola Koper 1946–2007, t. e. 50, Personalne mape L–N. 24 Pogodbe o zaposlitvi so v Lovčevi glasbeni zapuščini v NUK (Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Glasbena zbirka, Zapuščina skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca, Kronika, IX. Osebni dokumenti.), potr- dila o zaposlitvi pa v Lovčevi personalni mapi v fondu Glasbena šola Koper v Pokrajinskem arhivu Koper (SI PAK KP 971, Glasbena šola Koper 1946–2007, t. e. 50, Personalne mape L–N). 25 Z mešanim pevskim zborom SKUD Tine Rožanc je Lovec dosegel prvo mesto (deljeno s SKUD Jože Lacko iz Ptuja) med pevskimi zbori na republiškem tekmovanju sindikalnih kulturno umetniških društev in skupin, ki je bilo januarja 1950 v veliki filharmonični dvorani v Ljubljani. SI ZAL 0437, Sindikalno kulturno umetniško društvo Tine Rožanc Ljubljana, t. e. 1, a. e. 4. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 8 7. 10. 2024 10:11:58 Helena Filipčič Gardina: Pregled življenjske poti in glasbenega delovanja Vladimirja Lovca 9 sekcijo imenovanega društva26 prevzel od Vasilija Mirka, najbrž sredi leta 1949, ko je Mirk odšel v Koper za načelnika radijske postaje, in jo vodil vsaj leto dni, najdlje pa do aprila 1951, ko se je sam zaposlil v Kopru in se je Mirk vrnil.27 V času študija in hkrati pestre glasbene dejavnosti v različnih inštitucijah, društvih in medijih v Ljubljani si je Vladimir Lovec ustvaril tudi družino. 20. 8. 1947 se je v Ljubljani poročil z Zdenko Bartol, rojeno 1924 v Virju na Hr- vaškem.28 Leta 1949 se jima je v Ljubljani rodila hči Vlasta, pozneje v Kopru leta 1954 pa še Zvezdana. Lovec na Radiu Koper 10. 4. 1951 se je Lovec zaposlil na z glasbenim kadrom podhranjeni koprski radijski postaji kot glasbeni referent, vodja glasbenega oddelka. Na dana- šnjem Radiu Koper-Capodistria, tedaj imenovanem Radio jugoslovanske cone Trsta, je deloval zgolj do 10. decembra istega leta, ko je moral na od- služenje vojaške obveznosti do 25. 11. 1952.29 Kljub kratkemu času delovanja na radiu kot eden prvih glasbenih urednikov je uspel ustanoviti in voditi še radijski komorni zbor, ki pa je po njegovem odhodu kmalu zamrl.30 26 Pevska sekcija je pogosto nastopala na najrazličnejših prizoriščih: pri železničarskih društvih, na gradbiščih, po vaseh, v socialnih ustanovah, na Radiu Ljubljana. Za leto 1950, ko je Lovec vodil pevski odsek, predvideva »Okvirni plan dela« 25 nastopov, usvojitev 9 umetnih, 7 narodnih in 4 borbenih pesmi, v »Proračunu« pa je razbrati, da je honorar zborovodji mesečno znašal 3500 din, honorar zborovodji korepetitorju pa 2000 din. SI ZAL LJ 0437, Sindikalno kulturno umetniško društvo Tine Rožanc Ljubljana, t. e. 1, a. e. 3. 27 Primorski slovenski biografski leksikon sicer navaja, da je Lovec vodil ta zbor v letih 1948–1951 ( Jevnikar, »Lovec, Vladimir«, 307). Toda v društvenem arhivskem fondu ohranjeni koncertni listi iz leta 1948 in še začetka 1949 navajajo kot dirigenta zbora Vasilija Mirka (SI ZAL LJ 0437, Sindikalno kulturno umetniško društvo Tine Rožanc Ljubljana, t. e. 2, a. e. 12). Društveni jubilejni zbornik iz leta 1955 navaja, da zbor od 1947 »s presledkom enega leta« vodi Vasilij Mirk, v času, ko je bil odsoten, pa je zbor vodil »mladi dirigent Vladimir Lovec«. 35 let SKUD Tine Rožanc (Ljubljana: SKUD Tine Rožanc, 1955), 27. 28 Prepis izpiska iz poročne matične knjige se hrani v Pokrajinskem arhivu Koper (SI PAK KP 971, Glasbena šola Koper 1946–2007, t. e. 50, Personalne mape L–N). Po pričevanju Janeza Matičiča v pogovoru s Heleno Filipčič Gardina 3. 12. 2021 sta bila Zdenka in Vladimir že več let trden par. Njej je skladatelj posvetil veliko skladb, zlasti zgodnjih, kar je razvidno na ohranjenih avtografih v Glasbeni zbirki NUK. Zdenka Lovec (1924–2023) je v Kopru delovala kot novinarka, urednica, več let je bila odgovorna ter tehnična urednica časopisa Primorske novice, avtorica številnih gleda- liških in literarnih kritik, prevajalka literarnih del, dejavna je bila tudi pri raznih kulturno-umet- niških društvih. 29 Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Glasbena zbirka, Zapuščina skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca, Kronika, IX. Osebni dokumenti. 30 Miran Hasl, Moje zgodbe: Bil sem vse razen dimnikarja (Koper: Libris, 2013), 138. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 9 7. 10. 2024 10:11:58 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lx/1 10 Lovec na Glasbeni šoli Koper Po odsluženi vojaški obveznosti31 se je Lovec s 1. 12. 195232 zaposlil kot uči- telj na Glasbeni šoli Koper, Okrajni ljudski odbor Koper ga je s 1. 3. 195333 imenoval za ravnatelja. Nasledil je pobudnika za ustanovitev in prvega rav- natelja glasbene šole Srečka Kumarja, ki se je upokojil. Konec leta 1965 se Lovec ni odločil za vnovično kandidaturo, tako je spomladi 1966 zasedel rav- nateljski položaj Miran Hasl.34 Iz ohranjenih vprašalnih pol za ocenitev učnega in vzgojnega osebja za šolska leta 1957/58–1960/61 je razbrati, da je Lovec dvignil raven glasbenega pouka (višji kriteriji za ocenjevanje učencev, širitev pedagoškega kadra idr.), poskrbel za izboljšanje pogojev dela z nabavo učnih pripomočkov (knjižnica, uvedba diskoteke z gramofonom, nabava Orffovega instrumentarija), postavil temelje ansambelski igri z ustanovitvijo šolskega or- kestra, krepil umetniško vzgojo tudi s koncerti slovenskih in drugih jugoslo- vanskih umetnikov v dvorani glasbene šole.35 Tudi Ivan Silič je zapisal, da se je koprska glasbena šola, ki se je ob svojih začetkih borila z vrsto finančnih in prostorskih težav, pod Lovčevim »skoraj trinajstletnim prizadevanjem organi- zacijsko utrdila, kadrovsko izpopolnila do tedaj največje možne mere in se prav tako v pedagoškem in umetniško vzgojnem pogledu dvignila do pomembnega nivoja«.36 V času Lovčevega vodstva se je šola leta 1955 tudi preselila v palačo Gravisi-Barbabianca, kjer domuje še danes.37 Lovec je na koprski glasbeni šoli deloval še kot pedagog, dirigent in sklada- telj: leta 1955 je prevzel zametke šolskega orkestra in ga vodil deset let (danes je prerasel v simfonični sestav, ki se imenuje po njem); več kot trideset let je na koprski glasbeni šoli poučeval klavir, pa tudi zgodovino glasbe, harmonijo in kontrapunkt; kot »hišni skladatelj« je ustvaril vrsto priredb, orkestracij, klavir- skih spremljav in izvirnih skladb za raznovrstne mladinske komorne sestave, otroški zbor in šolski orkester. 31 V Lovčevem družinskem arhivu je fotografija Vladimirja Lovca v vojaški opravi v Kninu, zato je mogoče domnevati, da je vojaščino služil v tem kraju. 32 Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Glasbena zbirka, Zapuščina skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca, Kronika, IX. Osebni dokumenti. 33 Prav tam. 34 Miran Hasl, ur., 20-letnica Glasbene šole v Kopru (Koper: CGV Koper, 1969), 27. 35 SI PAK KP 971, Glasbena šola Koper 1946–2007, t. e. 50, Personalne mape L–N. 36 Tipkopis radijske oddaje Ivana Siliča na Radiu Ljubljana 20. 4. 1981. Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Glasbena zbirka, Zapuščina skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca, Kronika, V. Izjave o lastnemu delu. 37 Koprska glasbena šola je začela delovati v Portorožu decembra 1948, leta 1950 se je preselila v Koper. Na pobudo Vladimirja Lovca in Mirana Hasla so se leta 1967 združile koprska ter mlajši izolska in piranska glasbena šola v enotni glasbeno-izobraževalni zavod Center za glasbeno vzgojo Koper, ki se je leta 2003 na zahtevo Ministrstva za šolstvo, znanost in šport preimenoval v Glas- beno šolo Koper s podružnicama v Izoli in Piranu. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 10 7. 10. 2024 10:11:58 Helena Filipčič Gardina: Pregled življenjske poti in glasbenega delovanja Vladimirja Lovca 11 Upokojil se je s koncem šolskega leta 1981/82,38 a tudi pozneje je občasno še prihajal poučevat. Zbrani spomini nekaterih njegovih učencev pričajo, da je bil Vladimir Lovec razumevajoč in nevsiljiv mentor, ki jim je puščal svobodo umetniškega izražanja, jim privzgoji trajno ljubezen do glasbe ter se z njimi veliko pogovarjal o najrazličnejših temah.39 Nekaj njegovih učencev se je tudi odločilo za glasbeni poklic. Lovec – vsestranski kulturni akter Lovec je štirinajst let vodil različne zbore, in sicer v Ljubljani, Kopru, pa tudi v Dekanih in oktet v Piranu.40 Najdlje, med 1953 in 1963, je vodil Moški zbor Delavsko prosvetnega društva Svoboda iz Kopra, ki je po nekaterih ocenah sodil med boljše amaterske zbore na Slovenskem.41 Na zborovskem področju je sodeloval tudi pri ustanavljanju Združenja pevskih zborov Pri- morske, prirejal pevovodske tečaje bil dejaven v žirijah revij mladinskih pev- skih zborov.42 Več kot 50 let je bil Lovec dejaven kot glasbeni publicist. Poleg že ome- njene Ljudske pravice iz ljubljanskega obdobja je objavljal glasbene kritike še v časopisih Tedenska tribuna, Slovenski Jadran (pozneje preimenovan v Primorske novice) in poročili v periodični publikaciji Obala. Bil je honorarni sodelavec Radia Koper, za katerega je pripravil vrsto zanimivih oddaj o glas- benikih, glasbenih instrumentih, operni glasbi, glasbi sveta …43 Velikega pomena je tudi Lovčevo sodelovanje pri postavljanju temeljev rednega koncertnega življenja v Kopru, mestu, ki je po drugi svetovni voj- ni doživelo korenite politične in druge spremembe. Z množičnim odhodom italjanskega prebivalstva in pritokom populacije iz jugoslovanskega prostora je začelo na novo postavljati tudi kulturno življenje. Lovec je bil med sou- stanovitelji Društva prijateljev glasbe – koncertne poslovalnice, ustanovljene 38 Podatek na evidenčnem listu o odjavi zaradi upokojitve 31. 8. 1982. SI PAK KP 971, Glasbena šola Koper 1946–2007, t. e. 53, a. e. 2 (Kadrovske evidence 1975–1989). 39 Glej intervjuje v poglavju Spomini v monografiji o Lovcu V zrcalu glasbene iskrenosti: Vladimir Lovec (1922–1992), ur. Helena Filipčič Gardina (Koper: Zavod lepih umetnosti; Ljubljana: ZKP RTV Slovenija, 2022). 40 Povzeto po Lovčevi izjavi v radijski oddaji. Kljun, 60-letnica skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca. 41 Glej vprašalno polo za ocenitev učnega in vzgojnega osebja za šolsko leto 1958/59 (SI PAK KP 971, Glasbena šola Koper 1946–2007, t. e. 50, Personalne mape L–N ) ter Lovčev portret poznavalca zborovskega področja Ivana Siliča (Ivan Silič, »Vladimir Lovec, skladatelj, glasbeni pedagog, kulturni delavec 1922–1992«, Primorska srečanja: revija za družboslovje in kulturo, št. 139 (1992): 778). 42 Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Glasbena zbirka, Zapuščina skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca, Kronika, V. Izjave o lastnemu delu (radijska oddaja Ivana Siliča 20. 4. 1981). 43 Lovčevi članki in tipkopisi radijskih oddaj se hranijo v njegovi zapuščini v NUK (Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Glasbena zbirka, Zapuščina skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca, Kronika, III. Časopisni članki Vladimirja Lovca; XI. Radijske oddaje). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 11 7. 10. 2024 10:11:58 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lx/1 12 spomladi 1963, s katero je Koper pridobil organizatorja stalnih koncertnih sezon z izvrstnimi slovenskimi in tujimi interpreti.44 Lovec je društvu nudil podporo kot njegov programski usmerjevalec, vez z uveljavljenimi glasbeniki koncertanti, avtor koncertnih listov. Lovec je deloval tudi v raznih strokovnih in upravnih telesih različnih in- štitucij: leta 1955 je bil imenovan v strokovno komisijo za glasbo pri odboru Ljudske prosvete za okraj Koper, upravni odbor Gledališča Slovenskega Pri- morja v Kopru in izvoljen v Svet za Prosveto in kulturo Ljudskega odbora okraja Koper, leta 1959 je bil imenovan v upravni odbor samostojnega zavoda Primorske prireditve Koper, leta 1970 pa v svet Slovenske filharmonije kot predstavnik družbene skupnosti.45 Bil je tudi v odboru Društva glasbenih pe- dagogov Primorske46 in član sveta Radia Koper.47 Lovec – skladatelj Vladimir Lovec je bil vsa leta ploden glasbeni ustvarjalec. Kot predhodno zapisano je pot skladatelja začel s samospevi in klavirskimi deli sredi 40. let 20. stoletja. V njegovi zapuščini48 je: 22 klavirskih glasbenih del oziroma 41 klavirskih skladb, v kolikor štetje zajema posamezne skladbe v ciklih;49 35 samospevov za glas in klavir na besedila slovenskih in tujih avtorjev, od katerih je 14 združil v pet ciklov50 ter tri priredil tudi za glas in orkester; 25 del za različne komorne zasedbe od duov do kvinteta, med temi dva godal- na kvarteta; dve koncertantni deli (za klavir in orkester, za flavto in orke- ster); dve simfoniji (ter eno nepopolno) in druga dela za godalni, komorni ali simfonični orkester; en zbor; eno nepopolno kantato, nekaj malega pa tudi scenske in baletne glasbe za klavir ali manjše komorne zasedbe. Lovec je na- pisal tudi več kot 100 priredb, orkestracij in klavirskih spremljav za potrebe 44 O začetkih in prvih 35 letih Društva prijateljev glasbe, ki deluje še danes, glej: Marija Gombač, Med časom in spominom: petintrideset let Društva prijateljev glasbe Koper 1963–1998 (Koper: Druš- tvo prijateljev glasbe, 1998). 45 Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Glasbena zbirka, Zapuščina skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca, Kronika, IX. Osebni dokumenti. 46 Hasl, ur., 20-letnica Glasbene šole v Kopru, 27. 47 SI PAK KP 971, Glasbena šola Koper 1946–2007, t. e. 50, Personalne mape L–N. 48 Lovčev opus je katalogiziran in razviden v Cobiss+ (https://plus.cobiss.net/cobiss/si/sl/bib/sear- ch?q=vladimir+lovec&db=cobib&mat=music). Za seznam izvirnih skladb glej tudi: Lidija Podles- nik Tomášiková, »Seznam skladb Vladimirja Lovca po zvrsteh in izvajalskih zasedbah«, v V zrcalu glasbene iskrenosti: Vladimir Lovec (1922–1992), ur. Helena Filipčič Gardina (Koper: Zavod lepih umetnosti; Ljubljana: ZKP RTV Slovenija, 2022), 62–75. 49 Bagatele (5 skladb), Miniature (5 skladb), Šest skladb (6 skladb), Tri groteske (3 skladbe), Trije preludiji (1946, 3 skladbe), Trije preludiji (1973, 3 skladbe). 50 Dva poema iz zbirke Umrite mrtvi (»Pepel na zvezdah«, »Balada o liričnem uporniku«), Gitandža- li (I., II., III.), Tri pesmi iz Kitajske lirike (»Brezupna prošnja«, »Osamljena«, »Nagrobni napis«), Tri pesmi (»Moj črni brat«, »Pohod«, »Pesem svitanica«), Trije recitativi Kajetana Koviča (»Ogenj voda«, »Džungla«, »Črna molitev«). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 12 7. 10. 2024 10:11:58 Helena Filipčič Gardina: Pregled življenjske poti in glasbenega delovanja Vladimirja Lovca 13 mladinskih komornih, orkestrskih ali vokalno-instrumentalnih sestavov treh obalnih glasbenih šol.51 Poleg priredb je tudi nekatera izvirna glasbena dela ustvaril s posebnim čutom za mlade interprete, so pa doživela tudi profesionalne izvedbe. S poslu- hom za potrebe okolja, v katerem je deloval, je namreč pisal za koprsko glas- beno šolo, baletno šolo Stanislava in Vuke Hiti iz Kopra, koprsko gledališče, Obalni komorni orkester. Zanimivo, da ga ni pritegnil zborovski stavek (izje- ma so ena zgodnja zborovska skladba in priredbe za otroški zbor in klavir oz. orkester), čeprav je bil precej dejaven tudi na zborovskem področju.52 Mestu, v katerem je deloval 40 let, je posvetil svoje avtobiografsko simfonično delo Koprsko simfonijo.53 Natisnjenih je 29 glasbenih del Vladimirja Lovca. Večino Lovčevih muzi- kalij je založilo in izdalo Društvo slovenskih skladateljev, dve z Združenjem skladateljev Jugoslavije (Savez kompozitora Jugoslavije), štiri zbirke pa je za- ložila in izdala Glasbena šola Koper oz. nekdaj Center za glasbeno vzgojo Koper.54 Lovčeve kompozicije so bile ob priložnosti 100. rojstnega jubileja v letu 2022 katalogizirane,55 po zvrsteh in zasedbah urejen seznam izvirnih del objavljen,56 avtografi in natisi izvirnih del v založbi DSS digitalizirani in so javno dostopni na digitalni platformi,57 dopolnjen je bil natis Lovče- vega klavirskega opusa,58 zbrani so bili tudi Lovčevi komentarji o lastnih kompozicijah.59 Številna Lovčeva dela so posneta v arhivu RTV Slovenija, nekaj je tudi izdanih na nosilcih zvoka.60 51 Po Lovčevem pričevanju je tovrstnih priredb »instruktivne narave« več, saj je »opremil kakih 200 del s spremljavo klavirja in orkestra«. Lovčeva izjava v radijski oddaji. Kljun, 60-letnica skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca. 52 Ohranjeni zbor datira v leto 1945. Po pričevanju Lovca v radijski oddaji je ustvaril dve zborovski skladbi v času internacije v Monigu. Kljun, 60-letnica skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca. 53 Nastajala je dvajset let, Lovec jo je dokončal leta 1977, krstno pa je zazvenela v okviru projekta ob 100. rojstnem jubileju skladatelja 9. 9. 2022 v izvedbi Simfoničnega orkestra RTV Slovenija pod taktirko Ane Erčulj v Gledališču Koper. 54 V času nastanka pričujočega članka je v pripravi še natis treh Lovčevih skladb za violino in klavir pri Založbi Bogataj. 55 Glej na Cobiss+ (https://plus.cobiss.net/cobiss/si/sl/bib/search?q=vladimir+lovec&db=cobib&mat=music). 56 Glej: Podlesnik Tomášiková, »Seznam skladb Vladimirja Lovca po zvrsteh in izvajalskih za- sedbah«, 62–75. 57 Glej digitalno zbirko del Vladimirja Lovca na portalu Digitalne knjižnice Slovenije (https: //www.dlib.si/results/?query=%27col=Skladbe%20Vladimirja%20Lovca%27&desc=URN: NBN:SI:col-H20B4U6D&pageSize=25). 58 Vladimir Lovec, Zbirka klavirskih skladb, ur. Bojan Glavina (Koper: Glasbena šola, 2022). 59 Glej: V zrcalu glasbene iskrenosti: Vladimir Lovec (1922–1992), ur. Helena Filipčič Gardina (Koper: Zavod lepih umetnosti; Ljubljana: ZKP RTV Slovenija, 2022). 60 Glej: Lea Hedžet, »Zakladnica del Vladimirja Lovca v zvočnem arhivu RTV Slovenija«, v V zrcalu glasbene iskrenosti: Vladimir Lovec (1922–1992), ur. Helena Filipčič Gardina (Koper: Zavod lepih umetnosti; Ljubljana: ZKP RTV Slovenija, 2022), 76–80. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 13 7. 10. 2024 10:11:59 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lx/1 14 Posvetiti velja še nekaj pozornosti predstavitvi nekaterih izhodišč, smernic in recepciji Lovčevega ustvarjalnega opusa, ki (tako kot več področij njegove- ga glasbenega udejstvovanja) še ni bil v celoti podrobno preučen in katerega se sam ni trudil afirmirati.61 V širšem slovenskem prostoru je važnejši Lovčev opus leta 1979 prvi muzikološko obravnaval Andrej Rijavec in ugotovil, da po krivem sodi med »obrobne« slovenske skladatelje, saj »zlasti na področju komornega snovanja in samospeva nemalokrat preseneča, prijetno opozar- ja nase in prispeva svoj tehten delež k sodobnim slovenskim skladateljskem naporom.«62 Med Lovčevimi deli, ki so tehtno žanrsko obogatila dotedanji slovenski glasbeni repertoar, velja izpostaviti enega prvih slovenskih klavirskih koncertov, njegov Koncert za klavir in orkester v a-molu (1959), Dve skladbi za godalni kvartet (1966) in Partito za pihalni kvintet (1974). Opozoriti velja še na nekatere Lovčeve samospeve, na primer Trije recitativi Kajetana Koviča (1966), kot tudi na njegov klavirski opus, ki je bil do leta 2022 v glavnini nepoznan.63 Lovec je pri ustvarjanju stremel k »resnični izpovedi iskrenega notranjega doživetja«,64 saj je tonsko podobo smatral za »odraz skladateljevega mišljenja in čustvovanja«,65 prepričan, da mora biti umetnost »poštena, iskrena in lepa«.66 Pri komponiranju se je naslonil na »šolo« Lucijana Marije Škerjanca, svoje- ga profesorja in vzornika,67 po katerem je morebiti prevzel ne samo osnovne slogovne smernice, pač pa tudi glasbeno vsestranskost (skladateljska, vodstve- no-organizacijska, pedagoška, dirigentska in publicistična dejavnost). Kot je zapisal Rijavec, je Lovčeva značilna poteza »smisel za neoklasicistično formal- no jasnost in deloma neobaročno polifonsko spletanje, ki je na robu tonalnosti, a meje ne prekorači«.68 Pozneje je bil Lovec vključen v zgodovinske preglede slovenske glasbene ustvarjalnosti, katerih avtorji povzemajo ali dodajajo, da je Lovčev stavek »prodorno jasen, formalno trden, izraz prepričljivo izpoveden, v glavnem razpoloženjsko lirične narave«69 in da Lovec, kot skladatelj zavezan 61 Darja Koter, Slovenska glasba 1918–1991 (Ljubljana: Študentska založba, 2012), 436–437. 62 Andrej Rijavec, Slovenska glasbena dela (Ljubljena: DZS, 1979), 167. 63 Glej spremno besedo Bojana Glavine v: Lovec, Zbirka klavirskih skladb. 64 Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Glasbena zbirka, Zapuščina skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca, Kronika, V. Izjave o lastnemu delu. (Besedilo je Lovec prebral v oddaji Nevenke Leban Slovenski skladatelji o sebi na Radiu Slovenija leta 1987.) 65 Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Glasbena zbirka, Zapuščina skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca, Kronika, V. Izjave o lastnemu delu. 66 Lovčeva izjava v radijski oddaji (Fink, Ob 25-letnici ustvarjalnega dela skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca) je ohranjena tudi v Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Glasbena zbirka, Zapuščina skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca, Kronika, V. Izjave o lastnemu delu.). 67 Lovec v radijski oddaji med drugim pove, da se ni mogel iztrgati iz oblik in kompozicijske tehnike, ki mu jih je vcepil Škerjanc (Kljun, 60-letnica skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca). 68 Rijavec, Slovenska glasbena dela, 167. 69 Dragotin Cvetko, Slovenska glasba v evropskem prostoru (Ljubljana: Slovenska matica, 1991), 426. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 14 7. 10. 2024 10:11:59 Helena Filipčič Gardina: Pregled življenjske poti in glasbenega delovanja Vladimirja Lovca 15 tradiciji, »ne čuti osebne povezanosti z modernističnimi poskusi«.70 Zaledje njegove govorice je »najboljša evropska tradicija od klasicizma do pozne ro- mantike. In ti govorici se ni nikoli izneveril, čeprav ga je človeška zrelost silila v vedno gostejše in bolj nabite harmonijske strukture. Klasi(cisti)čna prozornost njegovega glasbenega stavka je nosilec čustveno nabite vsebinske izpovedi, ki nikoli ne zdrkne v čustvenost. Tradicionalna sredstva Lovec obvlada do take mere, da se lahko v celoti predaja vsebini: in ta je, v skladu z njegovo intro- vertno naravo, vedno nadzorovana izpoved, ki je boleča, grenka celo v stavkih, ki naj bi bili najbolj sproščeni, najbolj hitri in ‘veseli’.«71 V njegovih delih se odraža »težnja k čim bolj neposrednemu in pristnemu izražanju; avtorju je tuja vsaka spekulativnost, nenehno išče umetniške resnice brez ozira na eksperi- mentalno – modne krike, ki ga obkrožajo. Stremi za iskreno izpovedjo svojih notranjih nagibov in previranj, ki so blizu ali se stapljajo s splošno humanimi odzivi.«72 Velik del svojega ustvarjanja je namenil instrumentalnim zasedbam za mla- de interprete, za katere je priložnostno pisal izvirna dela ter priredbe, s katerimi jim je približal tudi svetovno zakladnico glasbenih del. Pri tem je »s sklada- teljsko veščino in pretanjenim občutkom za mlade ljudi in njihovo zmožnost dojemanja glasbe ustvaril umetnine, ki so bile mladim izvajalcem razumljive, dostopne in privlačne.«73 Lovec je najraje skladal pri klavirju in komponiral ob predhodni razbistritvi idej,74 kar je verjetno razlog za izreden čistopis avtografov. Težišče Lovčevega opusa je v komorni glasbi, ki je po skladateljevih besedah »tiha, nevsiljiva izpo- ved, zato pa toliko bolj neposredna in iskrena«75 in kjer je v izpovedi »dognan in prepričljiv, toliko bolj na področju samospeva, kjer ga spodbuja angažiran izbor besedil«.76 »V glasbi Vladimirja Lovca ne kaže iskati razvojnega pomena v okviru slovenske glasbe […], njegovo svojskost moramo iskati znotraj vsebi- ne […]. Ostaja eden najvidnejših predstavnikov smeri, ki je slovenski glasbi z zamudo prinesla vez med tradicijo in sodobnostjo.«77 70 Gregor Pompe, Zgodovina glasbe na Slovenskem 4: Glasba na Slovenskem med letoma 1918 in 2018 (Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete UL in Založba ZRC, 2019), 407. 71 Pavle Merkú, Poslušam (Trst: Založništvo tržaškega tiska, 1983), 47–48. 72 Članek iz neznanega časopisnega vira: Ivan Silič, »Uspel koncert vidnih slovenskih solistov: ob 50-let- nici skladatelja Vladimira Lovca« (Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Glasbena zbirka, Zapuščina skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca, Kronika, II. Časopisni članki o V. Lovcu – kritike Lovčevih del). 73 Govor Boruta Logarja na Lovčevem pogrebu, objavljen v: Borut Logar, ur., Poročilo o delu glasbenih šol v Izoli, Kopru in Piranu v šolskih letih 1992/93 (Koper: Center za glasbeno vzgojo Koper, 1993), 48. 74 Kljun, 60-letnica skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca. 75 Lovčeva izjava v radijski oddaji (Fink, Ob 25-letnici ustvarjalnega dela skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca) je ohranjena tudi v Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Glasbena zbirka, Zapuščina skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca, Kronika, V. Izjave o lastnemu delu.). 76 Rijavec, Slovenska glasbena dela, 169. 77 Lea Hedžet, »Kompozicijski stavek Vladimirja Lovca«, diplomska naloga (Univerza v Ljubljani, 1982), 65. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 15 7. 10. 2024 10:11:59 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lx/1 16 Za zaključek Življenjska pot Vladimirja Lovca se je sklenila 25. 8. 1992 v Univerzitetnem kliničnem centru v Ljubljani. Njegova zapuščina se hrani v NUK in poleg mu- zikalij zajema še v 16 sklopov urejeno dokumentarno gradivo.78 Njegovo družbeno angažirano in umetniško delo je pustilo neizbrisen pečat zlasti pri razvoju slovenske glasbe v času vsesplošne preobrazbe slovenske Istre, »ko so razmere zahtevale od posameznika prevzemanje večkratnih dolžnosti in izjemnih naporov in toliko večjo odgovornost v postavljanju izhodišč za bodoči razvoj« in kamor se je »umaknil iz arene družbenih tekmovanj in se je rajši z ožjo skupino prijateljev in kolegov sovpregel v galejo sanj in težkega vsakdanjega veslanja«.79 Lovec je bil za svoje vsestransko delo nekajkrat nagrajen in odlikovan: red zasluge za narod s srebrno zvezdo je prejel leta 1968 za uspešno delo kot dolgo- letni ravnatelj Glasbene šole Koper in zasluge pri razvoju glasbene kulture na koprskem območju,80 leta 1972 so mu podelili nagrado Kopra 15. maj, marca 1976 je prejel red republike z bronastim vencem, za svoje kulturno-umetniške dosežke pa je leta 1976 prejel nagrado Obalne kulturne skupnosti.81 Društvo prijateljev glasbe ga je leta 1978 imenovalo za častnega člana.82 V Kopru so se mu večkrat poklonili, nazadnje je bil večje pozornosti deležen leta 2022 ob 100. rojstnem jubileju. Viri in literatura 35 let SKUD Tine Rožanc. Ljubljana: SKUD Tine Rožanc, 1955. Cvetko, Dragotin. Slovenska glasba v evropskem prostoru. Ljubljana: Slovenska matica, 1991. Filipčič Gardina, Helena, Anna Fink, Marija Gombač, Lea Hedžet in Lidija Podlesnik Tomášiková. V zrcalu glasbene iskrenosti: Vladimir Lovec (1922–1992), uredila Hele- na Filipčič Gardina. Koper: Zavod lepih umetnosti; Ljubljana: ZKP RTV Slovenija, 2022. Gombač, Marija. Med časom in spominom: petintrideset let Društva prijateljev glasbe Koper 1963–1998. Koper: Društvo prijateljev glasbe, 1998. Gombač, Marija. »V delih za otroke je vsaka laž razkrinkana.« Primorska sozvočja: glasilo Zveze primorskih glasbenih šol, št. 6 (2002): 11. Hasl, Miran. »Bilo je pred petdesetimi leti 1951/52.« Primorska sozvočja: glasilo Zveze pri- morskih glasbenih šol, št. 7 (2002): 6. Hasl, Miran. Moje zgodbe: Bil sem vse razen dimnikarja. Koper: Libris, 2013. Hasl, Miran, ur. 20-letnica Glasbene šole v Kopru. Koper: Center za glasbeno vzgojo Koper, 1969. 78 Glej vzajemni spletni katalog Cobiss+ (https://plus.cobiss.net/cobiss/si/sl/bib/82549763). 79 Citata – prvi Ivana Siliča, drugi Pavleta Merkùja – sta povzeta iz objavljenih govorov na pogrebu Vladimirja Lovca (Borut Logar, ur., Poročilo o delu glasbenih šol v Izoli, Kopru in Piranu v šolskih letih 1992/93 (Koper: Center za glasbeno vzgojo Koper, 1993), 46–48.) 80 Hasl, ur., 20-letnica Glasbene šole v Kopru, 31. 81 Jevnikar, »Lovec, Vladimir«, 307. 82 Gombač, Med časom in spominom: petintrideset let Društva prijateljev glasbe Koper 1963–1998, 40. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 16 7. 10. 2024 10:11:59 Helena Filipčič Gardina: Pregled življenjske poti in glasbenega delovanja Vladimirja Lovca 17 Hasl, Miran, ur. 30-letnica Glasbene šole v Kopru: 1948–1978. Koper: Center za glasbeno vzgojo Koper, 1979. Hasl, Miran, ur. Poročilo o delu glasbenih šol v Izoli, Kopru in Piranu v šolskih letih 1971/72. Koper: Center za glasbeno vzgojo Koper, 1972. Hasl, Miran, ur. Poročilo o delu glasbenih šol v Izoli, Kopru in Piranu v šolskih letih 1972/73. Koper: Center za glasbeno vzgojo Koper, 1973. Hasl, Miran, ur. Poročilo o delu glasbenih šol v Izoli, Kopru in Piranu v šolskih letih 1973/74. Koper: Center za glasbeno vzgojo Koper, 1974. Hasl, Miran, ur. Poročilo o delu glasbenih šol v Izoli, Kopru in Piranu v šolskih letih 1974/75. Koper: Center za glasbeno vzgojo Koper, 1975. Hasl, Miran, ur. Poročilo o delu glasbenih šol v Izoli, Kopru in Piranu v šolskih letih 1975/76. Koper: Center za glasbeno vzgojo Koper, 1976. Hasl, Miran, ur. Poročilo o delu glasbenih šol v Izoli, Kopru in Piranu v šolskih letih 1976/77. Koper: Center za glasbeno vzgojo Koper, 1977. Hasl, Miran, ur. Poročilo o delu glasbenih šol v Izoli, Kopru in Piranu v šolskih letih 1977/78. Koper: Center za glasbeno vzgojo Koper, 1978. Hasl, Miran, ur. Poročilo o delu glasbenih šol v Izoli, Kopru in Piranu v šolskih letih 1978/79. Koper: Center za glasbeno vzgojo Koper, 1979. Hasl, Miran, ur. Poročilo o delu glasbenih šol v Izoli, Kopru in Piranu v šolskih letih 1979/80. Koper: Center za glasbeno vzgojo Koper, 1980. Hasl, Miran, ur. Poročilo o delu glasbenih šol v Izoli, Kopru in Piranu v šolskih letih 1980/81. Koper: Center za glasbeno vzgojo Koper, 1981. Hasl, Miran, ur. Poročilo o delu glasbenih šol v Izoli, Kopru in Piranu v šolskih letih 1981/82. Koper: Center za glasbeno vzgojo Koper, 1982. Hedžet, Lea. »Kompozicijski stavek Vladimirja Lovca.« Dipl., Univerza v Ljubljani, 1982. Hiti, Stanislav, ur. Balet Koper. Koper: Zveza kulturno prosvetnih organizacij Slovenije in Občinski svet Koper, 1971. Hiti, Stanislav, ur. Baletni koraki v Kopru. Koper: Zveza kulturno prosvetnih organizacij Slo- venije in Občinski svet Koper, 1968. Izvestje I. državne realne gimnazije (z realčnimi oddleki) v Ljubljani: za šolsko leto 1937/38. http://www.dlib.si/?URN=URN:NBN:SI:DOC-2GOGUWEC. Izvestje I. državne realne gimnazije (z realčnimi oddleki) v Ljubljani: za šolsko leto 1938/39. http://www.dlib.si/?URN=URN:NBN:SI:DOC-LWNNP84X. Izvestje I. državne realne gimnazije (z realčnimi oddleki) v Ljubljani: za šolsko leto 1939/40. http://www.dlib.si/?URN=URN:NBN:SI:DOC-EZ5HRLCC. Jevnikar, Martin. »Lovec, Vladimir.« Primorski slovenski biografski leksikon, 9. snopič, 2. knji- ga. Gorica: Goriška Mohorjeva družba, 1983. Klemenčič, Ivan. Slovenska glasba v evropskem okviru. Celje: Celjska Mohorjeva družba in Društvo Mohorjeva družba, 2008. Koter, Darja. Slovenska glasba 1918–1991. Ljubljana: Študentska založba, 2012. Letno poročilo II. državne realne gimnazije v Ljubljani: 1932/33. http://www.dlib. si/?URN=URN:NBN:SI:DOC-XSQ9YP40. Letno poročilo II. državne realne gimnazije v Ljubljani: 1933/34. http://www.dlib. si/?URN=URN:NBN:SI:DOC-0KTUDOQU. Letno poročilo II. državne realne gimnazije v Ljubljani: 1934/35. http://www.dlib. si/?URN=URN:NBN:SI:DOC-FHEXVTWJ. Letno poročilo II. državne realne gimnazije v Ljubljani: 1935/36. http://www.dlib. si/?URN=URN:NBN:SI:DOC-EUK1CGBU. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 17 7. 10. 2024 10:11:59 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lx/1 18 Letno poročilo II. državne realne gimnazije v Ljubljani: 1936/37. http://www.dlib. si/?URN=URN:NBN:SI:DOC-QOPQV1G3. Logar, Borut. »Lovec, Vladimir.« Istarska enciklopedija. https://www.istrapedia.hr/hr/ natuknice/2502/lovec-vladimir. Logar, Borut, ur. Obalni komorni orkester: ob 20-letnici delovanja. Koper: GD Obalni komor- ni orkester, 2002. Logar, Borut, ur. Poročilo o delu glasbenih šol v Izoli, Kopru in Piranu v šolskem letu 1992/93. Koper: Center za glasbeno vzgojo Koper, 1993. »Lovec, Vladimir.« International Who Is Who in Music and Musicians Directory, 8. ed. Cambridge: Melrose Press, 1977. Lovec, Vladimir. Zbirka klavirskih skladb, uredil Bojan Glavina. Koper: Glasbena šola, 2022. Merkú, Pavle. Poslušam. Trst: Založništvo tržaškega tiska, 1983. Neubauer, Henrik. Baleti slovenskih skladateljev od Možička do baletnega Fausta. Ljubljana: samozaložba, 2018. O’Loughlin, Niall. Novejša glasba v Sloveniji: osebnosti in razvoj. Ljubljana: Slovenska ma- tica, 2000. Pompe, Gregor. Zgodovina glasbe na Slovenskem 4: Glasba na Slovenskem med letoma 1918 in 2018. Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete UL in Založba ZRC, 2019. Rijavec, Andrej. »Novejši slovenski godalni kvartet.« Muzikološki zbornik 9 (1973): 87–107. Rijavec, Andrej. Slovenska glasbena dela. Ljubljana: DZS 1979. Silič, Ivan. »Vladimir Lovec, skladatelj, glasbeni pedagog, kulturni delavec 1922–1992.« Primorska srečanja: revija za družboslovje in kulturo, št. 139 (1992): 778. Arhivsko in dokumentarno gradivo: Arhiv Republike Slovenije, SI AS 1784. Kraljevi karabinjerji 11. armadnega zbora, t. e. 221. Arhiv Republike Slovenije, SI AS 1840. Zbirka gradiva o žrtvah italijanskih okupacijskih oblasti, t. e. 3, t. e. 8, t. e. 9. Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Glasbena zbirka; Zapuščina skladatelja Vladimirja Lov- ca, Kronika: I. Besedila pesmi različnih avtorjev, II. Časopisni članki o V. Lovcu (kri- tike Lovčevih del), III. Časopisni članki V. Lovca, IV. Ikonografija, V. Izjave o lastnem letu, VI. Koncertni sporedi Društva prijateljev glasbe v Kopru, VII. Koncertni sporedi z izvedbami del V. Lovca, VIII. Korespondenca, IX. Osebni dokumenti, X. Polifone kompozicije, XI. Radijske oddaje, XII. Študije harmonije, XIII. Študije kontrapunkta, XIV. Študije o L. M. Škerjancu, XV. Študije o starem Egiptu, XVI. Varia (nerazvrščeni osnutki in skice skladb). Pokrajinski arhiv Koper, SI PAK KP 971. Glasbena šola Koper 1946–2007, t. e. 50, t. e 53, t. e. 55, t. e. 98, t. e. 99, t. e. 100, t. e. 101, t. e. 108. Pokrajinski arhiv Maribor, Enota za Koroško, SI PAM/1891. Splošna bolnišnica Slovenj Gradec 1898–1980, t. e. 582, a. e. 7. Zgodovinski arhiv Ljubljana, SI ZAL LJ 0437. Sindikalno kulturno umetniško društvo Tine Rožanc Ljubljana, t. e. 1, t. e. 2, t. e. 13. Radijske oddaje: Fink, Anna. Primorski glasbeni portret – Vladimir Lovec. Koper: Radio Koper, 6. 4. 1972. Fink, Anna. Vladimir Lovec ob 25-letnici ustvarjalnega dela. Koper: Radio Koper, 25. 12. 1969. Hedžet, Lea. Ob 80-letnici Vladimirja Lovca. Koper: Radio Koper, 1. 4. 2002. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 18 7. 10. 2024 10:11:59 Helena Filipčič Gardina: Pregled življenjske poti in glasbenega delovanja Vladimirja Lovca 19 Hedžet, Lea. O glasbi ob glasbi. Koper: Radio Koper, 6. 4. 1992. Kljun, Branka. 60-letnica skladatelja Vladimirja Lovca. Koper: Radio Koper, 31. 3. 1982. Kulturni ustvarjalci. Koper: Radio Koper, 29. 1. 1977. Lahajnar, Rihard. Med primorskimi pevci. Koper: Radio Koper, 19. 10. 1971. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 19 7. 10. 2024 10:11:59 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lx/1 20 SUMMARY Life and Musical Activities of Vladimir Lovec (1922–1992) Born in Maribor, Vladimir Lovec (1922–1992) began his musical activities in Ljubljana, but his career is mostly tied to the Slovenian Istria. Before coming to Koper in 1951, during the uncertain period of the Free Trieste Territory, Lovec finished studies in Ljubljana, where he was involved in activities of various musical institutions, associations and media. The arti- cle provides an overview of Lovec’s life and his multifaceted musical activities, which have made him one of the key figures in the development of music education and concert life in the second half of the twentieth century Koper (Capodistria). As a composer, teacher, con- ductor of numerous choirs and the orchestra of the Koper Music School, which he directed for thirteen years, music critic, author of radio music programs, artistic advisor of the newly founded concert agency, he actively helped shape the new cultural landscape of the coastal region. With his rich musical knowledge, his wide-ranging expertise and his sensibility for the young, he has awakened a lasting love of music in many of his students (piano, music history, harmony and counterpoint). As a self-taught composer, he graduated with honours in composition (1950) in Lucijan Marija Škerjanc’s class at Academy of Music in Ljubljana in only five years of formal music education, and a year later (1951) he also graduated in conducting with Danilo Švara. With some of his compositions, he significantly enriched the earlier Slovenian musical repertoire. At the centre of Lovec’s oeuvre is chamber music, which represented his most intimate expression. His surviving oeuvre comprises around 200 works for piano, voice and piano or voice and orchestra, various chamber ensembles, soloist and orchestra, string, chamber or symphony orchestras as well as youth chamber, orchestral and vocal-instrumental ensembles. It includes original compositions that have also been performed by the most notable Slovenian or Yugoslavian musicians, such as Aci Bertoncelj, Dejan Bravničar, Jože Falout, Irena Grafenauer, Marijan Lipovšek, Igor Ozim, Ciril Škerja- nec, Slovenian Philharmonic Orchestra, RTV Slovenia Symphony Orchestra, Zagreb String Quartet etc. as well as arrangements or orchestrations for the needs of coastal music schools. Lovec’s bequest is kept in the National and University Library in Ljubljana and includes documentary material as well as musical scores, which are catalogued (data available through COBISS). On the occasion of his 100th birthday (2022), Lovec’s editions and manuscripts of original works were digitized and are accessible through the portal of the Digital Library of Slovenia (dLib). The first monograph about him was also published the same year. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 20 7. 10. 2024 10:11:59 Helena Filipčič Gardina: Pregled življenjske poti in glasbenega delovanja Vladimirja Lovca 21 O AVTORICI HELENA FILIPČIČ GARDINA (helena@he-art.si) je študij muzikologije končala na Filozofski fakulteti UL leta 2007. Deluje na področju produkcije glasbenih prireditev, kot glasbena publicistika v radijskem in tiskanih medijih, avtorica koncertnih listov, raziskovalno pa je dejavna na področju glasbene dediščine slovenske Istre. Od leta 2013 je samozaposlena v kulturi. ABOUT THE AUTHOR HELENA FILIPČIČ GARDINA (helena@he-art.si) graduated in musicology from the Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana in 2007. She works as a producer of music events, music journalist in radio and print media, publicist, and researcher in the field of musical heritage of Slovenian Istria. She has been self-employed in the cultural sector since 2013. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 21 7. 10. 2024 10:11:59 Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 22 7. 10. 2024 10:11:59 23 DOI: 10.4312/mz.60.1.23-41 UDK: 785.11(497.4)Lovec V.:781 »Hodim nekam svoja pota.« Slogovna vprašanja ob simfoničnem opusu Vladimirja Lovca Gregor Pompe Univerza v Ljubljani IZVLEČEK Predmet analize so simfonična dela Vladimirja Lovca, ki sicer ne predstavljajo osrednjega dela skladateljevega opusa, gotovo pa odsek, ki kaže splošne skladateljeve estetske in poe- tološke značilnosti. V estetskem pogledu je avtor zavezan tradicionalnemu izrazu, ki pa ga skuša mestoma eklektično dopolnjevati še z drugimi slogi preteklosti. Pri tem se kot posebej izstopajoče pokaže, da avtor, kljub raznolikim slogovnim impulzom, zelo pogosto sledi lastnim oblikovalnim postopkom, torej poetološkim načelom, ob katerih se zazdi, da je potrebno Lovčev opus motriti v njegovem odnosu do evropskega in slovenskega modernizma. Ključne besede: Vladimir Lovec (1922–1992), slovenska glasba 20. stoletja, modernizem, neoklasicizem ABSTRACT The subject of analysis are the symphonic works of Vladimir Lovec, which do not represent the central part of the composer’s oeuvre, but certainly a section that shows the composer’s general aesthetic and poetic characteristics. From an aesthetic point of view, the author is committed to the traditional expression, but he tries to supplement it eclectically with other styles of the past. In this case, what stands out is that, despite diverse stylistic impulses, the author very often follows his own creative processes, i.e. poetic principles, against which it se- ems necessary to examine Lovec’s opus in its relation to European and Slovenian Modernism. Keywords: Vladimir Lovec (1922–1992), Slovene music of the 20th Century, Modernism, Neo-classicism Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 23 7. 10. 2024 10:11:59 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lx/1 24 Dialektika med slogovnimi zgledi in osebnim slogom Vladimir Lovec je v svojih izjavah zelo jasen, ko poudarja, da mu je med zvrstmi najbližje komorna glasba.1 Toda ob preučevanju skladateljevega simfoničnega opusa se izkaže, da imamo opravka sicer samo z izsekom iz ustvarjalne celote, a vendarle takim, v katerem se zelo izrazito zrcalijo osnovne skladateljeve poetske in estetske značilnosti, ki zaznamujejo tudi njegova klavirska dela, samospeve in komorne skladbe. Kar se sloga tiče, Andrej Rijavec v zvezi z Lovcem nava- ja vsaj štiri izstopajoče karakteristike: (1) skladateljev slog naj bi bil »daleč od vsakega avantgardizma in eksperimentiranja«,2 (2) v glavnih značilnostih naj bi izhajal »iz šole svojega učitelja Lucijana Marije Škerjanca«,3 (3) gibal naj bi se »na relaciji med poznoromantičnimi, še prav posebej liričnimi pozicijami in ekspresivnejšimi, čeprav ne priostreno ekspresionističnimi izhodišči«,4 nato pa še dodaja (4) »smisel za neoklasicistično formalno jasnost in deloma neobaročno polifonsko spletanje, ki je na robu tonalnosti, a meje ne prekorači«.5 Zelo podob- no so z več različnimi potezami opisane skladateljeve značilnosti tudi v pregle- du Skladateljske sledi po letu 1900, kjer najdemo oznake, da skladateljevo glasbo zaznamuje »močen čustveni utrip«, »romantična spevnost« in »neoklasicistična jasnost«.6 V obeh poizkusih označitve skladateljeve slogovne pripadnosti se v dveh kratkih odstavkih zvrstijo številne precej raznolike označbe: romantično, poznoromantično, ekspresivno/ekspresionistično, neoklasicistično, neobaročno in kot negaciji še avantgarda in eksperiment. Vsekakor te mnoge in raznolike oznake kažejo na določene zagate avtorjev, pri čemer pa še ne more biti povsem jasno, ali je to posledica izrazito eklektičnega sloga, ki se zgleduje in prevzema različne tuje zglede, ali prav nasprotno povsem samosvoje skladateljske poti, ki jo je prav zaradi takšne enkratnosti težje ukalupiti v ozke slogovne predale. Toda podobno neodločen in morda tudi nejasen je tudi skladatelj sam, ko skuša opisati slogovne značilnosti svojega opusa. Tako najprej precej prepričano trdi, da je svoj slog sicer posodobil, da je »prešel iz neoklasicizma v ekspresioni- zem«, pri čemer pa se še vedno giblje »na meji tonalnosti, torej v tradicionalnem slogu«.7 Toda kmalu je zaslutiti že tudi manj gotovosti, saj priznava, da »svo- jega lastnega sloga ne bi znal opredeliti; vem le to, da sem v teku let uporabljal 1 Takšno misel je Lovec ponovil v več intevjujih, ki jih v obliki tipkopisa lahko najdemo v njegovi skladateljski mapi v Glasbeni zbirki NUK-a, KRONIKA V.: »Izjave o lastnem delu«; gl. tudi Branka Kljun, »Pri slovenskih skladateljih«, radijska oddaja, Radio Koper (6. februar 1980). 2 Andrej Rijavec, Slovenska glasbena dela (Ljubljana: Državna založba Slovenije, 1979), 167. 3 Prav tam. 4 Prav tam. 5 Prav tam. 6 Črt Sojar Voglar, ur., Skladateljske sledi po letu 1900 (Ljubljana: Društvo slovenskih skladateljev, 2003), 148. 7 Skladateljska mapa Vladimirja Lovca, mapa »Izjave o lastnem delu«, hrani Glasbena zbirka Narodne univerzitetne knjižnice v Ljubljani. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 24 7. 10. 2024 10:11:59 Gregor Pompe: »Hodim nekam svoja pota.« Slogovna vprašanja... 25 najrazličnejše tehnike, vendar pa je izraz – mislim tisto sporočilo, ki naj ga ume- tnik posreduje drugim – ostal vedno isti«.8 V tej misli se že kaže pomemben preskok in ločitev med kompozicijsko-tehniko in izrazom, pri čemer se zdi, da avtor vrednostno slednjega postavlja višje kot same tehnike, ki jih je očitno mo- goče prevzemati in tudi menjavati. Toda najbolj presenetljiva – še posebej, če jo primerjamo s prvima dvema – je avtorjeva končna misel, da »nimam prav poseb- nih vzornikov in hodim nekam svoja pota«.9 Tri navedene skladateljeve izjave zarisujejo širok krog, ki vodi od priznavanja številnih zgledov prek nezmožnosti natančne določitve slogovne pripadnosti do spoznanja, da pravzaprav išče lastno pot, kar pomeni tudi nekakšno ograjevanje od možnih vzorov in impulzov. Podobno neodločen, celo protisloven je skladatelj tudi pri označevanju svo- je Klasične simfonije, ki jo ima sprva za »haydnovsko«, pri čemer skuša pojasni- ti, da je skladba »sicer v nekem smislu šolski produkt, vsaj kar zadeva strogo obliko in pa notranji red – to dvoje sem pri klasikih vedno občudoval«10 in priznava da se je »tu in tam poslužil nekaterih arhaizmov, ki naj bi spominjali na Haydnov ali Mozartov način kadenciranja«, a hkrati poudarja, da »je slog za tiste čase […] dovolj sodoben tako v harmoniji kot v inštrumentaciji in je le oddaljen odsev klasičnih del«.11 Iz teh izjav je zelo jasna skladateljeva nas- lonitev na glasbo klasicizma in tudi sodobno, neoklasicistično predrugačenje teh obrazcev. Toda kasneje Lovec simfonijo vendarle opisuje kot »svobodno delo, v katerem se kažejo skoraj vse osnove tistega načina, s katerim se še danes izražam«. V oznaki »svobodno« je seveda mogoče ugledati odblesk misli o hoji po lastnih poteh, še posebej, če jo povežemo s skladateljevim nadaljevanjem, ko priznava, da »se v teku petindvajsetih let in še več nisem bistveno odmaknil od tega sloga, morda sem ga malček izostril in poglobil«.12 Če bi skladatelja vzeli povsem zares, potem bi morali v Klasični simfoniji iskati tiste osnovne značil- nosti njegovega samoniklega, od tujih impulzov odmaknjenega sloga. Morda bi morali prav takšno neodločno nihanje, razpeto med priznavanjem odvisnosti od številnih, raznolikih zgledov in prepričanjem v povsem samosvojo pot, razumeti kot izstopajočo skladateljevo značilnost, kot dialektiko, ki teče med posameznimi glasbenimi elementi (oblika, harmonija, polifonija, melo- dika), zavezanim različnim, a že uveljavljenim slogovnim obrazcem, in celoto posamezne skladbe, v kateri se ti različni impulzi sestavijo/pomešajo v bolj sa- mosvoje pobarvano tvorbo, ki se zdi kljub temu, da impulze črpa iz raznorodnih virov, bolj osebnostno, individualno zaznamovana. Tako je v formalnem pog- ledu skladatelj nedvomno zavezan dediščini klasicizma, v prednosti, ki jo daje 8 Lea Hedžet, »Delo z mladimi za mlade: Ob 60-letnici Vladimirja Lovca«, Glasbena mladina (23. junij 1982): 5. 9 Bogdan Učakar, »V znamenju zabavne muzike …«, Večer (2. april 1960): 5. 10 Skladateljska mapa Vladimirja Lovca, mapa »Izjave o lastnem delu«. 11 Prav tam. 12 Prav tam. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 25 7. 10. 2024 10:11:59 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 26 polifoni teksturi – skladatelj sam priznava, da daje »prednost polifoni muziki, ker ne ljubim ene same viže«13 –, pa lahko prepoznamo baročne zglede. Na ravni harmonije sledi Lovec terčni logiki in tudi jasni tonalni zasidranosti, vendar pa sosledje harmonij ne razodeva enostavne funkcijske logike, temveč precej širšo pandiatoničnost in z njo povezano potujevanje najenostavnejših kadenčnih zvez, kar očitno kaže na neoklasicistične poteze, medtem ko je v izrazu pogosto nekje na meji med zadržano objektivnostjo nove stvarnosti in mehkejšo čustvenostjo moderne ali celo ekspresionizma. Toda prav potreba po emocionalnih prvinah pri Lovcu venomer prevaga, kar potrjuje Lovec sam z mislijo, da »je romantika v moji naravi«, podobne poudarke pa izpostavljajo tudi drugi avtorji. Tako lahko preberemo, da je Lovec »ustvarjalec izrazito čustvenega utripa, ki mu je gonilna sila širok diapazon doživljajskega sveta, osebnost prefinjenega duha, ki vzvalovi ob najrahlejšem trepetu liričnih razpoloženj« ali da se v vseh njegovih delih odraža težnja k čim bolj neposrednemu in pristne- mu izražanju; avtorju je tuja vsaka spekulativnost, nenehno išče umetniške resnice brez ozira na eksperimentalno – modne krike, ki ga obkrožajo. Stremi za iskreno izpovedjo svojih notranjih nagibov in previranj, ki so blizu ali se stapljajo s splošno humanimi odzivi.14 Pazljivi moramo biti, kako se v diskurz o Lovčevi izraznosti naenkrat prikrade nejasna oznaka o iskrenosti, ki v resnici ne pove praktično ničesar o skladateljevi formi, materialu, delu z njim, najbrž tudi ne o kvaliteti, razumeti pa jo je mogoče kot nekakšno apologijo odtegnjenosti v Lovčevem času modnemu modernizmu. To postane še bolj očitno ob Lovčevi lastni izjavi, da je bil vedno »prepričan, da mora biti umetnost poštena, iskrena in lepa«.15 V tej kratki misli so v zelo ozko zvezo postavljeni moralni in estetski kriteriji, po katerih je mogoče sklepati, da za Lovca obstaja tudi nepoštena, neiskrena in s tem grda umetnost, pri čemer se ponovno ni mogoče izogniti občutku, da so ti podtoni namenjeni modernizmu. Zares med zvestobo poudarjeni emocionalni plati glasbe in odtegnjenosti sodob- nemu modernizmu kmalu potegne enačaj skladatelj sam s priznanjem, da je v svojem »ustvarjanju zasledoval vedno le en cilj; napisati tako glasbo, kakršno sem občutil, ne glede na slog, čeprav so mi nekateri kolegi skladatelji očitali, da sem zastarel, da se preveč držim tradicije«.16 Zdi se, da prav iz takšne nelagodnosti, očitkov o zastarelosti, slogovni zaostalosti, izhaja skladateljevo beganje po različ- nih preverjenih slogovnih impulzih in nato hkrati tudi prepričanost o vendarle povsem samoniklem slogu, kar bi še posebej v povezavi s poudarjenimi emoci- onalnimi prvinami in zvestobo svojim prepričanjem, torej iskrenostjo, kazalo na 13 Učakar, »V znamenju zabavne muzike«, 5. 14 Ivan Silič, »Uspel koncert vidnih slovenskih solistov«, Primorski dnevnik (5. april 1970): 5. 15 Hedžet, »Delo z mladimi«, 5. 16 Lea Hedžet, »‘Modernizem za vsako ceno je že zdavnaj minil’«, Primorske novice (1. maj 1999): 31. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 26 7. 10. 2024 10:11:59 Gregor Pompe: »Hodim nekam svoja pota.« Slogovna vprašanja... 27 skladateljevo prepričanje, da je v resnici enakovreden tistim skladateljem, ki so se za vsako ceno podali na pot iskanja povsem novih, očitno tudi »nelepih« poti. Analize simfoničnih del Ob analitičnem pregledovanju Lovčevega simfoničnega opusa se velja zato vprašati prav, od kod potreba po takšnem izmikanju in nejasnosti; zakaj ob izobilju slogovnih zgledov tudi potreba po definiranju samosvoje poti, oseb- nega sloga. V Lovčevem opusu lahko odkrijemo šest simfoničnih del, ki pa bi jim lahko dodali še tri skladbe, namenjene godalnemu orkestru, saj se slednje po svoji tehniki in slogu prav v ničemer ne razlikujejo od simfoničnih del, razlika je povezana zgolj z zvočno barvitostjo zasedbe, za katero pa se zdi, da pri Lovcu ne igra pomembnejše vloge, kar je seveda že samo na sebi pomembna slogovna poteza. Še pomembneje je, da so vsa tri dela za godalni orkester nastala kot prva, da jih gre torej razumeti še v študijskem smislu, morda tudi kot pripravo na simfonični opus in z njim povezane večje žanre. Leta 1947 je Lovec napisal Andante za godalni orkester, ki je nosil sprva na- slov Žrtveni spev, kar kaže, da je skladatelj svojo glasbo želel najprej bolj jasno vsebinsko označiti, nato pa je raje ostal pri nevtralni, glasbeniški oznaki. Čeprav je skladba nastala še v času študijskega procesa, je v njej mogoče odkriti praktično vse osrednje poteze, ki bodo zaznamovale vsa nadaljnja skladateljeva simfonična dela. V prvi vrsti gre za uporabo prehodne oblike, ki v sebi združuje elemente tridelne pesemske oblike, variacij in rondoja z eno samo temo. Skladbo tako za- znamuje ena sama melodična misel, ki jo nato skladatelj variira in izpeljuje, for- mo pa gradi s pomočjo nizanja »vrnitev« oz. modificiranih vrnitev osnovne ideje, med katere umešča izpeljevalno-variacijske epizode. Takšna gradnja daje obču- tek, kot da je celota izpeljana iz enega samega diha, možno bi bilo govoriti celo o nekakšnem neskončnem razpredanju in vračanju gradiva. Slednje je, kar je tudi osnovna značilnost Lovca, podvrženo predvsem polifonemu obdelovanju in zdi se, da je osnovno melodično gradivo po svoji intervalni strukturi že zato enostav- nejše in nagnjeno bolj k postopnemu gibanju, da v naslednjem koraku omogoča razvejano in bogato polifono delo. Nastale harmonije so posledica neodvisnega polifonega gibanja, vendar pa lahko jasno prepoznamo osnovni tonalni center (h-mol), medtem ko gladek kontrapunkt in z njim povezani številni harmonski tuji toni slabijo možnost enoznačnega funkcijskega tolmačenja harmonij, v če- mer lahko ugledamo Lovčev izmik od tradicionalnih shem. Zelo podobni logiki sledi tudi Suita (1950), za katero se zdi, da je zgolj fragment večje zasnovane celote, saj nosi oznako II, kar bi lahko razumeli kot drugi stavek.17 Ponovno imamo opravka s prehodno obliko, v kateri bi lah- ko odkrivali poteze variacij, tridelne oblike in rondoja z eno temo, ponovno 17 Skladatelj večkrat razkrije, da je pisanje večstavčnih cikličnih del začel s počasnim stavkom, kar najbrž velja tudi za nedokončano Suito. Gl. skladateljska mapa Vladimirja Lovca, mapa »Izjave o lastnem delu«. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 27 7. 10. 2024 10:11:59 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 28 prevladuje polifona logika, motivično gradivo je zopet neizrazito, kar je posle- dica gibanja predvsem v postopih, harmonija pa izkazuje tradicionalno osnovo, ki pa je konstantno potujevana, kar slabi njeno funkcijskost. Zanimivo se zdi opazovanja začetka skladbe, saj gre v postopnem polifonem nalaganju glasov ugledati tipični Lovčev postopek, ki zaznamuje praktično vsa njegova dela, še posebej počasne stavke: Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 28 7. 10. 2024 10:11:59 Gregor Pompe: »Hodim nekam svoja pota.« Slogovna vprašanja... 29 Primer 1: Podobnost med incipiti skladb Andante, Simfonietta (2. stavek), Suita, Sinfonia breve (2. stavek) in Koprska simfonija (2. stavek). Simfonietta, ki je nastala leta 1949 med skladbama Andante in Suita, je zasno- vana ciklično v treh stavkih, pri čemer se je skladatelj naslonil na klasicistično oblikovalno logiko – prvi stavek je domišljen v sonatni obliki, drugi v tipični že prej dvakrat opisani prehodni formi, finale pa križa sonatno obliko s fugo. V tem v kronološkem pogledu svojem drugem »simfoničnem« delu je Lovec uvedel še nekaj značilnosti, ki se bodo nato vztrajno ponavljale v kasnejših delih. Uvodni sonatni stavek se začenja s počasnejšim uvodom, ki v unisonu prinaša gradivo, iz katerega bo nato črpala motivika prve teme, tematsko gradivo pa se hitro in rado zapleta v fugate in imitacije, kar se zgodi že takoj po predstavitvi teme v 5. taktu, nato pa se ponovi še ob drugi temi in materialu zaključne skupine. Kar se tiče polifone umetelnosti predstavlja vrhunec finale, v katerem je prva tema sonatne oblike zasnovana kot fuga, toda prevladujoča polifona logi- ka nato naseljuje ves stavek, v katerem kontrapunkt postane glavno gibalo, ki ga le redko presekajo trenutki pomiritve. Če je ostala Suita kot poizkus večjega, cikličnega žanra nedokončana, pa je v istem letu, ko je zaključeval študij pri Škerjancu, Lovec napisal tudi svojo osre- dnjo simfonično partituro, Klasično simfonijo, za katero smo že spoznali, da jo je skladatelj postavil v zvezo s klasicističnimi zgledi in nato tudi neoklasicistič- nimi izmiki ter jo razumel kot osnovni skladateljski podpis, ki ga kasneje ni več bistveno spreminjal. Ponovno je mogoče najti Lovčeve stalnice: drugi stavek, zasnovan v prehodni obliki, v kateri gre glavna beseda polifonemu razpredanju linij, značilno harmonsko potujevanje, oblikovna jasnost, prvi stavek (počasni uvod vanj) pa prinaša osnovno gradivo celotnega stavka. Trditi bi bilo mogoče, da je prav v Klasični simfoniji skladatelj najbrž prvič razmišljal o močnem po- enotenju gradiva, na kar kaže predvsem oblikovanje prvega stavka, saj motiva a in b iz uvoda postaneta trdna gradnika prve teme (gl. Prim. 3). V tonalnem pogledu predznaki prvega stavka sicer izdajajo d-mol, vendar pa se zdi, da se skladatelj izogiba molovski pobarvanosti, še posebej zvišani sedmi stopnji, ki bi celoti dajala bolj trdno kadenčno podobo. Prav to je eden izmed načinov, kako se skladatelj izogiba jasni funkcijskosti harmonije (ob ekspoziciji prve teme Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 29 7. 10. 2024 10:12:00 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 30 skladatelj odlaga izrazito kadenco – gl. Prim. 3). Še bolj izrazito postane takšno tonalno izmikanje v 3. stavku, kjer celota poteka v lidijskem modusu, izrazito funkcijo akordov pa skladatelj slabi z dodajanjem septim in sekund. Primer 2: Fugatno-imitacijski nastavki v uvodu (zgoraj), predstavitvi druge teme (v sredini) in materiala zaključne skupine (spodaj). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 30 7. 10. 2024 10:12:00 Gregor Pompe: »Hodim nekam svoja pota.« Slogovna vprašanja... 31 Primer 3: Gradivo uvoda in njegova uporaba v prvi temi prvega stavka Lovčeve Klasične simfonije. Skladatelj je v zvezi s svojo Klasično simfonijo uporabil več oznak – »haydno- vska«, »šolski produkt«, vsebuje »arhaizme«, »svobodno delo« –, ki po eni strani kažejo na jasno odvisnost od zgledov, ki jih je najbrž ponujala kompozicij- ska šola, na drugi pa že kažejo možnosti izmikanja. Prav zares bi bilo mogoče imeti delo za nekakšno skladateljevo matrico, ki je v nadaljevanju doživljala le malenkostne priredbe in popravke. To je mogoče zaznati v naslednjem simfo- ničnem delu Sinfonia breve (1958), ki je ponovno ostalo fragmentarno, ome- jeno na počasni stavek. Formalno gre ponovno za znano prehodno formo, ki zaznamuje vse Lovčeve počasne stavke, zaznati pa je mogoče, da Lovec manko karakterističnosti kot posledico sila neizrazitega melodičnega materiala tokrat nadomešča z večjo kontrastnostjo v harmoniji – če je ta sprva diatonična, zave- zana naravnemu molu, nadaljevanje z gostim kontrapunktom vendarle prinaša tudi bistveno več kromatike. Takšen način predstavljanja tematskega gradiva je značilen tudi za Lovčev Koncert za klavir in orkester v a-molu, ki ga je krstno izvedel Marijan Lipovšek, kot drugemu slovenskemu delu iz tega žanra pa mu gre tudi nekakšna pionir- skost. Skladatelj ponovno pričenja s počasnejšim uvodom, v katerem predsta- vlja glavni material, pri čemer se skladatelj do kadence ponovno izmika vo- dilnemu tonu, toda ko isti material ponovi klavir, skladatelj že pričenja proces harmonskega izmikanja, potujevanja: Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 31 7. 10. 2024 10:12:00 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 32 Primer 4: Predstavitev prve teme Lovčevega Koncerta za klavir in orkester v orkestru in nato v klavirju. Počasni stavek je ponovno poudarjeno polifon, skladatelj pa naj bi v njem sledil logiki ciaccone, kar potrjuje ponavljajoča se štiritaktna misel, ki jo skladatelj le na redkih mestih razširja in tako obliko približuje svoji značilni prehodni formi. Tudi finale se osredotoča predvsem na kontrapunktično pletenje in se Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 32 7. 10. 2024 10:12:00 Gregor Pompe: »Hodim nekam svoja pota.« Slogovna vprašanja... 33 neredko zapleta v fugate. Zanimivo je, da je skladatelj koncert snoval kar šest let, zaradi česar naj bi se stavki po skladateljevih lastnih besedah med seboj slogovno razlikovali,18 česar pa v resnici ni mogoče zares opaziti – veliko več kot razlik je podobnosti, ne samo v oblikovanju posameznih stavkov koncerta, temveč tudi izrazitih vzporednicah z drugimi Lovčevimi deli. Še bolj posta- ja nenavadna misel o neskladnosti, če jo povežemo s skladateljevim lastnim opisom tretjega stavka, ki da »je malce klasicistično obarvan, dovolj jasen in prozoren, da bi lahko spominjal na – recimo – kakšno Haydnovo delo«,19 kar pomeni, da se skladatelj poslužuje podobnih oznak, kot jih je uporabil že pri oceni svoje Klasične simfonije. Skladateljevo poudarjanje slogovne neskladnosti, spremenljivosti se zdi ponovno v funkciji odtegovanja pozornosti od veliko bolj očitnih podobnosti in vzorov. Tudi z Dramatično uverturo se Lovec ne odteguje svojim osrednjim zna- čilnostim, ki jih nastavil že s prvo skladbe Andante in nato samo še utrdil s Klasično simfonijo. Dramatična uvertura (1972) tako sledi značilnim zavojem sonatne oblike s počasnim uvodom, v katerem po svoji stari navadi skladatelj predstavi že celoten material za prvo in deloma tudi drugo temo, pri čemer se kot ključni izkažejo intervali čiste kvarte, sekunde in tritonusa. Če bi lahko iskali kakšno dodatno prečiščenje osnovnih kompozicijskih načel, bi ga lahko ugledali v zaostrovanju ideje monotematskosti – spopad med obema temama namreč ni prav izrazit, saj je njun tematski izvir isti: Primer 5: Počasni uvod (zgoraj), prva (v sredini) in druga tema (spodaj) iz Lovčeve Dramatične uverture. Obe temi sta si sorodni prek podobne melodične figure v drugem (prva tema) oz. tretjem taktu (druga tema). 18 Skladateljska mapa Vladimirja Lovca, mapa »Izjave o lastnem delu. 19 Prav tam. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 33 7. 10. 2024 10:12:01 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 34 Toda uvod v Dramatični uverturi ne predstavlja le materialne zaloge za celotno delo, temveč pridobiva še pomembnejšo oblikotvorno funkcijo, saj se atmosfera in material uvoda ponovita na nekaterih ključnih mestih – pred reprizo in v kodi. Po svoji vlogi uvod vse bolj pridobiva težo mota, zato ni čudno, da se je zdelo skladatelju pomembno, da spregovori tudi o vsebinski plati svoje uvertu- re, pri čemer naj bi šlo »za staro, tolikokrat izpovedano antitezo razočaranja in upanja. Nič oprijemljivega, samo skupek podzavestnih vtisov, ki jih človek nosi s seboj«.20 Zanimivo je, da je tudi ta skladateljeva misel, podobno kot tiste o lastnih slogovnih značilnostih, precej aporetična. »Dramatičnost« Dramatične uverture naj bi po predstavljeni logiki izhajala iz antitetičnega razmerja med obema temama, za kateri pa natančnejša analiza pokaže, da sta si v resnici prej podobni kot močneje kontrastni in to ne le na ravni materiala, temveč tudi izraza, hkrati pa skladatelj priznava, da je vsebinskost neoprijemljiva, da je ve- zana na človeško podzavest, da gre takorekoč za emocionalno intuicijo, s čimer se v prvi plan zopet seli ideja romantičnega subjektivizma. Dramatično uverturo lahko razumemo kot študijo za Lovčev osrednji in zadnji simfonični opus Koprsko simfonijo, saj je tudi nastala kot prvi stavek simfonije, a ga je kasneje skladatelj zavrgel in objavil pod novim naslovom kot uverturo. Toda nekatere osrednje značilnosti, prvič dosledneje razvite v Dra- matični uverturi, zaznamujejo tudi Concertino za flavto in orkester (1975), ki nosi precej neobremenjene koncertantne poteze. Toda Lovec v resnici ponov- no trdno sledi svojim osnovnim formulam. Tristavčno delo prinaša zaporedje sonatnega stavka, značilne prehodne oblike v počasnem stavku in finalnega rondoja, pri čemer pa sonatni stavek ponovno uvaja počasni uvod, ki prinaša tematski material. Toda sorodna ni le oblikovalna logika, temveč tudi tematski material sam, ki je izrazito podoben tistemu iz Dramatične uverture in tudi Koprske simfonije, saj v njem močno prevladujejo sekundni odnos in skoki kvar- te, tritonusa in septime, edina novost je, da pomemben del materiala predsta- vlja tudi ritmični element (peti takt v Prim. 6): Primer 6: Značilni intervalni odnosi v materialu počasnega uvoda Lovčevega Concertina za flavto in orkester. 20 Prav tam. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 34 7. 10. 2024 10:12:01 Gregor Pompe: »Hodim nekam svoja pota.« Slogovna vprašanja... 35 Ponovno tematski material opravlja pomembno oblikovno funkcijo, saj se ponavlja na formalno izrazito pomembnih šivih: pred ekspozicijo solistične flavte, pred izpeljavo, pred reprizo in pred kratko kodo. Tudi ideja monote- matskosti je še razširjena, saj se zdi tudi tematsko gradivo drugega stavka izpeljano iz počasnega uvoda k prvemu stavku (ritmična figura prvega stavka je podobna prvi temi prvega stavka, v nadaljevanju pa imajo pomembno vlo- go nizi kvart): Primer 7: Tema drugega stavka Lovčevega Concertina za flavto in orkester. V tonalnem pogledu je za skladatelja značilna igra z neopredeljenim tonskim spolom, torej kolebanje med c-molom in C-durom, zato bi bilo mogoče trditi, da je skladba po vzoru Stravinskega napisana v C. Dramatično uverturo in Concertino za flavto in orkester je gotovo mogoče razumeti kot študiji za skladateljevo zadnje simfonično delo, Koprsko simfo- nijo (1977). Njena osrednja poteza naj bi bila po skladateljevih besedah vpe- ljava »vodilnega motiva«, ki celotnemu delu zagotavlja enotnost, a v resnici ne gre za nič drugega kot osnovni material, ki zaznamuje vse stavke in je po pričakovanjih predstavljen v počasnem uvodu k prvemu, sonatno zasnova- nemu stavku. Material nastopa v dveh oblikah: kot unisono pizzicato godal (tema 1) in melodični niz akordov v pihalih (tema 2), pri čemer skladatelj najbrž slednjega razume kot vodilni motiv, ki se ponavlja na vseh nevralgič- nih točkah prvega stavka (pred nastopom druge teme, pred začetkom izpelja- ve, pred reprizo, pred ponovitvijo druge teme, v kodi), zaznamuje pa tudi oba sledeča stavka. Ponovno obvladujejo gradivo za Lovca značilni intervali – v temi 1 prevladujejo tako tritonusi in poltonski odnosi, v temi 2 pa v melodič- nem pogledu kvarte, v harmonskem pa še tritonusi in septime. Tako ne more presenetiti, da je nato gradivo prve teme prvega stavka s svojimi kvartnimi skoki sorodno tematskemu materialu Dramatične simfonije, temu pa je nato sorodna tudi osrednja tema tretjega stavka. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 35 7. 10. 2024 10:12:01 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 36 Primer 8: Tematski material počasnega uvoda iz Lovčeve Koprske simfonije. Primer 9: Prva (zgoraj) in druga tema (v sredini) prvega stavka ter glavna tema tretjega stavka (spodaj) iz Lovčeve Koprske simfonije. V Koprski simfoniji torej ni mogoče zares odkrivati kakšne nove poteze, v njej ostaja skladatelj na isti slogovni in tudi kompozicijski ravnini kot leta 1947, to- rej pred tremi desetletji, ko je napisal Andante za godalni orkester. Toda sklada- telju se je zdelo smiselno močno poudariti vpeljavo vodilnega motiva, ki naj bi Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 36 7. 10. 2024 10:12:01 Gregor Pompe: »Hodim nekam svoja pota.« Slogovna vprašanja... 37 dajal celotnemu ciklusu »večjo enotnost«21 (v prvi varianti skladbe je imel ob- čutek, da celota ne bi imela tako »strnjenega koncepta«), pri čemer pa se kaže, da je skladatelj zaskrbljen predvsem za vsebinsko naravo svojega dela, saj naj bi vodilni motiv zagotavljal tudi »bolj zaokroženo, smiselno vsebino«. Slednja pa je ponovno romantično subjektivna, torej intuitivna, celo avtobiografska, po skladateljevih besedah »gre za zavestne in podzavestne vtise najrazličnejših doživetij, kakršna prinaša življenje«, pri čemer »so vsi ti vtisi in refleksije odraz mojega življenja tu, v Kopru«.22 Ponovno sta v neposredno bližino postavljena avtorska subjektivnost in seveda tudi njena abstraktna neopredeljivost, ki se prilega glasbi, takšno aporetičnost pa ponovno potrjuje skladateljeva ocena ob- like posameznih stavkov, saj naj bi se »zavestno odločil za klasični tip«,23 torej (neo)klasicistični. Zdi se, da skladateljev v svoji oznaki ponovno več zakriva kot odkriva. Zaključek: aporija skladateljskega lastnega kompozicijskega univerzuma in glasbe brez pridevkov Če smo v začetku lahko odkrili skladateljevo negotovost, povezano z ozna- čitvijo lastnega sloga, pa simfonični opus v tem pogledu po eni strani izdaja nenavadno poenotenost oz. slogovno statičnost – skladateljevo najzgodnejše in zadnje delo, ki ju ločijo tri desetletja, se praktično v ničemer ne razlikuje- ta, skladatelj je skozi čas zgolj izpopolnjeval posamezne poteze. Tako bi kot skladateljeve stalnice lahko navedli zvestobo klasičnim formalnim obrazcem – sonatnemu stavku s počasnim uvodom, v katerem je predstavljen tematski material, prehodni rondojski obliki za počasne stavke in klasičnemu rondoju –, nato prevladujoče polifono delo, ki ponavadi zaznamuje že nastope tem (tako velja vsaj za vse počasne stavke), zanj pa je značilno delo s postopi in majhnimi skoki, za izpeljevanje je značilno rezanje in nato kombiniranje odsekov kon- trastnih tem, čemur se nujno pridružuje tudi obvezen fugato, v harmonskem pogledu je značilna zvestoba terčni harmoniji z razrahljano funkcijsko logiko, pri čemer predstavljata del takšnega rahljanja tudi neopredeljen tonski spol ali delo z modusi, v melodičnem pogledu pa skladatelj vse bolj postaja zavezan intervalom sekunde, tritonusa, kvarte in septime, zaradi česar v poznih de- lih prevladuje občutek monotematskosti, celo povezanosti med posameznimi skladbami ne le stavki ciklusov. Prav slednje, trdna spojenost posameznih stavkov v simfonični ciklus in intertekstualna povezanost med posameznimi skladbami ter uporaba veno- mer istih oblikovnih in kompozicijsko-tehničnih principov dajeta občutek, da je skladatelj zgradil svoj lastni kompozicijski, morda celo zvočni univerzum. 21 Prav tam. 22 Prav tam. 23 Prav tam. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 37 7. 10. 2024 10:12:01 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 38 Toda po drugi strani so glavne značilnosti takšnega univerzuma vendarle jas- no prevzete iz utrjenih slogovnih obrazcev preteklosti – oblika je naslonjena na klasicistične obrazce, za harmonijo je značilno neoklasicistično potujeva- nje tradicionalne funkcijske harmonije, v prevladujočem polifonem delu lahko ugledamo neobaročne zglede, v melodični prevladi sekund, tritonusov in sep- tim nagnjenje k ekspresionistično napeti govorici in nenazadnje v poudarjanju subjektivne vsebinske zaznamovanosti del zvestobo romantičnemu izročilu. Paradoksalno je Lovec tako razpet med mnogimi slogovnimi obrazci in njiho- vim kombiniranjem v enoten, oseben slogovni amalgam – njegov glasbeni svet postaja osebni univerzum, ki pa je v resnici napaberkovan iz številnih utrjenih slogovnih obrazcev preteklosti. Kot osrednje vprašanje takšne aporije se zato postavlja njena odvisnost od konteksta modernizma, ki je prevladoval v času Lovčeve ustvarjalnosti tudi v slovenski glasbi. Lovčeva razpetost med samoumevnost izbranih slogovnih mo- delov, ki nikakor ne izstopajo in niso v ničemer inovativni, ter po drugi strani decidirana prepričanost o lastnem, izvirnem slogu se zdita odgovor na čas, v katerem so se Lovčevi modeli zdeli preživeti in zaradi neinovativnosti tudi brez prave estetske vrednosti. O svojevrstni ožini in tudi konservativnosti priča tudi pismo, ki ga je Lovec poslal skladateljskemu kolegu, sošolcu Janezu Matičiču (1926–2022) in v katerem poroča o obisku festivala sodobne glasbe v Donau- eschingenu, kjer naj bi bilo »vse skupaj sranje prve vrste. […] Ne vem, kako Ti gledaš dodekafonsko, serialno in elektronsko glasbo; mi trije smo bili v dveh dneh vsega siti.«24 Toda razkrito kontekstualno aporijo še poglablja naslednja značilnost Lovčevega glasbenega stavka – je izrazito gladek in s tem neizsto- pajoč. Najprej to velja za prevladujočo polifonijo, ki se napaja pri neizrazitem postopnem gibanju in redkejših skokih, kar vodi v prosto izmenljive in pred- vidljive stranske glasove, brez svoje karakterističnosti pa ostajajo tudi vodilni glasovi, nato tudi za harmonijo, ki namerno šibi trdne robove funkcijskosti, a s tem tudi harmonskega oblikovalnega naznačevanja, in nenazadnje za tematski material, ki postaja izmenljiv tudi med posameznimi skladbami. Čeravno sled- nje gradi značilen Lovčev univerzum – melodika, ki stavi na zaporedje sekund, triutonusov in septim –, mu hkrati jemlje njegovo izrazitost. Morda je prav iz tega izhajala Lovčeva potreba, da ob nekaterih poznejših skladbah – Dramatič- na uvertura, Koprska simfonija – spregovori tudi o njihovi vsebinskosti. Zdi se, da jim želi prav na ta način podeliti nekaj karakterja, toda tudi takšna vsebinskost se izkaže kot precej »nalepljena«. Lovčeva glasba ostaja tako kljub poizkusu gra- jenja lastnega univerzuma nekakšna glasba brez posebnosti, glasba brez pridev- kov, takšen občutek pa le še poglablja zgodovinski kontekst visokega moderniz- ma, izrazito fetišistično zavezan novemu, drugačnemu, prevratniškemu. Lovčev 24 Vladimir Lovec v pismu Janezu Matičiču 30. novembra 1960, kataloška številka korespondence Janeza Matičiča 114. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 38 7. 10. 2024 10:12:01 Gregor Pompe: »Hodim nekam svoja pota.« Slogovna vprašanja... 39 simfonični opus je tako mogoče razumeti kot opus skladatelja na periferiji peri- ferije – skladatelja, ki ga ne zanimajo sodobne tendence, a se mu vendarle hkrati zdi, da se mora do njih tudi ves čas opredeljevati. Viri in literatura Ajlec, Rafael. »Matineja simfoničnega orkestra RTV Ljubljana.« Ljubljanski dnevnik (14. marec 1960). Hedžet, Lea. »Delo z mladimi za mlade: Ob 60-letnici Vladimirja Lovca.« Glasbena mla- dina (23. junij 1982). Hedžet, Lea. »‘Modernizem za vsako ceno je že zdavnaj minil’.« Primorske novice (1. maj 1999). Kljun, Branka. »Pri slovenskih skladateljih.« Radijska oddaja, Radio Koper (6. februar 1980). Lindič, Milan. »Nov slovenski klavirski koncert.« Primorski dnevnik (20. marec 1960). Lindič, Milan. »Vladimir Lovec: Klasična simfonija.« Primorski dnevnik (28. junij 1957). Pompe, Gregor. Zgodovina glasbe na Slovenskem 4: Glasba na Slovenskem med letoma 1918 in 2018. Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete Univerze in Založba ZRC, 2019. Rijavec, Andrej. Slovenska glasbena dela. Ljubljana: Državna založba Slovenije, 1979. Silič, Ivan. »Uspel koncert vidnih slovenskih solistov.« Primorski dnevnik (5. april 1970). Sojar Voglar, Črt, ur. Skladateljske sledi po letu 1900. Ljubljana: Društvo slovenskih sklada- teljev, 2003. Učakar, Bogdan. »V znamenju zabavne muzike …« Večer (2. april 1960). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 39 7. 10. 2024 10:12:01 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 40 SUMMARY “I Go My Own Way”: Stylistic Questions About Vladimir Lovec’s Symphonic Opus The rare notes on the music of Vladimir Lovec (1922–1992) are full of quite different styli- stic markers – classical, Neo-classical, neo-Baroque, expressive/expressionist, romantic, late romantic – and even the composer himself seems rather indecisive and unclear when asked where he would place himself from a stylistic point of view. At first he used several different labels at the same time, then retreated to the fact that he does not know how to define his style at all, and at the end he confidently wrote that he does not really have any outstanding role models, that he therefore “walks his own way somewhere”, which could speak of a di- stinctly personal style. Analytical delving into the composer’s otherwise not very extensive symphonic opus (in addition to six symphonic works, the composer also created three compositions for string orchestra) tries to provide an answer to these complex stylistic questions. The latter, of course, must be observed in the context of twentieth century music, which in many ways was chara- cterized by the fetishistic drive for the new, unique, innovative, i.e. Modernism. It turns out that the different stylistic markers used for the composer’s works are the result of the fact that Lovec adopted the ways of working with individual musical elements from different stylistic environments, so that his music is both eclectic and, in a typical combination of adopted elements, also unique. At the same time, certain stylistic and also creative statics should not be ignored – the composer’s works do not only show clear, “classical” models, but often seem in the way of work, i.e. in the poetic starting points, like clones of one and the same creative matrix. Such constant starting points can be recognized in the loyalty to classical forms, the dominant polyphonic work, the work with steps and small jumps, the loyalty to the harmony of thirds with a loose functional logic, and in the melodic aspect the composer becomes more and more committed to the intervals of the second, tritone, fourth and seventh, as a result of which a sense of monothematicity prevails in the late works. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 40 7. 10. 2024 10:12:01 Gregor Pompe: »Hodim nekam svoja pota.« Slogovna vprašanja... 41 O AVTORJU GREGOR POMPE (gregor.pompe@ff.uni-lj.si) je študiral na Filozofski fakulteti v Lju- bljani primerjalno književnost, nemški jezik in muzikologijo. Zaposlen je na Oddelku za muzikologijo Filozofske fakultete v Ljubljani, kjer je obranil doktorsko nalogo in trenutno deluje kot redni profesor. Predaval je tudi na Pedagoški fakulteti Univerze v Mariboru in na Oddelku za muzikologijo Univerze Karla Franza v avstrijskem Gradcu. Njegovo zanimanje velja sodobni glasbi in glasbenemu gledališču. Objavil je že več člankov in samostojnih mo- nografskih publikacij. Deluje tudi kot glasbeni kritik in skladatelj. ABOUT THE AUTHOR GREGOR POMPE (gregor.pompe@ff.uni-lj.si) studied comparative literature, German language and musicology at the Faculty of Arts in Ljubljana. He is employed at the De- partment of Musicology at the Faculty of Arts in Ljubljana, where he defended his doctoral thesis and currently works as a full professor. He also lectured at the Pedagogical Faculty of the University of Maribor and at the Department of Musicology of the Karl Franz University in Graz, Austria. His interests are tied to contemporary music and musical theatre. He has already published several articles and books. He also works as a music critic and composer. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 41 7. 10. 2024 10:12:01 Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 42 7. 10. 2024 10:12:01 43 DOI: 10.4312/mz.60.1.43-54 UDK: 78.072.3(497.4)Lovec V. Vladimir Lovec v vlogi glasbenega kritika1 Tjaša Ribizel Popič Univerza v Ljubljani IZVLEČEK Vladimir Lovec je bil izjemen v svoji vsestranskosti. Poleg ustvarjanja, pedagoškega udejstvo- vanja, poustvarjanja in vodenja je imela mesto v Lovčevi produkciji tudi glasbenokritiška dejavnost, ki šteje 88 objavljenih glasbenih kritik (ohranjene kritike hrani Glasbena zbirka NUK) v časopisih Ljudska pravica, Tedenska tribuna, Slovenski Jadran in Primorske novice, glasbene kritike pa so variirale glede na različne dejavnike. Namen prispevka je zato v prvem delu analizirati trende Lovčevih glasbenih kritik glede na čas nastanka, kraj izvedbe, izvajalce, publikacijo in samo naklonjenost kritike (v smislu, ali je bila pozitivna, negativna ali nevtral- na). V drugem delu pa skuša prispevek ponuditi oris Lovčevega glasbenokritičnega sloga. Ključne besede: glasbena publicistika, glasbena kritika, analiza trendov ABSTRACT Vladimir Lovec was exceptionally versatile. In addition to his creative, pedagogical, artistic, and choir-conducting activities, Lovec’s output also included music criticism, with 88 published music reviews (the extant reviews are kept in the NUK Music Collection) in the newspapers Ljudska pravica, Tedenska tribuna, Slovenski Jadran and Primorske novice. The reviews vary in terms of different factors. Therefore, the aim of the first part of the paper is to analyze the patterns of Lovec’s music criticism in terms of their creation, place of performance, performers, publication and sentiment (i.e. the “tone” of his reviews or his critical reception as such). In the second part, the paper aims to outline Lovec’s style of music criticism. Keywords: music journalism, music criticism, trend analysis * Prispevek je nastal v okviru projekta Glasba mladih po 1945 in Glasbena mladina Slovenije ( J6-3135). Raziskovalni projekt je (so)financiran s strani Javne agencije za raziskovalno dejavnost. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 43 7. 10. 2024 10:12:01 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lx/1 44 Vladimir Lovec je deloval v različnih tokovih, ki so imeli skupno stičišče: glas- bo. Znotraj tega je deloval tudi kot publicist, saj je bilo med letoma 1950 in 1989 objavljenih 95 Lovčevih časopisnih prispevkov,1 med njimi 88 glasbenih kritik, ki jih pričujoči prispevek tudi obravnava. Lovčeve glasbene kritike so bile objavljene v časopisih Ljudska pravica, Te- denska tribuna, Slovenski Jadran in Primorske novice; kritike pa so se razlikovale glede na različne parametre, zato je namen prispevka v prvem delu analizirati trende oz. usmeritev Lovčevih glasbenih kritik, v drugem delu pa skuša prispe- vek ponuditi oris Lovčevega glasbenokritičnega sloga. I Analiza trendov Lovčevih kritik je bila opravljena glede na skupne parametre, ki jih je bilo mogoče pripisati posameznim kritikam. Tako so bile kritike ana- lizirane glede na čas nastanka, kraj izvedbe, publikacijo in naklonjenosti kritike oz. sentiment. Termin sentiment2 je t. i. naklonjenost do izvajalca, ton oz. nak- lonjenost kritike. Pri tem si ga izposojam s področja računalniškega procesi- ranja naravnega jezika (npr. avtomatsko postavljanje vejic, strojni prevajalniki), pri katerem gre za samodejno zaznavanje, katera čustva so v določenem bese- dilu prevladujoča in kakšen je posledično »ton« celotnega besedila. Glede na vsebino besedila sem ročno določila kategorijo sentimenta vsake kritike (po- zitivno, negativno, nevtralno – to so tudi tri kategorije pri analizi sentimenta). Cilj tovrstne analize je bil ugotoviti, ali je mogoče najti skupne imenovalce oz. korelacije med določeno kategorijo sentimenta in drugimi kategorijami, tako da bi lahko ugotovila, denimo, a) ali je Lovec v različnih časovnih obdobjih svojega delovanja izkazoval različne preference, b) v katerih časovnih razdobjih in v katerih časopisih je bil Lovec najbolj aktiven ipd. V prispevku sem predvidela tudi analizo trenda izvajalcev, a se je ta ob popisu izkazala za manj smiselno, ker Lovec v okviru posamezne kritike ni obravnaval vedno enakega izvajalca, hkrati pa je v času službovanja v Kopru, ko je pisal kritike za Tedensko tribuno, Slovenski Jadran in Primorske novice, v večini primerov podal oceno več koncertnih dogodkov in več izvajalcev hkrati. Izvajalci se v pregledu piščevih kritik torej ne ponavljajo kontinuirano in zaradi tega ne moremo določiti natančnega trenda oz. usmeritve. 1 Časopisni prispevki Vladimirja Lovca so hranjeni v Glasbeni zbirki Narodne in univerzitetne knjižnice (v nadaljevanju NUK). 2 Primer opisa analize s področja računalniškega procesiranja naravnega jezika: https://nl.ijs.si/ janes/o-projektu/korpusna-analiza/#27_Analiza_sentimenta_v_uporabniskih_spletnih_vsebi- nah, obiskano 6. 11. 2022. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 44 7. 10. 2024 10:12:01 Tjaša Ribizel Popič: Vladimir Lovec v vlogi glasbenega kritika 45 Tabela 1: Glasbene kritike po času nastanka in publikaciji3 Oznake vrstic 1950 1951 1955 1958 1959 1960 1965 1969 1970 1972 1973 Ljudska pravica 12 11 1 Primorske novice 1 5 4 3 3 Slovenski Jadran 1 2 1 TT 1 Skupna vsota 12 11 1 1 2 2 1 5 4 3 3 Oznake vrstic 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1989 ? Skupna vsota Ljudska pravica 24 59 4 1 88 Primorske novice 4 5 8 3 5 12 4 1 1 Slovenski Jadran TT Skupna vsota 4 5 8 3 5 12 4 1 1 Glede na časovno os nastanka Lovčevih glasbenih kritik je mogoče razbrati, da je bil ta na svojem začetku najbolj produktiven pisec, saj je v svojem ljubljan- skem času življenja4 napisal kar 23 glasbenih kritik, in vse so bile objavljene v Ljudski pravici. Produktivnima letoma sta sledili dve desetletji, vse do leta 1972, skromnejšega in nekontinuiranega objavljanja glasbenih kritik v časo- pisju. Šele od leta 1972 pa vse do 1980 lahko zasledimo vsakoletno objavljanje glasbenih kritik v Primorskih novicah, ki svoj višek po številu objav doseže leta 1979 z 12 objavami. Lovčevo aktivnost pri objavljanju glasbenih kritik pona- zarja naslednji graf. Slika 1: Glasbene kritike po času nastanka. 3 Ena izmed kritik je označena z vprašajem (?), ker ohranjena kronika v Glasbeni zbirki NUK ne hrani zabeležke o letu nastanka objave. Zaradi tega je v vseh grafičnih prikazih en vnos označen z ?. 4 Povzeto po: Helena Filipčič Gardina, ur., V zrcalu glasbene iskrenosti: Vladimir Lovec (1922–1992) (Koper: Zavod lepih umetnosti, 2022), 14. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 45 7. 10. 2024 10:12:01 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 46 Kot je razvidno z grafa, je začetnemu dinamičnemu objavljanju glasbenih kri- tik sledilo izrazito zatišje v razdobju desetih let med letoma 1955 in 1965. V drugem delu svoje publicistične kariere je Lovec glasbene kritike ponovno objavljal nekoliko bolj dinamično. V nadaljevanju je predstavljena krajevna umestitev Lovčevega glasbeno- kritiškega dela. Naslednji zemljevid prikazuje slovenske kraje izvedb, ki jih je obravnaval, temneje pa so izrisane občine, kjer je obravnaval več kritik. Slika 2: Vizualizacija števila kritik po kraju izvedbe (Slovenija). Kot prikazuje graf, je bil Lovec izrazito vezan na Obalo, saj je bila velika večina obravnavanih izvedb izvedena prav tam. Natančneje distribucijo kritik podaja naslednja tabela. Tabela 2: Glasbene kritike po kraju izvedbe Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 46 7. 10. 2024 10:12:02 Tjaša Ribizel Popič: Vladimir Lovec v vlogi glasbenega kritika 47 Krajevno najbolj razgibana so prva Lovčeva glasbenokritiška leta. V desetletju od 1950 do 1960 je kot pisec za Ljudsko pravico pokrival koncerte primarno v Ljubljani in dve operni premieri v Mariboru, leta 1960 sledi še mnenje o obisku festivala Donaueschingen (Donaueschingen Musiktage); nato je vse do konca pokrival koncerte, ki so se odvijali na slovenski Obali; večji del v Kopru, ob razširitvi koncertne dejavnosti v Portorož je zajel tudi tamkajšnje prireditve. Naslednji segment prispevka naslavlja sentiment Lovčevih glasbenih kri- tik, tj. njegov kritiški odziv. Vsaki kritiki je bila pripisana vrednost (pozitivno, negativno ali nevtralno) za vsakega od obravnavanih koncertov. Distribucijo Lovčevih kritiških odzivov po letih ponazarja naslednji graf. Na tem mestu je treba omeniti, da je Lovec, ko je začel pisati za Slovenski Jadran leta 1958 in pozneje Primorske novice leta 1965, znotraj ene objave združeval več koncer- tnih prireditev. Zaradi tega je pri nekaterih, ki so se glede na mnenje med sabo razlikovali, uporabljenih več oznak kot pri tistih, ki so bili glede na mnenje popolnoma enakovredni. Slika 3: Sentiment skozi leta (* – pozitivni, 0 – nevtralni, - – negativni). Oznake, ki so med sabo ločene z vejico pomenijo, da je Lovec v eni kritiški objavi obravnaval več koncertov hkrati. Kot prikazuje graf, je Lovec v kar 61 kritikah Lovec izrazil pozitivno mne- nje tako o izvajalcih kot izvedenem programu in zunajglasbenih okoliščinah 10 2 1 8 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 4 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 0 5 6 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 7 1 1 2 4 1 1 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 47 7. 10. 2024 10:12:02 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 48 (organizatorji dogodka, poslušalci in kraj izvedbe). Nobena izmed objav ni po- sebej izstopajoča, hkrati ni mogoče najti skupnega imenovalca za pozitivno kategorijo sentimenta. Temu sledi 12 kritik, v katerih avtor ni ne pozitiven ne negativen oz. izraža tako pohvalo kot grajo. Najbolj pa izmed vseh treh katego- rij izstopajo tri glasbene kritike, ki imajo izstopajoč negativen sentiment: prva je iz leta 1951 in govori o orkestru Slovenske filharmonije, druga je iz leta 1960 in govori o Festivalu Moderne glasbe v Donaueschingenu, tretja je iz leta 1978 in govori o koncertu Komornega orkestra »Sveta Sofija« iz Skopja. V prvi kritiki, naslovljeni »Simfonični koncert Orkestra Slovenske filhar- monije«, Lovec obravnava izredni simfonični koncert, ki ga je vodil dirigent Jakov Cipci, v vlogi solista je nastopil Pavel Šivic. Na koncertni program so bili uvrščeni skladatelji Arcangello Corelli, Franz Liszt in Robert Schumann. Avtor je kritičen predvsem pri oceni izvedbene ravni orkestra Slovenske filharmonije. V celoti ni presegel ponedeljkov simfonični koncert povprečne ravni, kljub trudu, ki ga je vložil dirigent Jakov Cipci v skrbni študiji sporeda. Ne moremo se znebiti vtisa, da je orkester sam nekam premalo zainteresiran. Prav gotovo mu ne bi škodilo nekoliko več ognja in samostojnejše muzikalno občutene igre, ki bi zadostila umetniškim potrebam poslušalcev.5 Druga kritika iz leta 1960 in tretja iz leta 1978 pa se vsebinsko nanašata na glasbeno avantgardo. Lovec v svojih komentarjih izraža negativen odnos do glasbene avantgarde, natančneje skladateljev, ki sodijo v ta krog, in njihovih stvaritev. Prva iz leta 1960 nosi naslov »Postna juha« in je bila objavljena v Tedenski tribuni. Vsebinsko prispevek obravnava Festival v Donaueschingenu, ki ga je Lovec obiskal kot glasbeni kritik. V okviru festivala so izvajali dela Wolfganga Fortnerja, Bohuslava Martinůja, Aloisa Habe, Boa Nilssona, Niccola Castigli- onija, Dietera Schönbacha, Yoritsuna Matsudairaja, Krzysztofa Pendereckega in Oliviera Messiaena. Lovec svojo objavo začne z besedami: V splošnem moram reči, da mi je vsa zadeva pustila v ustih nekam grenak okus. Rekel bi: ne in še enkrat ne! Nikakor ne morem biti zadovoljen s temle potovanjem po za- hodni Nemčiji in se mi zdi, da sem bil kar dvakrat tam: prvič in zadnjič! […] Vedno sem bil mnenja, da mora umetnost biti užitna, pa naj bo prikazana v tem ali onem slogu. Slog je samo način izražanja, vsebina pa je tisto kar dalje njen cilj in namen. Žal je bilo v Donaueschingenu začuda malo slogov, vsebine pa – razen pri Bohuslavu Martinuju – nič!6 Četrti godalni kvartet Bohuslava Martinůja je primerjal z užitnim ocvirkom v postni juhi, slednje pa je Lovčevo poimenovanje celotnega Festivala Moderne 5 V. L., »Simfonični koncert Slovenske filharmonije«, Ljudska pravica (15. 3. 1951). 6 Vlado Lovec, »Postna juha«, Tedenska tribuna (3. 11. 1960). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 48 7. 10. 2024 10:12:02 Tjaša Ribizel Popič: Vladimir Lovec v vlogi glasbenega kritika 49 glasbe v Donaueschungenu. Vse ostale kompozicije pa so zanj bile podobne cirkuški predstavi.7 Ob koncu se mi je utrnila misel, kaj neki bi k tej glasbi rekel Aretej Miroslava Krleže. Verjetno bi menil, da je to nova verska sekta, ki se pač na ta način izživlja in – kot srednjeveški flagelanti – biča samo sebe.8 Lovec svojega odnosa do glasbene avantgarde tudi skozi čas ni spremenil. O tem priča dejstvo, da je po 18 letih, od obiska v Donaueschingenu, ponovno obiskal koncert stvaritev glasbenih novitet v izvedbi Komornega orkestra »Sve- ta Sofija« iz Skopja, ki pa naj bi se – tako je glede na vsebino objave mogoče sklepati – ukvarjal izključno z izvedbami sodobne glasbe. V okviru koncerta so izvedli skladbe Željka Brkanovića, Dragoslava Ortakova in Kazua Fukushime. Izvedeni program je Lovec komentiral z naslednjimi besedami: [Ž]e vsa leta po vojni se skladatelji trudijo z iskanjem novih poti in mnogi med nji- mi želijo za vsako ceno presekati sleherno vez s tradicijo […] Stereotipno ponavljan- je maloštevilnih izvirnih domislekov postaja nezanimivo še zlasti, kadar je to vse, kar lahko skladatelj ponudi. […] No tako, zdaj smo pri bistvenem vprašanju: koliko je prave, resnične, poštene muzike v teh skladbah in kakšno je njeno sporočilo?9 Tako druga kot tretja glasbena kritika Vladimirja Lovca imata skupno točko v izvedenem glasbenem programu. Tega tako v prvem kot drugem primeru pisec ni odobraval in po njegovem mnenju je vsebina tista, ki sodobnim stva- ritvam manjka. Natančneje kot v prvi kritiki iz leta 1960 se je izrazil leta 1978 z besedami: Izkoriščanje glasbil do njihovih skrajnih možnosti daje vtis, da gre za instrument in ne za glasbo, hkrati pa razbija kontinuiteto glasbene ideje, muzične misli, ki edina daje skladbi vsebino.10 II Glede na vsebinske podobnosti in razlike je slog Lovčevega pisanja in njegovo publicistično udejstvovanje mogoče razdeliti na tri obdobja. V prvo obdobje sodijo njegove zgodnje objave, tj. glasbene kritike iz petde- setih let. Posebno vsebinsko pozornost je avtor namenjal opisu okoliščin na- stanka posameznih koncertnih skladb, izvajanim skladateljem in glavnim glas- beno-oblikovnim značilnostim. Temu je sledilo analitično skromno in kratko 7 Povzeto po besedah Lovca iz Lovec, »Postna juha«. 8 Prav tam. 9 Vladimir Lovec, »Glasba in njeno sporočilo«, Primorske novice (24. 11. 1978). 10 Prav tam. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 49 7. 10. 2024 10:12:02 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 50 mnenje o dejanski izvedbi. Na podlagi tega smemo reči, da je bilo Lovčevo začetno publicistično pisanje manj razlagalno in tudi manj prepričevalno. Za primer slednjega sem izbrala izsek ocene izvedbe, ki se glasi: [N]ajbolj [se je] odlikoval basist Tomo Neralić, ki je podal svoj del prepričljivo in doživeto ter ustvaril v XIV sonetu poustvarjalno umetnino, ki je ne bomo tako kmalu pozabili.11 Zaradi tovrstnega način pisanja je prišlo tudi do negativnega odziva bralcev. Negativna replika je bila objavljena v Študentskem listu leta 1950. »Ljudska pravica« prinaša strokovne »kritike« izpod peresa V. L. Trije stolpci dražijo bralca z generalijami o življenju, dobi, stilu itd., poslednji stolpec pa – ne morem se zne- biti občutja, da le mimogrede in ker je taka tradicija – pove kaj o dirigentu, v enem pri- meru celo o timpanistu, ki si je baje dal duška z udarjanjem po tolkalih. Kje je analitična obravnava odnosov med orkestrskimi grupami, kje primerjava in razglabljanje o takih ali drugačnih tolmačenjih nekega dela, kaj več o dirigentu (večkrat je, da je bil v svojem izrazu poglobljen itd.) o partituri in drugih komponentah, ki se vežejo v celoto dobre izvedbe. Za suho, anemično poročilo je vendar dovolj, če se kronist omeji na čas in kraj, omeni program in križem premotri avditorij. […] Očividno je, da preživlja slovenska in jugoslovanska kritika na vseh njenih toriščih prehodno, vendar pa občutno krizo, ki je pač vselej nujna, kadar se staro umika novemu. Zanimive in ostre polemike od »književnih novin« pa vse do oblike odprtih pisem v naših časopisih nedvoumno izpričujejo dejstvo, da sproščenost in zdrava beseda na koncu vendarle prevaga predsodek (čeprav malce kasno), kar mora biti najdoslednejša smer v razbistritev stanja pri nas.12 Lovec je kmalu po objavi negativnega komentarja na vsebino njegovih glasbe- nih kritik (1951) korenito posegel v strukturo in slog svojega pisanja. Moč je sklepati, da je ta negativna replika Lovca spodbodla, da je postal izrazno precej bolj analitičen, natančen in posledično tudi konstruktiven. Začel je uporabljati več tehtnih utemeljitev in obrazložitev kot poprej. Ravno zaradi tega lahko glasbene kritike iz drugega obdobja začnemo šteti že od leta 1951 naprej. Lovec je v tem drugem obdobju namesto dolgega opisa programa tega za- menjal s krajšim opisom, v katerega je inkorporiral več analize dejanske izved- be in izpostavil dobre ter manj dobro izvedene parte v širšem obsegu. Poleg tega je začel vključevati tudi širši pogled na kulturno dogajanje določenega območja, sploh pa obisk koncertnih prireditev. Njegove kritike tako poleg več- jega poudarka na sami analizi izvedbe zvenijo dosti bolj dovršeno in celovito. Primer izpostavljanja tudi aktualnih izvenodrskih razmer je Lovčev ko- mentar obiska koncertnih prireditev v Kopru: 11 V. L., »L. M. Škerjanc – Prešeren: Sonetni venec«, Ljudska pravica (10. 12. 1950). 12 »Utrinki ob začetku koncertne sezone«, Študentski list 3, št. 1 (30. 10. 1950). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 50 7. 10. 2024 10:12:02 Tjaša Ribizel Popič: Vladimir Lovec v vlogi glasbenega kritika 51 Ne morem se znebiti občutka, da so koncerti v Kopru nekako odveč: […] Skromni obisk koncertov v zadnjih dveh letih – in tudi prej – kaže, da je takega občinstva v Kopru prav malo, premalo, da bi bil poplačan trud prirediteljev in nastopajočih.13 Slednjemu je tekom let sledila sprememba, na kar avtor ni pozabil opozoriti: Koncert ansambla »Slavko Osterc« je potrdil dve dejstvi: prvo dokazuje, da se je število koprskih obiskovalcev ustalilo; to število je sicer skromno, toda občinstvo je zvesto in zanesljivo.14 V 70. letih pa sledimo zmesi prvega in drugega obdobja. Lovec v primerjavi s prvimi in drugim sklopom kritik v tretjem sklopu postane v celostnem pogledu manj analitičen glede dejanske izvedbe; več je morda poudarka na opisu do- godka, izvajalcev. Nato se slog zopet zamenja in je avtor manj opisen ter dosti bolj analitičen in obratno. Izmenjavi prvega in drugega je tako mogoče slediti do zadnjih objavljenih Lovčevih kritik. Sklep Vladimir Lovec je v štirih desetletjih objavljanja glasbenih kritik, predvsem iz osrednje Slovenije in Obale, pozitivno in konstruktivno pristopil k ocenjeva- nju posameznih koncertnih izvedb, ki jih je ne glede na zasnovo same kritike vedno podprl z vsaj krajšo razlago osrednjih značilnosti posamezne skladbe in njenega skladatelja. Obseg razlage osrednjih značilnosti koncertnega programa je variiral glede na analizo posameznih koncertnih izvedb. Daljša kot je bila razlaga, krajša je bila analiza oziroma ocena izvedbe in obratno. Lovec pa je koncertne izvedbe po večini ocenil pozitivno (61), manj nevtralno (12) in naj- manj ocen je bilo negativnih (3). Vsekakor ne gre prezreti, da Lovec novitetam, ki jih je prinesla glasbena avantgarda, ni bil naklonjen. To je izrazil zelo jasno in z zelo nazornimi meta- forami, vendar pa je treba obenem tudi izpostaviti, da se je glasbenih dogodkov s programom tega okvira tudi udeleževal. Njegova udeležba na koncertih glas- benih novitet je v primerjavi z udeležbo na koncertih s programom tradicional- nega okvira sicer znatno manjša. Nedvomno pa velja, da je Lovec z vključevanjem širšega pogleda na kultur- no dogajanje določenega območja, predvsem na območju Obale, pripomogel k širitvi zavesti o obstoju umetniške koncertne dejavnosti in njeni širitvi. 13 Vladimir Lovec, »Ali v Kopru ni mogoče koncertno življenje?«, Slovenski Jadran (29. 12. 1958). 14 Vladimir Lovec, »Koncert ansambla ‘Slavko Osterc’«, Primorske novice (19. 04. 1969). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 51 7. 10. 2024 10:12:02 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 52 Viri in literatura Lovec, Vladimir. »Ali v Kopru ni mogoče koncertno življenje?.« Slovenski Jadran (29. 12. 1958). Lovec, Vladimir. »Baročno muziciranje.« Primorske novice (19. 10. 1979). Lovec, Vladimir. »Baročno muziciranje.« Primorske novice (21. 12. 1979). Lovec, Vladimir. »Beethovnov večer.« Ljudska pravica (25. 03. 1951). Lovec, Vladimir. »‘Cavalleria Rusticana’ ponovno v ljubljanski Operi.« Ljudska pravica (19. 12. 1950). Lovec, Vladimir. »Čar glasbe ni v hrupnosti.« Primorske novice (14. 12. 1979). Lovec, Vladimir. »Četrti redni simfonični koncert.« Ljudska pravica (25. 01. 1951). Lovec, Vladimir. »Do kraja izpeti lok.« Primorske novice (28. 11. 1975). Lovec, Vladimir. »Dva koncerta v Kopru.« Primorske novice (24. 12. 1976). Lovec, Vladimir. »Dva večera lepega petja.« Primorske novice (02. 03. 1973). Lovec, Vladimir. »Dva večera lepega petja.« Primorske novice (04. 11. 1977). Lovec, Vladimir. »Dva zanimiva glasbena dogodka.« Primorske novice (19. 04. 1969). Lovec, Vladimir. »Glasba in njeno sporočilo.« Primorske novice (24. 11. 1978). Lovec, Vladimir. »Gostovanje orkestra Centralnega doma Jugoslovanske armade.« Ljudska pravica (14. 10. 1950). Lovec, Vladimir. »Gounod: ‘Faust’ v mariborski Operi.« Ljudska pravica (12. 04. 1951). Lovec, Vladimir. »Imenitno muziciranje.« Primorske novice (05. 11. 1976). Lovec, Vladimir. »Kitara – samostojen instrument.« Primorske novice (26. 01. 1979). Lovec, Vladimir. »Klasično v širšem pomenu besede.« Primorske novice (17. 03. 1978). Lovec, Vladimir. »Kompozicijski večer mladih srbskih skladateljev.« Ljudska pravica (21. 03. 1951). Lovec, Vladimir. »Koncert ansambla ‘Slavko Osterc’.« Primorske novice (19. 04. 1969). Lovec, Vladimir. »Koncert baritonista Vladimirja Ruždjaka.« Ljudska pravica (22. 02. 1951). Lovec, Vladimir. »Koncert in teater.« Primorske novice (23. 03. 1979). Lovec, Vladimir. »Koncert jugoslovanskih narodnih pesmi.« Ljudska pravica (05. 12. 1950). Lovec, Vladimir. »Koncert moškega zbora iz Novega Mesta.« Ljudska pravica (01. 01. 1970). Lovec, Vladimir. »Koncert samospevov.« Ljudska pravica (04. 03. 1951). Lovec, Vladimir. »Koncert SKUD Svetozar Markovič.« Ljudska pravica (26. 09. 1950). Lovec, Vladimir. »Koncert Slovenskega okteta.« Primorske novice (24. 01. 1975). Lovec, Vladimir. »Koncert Slovenskega okteta v Kopru.« Primorske novice (21. 02. 1970). Lovec, Vladimir. »Koncerti ob Gallusovem tednu.« Ljudska pravica (13. 11. 1950). Lovec, Vladimir. »Koncertna kronika v marcu.« Primorske novice (05. 04. 1974). Lovec, Vladimir. »Koncertno življenje v Kopru.« Primorske novice (27. 04. 1973). Lovec, Vladimir. »Koprska koncerta.« Primorske novice (02. 11. 1979). Lovec, Vladimir. »Koprska koncertna dvorana postaja pretesna.« Primorske novice (22. 12. 1972). Lovec, Vladimir. »Koprska koncertna sezona.« Primorske novice (05. 05. 1978). Lovec, Vladimir. »Krstna izvedba nove simfonije.« Ljudska pravica (25. 02. 1951). Lovec, Vladimir. »Kulturno muziciranje.« Primorske novice (18. 01. 1980). Lovec, Vladimir. »Kvalitetna koncerta.« Primorske novice (10. 12. 1976). Lovec, Vladimir. »L. M. Škerjanc – Prešeren: Sonetni venec.« Ljudska pravica (10. 12. 1950). Lovec, Vladimir. »Lipovškova simfonična pesnitev ‘Domovina’.« Ljudska pravica (24. 12. 1950). Lovec, Vladimir. »Mirko Polič: ‘Deseti brat’.« Ljudska pravica (08. 04. 1951). Lovec, Vladimir. »Mladostna svežina in polet.« Primorske novice (03. 11. 1978). Lovec, Vladimir. »Najboljše v danih pogojih.« Slovenski Jadran (13. 02. 1959). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 52 7. 10. 2024 10:12:02 Tjaša Ribizel Popič: Vladimir Lovec v vlogi glasbenega kritika 53 Lovec, Vladimir. »Najboljši violončelist.« Primorske novice (27. 02. 1976). Lovec, Vladimir. »Najobčutljivejša umetniška zvrst.« Primorske novice (06. 04. 1979). Lovec, Vladimir. »O dveh kar se da različnih koncertih.« Primorske novice (08. 03. 1974). Lovec, Vladimir. »Občuteno in kulturno petje.« Primorske novice (01. 01. 1970). Lovec, Vladimir. »Oddih in zdravilo.« Primorske novice (25. 02. 1977). Lovec, Vladimir. »Odlična akustika muzejske dvorane.« Primorske novice (14. 10. 1977). Lovec, Vladimir. »Operni večer.« Ljudska pravica (18. 01. 1951). Lovec, Vladimir. »‘Orfej in Evridika’ v mariborskem gledališču.« Ljudska pravica (25. 12. 1950). Lovec, Vladimir. »Osem dobrih koncertov.« Primorske novice (18. 04. 1980). Lovec, Vladimir. »Portoroška koncertna sezona.« Primorske novice (30. 01. 1976). Lovec, Vladimir. »Poslušalcem v užitek.« Primorske novice (25. 05. 1979). Lovec, Vladimir. »Postna juha.« Tedenska tribuna (03. 11. 1960). Lovec, Vladimir. »Prepričljivo muziciranje.« Primorske novice (06. 01. 1989). Lovec, Vladimir. »Priznanje resnemu delu.« Primorske novice (05. 07. 1969). Lovec, Vladimir. »Programska politika bi morala ostati - bo to mogoče?.« Primorske novice (09. 05. 1975). Lovec, Vladimir. »Razmišljanje o zborovskem petju.« Primorske novice (01. 01. 1973). Lovec, Vladimir. »Recital kitare.« Primorske novice (19. 03. 1976). Lovec, Vladimir. »Simfonični koncert in koprsko občinstvo.« Slovenski Jadran (13. 05. 1960). Lovec, Vladimir. »Simfonični koncert Orkestra Slovenske filharmonije.« Ljudska pravica (12. 10. 1950). Lovec, Vladimir. »Simfonični koncert Orkestra Slovenske filharmonije.« Ljudska pravica (14. 11. 1950). Lovec, Vladimir. »Simfonični koncert Orkestra Slovenske filharmonije.« Ljudska pravica (15. 03. 1951). Lovec, Vladimir. »Slavnostni koncert v gledališču.« Slovenski Jadran (05. 06. 1959). Lovec, Vladimir. »Solistični koncert Melite Lorkovič.« Ljudska pravica (15. 02. 1951). Lovec, Vladimir. »Sorodni barok.« Primorske novice (09. 03. 1979). Lovec, Vladimir. »Spevna lirika in virtuoznost.« Primorske novice (02. 03. 1979). Lovec, Vladimir. »Sproščeno muziciranje.« Primorske novice (26. 12. 1975). Lovec, Vladimir. »Široka glasbena kultura.« Primorske novice (13. 04. 1979). Lovec, Vladimir. »Trije zborovski koncerti.« Primorske novice (29. 12. 1972). Lovec, Vladimir. »Ubrano petje.« Primorske novice (19. 03. 1976). Lovec, Vladimir. »Upravičeno pričakovanje.« Primorske novice (23. 11. 1979). Lovec, Vladimir. »Uspel koncert mladih glasbenikov.« Primorske novice (17. 05. 1969). Lovec, Vladimir. »Uspešno gostovanje angleškega ansambla.« Primorske novice (24. 10. 1975). Lovec, Vladimir. »Večer sonat.« Primorske novice (22. 02. 1980). Lovec, Vladimir. »Velike poustvaritve.« Primorske novice (04. 04. 1980). Lovec, Vladimir. »Vilinski koncert Laze Marjanovića.« Ljudska pravica (17. 12. 1950). Lovec, Vladimir. »Vrhunec koncertne sezone.« Primorske novice (19. 01. 1974). Lovec, Vladimir. »Vrhunske violine.« Primorske novice (16. 04. 1976). Lovec, Vladimir. »Začetek koncertne sezone v Kopru.« Primorske novice (22. 11. 1969). Lovec, Vladimir. »Začetek koncertne sezone v Kopru.« Primorske novice (03. 11. 1972). Lovec, Vladimir. »Začetek koncertne sezone v Kopru.« Primorske novice (01. 11. 1974). Lovec, Vladimir. »Začetek Piranskih glasbenih večerov.« Primorske novice (01. 01. 1970). Lovec, Vladimir. »Zbor na resnični umetniški višini.« Primorske novice (01. 01. 1970). [Neznani avtor.] »Utrinki ob začetku koncertne sezone.« Študentski list 3, št. 1 (30.10.1950). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 53 7. 10. 2024 10:12:02 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 54 SUMMARY Vladimir Lovec as a Music Critic Lovec was active in many fields, and we may well include music criticism among them. There are 88 published music reviews (preserved in the NUK Music Collection) in the newspapers Ljudska pravica, Tedenska tribuna, Slovenski Jadran and Primorske novice. The first part of the paper presents an analysis of trends in Lovec’s music reviews according to the publish- ing date, place of performance, performers, publication, and sentiment (i.e. the tone of the review or the critical reception). I borrow the term sentiment here from the field of natural language processing, which is about the automatic/computer perception of what emotions are dominant in a given text. It is the analysis of sentiment that turns out to be most telling, because it reveals that Lovec was not in favor of musical novelties, i.e. compositions that we may classify in the field of musical modernism. In most cases, however, his reception was mostly positive and upbeat. The second part of the paper attempts to outline Lovec’s writing style. Here we find a less analytical approach to writing about the performances of a concert program and the opposite of this, i.e. more emphasis on the analysis of the actual concert performance itself. Then, from the 1970s onwards, a mixture of the first and the second can be traced, and this can be followed right through to the last of Lovec’s reviews. O AVTORICI TJAŠA RIBIZEL POPIČ (tjasa.ribizel@ff.uni-lj.si) je doktorirala leta 2013 na Oddelku za muzikologijo Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani. Zaposlena je na Filozofski fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani, kot asistentka sodeluje na Pedagoški fakulteti Univerze v Mariboru, je sourednica recenzij Muzikološkega zbornika (Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete) in članica organizacijskega odbora Slovenskih glasbenih dni. V zadnjem času se posveča pred- vsem gledališkemu delu, v sodelovanju z režiserjem Draganom Živadinovim. ABOUTH THE AUTHOR TJAŠA RIBIZEL POPIČ (tjasa.ribizel@ff.uni-lj.si) received her PhD in 2013 at the Department of Musicology, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, where she is currently employed. She also works as a teaching assistant at the Faculty of Education, the University of Maribor, Review Co-editor of the Musicological Proceedings (Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana Press), and member of the organizing committee of the Slovenian Music Days. Recently, she has been focusing mainly on theatre work, in collaboration with the director Dragan Živadinov. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 54 7. 10. 2024 10:12:02 55 DOI: 10.4312/mz.60.1.55-81 UDK: 78.082:780.616Scarlatti D. Domenico Scarlatti’s Musical Style: His Keyboard Sonata K. 288 Sa Ra Park Korea National University of Arts ABSTRACT This study focuses on the musical style in Scarlatti’s sonata K. 288, as K. 288 has not yet been explored in detail in the Scarlatti scholarship. Not only the form, but also other musical elements, such as melody, harmony, and rhythm are being explored. Furthermore, irregular groupings are discussed. By examining some characteristics shown in K. 288, this paper shows Scarlatti’s ‘originality’ and contributes to discovering Scarlatti as “the interesting historical figure” (Sutcliffe 2003, 1). In addition to the analysis, the scope of this paper was expanded by including a comparison with a contemporary pastiche composition by the author of this paper. This pastiche composition was written to emulate Scarlatti’s style, and this paper dis- cusses the similarities and differences between the two pieces. In this way, theory and practice are combined, which would broaden the horizon of musicology and music theory. Therefore, this research would be of interest to not only musicologists but also musicians and composers. Keywords: Domenico Scarlatti, 18th-Century keyboard music, sonata form, musical style IZVLEČEK Pričujoča raziskava se osredotoča na Scarlattijev glasbeni slog v Sonati K. 288, saj ta v literaturi o Scarlattijevem delu še ni bila podrobneje opazovana. Opazuje ne samo obliko, ampak tudi druge glasbene prvine, kot so melodija, harmonija in ritem. Ob tem se posveča tudi nena- vadnemu povezovanju taktov. Z opazovanjem nekaterih značilnosti Sonate K. 288 poskuša prispevatu k odkrivanju Scarlattija kot »zanimive zgodovinske osebe« (Sutcliffe 2003, 1). Poleg analize je članek dopolnjen še s primerjavo avtoričine sonate, ki poskuša posnemati Scarlattijev slog. Na zaključku članka avtorica razpravlja o podobnostih in razlikah med obemi deli. Na ta način povezuje teorijo in prakso ter razširja obzorji glasbene teorije in muzikologije. Zato raziskava ni zanimiva le za muzikologe, ampak tudi za glasbenike in skladatelje. Ključne besede: Domenico Scarlatti, glasba za instrumente s tipkami 18. stoletja, sonatna oblika, glasbeni slog Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 55 7. 10. 2024 10:12:02 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lx/1 56 Introduction Domenico Scarlatti (1685–1757) left 555 keyboard sonatas,1 for which the autographs no longer exist. His musical style is different from his contempo- rary composers Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750) or George Frideric Han- del (1685–1759) and was influenced by various musical styles in his lifetime. Music scholars generally consider Scarlatti’s style as belonging to the Baroque and Classical eras; however, recent studies disagree with that opinion. In The Keyboard Sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti and Eighteenth-Century Musical Style, W. Dean Sutcliffe stresses the difficulty of classifying Scarlatti’s style, because his music retains a variety of musical influences, which we cannot clearly iden- tify.2 Instead, Sutcliffe highlights Scarlatti’s mixed style as ‘originality’ (Sut- cliffe 2003, 52), which does not belong to any classifications. In the article “Domenico Scarlatti, Escape Artist: Sightings of His ‘Mixed Style’ Towards the End of the Eighteenth Century”, Janet Schmalfeldt supports Sutcliffe’s opinion and notes “the composer’s escape from stylistic classification” (Schmal- feldt 2019, 254). In addition, Charles Rosen also uses the word “escape” in the context of ‘usual’ formal design by introducing Scarlatti in the chapter “Evolution of Sonata Forms” (Rosen 1980, 127). Interestingly, Roger Kamien excluded Scarlatti’s sonatas in his research for his article “Style Change in the Mid-18th-Century Keyboard Sonata”, because “they are generally believed to be very different in style from other works of the period, of a very individual style” (Kamien 1966, 38). This also supports the ‘originality’ of Scarlatti, for which Sutcliffe and Schmalfeldt argue. Among Scarlatti’s sonatas, my paper deals with one particular piece, namely K. 288.3 The reason for this choice on the one hand is related to my personal experience: I played that piece on the harpsichord, also on the or- gan; this piece is intimate to me. On the other hand, I do not agree with the general characterization of Scarlatti’s sonatas as a ‘single movement with the binary structure of the Baroque’. In the Grove Music Online article, it is men- tioned: “Scarlatti’s single-movement sonatas are closely related in outline to the familiar binary structure of the Baroque dance suite […]” (Irving 2001). K. 288, however, is not composed in a binary form, which will be discussed in chapter Form In addition, the author of the Grove Music Online article states 1 The number of sonatas is based on the study of Ralph Kirkpatrick. 2 “We have already reviewed the difficulties of classifying his style in the large, issuing both from the broader historiographical problems associated with eighteenth-century music and from the com- poser’s own anomalous position within such a system. On a more intimate scale too the details of Scarlatti’s language are difficult to fix. In particular, his relationship to such notions as topic and genre is ambiguous and elusive. The exact source or stylistic location of what we are hearing at any one moment is often quite unclear. On the other hand, the sonatas seem unprecedentedly open to a range of influences – hence the panorama tradition – and unusually direct in their presentation of them.” (Sutcliffe 2003, 78) 3 The “K” in K. 288 stands for Kirkpatrick. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 56 7. 10. 2024 10:12:02 Sa Ra Park: Domenico Scarlatti’s Musical Style: His Keyboard Sonata K. 288 57 that Scarlatti’s sonatas “are notable for a steady movement away from the patterned uniformity of Baroque rhetoric towards the more dynamic inter- play of galant-style phrase articulation” (Ibid.). It is sure that there are certain sonatas that contain the characteristics of the ‘galant-style’,4 but this particu- lar piece contains fewer of the idioms of the ‘galant-style’. For example, in the ‘galant-style’, the melody consists of “short phrases of two or four bars, arranged in symmetrical patterns” (ibid.) and is characterized by “its tune- ful, lyrical quality, dotted rhythms (sometimes inverted as the ‘Scotch snap’), interruption of the prevailing flow by triplet quavers, affective use of rests and long appoggiaturas, contrast of dynamic and articulation” (ibid.). These characteristics are not found in the piece K. 288, which will be explored in chapter Musical Elements. This study explores D. Scarlatti’s musical style, which is shown in his sonata K. 288.5 This piece, however, is not a representative of his oeuvre; in addition, it is impossible to define Scarlatti’s style by examining only one piece. The main goal of the study is to find out ‘interesting’ features, which support Scarlatti’s ‘originality’. This original study consists of three parts. The first chapter provides some background information on Scarlatti’s sonatas. In addition, two scores of K. 288 – the one published by Heugel and the other by Les Éditions Outremontaises – will be discussed in detail by comparing them with the manuscript VENISE V 23, in order to show how the editors interpreted and reproduced the source in the modern notation. The main interest of this study lies especially in the second chapter, which deals with the analysis of the music. Not only the form, but also other musical ele- ments, such as melody, harmony, and rhythm will be explored. Furthermore, irregular groupings will be a topic of the second chapter, whereby two aspects ‘uniformity’ and ‘variety’ will also be discussed. The third chapter deals with a comparison between Scarlatti’s K. 288 and a composition by me. After ana- lyzing Scarlatti’s sonata, I composed a keyboard sonata to emulate Scarla- tti’s style. The purpose of the composition is to combine theoretical findings (chapter Analysis of K. 288) with the practical perspective. A ‘style copy’ is a good method to get to know a composer’s style. 4 See the characteristics of the galant-style in the Grove article “Sonata. 2. Classical. (iv) Styles” (Irving 2001). Sutcliffe categorizes K. 296–355 as belonging to the galant-style (Sutcliffe 2003, 104). 5 Since all sonatas of Scarlatti are individual, Joel Sheveloff suggests that each piece should be ana- lyzed. Sheveloff states: “Each piece presents its own challenge, its own subject matter and method of presentation; each requires the formulation of a policy of extemporization commensurate with Scarlatti’s blueprint. Application of preexistent formulas will not work, nor will the mere addition of trills or passagework. Analysis of each piece will be required to expose the components of the ‘ingenious jesting with art,’ with which Scarlatti conceals the ‘profound learning’ behind his seem- ingly ‘easy and varied style.’” (Sheveloff 1986, 103–104) Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 57 7. 10. 2024 10:12:02 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 58 Scarlatti’s Keyboard Sonatas and Editions of K 288 Scarlatti’s Keyboard Sonatas Scarlatti scholars have different opinions on the matter of how many sonatas Scarlatti composed. The Italian composer and musicologist Alessandro Longo (1864–1945) found 543 pieces (Sheveloff 1985, 409), whereas the American harpsichordist and musicologist Ralph Kirkpatrick (1911–1984) considered 555 sonatas as part of Scarlatti’s work (Boyd 2001). Another opinion comes from the study by the American musicologist Joel Sheveloff (1934–2015); he asserts 585 pieces (Sheveloff 1985, 409). From this observation, it is clear that Scarlatti left numerous sonatas, around 550 pieces. Most of the sonatas consist of one movement, while there are also sonatas containing several movements (Sheveloff 1985, 431). It is not clear for whom and when Scarlatti composed this large number of sonatas, because there is no information concerning this matter. Scholars assume that Scarlatti composed many of his keyboard sonatas for a pedagogi- cal purpose. During his stay in Lisbon/Portugal (1719–1727) and in Spain (1729–1757), Scarlatti worked as a music teacher for royal pupils and Maria Barbara, the Queen of Spain (Pagano 2001, chapter 1). Some sonatas, how- ever, were composed earlier in Italy, before Scarlatti moved to Lisbon in 1719. According to Roberto Pagano, the manuscript volume Venice 1742 contains probably these earlier sonatas (Pagano 2001, chapter 2). This volume and other manuscripts, such as Venice: ‘Los trece libros’, Parma, and The ‘clavicordio’ (Pa- gano 2001, chapter 2), serve as primary sources. In addition, some publications, which were published in his lifetime, are of importance for Scarlatti studies: Essercizi per gravicembalo (London, 1738 or 1739/R), XLII Suites de pièces pour le clavecin, ed. T. Roseingrave (London, 1739), Pièces pour le clavecin, 3 vols. (Paris, 1742–6, Boivin), and Pièces pour le clavecin (Paris, before 1747, Boivin) (Boyd 2001). Among the sources, Kirkpatrick prioritized Essercizi per gravicembalo (Pa- gano 2001, chapter 1) and the Venice manuscripts (Sheveloff 1985, 405). Con- cerning Kirkpatrick’s chronological order, Joel Sheveloff criticized: “The K. order followed Venice exactly but differed significantly from Parma, so a true facsimile had to be eschewed, actual manuscript incipits suppressed, and K. numbers substituted” (ibid.). Nevertheless, the K.-number is now widely ac- knowledged and has influenced subsequent editions. For example, the editions of Kenneth Gilbert and Casa Ricordi followed Kirkpatrick’s opus numbers (ibid., 406). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 58 7. 10. 2024 10:12:02 Sa Ra Park: Domenico Scarlatti’s Musical Style: His Keyboard Sonata K. 288 59 Gilbert’s and Gouin’s Editions of K. 2886 Gilbert’s edition was published in 1974 by the publishing company Heugel in Paris; Gouin’s edition was published in 2013 in Montréal: Les Éditions Out- remontaises. Interestingly, these two versions contain a different interpretation regarding the ‘finger’ indication, which is shown in the Venice manuscript. For comparison, these three scores will be shown below. Example 1: Domenico Scarlatti: Sonata K. 288, Paris: Heugel, 1974. 6 The Italian harpsichordist and musicologist Emilia Fadini (1930–2021) published Scarlatti Sona- tas, in which K. 288 is contained in volume 5. For her critical edition, Fadini used many manu- scripts and eighteenth-century publications as well (see Scarlatti 1992, XIII–X). Concerning K. 288, Fadini’s edition is based on the Venice manuscript; any differences between these two ver- sions are hard to find. Therefore, in this chapter, Gilbert’s and Gouin’s editions will be compared with the Venice manuscript. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 59 7. 10. 2024 10:12:02 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 60 Example 2: Domenico Scarlatti: Sonata K. 288, Montréal: Les Éditions Outremontaises, 2013. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 60 7. 10. 2024 10:12:02 Sa Ra Park: Domenico Scarlatti’s Musical Style: His Keyboard Sonata K. 288 61 Example 3: Domenico Scarlatti: Sonata K. 288, VENISE V 23. The ‘finger’ indications shown in the Venice manuscript (Example 3) are inter- preted by Gilbert as a change point of the treble and bass clefs in the left hand (Example 1). Unlike the Venice manuscript/Fadini’s edition, Gilbert places all notes belonging to the left hand on the lower staff; therefore, one can find that the treble and bass clefs frequently change on the lower staff. In comparison, Gouin interprets the ‘finger’ indications as transition moments of manuals on Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 61 7. 10. 2024 10:12:02 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 62 the organ (Example 2) and indicates the organ registers: “I: Trombone, II: Flautato”. This information does not come from the Venice manuscript. It is to note that the previous sonata K. 287 has a clear indication: “Per Organo da Camera con due Tastatura Flautato e Trombone”.7 In addition, the two editions of Gilbert and Gouin indicate that they are based on the manuscript “Parme [Parma]”. This manuscript consists of 15 volumes and has 444 sonatas from the Venetian manuscripts (Pagano 2001, chapter 2). In this source, the sonatas K. 287 and K. 288 are probably included as a pairing, which is supported by the information about the manuscript Venice 1742. This source contains some pairwise arrangements, and if that was the composer’s intention, these two should be in a single number (Pagano 2001, chapter 2). However, Kirkpatrick gave these parings separate numbers (ibid.). Thus, it appears that the sonatas K. 287 and K. 288 did not originally have separate numbers and that Scarlatti composed them for organ. Accordingly, Scarlatti scholars gener- ally agree that these two sonatas are composed for organ (Pagano 2001, chap- ter 1; Sheveloff 1986, 97). Analysis of K 288 Form K. 288 is divided into three parts: A (mm. 1–47), B (mm. 48–80), and A’ (mm. 81–110). (Thus, A has 47 measures, B has 32 measures, and A’ has 29 meas- ures.) The three parts are unbalanced concerning the proportion between them. In comparison to other parts, the first part A is much longer. Part A is divided again into three subparts: a (mm. 1–15), b (mm. 16–31), and a’ (mm. 32–47). The subpart a is in the main key of D major, b is in the dominant key of A major, and the music comes back to the original key D major in a’. The A part has three balanced subparts; each of these has 15 measures. The B part (mm. 48–80) is packed with modulations. In mm. 48–58, we find a modulation from D major to B minor, in mm. 59–70 from B minor to E minor, and in mm. 71–80 from E minor to A major (which is the dominant key of this sonata). The A’ part, beginning with the dominant A7 (m. 81), is in the original key of D major. In mm. 81–91, however, the key is unstable. The main key D major is firmly re-established again from measure 92 on by using a D pedal point in the bass. The key plan of this sonata has similarities with the key plan of the sonata- allegro form: In the A part, the main key and the dominant key are used. An- other common feature is related to the modulations in the B part. The music 7 This indication is found in both Gilbert’s and Gouin’s editions of K. 287. Gilbert’s edition: Do- menico Scarlatti: Sonata K. 287 (Paris: Heugel, 1974). Gouin’s edition: Domenico Scarlatti: Sonata K. 288 (Montréal: Les Éditions Outremontaises, 2013). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 62 7. 10. 2024 10:12:03 Sa Ra Park: Domenico Scarlatti’s Musical Style: His Keyboard Sonata K. 288 63 comes back to the main key in the recapitulation of sonata-allegro form and in A’ of K. 288. This scheme is shown in the table below. Table 1: Comparison between the form of K. 288 and sonata-allegro form8 K. 288 Sonata allegro form A (mm. 1–47) a (mm. 1–15): D Exposition 1st Theme: I b (mm. 16–31): A Transition (mod. to V)2nd Theme: V a’ (mm. 32–47): D Closing Material V B (mm. 48–80) (mm. 48–58): D → b Development Modulations(mm. 59–70): b → e (mm. 71–80): e → A A’ (mm. 81–110) (mm. 81–91): V Recapitulation 1st Theme: I Trans. (mod. to V & back to I) (mm. 92–110): I 2nd Theme: IClosing Material I The table above shows that the two forms have three sections and a similar tonal plan. It is questionable whether Scarlatti’s sonata is in sonata-allegro form because it lacks certain criteria. The sonata-allegro form has two mon- othematic or contrasting themes;9 their melodies are built on symmetrical phrase structures.10 The sonata K. 288, however, does not have themes and melodic periods. One can probably consider the opening material in mm. 1–2 of the right hand as a melody (see for score Example 1). However, this opening material consists of only two measures and is not part of a periodi- cal structure. This small unit appears only four times in the whole piece: mm. 1–2, 16–17, 19–21, and 48–49. Also, no melodic themes appear in the A’ part (mm. 81–110). In comparison to the A part (47 measures), A’ is shorter (29 measures) and it is therefore difficult to consider the A’ part as a recapitu- lation. Sheveloff states that “there is no recapitulation of the movement’s opening in the tonic during the second half, and thus no sonata-allegro form” 8 See for the analysis of the score in Appendix 1. 9 In his handbook dtv-Atlas Musik, vol. 1, 148–149, Ulrich Michels explains the sonata-allegro form by using Beethoven’s sonata op. 2, No. 1 as an example. However, some sonatas do not have two contrasting themes. John Irving states: “Sonata form itself, as practised by pre-Classical and Classical sonata composers, was capable of infinite variety. All of Mozart’s first-movement expo- sitions in the early set K279–83/189d–h and K284/205b (1775) are richly polythematic (particu- larly in the second-subject group), whereas Haydn’s roughly contemporary HXVI:21 and 26 are, by contrast, ‘monothematic’ in the sense that the first and second subjects begin almost identically, although additional melodic material is always introduced during the course of second-subject groups (HXVI:25 is an exception, containing at least nine distinct themes).” (Irving 2001) 10 Roger Kamien discovers that keyboard sonatas composed between 1760 and 1774 have more aa’ pairs than the ones composed between 1742 and 1749 (Kamien 1966, 49–50). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 63 7. 10. 2024 10:12:03 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 64 (Schmalfeldt 2019, 284). By analyzing some of Scarlatti’s sonatas, Rosen concludes: “The rare sonatas of Scarlatti, for example, that begin the recapit- ulation with the opening theme are not in a form essentially different from the others; to label them as precursors of a later ‘Classical’ style is anachronis- tic. They represent only one of the stylistic possibilities of the time in which they were created” (Rosen 1980, 131). In their publication Elements of Sonata Theory of 2006, James Hepokoski and Warren Darcy argue that Scarlatti’s sonatas belong to ‘Type 2’ among five ‘sonata-form types’ (see also Schmalfeldt 2019, 286). The Type 2 sonata form consists of ‘two cycles’: the first one contains ‘P TR S / C’ (primary, transition, secondary, and closing zones), which is similar to an exposition (ibid., 287). In the second half of the form, the music modulates by using ‘P’ and ‘TR’ material and then comes back to the main key, whereby ‘S / C’ are used (ibid.). According to Hepokoski and Darcy, this Type 2 commonly oc- curs in the sonata-form composition of the mid-18th century (ibid., 288). It is questionable if Scarlatti’s sonata K. 288 belongs to this Type 2 sonata form because K. 288 does not have the distinct materials ‘P TR S / C’. Regarding the tonal aspect, Type 2, however, corresponds to the tonal plan of K. 288. As a Type 2 sonata form, Scarlatti’s sonata K. 288 can be considered as a form that has two cycles, not three. The above observations show the difficulties in identifying K. 288 within the forms that were used at that time. Kirkpatrick states: “Scarlatti’s inventiveness is such that he would have been perfectly capable of discovering the classical sonata form and then throwing it away” (Ibid.). Musical Elements As mentioned above (chapter Form), we cannot find any melody in K. 288. Scarlatti emphasizes other elements, especially rhythm and repetitive ele- ments, rather than melody. Regarding the harmonic aspect, Scarlatti’s sonata has a clear harmonic structure, which can sound ‘simple’ to the listeners. Subpart a (mm. 1–15) makes use of I, II, IV, and V, whereby I and V mostly, but II and IV rarely, occur. This is the harmonic feature that is primarily used in this entire piece. In addition, each section is clearly divided by a cadence, which consists of II6-V-I: mm. 14–15, 30–31, 46–47, 58–59, 70–71, and 91– 92. In the B part (mm. 48–80), the music modulates to other keys: b minor, e minor, and A Major (see Table 1). Thus, we find a circle-of-fifths sequence, which is commonly used in tonal music. Although this sonata has no interesting melodic and harmonic features, it shows rhythmic variety, which makes the music vivid and enlivened. The tone durations – sixteenth, eighth, quarter, and dotted quarter notes – are combined in many ways. Interestingly, Scarlatti frequently changed rhythmic patterns. In mm. 8-9 of the right hand, a quarter note and then an eighth Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 64 7. 10. 2024 10:12:03 Sa Ra Park: Domenico Scarlatti’s Musical Style: His Keyboard Sonata K. 288 65 note appear: long–short (see for score Appendix 1). In the next measure 10 of the right hand, this pattern is slightly changed. There, the quarter note fol- lows the eighth note, which shows the reverse relationship short–long. This rhythmic unit disappears in measure 11 of the right hand, where a sixteenth- note group occurs. Corresponding to these rhythmic variations of the right hand in mm. 8–11, the sixteenth-note groups of the left hand in mm. 8–10 are varied. In addition, the sixteenth-note groups occur frequently. This is an example of how Scarlatti dealt effectively with the rhythmic element by us- ing various variations and combinations. The rhythmic variety is an important aspect of Classical era music.11 It is also discussed in the Allgemeine Theorie der schönen Künste [General Theory of the Fine Arts].12 In the article “Rhythmus; Rhythmisch” (Sulzer 1777b, 526– 539), the author mentions two aspects: ‘uniformity’ (Einförmigkeit) versus ‘variety’ [Abwechslung und Mannigfaltigkeit].13 A ‘period’ is part of the ‘uni- formity’, which keeps coming back (ibid., 531). In music, the ‘uniformity’ is combined with ‘variety’ (ibid.). The author enumerates a variety of rhythmic variations (ibid., 528). One can replace a quarter note and two eighth notes with a dotted quarter note and an eighth note or with a quarter note, a dot- ted eighth note, and a sixteenth note (ibid.). Some of them can be eliminated and replaced by breaks (ibid.). These rhythmic variations are clearly shown in Scarlatti’s Sonata K. 288, as discussed above. Irregular Groupings As an interesting feature, Scarlatti’s sonata contains unpredictable moments that are related to the irregularity of grouping measures. Table 2 shows an analysis regarding irregular groupings. 11 According to Friedrich Blume, “the periodic meter and the differentiated rhythm” are character- istics of Classical and romantic era music (Blume 1989, col. 1045). 12 The Allgemeine Theorie der schönen Künste is a dictionary dealing with theories about fine arts, pub- lished in two volumes in 1771 and 1774. (See Baker and Christensen 1995, 14; Schnaus 1989, col. 1734–1735.) 13 Johann Georg Sulzer worked on the dictionary Allgemeine Theorie der schönen Künste for 18 years but did not write all the articles. There were other authors and advisors. For example, Johann Philipp Kirnberger (1721–1783) and his pupil J. A. P. Schulz (1747–1800) wrote articles concern- ing music and music theory. See ibid. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 65 7. 10. 2024 10:12:03 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 66 Table 2: Irregular groupings K. 288 A (mm. 1–47) a (mm. 1–15): 2+2+3+4+4 b (mm. 16–31): 3+3+2+4+4 a’ (mm. 32–47): 2+2+4+4+4 B (mm. 48–80) (mm. 48–58): 3+2+3+3 (mm. 59–70): 5+4+3 (mm. 71–80): 3+4+3 A’ (mm. 81–110) (mm. 81–91): 4+4+3(mm. 92–110): 3+4+2+4+3+3 As shown in Table 2, each section has different groupings. Although the sub- parts a, b, and a’, consist of 15 measures each, their content is divided in distinct ways. These irregular groupings are also discussed in the Allgemeine Theorie der schönen Künste. In the article “Rhythmus; Rhythmisch”, the author shows rhythmic variations by different divisions (see Figure 1). As an effect, the au- thor mentions that we get many emotions: “So one will easily understand how the feeling of calm or restless, gradually increasing or decreasing, lasting for a while, and then suddenly changing and in several different ways alternating sensations can be aroused in this way.”14 In addition, the author argues that the combination of ‘uniformity’ with ‘variety’ “creates happiness” (Sulzer 1777b, 528). Scarlatti uses these two aspects effectively, which will be discussed in the following. Figure 1: An example of rhythmic variations (Sulzer 1777b, 537). 14 “so wird man gar leicht begreifen, wie das Gefühl ruhiger, oder unruhiger, allmählig zu- oder abnehmender, eine Zeitlang anhaltender, und denn sich plötzlich abänderender, und noch auf mehrere Arten abwechselter Empfindungen, dadurch zu erweken sey.” (Sulzer 1777b, 537) Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 66 7. 10. 2024 10:12:03 Sa Ra Park: Domenico Scarlatti’s Musical Style: His Keyboard Sonata K. 288 67 In Table 2, it is noteworthy that a rhythmic pattern frequently occurs through- out the entire piece. It appears in mm. 8–11, 12–15, 24–27, 28–31, 36–39, 40–43, 44–47, 56–58, 64–67, 68–70, 74–77, 78–80, 85–88, 89–91, 101–104, and 105–107 (see for score Appendix 1). These are 59 measures in total. When one considers the entire sonata (110 measures), it is clear how dominating this idea is. The repetition of a particular pattern is a common feature in Scarlatti’s sonatas. In the article “Domenico Scarlatti, Escape Artist: Sightings of His ‘Mixed Style’ Towards the End of the Eighteenth Century”, Janet Schmalfeldt calls this ‘endless’ repetition “one more time” and examines this feature by ana- lyzing five sonatas of Scarlatti. This feature plays a crucial role by forming an evaded cadence (Schmalfeldt 2019, 272; Caplin 1998, 103). For example, the four-measure rhythmic pattern occurs in mm. 8–11 and 12–15. The cadence is evaded in measure 11, while it is established after the ‘one more time’ repetition in m. 15 (see for score Appendix 1). Concerning its uniqueness, Schmalfeldt states: “Scholars of Scarlatti’s keyboard output relative to music before his time will confirm, I trust, that for no composer before Scarlatti had the technique become such a stylistic trademark” (Schmalfeldt 2019, 272). The repeated pattern represents ‘uniformity’ (Einförmigkeit). It mostly ap- pears in pairs: mm. 8–11 (4 measures) and mm. 12–15 (4 measures); mm. 24–27 (4 measures) and mm. 28–31 (4 measures); mm. 40–43 (4 measures) and mm. 44–47 (4 measures); mm. 64–67 (4 measures) and mm. 68–70 (3 measures); mm. 74–77 (4 measures) and mm. 78–80 (3 measures); mm. 85–88 (4 measures) and mm. 89–91 (3 measures); mm. 101–104 (4 measures) and mm. 105–107 (3 measures). Here, we can observe two groupings: the four- four-measure grouping and the four-three-measure grouping. In addition, the four-four-measure grouping occurs in Part A (mm. 1–47), whereas the four- three-measure grouping appears in Part B (mm. 48–80) and A’ (mm. 81–110). The four-four-measure grouping shows a period: It is divided into two equal parts (four measures and four measures). The first part ends in an imper- fect cadence, and the second one in a perfect cadence (see Ratner 2001, 404). In comparison, the four-three-measure grouping is ambiguous to interpret. As an example, the passage (mm. 64–70) will be examined in detail (see for score Appendix 1). It is divided into two parts: mm. 64–67 and mm. 68–70. The second one (mm. 68–70) consists of three measures, while its last tone lies in the next measure 71. This measure, however, has two meanings, namely 1) as the end of the former passage and 2) as the beginning of the next grouping (mm. 71–73). This is shown in Figure 2. In m. 71, one can perceive the regular periodic pattern as well as irregularity. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 67 7. 10. 2024 10:12:03 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 68 The four-measure grouping The four-measure grouping m. 64 m. 65 m. 66 m. 67 m. 68 m. 69 m. 70 m. 71 B7 e Another grouping m. 71 m. 72 m. 73 Figure 2: Schema of mm. 64–73. Furthermore, we can find that the repeated pattern is related to the change of registers. Indeed, the ‘finger’ indications shown in the Venice manuscript (Ex- ample 3) are placed in mm. 11, 15, 27, 31, 43, 47, 55, 63, 67, 73, 77, 84, 88, 100, and 104,15 where the repeated pattern occurs (see Table 3).16 The ‘finger’ indica- tions have two types: 1) the finger pointing down and 2) the finger pointing up. The music begins in a high register, then the finger pointing down occurs in m. 11, namely, after the first four-measure unit of the repeated pattern. In mm. 12–15, the link hand plays figures running down from A4 to D2, which is the lowest tone of the entire piece. With the finger pointing up, the range of the link hand is changed to a higher register, beginning with the tone D4 in m. 16. Table 3: The appearance of the ‘finger’ indications K. 288 A (mm. 1–47) a (mm. 1–15): 2+2+3+4↘4↗ b (mm. 16–31): 3+3+2+4↘4↗ a’ (mm. 32–47): 2+2+4+4↘4↗ B (mm. 48–80) (mm. 48–58): 3+2+3↘3 (mm. 59–70): 5↗4↘3 (mm. 71–80): 3↗4↘3 A’ (mm. 81–110) (mm. 81–91): 4↗4↘3 (mm. 92–110): 3+4+2↗4↘3+3 From the perspective of Johann Georg Sulzer,17 K. 288 retains a ‘genius’ as- pect. In the article Mannigfaltigkeit [Variety], Sulzer mentions that frequent 15 Here is used the Ricordi edition by Emilia Fadini (Vol. 5. Milano: Casa Ricordi, 1992, 86–89). 16 In Table 3, the ‘finger’ signs are indicated by arrows. 17 Johann Georg Sulzer was born in 1720 in Winterthur (a city in Switzerland). He studied theol- ogy, philosophy, and mathematics in Zurich. In 1747, Sulzer became a professor of mathematics at the Joachimsthalsches Gymnasium in Berlin. From 1763 to 1773, he worked as a professor at the Ritter Academy. In 1779, he died in Berlin. (See Schnaus 1989, col. 1733.) Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 68 7. 10. 2024 10:12:03 Sa Ra Park: Domenico Scarlatti’s Musical Style: His Keyboard Sonata K. 288 69 changes attract people’s attention (Sulzer 1777a, 210).18 This inclination is part of “the inner activity of the spirit” (ibid.). In addition, a composer who ex- presses ‘variety’ is considered a ‘genius’ (ibid.), and Sulzer states: Only the composer possessing the necessary genius for his art knows how to present the main idea in a variety of forms by changing its accompanying harmonies, developing it, and altering it through the addition of subordinate but still coherent ideas, so that the ear is continually engaged from beginning to end.19 (Baker and Christensen 1995, 48) As analyzed above, Scarlatti combines the repeated pattern with various ex- pressions by changing rhythms, dividing music irregularly, and changing reg- isters as well. For the performer, it would be important to think about how to play the repeated pattern. We can find various ways. One may play it by chang- ing dynamics (forte and piano) or one may use different articulations. For the organ, Gouin’s edition shows one possibility, by indicating alternate manuals and organ registers (Example 2). In addition, one can play the D pedal point with the organ pedal in order to sustain the lowest tone D2 for nine measures long (mm. 92–100). In my opinion, the irregularity is related to improvisation. This is consider- able when we examine improvisatory practices of keyboard music in the eight- eenth century. Furthermore, Scarlatti was an accomplished harpsichordist at that time, which is acknowledged by his contemporaries.20 Besides the irregular groupings, this piece contains other improvisatory characters. The 10-10-10 motion between two voices in mm. 19–22 and the use of suspensions 4–3 in mm. 22–23 are common features of improvisatory practice (see for score Ap- pendix 1).21 Voice exchanges (mm. 5, 7, 33, and 35) and the repetitive material of the four-measure rhythmic pattern support the improvisatory character of this piece. Indeed, Scarlatti scholars agree with this point. Sheveloff states: “Un- like Bach and Handel, Scarlatti left us few models of improvisatory practice. With his music containing so high a degree of internal contrast of every kind, improvisation has to become recomposition to be believable” (Sheveloff 1986, 104). Sutcliffe argues that improvisation an essential part of composition in 18 In the introduction to Johann Georg Sulzer: General Theory of the Fine Arts (1771–1774); Selected Articles, Thomas Christensen mentions that most articles on aesthetic questions, including Man- nigfaltigkeit [Variety], are written by Sulzer (Baker and Christensen 1995, 14). 19 “Nur der Tonsetzer, der das zu seiner Kunst nöthige Genie hat, weiß den Hauptgedanken in mannichfaltiger Gestalt, durch abgeänderte Harmonien unterstützt, vorzutragen, und ihn durch mehrere ihm untergeordnete, aber genau damit zusammenhangende Gedanken, so zu verändern, daß das Gehör von Anfang bis zum Ende beständig gereizt wird.” (Sulzer 1777a, 211) 20 The anecdote of the competition between Scarlatti and Handel is well-known. See Pagano 2001. In addition, Johann Joachim Quantz (1697–1773) and Johann Adolph Hasse (1699–1783) were amazed by the perfection of Scarlatti’s playing (ibid.). 21 The 10-10-10 motion appears in mm. 48–51, 53, 71, and 82; the feature of suspensions 4–3, 7-6, and 9-8 occur in mm. 51–52, 60–62, 71–73, 82–83, 92–94, and 95–98. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 69 7. 10. 2024 10:12:03 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 70 the eighteenth century by arguing “that the physical engagement entailed in keyboard composition may have made ‘improvisation’ an even more vital force. Without those terms, though, we have an approach that simply denies Scarlatti his extraordinary compositional virtuosity” (Sutcliffe 2003, 41). Indeed, the ir- regular groupings that entail the improvisatory character give the music vitality. Comparison Between my Sonata in F and Scarlatti’s Sonata K 288 As a study on Scarlatti’s style, one can best judge the style in a pastiche writ- ing/composition using specific style elements. For that purpose, I composed a Scarlatti-style sonata (“Sonata in F”), which will be compared to Scarlatti’s original below: Example 4: Comparison between Sonata in F (on the left column, mm. 1–34)22 and Scar- latti’s K. 288 (on the right column, mm. 1–31). 22 The score of Sonata in F and the music can be found in the following link: https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=lW8dKxjLI0U. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 70 7. 10. 2024 10:12:03 Sa Ra Park: Domenico Scarlatti’s Musical Style: His Keyboard Sonata K. 288 71 Similarities The formal scheme of Scarlatti’s Sonata K. 288 is adapted in my composition. These two sonatas have three parts A, B, and A’, which are divided into two or three subparts. Both sonatas are similar in length: K. 288 has 110 bars and mine has 115. Table 4: Comparison of form between Sonata in F and K. 288 Sonata in F K. 288 A (mm. 1–50) a (mm. 1–15): F A (mm. 1–47) a (mm. 1–15): D b (mm. 16–31): C b (mm. 16–31): A a’ (mm. 32–50): F a’ (mm. 32–47): D B (mm. 51–84) (mm. 51–63): F → d B (mm. 48–80) (mm. 48–58): D → b (mm. 64–72): d → g (mm. 59–70): b → e (mm. 73–84): g → C (mm. 71–80): e → A A’ (mm. 85–115) (mm. 85–94): V A’ (mm. 81–110) (mm. 81–91): V(mm. 95–115): I (mm. 92–110): I As shown in Table 4, the harmonic structure of Scarlatti’s sonata serves as a model of my Sonata in F. Both contain the change of tonic–dominant–tonic keys in A, the circle-of-fifths sequences in B, and the return to the tonic key in A’. In addition, the 10-10-10 motion between two voices and the use of suspensions are found in both sonatas. In Sonata in F, the 10-10-10 motion is one of the features that frequently occur; it appears in mm. 33–37, 51–53, 56, 58, 64–65, 73, 75–76, and 85–86. Differences Scarlatti’s concept regarding irregular groupings discussed in chapter Irregular Groupings serves as an essential idea for the composition of Sonata in F. In- stead of adapting the groupings from K. 288, Sonata in F shows differences. For example, the four-measure rhythmic pattern that repeats throughout K. 288 (chapter Musical Elements) becomes in Sonata in F an element that is steadily changed regarding groupings. In Table 5, the two sonatas are com- pared in terms of irregular groupings. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 71 7. 10. 2024 10:12:03 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 72 Table 5: Comparison of irregular groupings between Sonata in F and K. 288 Sonata in F K. 288 A (mm. 1–50) a (mm. 1–15): 2+2+2+4+5 A (mm. 1–47) a (mm. 1–15): 2+2+3+4+4 b (mm. 16–31):2+2+3+4+5 b (mm. 16–31): 3+3+2+4+4 a’ (mm. 32–50): 2+2+2+3+4+6 a’ (mm. 32–47): 2+2+4+4+4 B (mm. 51–84) (mm. 51–63): 3+2+4+4 B (mm. 48–80) (mm. 48–58): 3+2+3+4 (mm. 64–72): 2+4+3 (mm. 59–70): 5+4+3 (mm. 73–84): 2+3+4+3 (mm. 71–80): 3+4+3 A’ (mm. 85–115) (mm. 85–94): 2+3+2+3 A’ (mm. 81–110) (mm. 81–91): 4+4+3 (mm. 95–115): 3+3+3+4+2+3+3 (mm. 92–110): 3+4+2+4+3+3 In addition, Sonata in F contains new features that don’t appear in K. 288. Patterns 1 and 2 listed below are characterized by a sixteenth motion with a sixteenth rest. In K. 288, the sixteenth notes are mostly used, whereas a sixteenth rest never occurs. In contrast, the sixteenth rest plays an important role in Sonata in F and is considered as a characteristic that distinguishes this sonata from Scarlatti’s. The other two patterns are not found in K. 288; they are used to connect between the sections or to expand sections (see Table 6). Table 6: New patterns used in Sonata in F Patterns Measures 1 mm. 8, 9, 11, 12, 24, 28, 29, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, and 61 2 mm. 13, 30, 47, 48, 92, 93, 106, 107, 108, and 109. 3 mm. 4, 6, 20, 21, 38, 39, 40, 87, and 88 4 mm. 64–65 and 85–86 Ambitus When Sonata in F is composed in Scarlatti’s style, it would be necessary to consider whether the piece can be played on the instruments that Scarlatti used, specifically concerning the range of the instruments. For Scarlatti, the instruments listed in Table 7 were available; these belonged to Queen Maria Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 72 7. 10. 2024 10:12:03 Sa Ra Park: Domenico Scarlatti’s Musical Style: His Keyboard Sonata K. 288 73 Barbara, whom Scarlatti served as a music teacher in Portugal and Spain. Table 7 shows the range of Barbara’s instruments. Table 7: Instruments listed in the inventory of Queen Maria Barbara23 Instrument Range 1. A Florentine piano Compass 56 notes 2. A [single-manual] harpsichord Compass 56 notes [GG to d’’’] 3. A [single-manual] harpsichord Compass 61 notes [GG to g’’’] 4. A [single-manual] harpsichord Compass 56 notes [GG to d’’’?] 5. A [single-manual] harpsichord Compass 50 notes [BB to c’’’?] 6. A [single-manual] harpsichord Compass 58 notes [GG to e’’’?] 7. A [single-manual?] harpsichord Compass not given 8. A [single-manual] harpsichord Compass 56 notes [GG to d’’’] 9. A Florentine piano Compass 49 notes [C to c’’’] 10. A [single-manual] harpsichord Compass 61 notes [GG to g’’’] 11. A piano Compass 54 notes [GG to c’’’?] 12. A [single-manual] harpsichord Compass 61 notes [GG to g’’’] In addition to these keyboard instruments listed in Table 7, Sheveloff assumes that there were other pianos and harpsichords “that might previously have been sold, given away, or transferred to some other member of the Royal Fam- ily or Inner Circle of the Court. Nor does it mention chamber organs of the type called for in P and V, probably because these were fixed installations, not the personal property of the Queen. As usual, the possible presence of the small, fragile clavichords was too insignificant a matter to mention” (Sheveloff 1986, 92). Scarlatti’s sonata K. 288 has a range of four octaves: D2-D6 [DD-d’’’]. Among the instruments listed above, instruments no. 5, 9, and 11 are not ad- equate for playing K. 288, because their range is limited to c’’’ [C6]. For ex- ample, instrument no. 9, a Florentine piano, has a range of four octaves [C to c’’’], on which most Scarlatti sonatas cannot be played (Koster 2007, 591). The keyboard instruments that were developed in Portugal and Spain in the eighteenth century have “the characteristic G-orientated five-octave compass, on which Scarlatti’s entire oeuvre can be played if the GG or GG# key is tuned to FF for the few sonatas requiring it” (Ibid., 597).24 23 The content in brackets is an addition by John Koster. For more information see Koster 2007, 598–599; Sheveloff 1986, 91–92. 24 Maria Barbara contributed to the development of the keyboard instrument in Spain. Farinelli’s biographer, Giovenale Sacchi, states: “By chance the queen, in talking with Farinelli, mentioned that she would like to have a harpsichord with more various tones [voci], and asked him if he had ever seen such a one. He replied that he had not. But then, leaving the queen without saying anything further, he consulted Fernández [a harpsichord maker for the Spanish royal family], Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 73 7. 10. 2024 10:12:03 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 74 When we consider that K. 288 was composed for organ (chapter Gilbert’s and Gouin’s Editions of K. 288), this instrument should have at least a range of D2–D6. My composition Sonata in F considers the range of K. 288. The low- est note of Sonata in F is F2; the highest note is D6, as in K. 288. Although the modern keyboard instruments have no problem with playing any sonatas of Scarlatti, the aspect of the range was an important aspect of my composition. The main reason for selecting this range is that one can have opportunities to play Sonata in F on a historical organ.25 From the analysis in this chapter (Comparison Between my Sonata in F and Scarlatti’s Sonata K. 288), it is clear that Sonata in F is an imitation of the Scar- latti style, which means that the characteristic musical elements identified in the analysis of K. 288 are dominant style elements.26 Concluding Remarks Scarlatti’s K. 288 includes ‘interesting’ features regarding form, rhythm, and irregular groupings. The form of K. 288 can be divided into three parts. Con- cerning the key plan, K. 288 is similar to the sonata-allegro form. However, K. 288 lacks certain criteria of the sonata-allegro form; themes and melodic elements are not found in K. 288. It would also be difficult to classify K. 288 as a ternary form. The reason for that is: firstly, the B part (mm. 48–80) of K. 288 is tonally unstable. Secondly, no new musical idea does appear in mm. 48–80. Scarlatti makes K. 288 interesting by modifying the rhythm and the repeti- tive pattern. If the four-four-measure grouping had been used unchanged, the music would have been monotonous. In contrast, Scarlatti modified the rhythm as well as the repetitive pattern by using different rhythmic values, different reg- isters, and irregular groupings. In this piece, the ‘uniformity’ and the ‘variety’ are well combined, which makes Scarlatti a ‘genius’ according to Sulzer. These analytical findings support the ‘originality’ of Scarlatti’s style, as Sut- cliffe argues. Regarding the form, Scarlatti’s K. 288 is difficult to classify; and it includes improvisatory characteristics. Based on the analysis, the author ap- plied the characteristics of K. 288 for composing. In the process, the author used different figures and groupings in comparison to the original. The reader whose talent he knew, and after they had designed the work together and executed it, he ar- ranged for it to be found as a surprise by the queen in her apartments.” (Quoted in Pagano 2001, chapter 2.) 25 During an organ excursion to Spain in 2017, I saw some historical organs that are still located in churches. There, I played organ pieces of early music, among them several Scarlatti sonatas. The organs have mostly one manual with a smaller range, but they have special registers that are char- acteristics of historical Spanish organs. 26 However, my composition lacks musical logic in some places. For example, the frequent appear- ance of the 10-10-10 motion, which lasts for several measures (see chapter Similarities), can make the listeners bored. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 74 7. 10. 2024 10:12:03 Sa Ra Park: Domenico Scarlatti’s Musical Style: His Keyboard Sonata K. 288 75 can find a lack of musical incoherence and logic in some places in Sonata in F. However, the ‘style copy’ is a useful method to combine theory and practice, which would broaden the horizon of musicology and music theory. Bibliography Baker, Nancy Kovaleff, and Thomas Christensen, eds. 1995. Aesthetics and the Art of Musical Composition in the German Enlightenment: Selected Writings of Johann Georg Sulzer and Heinrich Christoph Koch. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Blume, Friedrich. 1989. “Klassik.” In Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart: Allgemeine Enzyklopädie der Musik, edited by Friedrich Blume. Vol. 7, col. 1027–1090. Kassel: Bärenreiter-Verlag. Boyd, Malcolm, and Roberto Pagano. 2001. “Scarlatti, (Giuseppe) Domenico.” In Grove Music Online. https://oxfordmusiconline.com. Caplin, William E. 1998. Classical Form: A Theory of Formal Functions for the Instrumental Music of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. New York: Oxford University Press. Dürr, Walther, and Walter Gerstenberg. 1989. “Rhythmus, Metrum, Takt.” In Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart: Allgemeine Enzyklopädie der Musik, edited by Friedrich Blume. Vol. 11, col. 383–419. Kassel: Bärenreiter-Verlag. Heartz, Daniel, and Bruce Alan Brown. 2001. “Galant.” In The New Grove Dictionary of Mu- sic and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie. Second Edition. Vol. 9, 430–432. Macmillan Publishers Limited. Hepokoski, James, and Warren Darcy. 2006. Elements of Sonata Theory: Norms, Types, and Deformations in the Late-Eighteenth-Century Sonata. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kamien, Roger. 1966. “Style Change in the Mid-18th-Century Keyboard Sonata.” Jour- nal of the American Musicological Society 19, no. 1: 37–58. https://www.jstor.org/ stable/830870?seq=1. Kirkpatrick, Ralph. 1953. Domenico Scarlatti. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Koster, John. 2007. “Towards an Optimal Instrument: Domenico Scarlatti and the New Wave of Iberian Harpsichord Making.” Early Music 35, no. 4: 575–603. https://aca- demic.oup.com/em/article-abstract/35/4/575/455770?redirectedFrom=fulltext. Mangsen, Sandra, John Irving, John Rink, and Paul Griffiths. 2001. “Sonata.” In Grove Mu- sic Online. https://oxfordmusiconline.com. Michels, Ulrich. 2000. dtv-Atlas Musik. 19th edition. München: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag. Park, Sa Ra. 2024. “Sonata in F.” YouTube video, 1:28. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=lW8dKxjLI0U. Ratner, Leonard G. 2001. “Period.” In The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Vol. 19, edited by Stanley Sadie, 403–404. London: Macmillan Publishers Limited. Rosen, Charles. 1980. Sonata Forms. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. Scarlatti, Domenico. 1974a. “Sonata, K. 287.” In Domenico Scarlatti: Sonates. Volume 6, edit- ed by Kenneth Gilbert, 133–135. Paris: Heugel. http://imslp.eu/files/imglnks/euimg/b/ bc/IMSLP346569-PMLP336103-Scarlatti,_Domenico-Sonates_Heugel_32.430_ Volume_6_32_K.287_scan.pdf. Scarlatti, Domenico. 1974b. “Sonata, K. 288 (VENISE V 23).” In Domenico Scar- latti: Sonates. Volume 6, edited by Kenneth Gilbert, 136. Paris: Heugel. http:// imslp.eu/files/imglnks/euimg/b/bc/IMSLP346569-PMLP336103-Scarlatti,_ Domenico-Sonates_Heugel_32.430_Volume_6_32_K.287_scan.pdf. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 75 7. 10. 2024 10:12:03 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 76 Scarlatti, Domenico. 1974c. “Sonata, K. 288.” In Domenico Scarlatti: Sonates. Volume 6, edited by Kenneth Gilbert, 137–139. Paris: Heugel. http://imslp.eu/files/imglnks/ euimg/0/08/IMSLP346570-PMLP297352-Scarlatti,_Domenico-Sonates_Heu- gel_32.430_Volume_6_33_K.288_scan.pdf. Scarlatti, Domenico. 1992. Domenico Scarlatti: Sonate per clavicembalo. Critical Edition, Vol- ume 5, edited by Emilia Fadini. Milano: Casa Ricordi. Scarlatti, Domenico. 2013a. Sonata, K. 287, edited by Pierre Gouin. Montré- al: Les Éditions Outremontaises. https://imslp.org/wiki/Keyboard_Sonata_ in_D_major%2C_K.287_(Scarlatti%2C_Domenico). Scarlatti, Domenico. 2013b. Sonata, K. 288, edited by Pierre Gouin. Montré- al: Les Éditions Outremontaises. https://imslp.org/wiki/Keyboard_Sonata_ in_D_major,_K.288_(Scarlatti,_Domenico). Schmalfeldt, Janet. 2019. “Domenico Scarlatti, Escape Artist: Sightings of His ‘Mixed Style’ Towards the End of the Eighteenth Century.” Music Analysis 38, no. 3: 253–296. Schnaus, Peter. 1989. “Sulzer, Johann Georg.” In Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart: Allgemeine Enzyklopädie der Musik. Vol. 12, edited by Friedrich Blume, col. 1733–1735. München, Kassel: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, Bärenreiter-Verlag. Sheveloff, Joel. 1985. “Domenico Scarlatti: Tercentenary Frustrations.” The Musical Quar- terly 71, no. 4: 399–436. Sheveloff, Joel. 1986. “Domenico Scarlatti: Tercentenary Frustrations (Part II).” The Musical Quarterly 72, no. 1: 90–118. Sulzer, Johann Georg. 1777a. “Mannichfaltigkeit.” In Allgemeine Theorie der schönen Künste. Vol. 2,1, 526–539. Biel: Heilmann. Sulzer, Johann Georg. 1777b. “Rhythmus; Rhythmisch.” In Allgemeine Theorie der schönen Künste. Vol. 2,2, 526–539. Biel: Heilmann. Sutcliffe, W. Dean. 2003. The Keyboard Sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti and Eighteenth-Century Musical Style. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 76 7. 10. 2024 10:12:03 Sa Ra Park: Domenico Scarlatti’s Musical Style: His Keyboard Sonata K. 288 77 Appendix: Form Analysis Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 77 7. 10. 2024 10:12:03 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 78 Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 78 7. 10. 2024 10:12:03 Sa Ra Park: Domenico Scarlatti’s Musical Style: His Keyboard Sonata K. 288 79 Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 79 7. 10. 2024 10:12:04 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 80 POVZETEK Glasbeni slog Domenica Scarlattija: njegova Sonata K 288 Scarlattijeve sonate se danes pogosto izvajajo v študijskem procesu, redkeje pa zazvenijo na koncertih. V primerjavi s klavirskimi sonatami Mozarta, Beethovna in drugih klasicističnih skladateljev, so Scarlattijeve sonate dokaj kratke. Poleg tega je zanje značilna prosojna tekstura podobna ‘galantnemu slogu’, ki ga mnogi izvajalci ne cenijo preveč. Zato ostajajo Scarlattijeve sonate danes večinoma zgolj študijska snov. Grove Music Online navaja, da so Scarlattijeve sonate »znane po postopnem oddaljevanju od tipizirane uniformnosti baročne retorike in približevanju k bolj dinamičnemu oblikovanju fraz ‘galantnega sloga’« (Irving 2001). Vsekakor je gotovo, da so v izjemnem opusu tudi dela, ki ustrezajo značilnostim ‘galantnega sloga’. Značilna melodija v ‘galantnem slogu’ je sesta- vljena iz »kratkih, dvo- ali štiritaktnih odsekov, urejenih v simetrične celote« (ibid.). Zanjo je značilna »spevnost, liričnost, punktirani ritmi (včasih obrnjeni kot ‘Scotch snap’), prekinjanje običajnega ritmičnega poteka s triolami, učinkovita uporaba pavz in dolgih zadržkov, kon- trasti v dinamiki in artikulaciji« (ibid.). V nasprotju s temi, dokaj splošnimi klasifikacijami, so novejše raziskave prinesle drugačen pristop. V The Keyboard Sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti and Eighteenth-Century Musical Style W. Dean Sutcliffe opozarja na težavnost klasificiranja Scarlattijevega sloga, saj ta združuje vrsto različnih vplivov, ki jih ni mogoče vedno točno določiti. Zato Sutcliffe izpostavlja Scarlattijev mešani slog kot »izvirnost« (Sutcliffe 2003, 52), ki je ni mogoče zajeti z nobeno klasifikacijo. V članku »Domenico Scarlatti, Escape Ar- tist: Sightings of His ‘Mixed Style’ Towards the End of the Eighteenth Century«, se Janet Schmalfeldt strinja s Sutcliffovim mnenjem in opozarja na »skladateljev beg pred stilistično klasifikacijo« (Schmalfeldt 2019, 254). Pričujoča raziskava se osredotoča na Scarlattijev glasbeni slog v Sonati K. 288, saj ta v literaturi o Scarlattijevem delu še ni bila podrobneje opazovana. Opazuje ne samo obliko, ampak tudi druge glasbene prvine, kot so melodija, harmonija in ritem. Ob tem se posveča tudi nenavadnemu povezovanju taktov. Analiza pokaže, da v K. 288 ne najdemo značilnosti, ki jih omenja članek v Grove Music Online. Članek je dopolnjen še s primerjavo avtoričine sonate, ki poskuša posnemati Scarlattijev slog. Na zaključku članka avtorica presoja, ali bi bilo njeno delo lahko stilna kopija Scarlattijeve sonate, ali samostojno delo, ki uporablja Scar- lattijev glasbeni jezik. Članek želi prispevati k spremembi uveljavljenih stališč v raziskavah Scarlattijeve glasbe in k uveljavitvi njenega avtorja kot »zanimive zgodovinske osebe« (Sutc- liffe 2003, 1). Ob tem poskuša pokazati na Scarlattijevo »izvirnost« in reinterpretira njegove sonate za instrumente s tipkami. Zato raziskava ni zanimiva le za muzikologe, ampak tudi za glasbenike in skladatelje. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 80 7. 10. 2024 10:12:04 Sa Ra Park: Domenico Scarlatti’s Musical Style: His Keyboard Sonata K. 288 81 ABOUT THE AUTHOR SA RA PARK (srpark146@gmail.com) is a musicologist, music theorist, and church mu- sician. She studied in her native South Korea, in Germany, and in the USA. Her research interests include Asian music, especially Korean traditional music, music by contemporary musicians, and intercultural relationships surrounding church hymns. O AVTORICI SA RA PARK (srpark146@gmail.com) je muzikologinja, glasbena teoretičarka in cerkvena glasbenica. Študirala je doma v Južni Koreji, Nemčiji in v ZDA. Raziskovalno se posveča azijski glasbi, še posebej tradicionalni korejski glasbi, sodobni umetniški glasbi in medkul- turnim stikom v povezavi s cerkveno pesmijo. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 81 7. 10. 2024 10:12:04 Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 82 7. 10. 2024 10:12:04 83 DOI: 10.4312/mz.60.1.83-114 UDK: 785.11Grieg E. Edvard Grieg’s Norwegian Dances op. 35: Two Orchestral Versions, Two Destinies Rytis Urniežius Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre ABSTRACT Edvard Grieg never orchestrated his Norwegian Dances Op. 35 composition himself, but several orchestral versions created by other musicians exist. The orchestration by Hans Sitt soon became popular and is frequently performed up to these days. Robert Henriques crea- ted another version of the composition approximately eight years earlier than Sitt. Although Grieg approved Henriques’s version in his letters, Sitt’s version was ultimately published. The article aims to compare two orchestral versions of Norwegian Dances, their orchestration technique, style, and probable influences. Keywords: Edvard Grieg, Norwegian Dances Op. 35, orchestration IZVLEČEK Edvard Grieg ni nikoli orkestriral svojih Norveških plesov, op. 35, obstaja pa več orkestrskih različic, ki so delo drugih glasbenikov. Zelo popularna je postala orkestracija Hansa Sitta, ki se še danes pogosto izvaja. Približno osem let pred Sittom je svojo različico orkestracije izdelal tudi Robert Henriques. Čeprav je Grieg v svojih pismih pohvalil Henriquesovo verzijo, je bila na koncu izdana Sittova. Članek primerja obe orkestralni verziji Norveških plesov, tehniko in slog njune orkestracije ter verjetne vzore zanju. Ključne besede: Edvard Grieg, Norveški plesi op. 35, orkestracija Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 83 7. 10. 2024 10:12:04 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lx/1 84 Introduction: A Short History of Two Orchestrations Edvard Grieg created his Norwegian Dances Op. 35 for piano four hands in 1880 (1881?)1. Soon afterwards the composition was published by C. F. Peters publishing house in Leipzig. Grieg found the themes (a march and three hal- lings) for Norwegian Dances in the collection of folk melodies Older and Newer Norwegian Mountain Melodies [Ældre og nyere norske fjeldmelodier] compiled by Ludvig M. Lindeman (1812–1887).2 Grieg never orchestrated this composition himself. Instead, at least two orchestral versions3 of this work by other musicians were accomplished during Grieg’s lifetime. Danish composer and cellist Robert Henriques (1858–1914) created the first version, and Bohemian violinist Hans Sitt (1850–1922) the second one. Ultimately, Sitt’s score was published and be- came the most frequently performed orchestral version of Norwegian Dances. The concise chronology of creating orchestral versions of Norwegian Dances is as follows: • In 1880 (1881?), Grieg created a four-movement cycle Norwegian Dances for piano four hands. • In 1881, the composition was published by C. F. Peters. • In 1882, Robert Henriques orchestrated Norwegian Dances. • In 1883, on 2 January, Grieg sent a letter to Henriques containing com- ments and suggestions to improve the score. • In 1886, on 15 January, the premier of Peer Gynt in Copenhagen included Norwegian Dances 1, 2 and 3 orchestrated by Henriques. • In 1887, Grieg created the version of Norwegian Dances for piano two hands. • In 1890,4 Hans Sitt completed his orchestral version of Norwegian Dances. 1 Both years (1880 and 1881) can be found indicated in different sources as years of the composing of Norwegian Dances. 2 In his letter to Gerhard Schjelderup (11 May 1904), Grieg mentioned that Norwegian Dances con- tain no folk melodies but his original themes (Finn Benestad and William H. Halverson, eds., Ed- vard Grieg: Letters to Colleagues and Friends (Columbus, Ohio: Peer Gynt Press, 2000), 609). Likely, Grieg here was mistaken. Yet the indication “[in op. 35]” in the text is given in brackets, thus not by Grieg himself but by the editors, so Grieg did not necessarily mean Op. 35, but possibly some other collection. In another letter to Schjelderup (26 October 1905), Grieg speaks of Norwegian Dances already as the work where “folk song merges with one’s own individuality” (Ibid., 612). 3 In a letter to Carl Warmuth Jr. (10 January 1884), Grieg talked about performing the orchestrated Norwegian Dances at the concert in Amsterdam. The conductor Johan Gottfried Hendrik Mann was also the author of the orchestration. According to Grieg, the composition had tremendous success (Benestad and Halverson, Edvard Grieg: Letters, 669–670). Also, Frans van der Stucken orchestrated Dances Nos. 2 and 3 (see: Bergen Offentlige Bibliotek website, https://mitt.bergen- bibliotek.no/cgi-bin/websok-grieg?tnr=201706). Apparently, Norwegian Dances were orchestrat- ed more than twice, yet only Sitt’s version stood the test of time. 4 In some sources (program notes, etc.), the date 1891 and sometimes earlier years are indicated. However, the date 1890 appears more credible. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 84 7. 10. 2024 10:12:04 Rytis Urniežius: Edvard Grieg’s Norwegian Dances op. 35 85 • In 1891, C. F. Peters publishing house issued an orchestral score of Norwe- gian Dances created by Hans Sitt. In a letter to Frederick Delius (16 April 1888), Grieg highly estimated the “colossal erudition” of Sitt, yet he characterised his orchestration as “at times somewhat crude”.5 When Peters told about the intention to publish the orches- tral version of Norwegian Dances, Grieg suggested asking a French musician to do this job. He indicated Edouard Lalo as one of the candidates. Yet Peters “did not comply with Grieg’s wishes”6: an already existing version created by Sitt was published in 1891. Grieg did not prefer any of the two existing scores: he perceived the advantages and shortcomings of each version, yet his concep- tion was somehow different, expecting that the third version (the “French” one) could be the best. In an article published in 1953, Danish author Sven Lunn attempted to look more closely at the relations between Grieg and Henriques. Among other items, he discussed the orchestration of Norwegian Dances. According to Lunn: Henriques immediately saw that they [Norwegian Dances – R.U.] provided opportuni- ties for an orchestral arrangement, addressed […] Grieg and obtained his permission to orchestrate them. Probably, he worked during summer months: at least No. 2 of these four Dances is dated “Petershoj July 3, 1882”, and No. 3 “Petershoj July 25, 1882”. No. 1 and No. 4 are without date.7 The assumption that Henriques “immediately saw” the opportunities hidden in the composition matches with characteristics accepted by numerous authors8 who consider Norwegian Dances a work that “cries for being orchestrated” due to the inherent qualities of its character and texture. Benestad and Schjelderup- Ebbe also stated that “Norwegian Dances have a character that seems to call for the sound of an orchestra, and it is strange that Grieg himself didn’t make some attempt to orchestrate them at the same time he wrote the four-hands version”.9 5 Benestad and Halverson, Edvard Grieg: Letters, 213. 6 Finn Benestad and Dag Schelderup-Ebbe, Edvard Grieg: The Man and the Artist (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1988), 248. 7 Sven Lunn, “Grieg og Robert Henriques,” Nordisk musikkultur 2, no. 1 (1953): 6. 8 For example: Olga Levashova, Edvard Grieg (Moskva: Muzyka, 1975), 260. The author of this monograph assumes that Grieg’s initial version for piano four hands could be regarded as a sketch for the intended symphonic score. 9 Benestad and Schelderup-Ebbe, Edvard Grieg: The Man, 247. Apart from indicating that Nor- wegian Dances “call for the sound of an orchestra”, Benestad and Schjelderup-Ebbe wrote that they produce “almost symphonic effect” (ibid., 248). The word “almost” might indicate the widely spread point of view on Grieg as a creator of small and chamber compositions that prevent mu- sicologists from acknowledging a “real” symphonism of Grieg’s creations. All four movements are composed in Grieg’s favourite compound ternary form ABA, where both sections A are identical. Only the fourth Dance has a developed coda. The main manifestation of symphonism could be Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 85 7. 10. 2024 10:12:04 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 86 A possible explanation of such “strange” behaviour could be found in Grieg’s let- ter to Henriques (21 December 1885): “I […] must practice the piano, because I have promised Svendsen that I will participate in his next philharmonic con- cert and don’t have time to orchestrate the Dances myself.”10 Presumably, Grieg had no plans to orchestrate Dances, at least in the nearest future, just because they “cried for being orchestrated”, as he did with some other of his composi- tions (e.g., Holberg Suite, 1884/85, also songs and piano pieces arranged for string orchestra).11 Grieg’s generally high opinion about Henriques’s skills as an orchestrator was confirmed in his letter to Breitkopf & Hartel (31 August 1882). There Grieg wrote about Menuet of his Piano Sonata orchestrated by Henriques that was “so sonorously and capably done that it is in any case worth publishing”.12 Grieg’s opinion about the score of Norwegian Dances was also positive. In his letter to Henriques (2 January 1883), Grieg cautiously praised the work, saying that he must hear it played before the final assessment. Also, he saw no pos- sibility of publishing the score, at least in Peters Publishing House, which was overwhelmed with arrangements. Four years later, an opportunity to apply the orchestrated version emerged: the producers of the premier of Peer Gynt in Copenhagen (15 January 1886) planned to extend the Dance scene and needed more music. Grieg suggested the orchestral version of Norwegian Dances and wrote to Henriques (21 De- cember 1885) asking him to send the score. Grieg remembered that, several years before, he approved Henrique’s orchestration.13 The next day after the found in disclosing of innate beauty and peculiarities of the character of the themes presented in extended expositions. The texture based on the simple homophonic accompaniment and dancing rhythms implies the possibility of efficient orchestral embodiment. On the other hand, slower and more melodious middle sections fit for the subtle textures and the ingenious modification of timbre. 10 Benestad and Halverson, Edvard Grieg: Letters, 395. 11 The assumption that Grieg did not orchestrate his work because of so-called “Svendsen complex”, i.e. admiration of Johan Svendsen’s (1840–1911) compositions on folk tunes and especially his orchestration (“If I had Svendsen’s brilliant technique…”, as Grieg stated in a letter to Henriques from 24 April 1887, see: Benestad and Halverson, Edvard Grieg: Letters, 397) is doubtful. There is no doubt that he admired Svendsen’s compositions and musical activities in general, see: Edvard Grieg, “Johan Svendsen’s Concert,” Edvard Grieg: Diaries, Articles, Speeches, ed. Finn Benestad and William H. Halverson (Columbus: Peer Gynt Press, 2001), 280–283. Yet, up to that time, Grieg had completed many successful orchestral works and established his orchestral style. In general, the importance of this presumable inferiority complex is probably overemphasized (on this point see: Erlend Hovland, “The Decline of Music History: A Case Study of the Grieg Research,” Stu- dia Musicologica Norvegica 43, no. 1 (2017): 31–57. 12 Benestad and Halverson, Edvard Grieg: Letters, 165. Grieg’s Piano sonata attracted attention as a potentially orchestral work not once: Percy Grainger planned to create an orchestral version of this work and present it as “Grieg-Grainger symphony”. However, the plan was not implemented (Malcolm Gillies and David Pear, “Great Expectations: Grieg and Grainger,” The Musical Times 148, no. 1900 (2007): 15). 13 Benestad and Halverson, Edvard Grieg: Letters, 395. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 86 7. 10. 2024 10:12:04 Rytis Urniežius: Edvard Grieg’s Norwegian Dances op. 35 87 premiere (the first three Dances were performed14) Grieg wrote to Henri- ques telling him that orchestrated pieces “at some places really sounded quite good”.15 Yet Grieg noticed: “I would have liked a more rhythmic emphasis in the orchestration, but who could have guessed that these Dances would be used in Peer Gynt?”16 That was not the last time Grieg considered incorporating the music from Norwegian Dances into Peer Gynt. In a letter to the director of the Christiania Theatre Bjørn Bjørnson (7 February 1892), Grieg suggested including Dance No. 4 into the staging of Peer Gynt. It is doubtful whether he had in mind Henriques’s or Sitt’s version. The comment in a footnote in a collection of Grieg’s letters (2000) indicates Henrique’s score, yet at that time Sitt’s version had already been published (1891) and, therefore, also available.17 However, in 1892 Grieg discarded a suggestion to include Dance No. 2 into his Peer Gynt orchestral suite No. 2 because the Dance was based on the folk tune, while “in Peer Gynt everything must be original”.18 Sven Lunn noted that Henriques’s version is full of inventive ideas, how- ever, a little clumsy. Meanwhile, Sitt’s version is less ingenious but more pro- fessionally scored, revealing the craftsmanship of the orchestrator. Besides, Lunn observes that the two versions have many similarities. The reasons for these similarities could be different: either the character of Grieg’s work al- lows little variants of its orchestral embodiment, or Sitt was familiar with Henriques’s score before he started his work on Dances. Lunn concludes that in the latter case, Sitt modified Henriques’s initial conception, striving to adapt the score to the requirements of the contemporary orchestration standards that would presumably help to gain popularity performing it in concerts. However, according to Lunn, the result was less characteristic, less Norwegian, and less “griegish” than in Henriques’s version. Yet Lunn does not explain what features of Henriques’s score made it more Norwegian and closer to Grieg’s style.19 The history of two versions and the appearance of one of them in the press still leaves questions and could become the subject of separate research. Yet the 14 Benestad and Schjelderup-Ebbe, Edvard Grieg: The Man, 248. 15 Benestad and Halverson, Edvard Grieg: Letters, 396. 16 Ibid. 17 Ibid., 110. 18 Edvard Grieg, Letter to C. F. Peters publishing house [Max Abraham?], 12 February 1892. Bergen Offentlige Bibliotek website, http://www.bergen.folkebibl.no/cgi-bin/websok-grieg?mode=p&t- nr=383467&dok=0&pf=kort&side=2, accessed January 27, 2022. It is not clear if Grieg recon- sidered the concept of Peer Gynt after the performances in Copenhagen and Christiania, where Dances were used, or if he drew a dividing line between the aesthetic demands of incidental music and concert music. It is also possible that Grieg included Dances in Copenhagen premier merely because of the lack of time for creating new pieces. 19 Lunn, “Grieg og Robert Henriques,” 8. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 87 7. 10. 2024 10:12:04 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 88 current article does not aim to disentangle the historical circumstances that led to the ultimate result: sending Henriques’s score into oblivion and publish- ing Sitt’s score, which became very popular and frequently performed up to this day. In this article, the two versions of the orchestration are compared to answer several questions: 1) should we treat Sitt’s orchestration as more professional and masterly created; 2) which of the scores is closer to Grieg’s orchestration manner, “Grieg’s spirit”, and would it be appropriate to renew Henriques’s version and suggest it for the concert stage; 3) what are the main similarities between the two scores and is there a possibil- ity that Sitt used Henriques’s score while composing his own? Grieg on Henriques’s Orchestration: 2 January 1883 Letter Grieg wrote his comments on Henriques’s orchestration of the Norwegian Dances in his letter sent on 2 January 1883.20 He praised the work as a whole and wrote that only a few small things needed to be changed. Grieg indicated sixteen questionable places in Henriques’s score and suggested improvements. These comments include several noteworthy observations that could help understand Grieg’s viewpoint on orchestration details. The most noteworthy items of Grieg’s letter are surveyed in this chapter. The first comment suggests the low strings pizzicato at the beginning of Dance No. 1 to make the chromatic succession in measures 8–10 sound more prominent. Later, in his ninth comment, Grieg wrote that he has nothing to say about Dance No. 2, yet in a post scriptum, he suggested pizzicato for cellos in rehearsal mark B and five measures after rehearsal mark C. These comments show that Grieg was inclined to enlighten the texture by indicating pizzicato for the low strings, simultaneously making their line more conspicuous. The second comment reveals that Grieg knew well-established patterns of instrumental expression widely used at that time, and at least some of them were acceptable to him. Besides other suggestions, Grieg asked in Dance No. 1 to proceed with the bassoon solo melody after rehearsal mark C, characterising the sound of the bassoon as “humorous”. Several comments (3, 5, and 7 concerning Dance No. 1 and 11, 12, 14, and 15 concerning Dance No. 4) confirm Grieg’s precaution against abusing the 20 Letter to Robert Henriques, 2 January 1883. Edvard Grieg, Bergen Offentlige Bibliotek web- site, accessed January 31, 2022. The author of this article would like to express his gratitude to Jorunn Eckhoff Færden (Edvard Grieg Archives, Bergen Public Library) for the substantial help in the current research by providing the essential materials, including the copy of Grieg’s letter to Henriques from 2 January 1883, and also a copy of the score of Norwegian Dances created by Henriques. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 88 7. 10. 2024 10:12:04 Rytis Urniežius: Edvard Grieg’s Norwegian Dances op. 35 89 heavy brass: trombones and especially trumpets. For instance, in the fifth com- ment, Grieg suggested excluding the trombone piano at rehearsal mark F of Dance No. 1, preferring a bassoon instead. Likely, trombone could be suitable in that episode, yet Grieg’s subtle taste suggested that it would not conform to his orchestration style. For Dance No. 4, Grieg expressed several significant objections. He began a series of comments with a warning “alle Achtung!” This warning again deals with the usage of trombones and trumpets. Firstly (the eleventh comment), he once again asked to replace trombones with bassoons (and to save bass trom- bone for fortissimo) at the first più vivo. Then, inevitably, trumpets attracted Grieg’s attention. Grieg warns Henr- iques, that if the melody is assigned to the trumpet, it should be meticulously calculated otherwise the result would be unsatisfactory. He demanded to elim- inate trumpets 17 measures after rehearsal mark D (the twelfth comment) 21: they are dangerous “even if they play bellow pppp, but no one does – even a decent piano is a rarity” [“selv om de bælser pppp, men det gjør desuden ingen, selv et anstændigt piano hører til Sjeldenhederne”]. Grieg suggested clarinets as a substitution. The moderation of using trumpets in melody as well as in other layers of texture is manifested in most of Grieg’s orchestral creations.22 However, in some appropriate instances, Grieg appreciated the quality of brass sound. 13 measures after the rehearsal mark F (his fourteenth comment) Grieg demanded a strong accent and suggested the horn instead of the bas- soon. Moreover, 15 measures after the rehearsal mark G he suggested including the trumpet to achieve an emphatically tragic effect: Grieg does not restrict the activity of a heavy brass instrument but, on the contrary, encourages its application. 2 January 1883 letter to Henriques reveals some of Grieg’s attitudes on orchestration. It shows the composer’s sensibility for subtle timbre character- istics and precaution in applying orchestral means (especially the heavy brass). Henrique might easily correct the places Grieg suggested to improve without affecting the entirety of the scoring style (therefore, it is not Grieg’s criticism that determined the oblivion of Henriques’s score). However, when Grieg in- tended to use Dances Nos. 1, 2 and 3 in the 1886 Copenhagen premiere of Peer 21 Most likely Grieg’s twelfth comment about 17 measures after rehearsal mark D contains a mis- take: that place is the beginning of the rehearsal mark E, the trumpets staves there are empty and the general dynamic mark is f, but not p in any degree. Perhaps, Grieg had in mind the rehearsal mark B (measure 71): its character corresponds to the description in Grieg’s letter. 22 On the other hand, Grieg did not always succeed in avoiding the doubtful application of trum- pets, for example, in the final episode of In the Halls of the Mountain King and the beginning of Symphonic Dance No. 1. In those episodes, the melody is given to the second trumpet while the first trumpet performs one of the harmonic voices above this melody. As a result, the first trumpet in a higher position masks the melody. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 89 7. 10. 2024 10:12:04 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 90 Gynt, there were no amendments in the score sent by Henriques.23 Most likely, the latter did not work on this orchestration until sending them after Grieg’s request. The comparison of Henriques’s and Sitt’s scores could help to discuss the earlier raised questions concerning the differences and similarities between the two versions of Norwegian Dances orchestration, their proximity to or estrangement from “Grieg’s spirit”, probable borrowings by Sitt from Henr- iques’s score and the expedience to renew Henriques’s version and suggesting it for the concert stage. The comparison of these two scores will take place in the rest section of the current article. General Features of Two Scores There are differences in measure numbers between Sitt’s and Henriques’s scores preserved in the Royal Library in Copenhagen. In the middle section of Dance No. 1, Henriques shortened the repeated passage by putting the repeat mark one measure earlier than in the original piano score (Sitt remained faithful to the original). Therefore, the measure numbers beginning with the second half of Henriques’s score do not correspond with Sitt’s score: it lags by one meas- ure. Subsequently, Henrique’s score is one measure shorter. Also, Sitt added two introductory measures in Dance No. 2, and Henriques did not. Therefore, his score is two measures shorter. It causes inconveniences in comparing the two versions; moreover, the rehearsal marks in both scores are different. Both measure numberings in the scores of Dances Nos. 1 and 2 will be indicated for orientation further when necessary. The number of measures in Dances Nos. 3 and 4 coincides in both scores. In the further text, Sitt’s score will be indicated by the abbreviation SS, and Henriques’s score will be indicated by the abbre- viation HS. Both Sitt and Henriques created their scores from the piano four hands score. The latter contains elements absent in the reduced version for piano two hands; these elements are present in both orchestral scores. However, Sitt begins Dance No. 4 in D minor and then shifts to B minor from measure 25: similar to the version for piano two hands (that was composed later, in 1887). Thus, when Henriques created his orchestration, Grieg’s version for piano two hands still had not been composed, and the version for piano four hands begins directly in B minor key, therefore HS begins in B minor key as well. 23 The author of this article used a copy of the score of Norwegian Dances created by Henriques that is preserved in the Royal Library in Copenhagen. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 90 7. 10. 2024 10:12:04 Rytis Urniežius: Edvard Grieg’s Norwegian Dances op. 35 91 Should Sitt’s Score Be Regarded as More Professional and Masterly Created than Henriques’s? The instrumentations of both scores differ only slightly. Both sets of instru- ments are presented in Table 1. Table 1: The instrumentation of the Norwegian Dances by Sitt and Henriques Orchestral sections Sitt’s score (SS) Henriques’s score (HS) Woodwinds 2 flutes flute piccolo 2nd flute or piccolo 2 oboes 2 oboes 2 clarinets in B (A in No. 2) 2 clarinets in A 2 bassoons 2 bassoons Horns Dance No. 1: 2 horns in F 2 horns in D Dance No. 1: 2 horns in D 2 horns in F Dance No. 2: 2 horns in F 2 horns in E Dance No. 2: 2 horns in E Dance No. 3: 4 horns in F Dance No. 3: 4 horns in E Dance No. 4: 2 horns in F 2 horns in D Dance No. 4: 2 horns in D 2 horns in F Heavy brass 2 trumpets in F 2 trumpets in D (E in No. 2) 3 trombones 3 trombones (only bass trombone in No. 2) tuba (in Nos. 1, 4) tuba (in Nos. 1, 4) Percussion kettledrums kettledrums snare drum (in No. 1) triangle (in Nos. 1, 3, 4) triangle (in Nos. 1, 3, 4) bass drum (in Nos. 1, 3, 4) cymbals (in No. 4) cymbals (in Nos. 1, 3, 4) Plucked strings harp (in No. 2) Bowed strings string section string section Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 91 7. 10. 2024 10:12:04 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 92 Obviously, there are more percussion instruments in HS than in SS. The analysis of both scores revealed that Henriques sometimes abuses them a lit- tle.24 Therefore, Grieg’s remark that he would prefer “more rhythmic emphasis” in HS seems strange.25 This remark could be explained only in the context of using HS in Peer Gynt dancing scenes. Already the first two measures show the differences between two versions, firstly in the context of Grieg’s warnings against the overuse of heavy brass. Henriques does not include trombones, while Sitt avoids trumpets. Con- sidering Grieg’s cautious attitude towards overuse of trumpets, Sitt’s ver- sion should be closer to Grieg’s expectations. Interval of a third in trumpets in HS would sound rather poignantly. Besides, the upper, most prominent sound of trumpets is fifth, while original concept demands the root of the A major chord in the upper position. The range of the first chord in SS is impressively extended due to the first sixteenth of piccolo, that is absent in HS (Example 1). In several places, Henriques uses trombones excessively by giving them melodies that do not correspond to the character of the instruments. Grieg warned against these abuses in his letter comments Nos. 5 and 11. Sitt uses trombones sparingly, applying them as instruments for accompaniment or prominent melodies in forte episodes. In every orchestral score, a proper equilibrium between different layers of texture should be created. Thus, the task of the orchestrator lies in creat- ing a proper orchestral texture embodied with the help of the application of instruments. The choice of timbres of instruments and their distribution in different layers of the texture is another task integrated with the previous one. In general, the balance of different layers of texture is better in SS. The precondition for such balance is purposeful and well-calculated doublings of instruments. Doublings chosen by Henriques in some places seem not so reasoned. The choice of timbres and their distribution in the texture is variable in both scores. Mostly, Sitt’s solution seems more grounded, yet HS also contains passages of colourful and inventive application of instruments. Henriques uses more pure solo timbres, yet his texture is often too particol- oured and thin. 24 At the beginning of the manuscript, there is a sign X in blue pencil next to the stave containing parts of the snare drum and triangle. Most likely it was made by Grieg: he disapproved of the us- age of these instruments. 25 Bjarte Engeset presumes that such reproach has a foundation in Grieg’s innate character: “Grieg’s personal temperament seems to have something in common with the freedom seeking and radical Beethoven in the inclination towards energy and accentuation.” See: Bjarte Eng- eset, “Edvard Grieg’s Orchestral Style: Conductor’s Point of View,” keynote presentation at the Grieg Conference in Copenhagen (August 13, 2011), 44, https://griegsociety.com/wp-content/ uploads/2015/08/Paper-Bjarte-Engeset-2011.pdf. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 92 7. 10. 2024 10:12:04 Rytis Urniežius: Edvard Grieg’s Norwegian Dances op. 35 93 SS HS Example 1: Norwegian Dance No. 1, mm. 1–2. Condensed C score. It seems that Henriques does not always estimate the necessity of highlighting and reinforcing the melodic layer: in some places, the relief and the background are not sufficiently balanced in favour of one of them. In Example 2, the organ point of fifths in SS counterweights the melody of the first violins, while in HS all violins dominate against the solo cello26 and two very low horns. 26 On the other hand, it can be presumed that the indication “Solo” could mean just the importance of a particular part because the unison of both the first and the second violins are supplied with the same indication. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 93 7. 10. 2024 10:12:04 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 94 SS HS Example 2: Norwegian Dance No. 4, mm. 35–43. Empty staves are omitted. In HS, two different layers of texture sometimes negatively intervene with one another: in Example 3, high pedal notes of woodwinds are in the same tes- situra as the melody performed by other woodwind instruments. HS Example 3: Norwegian Dance No. 4, mm. 27–32. High woodwinds parts in HS. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 94 7. 10. 2024 10:12:05 Rytis Urniežius: Edvard Grieg’s Norwegian Dances op. 35 95 Pure timbres of solo brass instruments (firstly horn and later trumpet) in SS, mm. 87–102 of Dance No. 4 impart fresh, energetic character to the melody. In HS, the same melodic passages are attributed to the first violins doubled firstly by horn solo and later by clarinet. Such colouring adds little to the predomi- nant timbre of violins (Example 4). SS Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 95 7. 10. 2024 10:12:05 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 96 HS Example 4: Norwegian Dance No. 4, mm. 87–100. Condensed score. Violas are often used separately from other strings in both scores but especially in SS – not only in accompaniments but also in doubling melodies and coun- terpoints, yet seldom as the principal implementers of significant themes. This emphasis on violas partly could be explained by the fact that Sitt was a violist himself and played viola in the Brodsky Quartet for many years (why violas Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 96 7. 10. 2024 10:12:06 Rytis Urniežius: Edvard Grieg’s Norwegian Dances op. 35 97 are also extensively employed in HS is hard to explain because Henriques was a cellist). However, in Grieg’s scores, a similar doubling also appears, although mostly in short episodes. Notably, violas are frequently combined with clari- nets. For example, in Symphonic Dance No. 2 (mm. 100–107), violas double clarinet and then oboe solo in octave. Both arrangers are inclined to double cellos and double basses with bassoons (another way of doubling favoured by Grieg), yet Sitt applies this means more frequently. In mm. 49–59 of the Dance No. 1 Henriques gives the subsidiary layer of texture for the first violins pizzicato supported by flute – oboes chord. This combination is subtle but likely a little feeble. Meanwhile, Sitt assigns the movement in eights to piccolo and oboes in octave and placing flutes in the middle creates a compact unit of a distant “military” character. A contrasting dark timbre of the main melody is achieved by doubling violins sul G with low clarinets (Example 5). SS Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 97 7. 10. 2024 10:12:06 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 98 HS Example 5: Norwegian Dance No. 1, mm. 49–53. Condensed score (bass drum part is eliminated from HS). The voice leading in SS is generally more consequent and logical. Texture elements appear in proper time and do not disappear without reason, as some- times can be seen in HS. Sitt most often retains the prominent line of cellos and double basses with all leaps, avoiding illogical and inconvenient breaks. For example, the pursuit of proper voice leading determined the unison but not the octave of cellos and double basses at the beginning of Dance No. 1 (mm. 8–16). Meanwhile, Henriques did not succeed in avoiding an awkward major seventh leap from E to E-flat in m. 15 (Example 6). SS HS Example 6: cellos-basses parts in the Norwegian Dance No. 1, mm. 11–16.27 27 Grieg added an indication arco in pencil at the second measure of this example; up to that place, since measure 3, his indication (also in pencil) pizz. remains valid. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 98 7. 10. 2024 10:12:07 Rytis Urniežius: Edvard Grieg’s Norwegian Dances op. 35 99 Henriques merges cellos and double basses into unison more often. Sitt, in most cases, applies them in octaves, thus keeping a conspicuous bass line. Oc- taves of cellos and basses in SS are also more effective than Henriques’s choice of violas and cellos octaves in the first 19 measures of Dance No. 4. Presumably, Sitt had a more profound knowledge of instruments’ pecu- liarities and possibilities than Henriques. Sitt is free in writing divisi, mul- tiple stops and harmonics for strings, thus making the texture colourful, lush and voluminous. He chooses the proper registers of wind instruments. In HS, the choice of instruments seems not always the best possible. In Example 7, a clarinet melody that includes sounds of the “bridge” register would not be sufficiently expressive and distinctive in the background of related timbres of second clarinet, bassoons and a horn. Sitt gave the melody to Grieg’s favourite oboe and accompaniment to contrastive yet supportive of the graceful melody pizzicato of all strings (Example 7). SS HS Example 7: Norwegian Dance No. 2, mm. 3–6 SS, 1–4 HS. Condensed score. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 99 7. 10. 2024 10:12:07 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 100 It also can be stated that Sitt was more attentive to articulation and per- forming techniques (sul G, tasto, pizzicato, the use of harmonics, etc.) that he meticulously indicated in the score. Henriques’s articulation is less variable. In Dance No. 2 since mm. 15 SS (mm. 13 HS), Sitt proceeds with strings accom- paniment pizzicato. Henriques chooses arco, which makes the accompaniment dark and heavyweight because of the low registers of the instruments. This accompaniment does not correspond to the graceful character of the melody. Sitt’s attention to articulation, strings bowing, and fingering (indication to play on D string downwards from B to E) is also noteworthy (Example 8). SS HS Example 8: Norwegian Dance No. 2, mm. 15–18 SS, 13–16 HS. Condensed score, harp staves in SS are omitted. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 100 7. 10. 2024 10:12:08 Rytis Urniežius: Edvard Grieg’s Norwegian Dances op. 35 101 Evidently, Sitt was a more experienced orchestrator than Henriques. Yet some of his solutions appear as miscalculations. For example, in measure 118 of Dance No. 4, Sitt added a rapid ascending D-flat scale passage not found in both Grieg’s piano versions and HS. This passage is inconvenient for most instruments (even violins), and clarinets need to cope with this scale moving along the “bridge” register. Moreover, a loud brass chord masks the movement of woodwinds and violins. While watching videos and listening to the record- ings, it can be observed, that the performers sometimes even do not make strenuous attempts to perform this passage precisely (Example 9). Example 9: Norwegian Dance No. 4, m. 118 SS. Condensed C score. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 101 7. 10. 2024 10:12:08 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 102 Which of the Scores is Closer to Grieg’s Orchestration? Sven Lunn assumes that Henriques’s orchestration is closer to Grieg’s or- chestration manner, as he wrote, to “Grieg’s spirit”. This opinion is subjec- tive, and a nearer insight into both scores makes this assumption doubtful. Besides, the content of the concept “Grieg’s spirit” is too vague and not a suitable point of departure for the analysis; therefore, more tangible concepts of orchestration style, manner or technique are more precise and hence put into the focus of this research. Further, several examples taken from both arrangements are presented in the context of the peculiarities of Grieg’s orchestration. The style of orchestration could be examined in two aspects: 1) an ap- plication of means of the orchestral embodiment of musical material in lo- cal, short episodes and 2) a distribution of the orchestration means in the entirety of the composition – the dramaturgy of textures and timbres. Al- though local decisions attract immediate attention and appear more evident, the dramaturgy of timbres reveals the constructive way of thinking of the orchestrator and deeper relationships that also determine the orchestral style of the composition. The subject of the research demands attention to both aspects. It was already noted, that Henriques sometimes merges cellos and dou- ble basses into unison, while Sitt applies them mostly in octaves. Grieg also favoured the latter way of producing the conspicuous bass line. The som- bre sound of violins sul G appear in many of Grieg’s compositions (the first theme of the Symphonic Dance No. 4) and SS (Dance No. 4, mm. 103–117, 207–229). There is a very sharp contrast between the first and the second sections of Dance No. 2. Sitt applies full tutti at the beginning of the middle section. Layers of texture are well balanced, and each of them sounds prominently. Numerous examples of such contrastive episodes using the full orchestra also appear in Grieg’s scores. Henriques needlessly excluded several significant instruments (heavy brass and violins), thus weakening the overall impression of contrast between the first and the middle sections of the second move- ment (Example 10). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 102 7. 10. 2024 10:12:08 Rytis Urniežius: Edvard Grieg’s Norwegian Dances op. 35 103 SS HS Example 10: Norwegian Dance No. 2, mm. 27–30 SS, 25–28 HS. Condensed C score, harp in SS is omitted. The last measure of Dance No. 2 in HS contains a chord that seems better orchestrated than in SS and close to Grieg’s manner. Sitt included all brass instruments and strings in low registers, producing heavy and even gloomy timbre. The first flute plays high A, which is hard to perform ppp. Likely, the combination of instruments in this measure could be treated as Sitt’s miscal- culation. Meanwhile, Henriques gives high notes to string harmonics, avoids heavy brass and puts flutes and clarinets in a moderate register (Example 11). This distribution of instruments reminds of the last chord of the Symphonic Dance No. 2. Sven Lunn likely had in mind such specific subtle details writing about the closeness of HS to Grieg’s style. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 103 7. 10. 2024 10:12:08 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 104 SS HS Example 11: The last chord of the Norwegian Dance No. 2. Empty staves are omitted. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 104 7. 10. 2024 10:12:09 Rytis Urniežius: Edvard Grieg’s Norwegian Dances op. 35 105 Generally, all comments for improving the score that Grieg sent in his letter to Henriques indicate the places that do not correspond to Grieg’s style. For example, in the Dance No. 1 melody in trombones parts beginning with m. 142 HS (143 SS) would be strikingly atypical for Grieg. Also, in this episode, the instruments used by Sitt for downward octave movements in the same episode, reveal his inventiveness once again: the first violins perform the octave leap while the lower notes of the chords are given to the flutes. Thus, violins slightly dominate, yet a proper pp will be available. In HS, the high note of the first flute will be too prominent, and the position of the high oboe between two flutes is not favourable for the balance of the chord (Example 12). SS Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 105 7. 10. 2024 10:12:09 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 106 HS Example 12: Norwegian Dance No. 1, mm. 143–146 SS, 142–145 HS. Condensed score. Melody for oboe solo could be considered as Grieg’s “leit-timbre” (middle sec- tion of Symphonic Dance No. 1, outer sections of Symphonic Dance No. 2 and many more). Numerous oboe solos can be found in both arrangements of the Norwegian Dances. For example, the oboe is a carrier of the main melody in the middle section of Dance No. 4 in both scores. Yet Sitt’s version is closer to Grieg’s way of scoring: the accompaniment for the solo oboe is given to strings, thus reminding the middle section of the Symphonic Dance No. 1. Henriques here used clarinet, bassoon and two horns, thus reducing the contrast and prob- ably diminishing the exclusive individuality of the solo oboe (Example 13). SS Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 106 7. 10. 2024 10:12:10 Rytis Urniežius: Edvard Grieg’s Norwegian Dances op. 35 107 HS Example 13: Norwegian Dance No. 4, mm. 143–148. Empty staves are omitted. Contrasts, juxtapositions, imitations, and dialogs between woodwind instru- ments and between woodwinds and strings are frequent in Grieg’s scores (overture In Autumn, Symphonic Dances, Lyric Suite, etc.). Sitt is more in- ventive and closer to Grieg’s manner while distributing melody among solo woodwinds. Grieg’s dramaturgy of timbres is specific and can be observed in all his orchestral works: “the development of music material which affects the overall orchestral design of Grieg’s compositions is often based on the dialogic (polylogic) non-conflict type of the musical dramaturgy.”28 It is based on monologues, dialogues or polylogues of solo woodwinds (of course, the oboe is the most beloved one) that are often “summarized” by more general, impersonal timbre: first violins, first and second violins (usually in octave) or, more seldom, the mixed timbre of several woodwinds. Usually, one of the participants of the polylogue serves as an axis, the principal timbre (e.g., oboe in the Symphonic Dance No. 3, clarinet in Gangar from Lyric Suite). Mean- while, the HS in some places contains illogically scattered parts of soloists. On the other hand, in some cases, Henriques successfully imitates Grieg’s polylogues. The piano episode at the end of Dance No. 2 features an inventive solution found by Henriques (mm. 41–44 in HS). The first violins 28 Rytis Urniežius, “Two Orchestral Embodiments of Three Pieces from Op. 54 by Edvard Grieg,” Musicological Annual 56, no. 1 (2020): 130. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 107 7. 10. 2024 10:12:10 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 108 perform the melody, while the motives of two descending sounds are per- formed by different instruments in each of the four measures. These jumps from timbre to timbre approach the polylogic principle favoured by Grieg (Example 14). HS Example 14: Norwegian Dance No. 2, mm. 41–44 HS. Condensed score. A similar approach can be seen in eight measures since m. 103 of the Dance No. 4 in HS. The distribution of melodic instruments here fully corresponds to Grieg’s manner: two measure phrases are interchangeably performed by solo oboe and solo clarinet (Example 15). Sitt applies a mixture of wind timbres in the correspondent episode. Regrettably, pedal sounds of flutes in the same register as the melody here negatively intervene into the melody (see Example 3). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 108 7. 10. 2024 10:12:10 Rytis Urniežius: Edvard Grieg’s Norwegian Dances op. 35 109 HS Example 15: Norwegian Dance No. 4, mm. 103–110, HS. Condensed score. The special issue is the melodic solos of horn and trumpet, appearing in both scores. Almost in every case, these solos are expressive and of an individual character: brisk and joyful in fast sections of Dances Nos. 1 and 4, nostalgic and sorrowful in the middle section of No. 4. Likely, Grieg would not mind against such application of brass soloist (see the suggestion of including trumpet in Grieg’s letter, comment No. 14). The middle section of Dance No. 3 is perhaps the most evident example of the priority of Sitts scoring concerning timbre dramaturgy. The overall struc- ture is well-balanced; the melody is constructed as a dialogue between the tim- bre of the first violins and a mixture of three woodwinds. In HS, all periods are scored differently; the distribution of instruments is scattered, particoloured and uneven; flute II doubles violins II and, for unknown reasons, enters in the second measure of the melody (m. 42); flute I enters in the climax measure although the slight crescendo here does not demand any significant enforce- ment. In the last climax, the first violins enter at the middle of the phrase. Most likely, this is the most unsuccessful solution to distribute the timbres in HS. Evidently, the section does not correspond to the way Grieg would orchestrate this episode (Table 2). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 109 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 110 Table 2: Norwegian Dance No. 3, the scheme of the distribution of timbres in SS and HS SS Measures 33–40 (8 m.) 41–48 (8 m.) 49–56 (8 m.) 57–68 (12 m.) Melody violins I flute I; oboe I, clarinet I violins I flute I; oboe I, clarinet I Accompaniment strings without double basses all strings strings without double basses flute II, clarinet II; bassoons (in mm. 61–65); all strings HS Measures 33–40 (8 m.) 41–48 (8 m.) 49–56 (8 m.) 57–68 (12 m.) Melody viola solo flute I (mm. 45–48); flute II (with vn II, mm. 42–48); violins I, II in 8-va clarinet I flutes; oboe I; clarinet I; violins I (join in m. 62) Accompaniment violins and cellos clarinet I; bassoons; strings except violins oboe I; bassoon I; horn I bassoon II; horns; trombones; strings without violins I Could Sitt Profit Henriques’s Score while Composing his Own? Similarities between two scores might be noted, yet most likely, the fact of plagiarism is at least dubitable. Probably coincidences occur when the music material is more or less unequivocal – implying namely this but hardly another way of orchestral solution. Thus, it is impossible to give a clear answer to this question. Yet, the influence of HS on SS is possible. Most places indicated in Grieg’s letter to Henriques are scored differently in SS: probably Grieg con- sulted Sitt. If it happened, the similarities to Henriques’s version could also appear after these consultations: perhaps Grieg, familiar with HS, experienced its influence and, in turn, passed some particular details of Henriques’s orches- tration (or even showed the score) to Sitt. In any case, this is hardly the case of direct plagiarism. Still, some of the plac- es are rather “suspicious”. For example, the similarity of the crescendo-fortissimo episode from measure 22 of Dance No. 1 is obvious: even the entrance of the Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 110 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 Rytis Urniežius: Edvard Grieg’s Norwegian Dances op. 35 111 piccolo is at the same place. Often the choice of solo instruments is similar in both scores, e.g., the dialogue between solo horn and oboe in the introduction of Dance No. 4 (on the other hand, the accompanying layer is scored differ- ently). Since m. 66 of the Dance No. 1 Sitt uses similar octaves of trombones as Henriques does (Grieg objected to them in comment No. 3 of his letter). That also implies that Sitt perhaps took a sight at HS. However, these octaves are in the original version for piano four hands. Therefore, their inclusion in scores is reasonable, while the choice of the trombones in both scores could be accidental. Conclusion In his article, Sven Lunn presents his opinion concerning Henriques orchestration: So, what is about Henriques’s version? Yes and no. Maybe rather no. It is full of great ideas, but it is pretty clumsy. Sitt’s version, on the other hand, could be characterized by a certain knowledge of how to arrange it for orchestra properly. But it is not always as characteristic as Henriques’s version. In a few words, one can say that Henriques has the intentions, Sitt, on the other hand, the craft. But still, there is an astonishing similarity between the two scores. Page after page, one can observe such a strong resemblance that one gradually gets the impression that this is not entirely coincidental. It might be coinci- dental. Perhaps the nature of the material is such that the work can be done only like that of Henriques’s and Sitt’s. And yet, I cannot believe it is possible. It seems to me as if Hans Sitt’s version was inspired by Henriques’s as if Sitt has cut Henriques’s version to meet the general requirements of the international concert audience, but at the same time has deprived it of some of its characteristic features.29 Apparently, Sven Lunn was right in evaluating Sitt’s orchestration as more professional and expressively conveying musical ideas to the listener. Sitt ac- cumulated many achievements in orchestration art of the nineteenth century, although the score of the Norwegian Dances shows his adherence to moder- ate (apparently close to Leipzig conservatoire school tradition) orchestrating manner. However, it is difficult to agree that Sitt’s version was only a “cut” of 29 “Hvordan er så Henriques’ version? Ja – og nej. Måske snarere nej. Den er fuld af gode ideer, men er temmelig ubehjælpsom. Sitts version derimod er præget af en sicker viden om, hvorledes en sats skal lægges for orkester. Men den er ikke altid så karakterfuld som Henriques’. I få ord kan man sige, at Henriques har intentionerne, Sitt derimod rutinen. – Men alligevel er der en ganske forbavsende overensstemmelse imellem de to partiturer. Side efter side kan man konstatere en så stærk lighed, at man efterhånden får det indtryk, at denne ikke er ganske tilfældig. Den kan være tilfældig. Muligvis er stoffet af en sådan art, at opgaven kun kan løses på en måde, der minder om Henriques’ og Sitts. Og dog kan jeg ikke tro, det er muligt. For mig står det, som om Gand Sitts version er inspireret af Henriques’, som om Sitt har skåret Henriques’ version til, således at den opfyldte det almindelige, internationale koncertsalskrav, men har derved samtidig berovet den noget af dens karakter.” Lunn, “Grieg og Robert Henriques,” 8. The author even suggests that Danish musician could re-work Henriques’s score and return the spirit of Grieg. The support for the compatriot and attempt to revive (or renew) his work seems understandable. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 111 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 112 Henriques’s version with eliminated specific characters and that its only advan- tage is an accommodation to the requirements of the contemporary audience. Generally, the sound of Sitt’s orchestra seems fuller, and the contrasts are more emphatic. It can be stated that Sitt had an innate sensation of the power of the orchestra. Sitt is inclined to spare instruments for proper effects or to create a gradual crescendo. He applied more ingeniously divisi of the strings, harmonics, multiple stops, etc. His strings encompass wide range, and his so- norous tutti contain little empty staves. SS, on the one hand, is more colour- ful, contrastive, and effective than HS; on the other hand, it does not contain superficial effects and is mostly not overloaded with excessive quantity of in- struments or any eccentric techniques. In comparison, HS is of more chamber character. Sometimes seems, that Henriques was a little cautious or not quite sure about the possibilities of orchestral forces. Although Grieg referred to Sitt’s orchestration of his Norwegian Dances as “crude”, his version mostly corresponds with Grieg’s view on orchestration in both local solutions and dramaturgical distribution of musical ideas in dia- logues, polylogues, generalizations and establishing the core axis of timbres. After all, the popularity of Sitt’s orchestration in the world concert halls is firmly established. There is hardly any necessity to replace the widespread ver- sion with another, especially of doubtful advantages, even if corrections in the score would be made. And, of course, any correction in Sitt’s score is hardly possible. It can be concluded that current research did not prove any misdo- ing (plagiarism) in the case of two scores, and the version, which popularity is already firmly established, deserves its position. Bibliography Benestad, Finn, and Dag Schjelderup-Ebbe. Edvard Grieg: The Man and the Artist. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1988. Benestad, Finn, and William H. Halverson, eds. Edvard Grieg: Letters to Colleagues and Friends. Columbus, Ohio: Peer Gynt Press, 2000. Engeset, Bjarte. “Edvard Grieg’s Orchestral Style: Conductor’s Point of View.” Keynote presentation at the Grieg Conference in Copenhagen, August 13, 2011. https://grieg- society.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-Bjarte-Engeset-2011.pdf. Gillies, Malcolm, and David Pear. “Great Expectations: Grieg and Grainger.” The Musical Times 148, no. 1900 (2007): 7–26. Grieg, Edvard. “Johan Svendsen’s Concert.” In Edvard Grieg: Diaries, Articles, Speeches, ed- ited by Finn Benestad and William H. Halverson, 280–283. Columbus: Peer Gynt Press, 2001. Hovland, Erlend. “The Decline of Music History: A Case Study of the Grieg Research.” Studia Musicologica Norvegica 43, no. 1 (2017): 31–57. Levashova, Olga. Edvard Grieg. Moskva: Muzyka, 1975. [Левашова, Ольга. Эдвард Григ. Москва: Музыка, 1975.] Lunn, Sven. “Grieg og Robert Henriques.” Nordisk musikkultur 2, no. 1 (1953): 6–9. Urniežius, Rytis. “Two Orchestral Embodiments of Three Pieces from Op. 54 by Edvard Grieg.” Musicological Annual 56, no. 1 (2020): 101–132. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 112 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 Rytis Urniežius: Edvard Grieg’s Norwegian Dances op. 35 113 POVZETEK Norveški plesi op 35 Edvarda Griega: dve orkestrski različici, dve usodi Štiristavčni ciklus Norveških plesov op. 35, ki temelji na ljudskih melodijah, je ena od naj- bolj popularnih in najpogosteje izvajanih skladb Edvarda Griega. Izvorno je skladatelj delo zasnoval za klavir štiriročno. Nekaj let kasneje ga je priredil za klavir dvoročno. Zaradi svo- jih značilnosti (tekstura, značaj tem, enostavna in dobro uravnotežena oblika) je delo zelo primerno za orkestralno priredbo. Grieg ga sam ni nikoli orkestriral, je pa nekaj avtorjem pripravilo orkestrske verzije celotnega cikla ali posameznih stavkov. Vsaj dve orkestrski verziji Norveških plesov sta nastali v času Griegovega življenja. Avtor prve je bil danski skladatelj in čelist Robert Henriques. Različica, ki jo je izdelal češki violinist Hans Sitt je nastala nekoliko kasneje. Oba sta orkestrirala vse štiri stavke cikla. Henriquesova različica je bila pripravljena najprej. Grieg je zelo cenil Henriquesovo spretnost pri orkestriranju in je zelo pohvalil nje- govo partituro Norveških plesov. Vendar je na koncu v tisku izšla Sittova različica. S tem je Henriquesova priredba zaradi spleta zgodovinskih okoliščin padla v pozabo, Sittova verzija pa je ostala zelo priljubljena in pogosto izvajana vse do danes. Članek primerja obe različici orkestracije Norveških plesov. Avtor poskuša oceniti or- kestracijske obrtniške sposobnosti obeh prirejevalcev in primerjati značilnosti njunih orke- stracij z značilnostmi Griegovega pristopa k orkestraciji. Razpravlja tudi o možnem vplivu Henriquesove orkestracije na nekoliko mlajšo Sittovo. Raziskava je razkrila, da je Sittova orkestracija izredno vešča in poslušalcu jasno posre- duje glasbene ideje dela. Sitt je poznal mnoge orkestracijske dosežke 19. stoletja in mu je bil dobro znan tudi Griegov način orkestriranja. V splošnem je zvok Sittovega orkestra bolj poln, kontrasti pa veliko bolj izraziti v primerjavi s Henriquesovo verzijo. Lahko trdimo, da je Sitt izreden občutek za izrazno moč orkestra. Zato si njegova priredba zasluži trdno zagotovljeno priljubljenost v svetovnih koncertnih dvoranah. Henriquesova partitura sicer vsebuje mnogo dragocenih prvin, a ne dosega obrtniške dovršenosti Sittove orkestracije. Raziskava ni odkrila nedvoumnih primerov Sittovega prevzemanja Henriquesovih rešitev. Zato lahko sklenemo, da si Sittova verzija, katere priljubljenost je dodobra utrjena, zasluži to mesto v glasbenem življenju. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 113 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 114 ABOUT THE AUTHOR RYTIS URNIEŽIUS (rytis.urniezius@sa.vu.lt) studied wind band conducting at the Klaipėda Faculties of Lithuanian Conservatoire (now Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre). In 1993, he gained a doctoral degree in Musicology at this institution. He was a Lecturer at the Music Academy of the Vytautas Magnus University in Kaunas and is cur- rently a Professor at the Vilnius University Šiauliai Academy, Institute of Education. Since 2022, Professor at the Lithuanian Academy of Music and Theatre Klaipėda Faculty. He was the founder and editor-in-chief of the peer-reviewed scholarly journal The Spaces of Crea- tion (2004–2016). Urniežius is also a member of the International Society of Research and Promotion of Wind Music (IGEB). His research interests are focused on wind band music, instrumentation, orchestration, and music history. O AVTORJU RYTIS URNIEŽIUS (rytis.urniezius@sa.vu.lt) je na fakulteti Litvanskega konservatorija v Klaipėdi (sedaj Litvanska akademija za glasbo in gledališče) študiral dirigiranje. Leta 1993 je prav tam doktoriral iz muzikologije. Med letoma 2012 in 2018 je poučeval na Akademiji za glasbo Univerze Vytautasa Magnusa v Kaunasu, trenutno pa je profesor na Pedagoškem inštitutu Akademije v Šiauliaiju, Univerza v Vilni. Je ustanovitelj znanstvene revije The Spa- ces of Creation Univerze v Vilni, bil pa je tudi njen glavni urednik (2004–2016). Je tudi član Mednarodnega društva za raziskovanje in promocijo godbeništva (IGEB). Njegova interesna področja zajemajo glasbo za pihalne orkestre, inštrumentacijo, orkestracijo in zgodovino glasbe. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 114 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 115 DOI: 10.4312/mz.60.1.115-151 UDK: 780.8:780.616.433Razak Abdul Azi Is It Chaotic? An Examination of the Harmonic Materials in Razak Abdul Aziz’s Etude No. 5 for Solo Piano Mohd Fairuz Zamani University of Malaya ABSTRACT This paper investigates the adoption of chaos theory into Etude No. 5 by Razak Abdul Aziz. Using pitch-class set to analyse the work, the study unveils several chaotic elements. By providing a unique perspective of investigating musical works from the viewpoint of chaos, this study enriches music scholarship. Keywords: chaos, music analysis, post-tonal theory, Razak Abdul Aziz, Malaysian composer IZVLEČEK Prispevek opazuje uporabo teorije kaosa v Etudi št. 5 Razaka Abdula Aziza. Analiza skladbe s pomočjo tonskih vrst pokaže več kaotičnih prvin. Z izvirnim pristopom pri opazovanju glasbenega dela z upoštevanjem teorije kaosa razširja možnosti glasbene znanosti. Ključne besede: kaos, analiza glasbe, po-tonalna teorija, Razak Abdul Aziz, malezijski skladatelj Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 115 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lx/1 116 What Is Chaos? Chaos concerns unpredictable courses of events and the irregular time evolu- tion of many nonlinear and complex linear systems.1 The idea of chaos has been discussed by scholars since the 1600s. This is evident when Johannes Ke- pler published three laws of planetary motion as the outcomes of studying the chaotic pattern of movement of planetary bodies in 1609 and 1618. René Descartes in the “Third Meditation” from Meditationes de prima philosophia (1641), established concepts that later contributed towards the “principle of causality”, the foundation of physics that is highly related to the study of cha- os.2 However, theorizing chaos only came on board in the late nineteenth cen- tury, giving credit to Henri Poincaré for “birthing” the theory.3 Chaos theory is a study of apparently random or unpredictable behaviour in systems governed by deterministic laws.4 It is an interdisciplinary area of scientific study focused on underlying patterns and deterministic laws of dynamical systems that are highly sensitive to initial conditions. The theory states that within the apparent randomness of chaotic complex systems, there are underlying patterns, inter- connection, and self-organization.5 Possibly the most famous notion of this theory is the “Butterfly Effect”. A term coined by Edward Lorenz in 1961, this effect describes how a small change in one state of a deterministic nonlinear system can result in large differences in a later state. In theory, a butterfly stir- ring its wings in Peking could start a storm over New York the next month.6 Since its inception in the late nineteenth century, chaos theory has made its way into various fields. In recent years, Christos H. Skiadas and Charilaos Skia- das have collected miscellaneous academic articles from various authors on the application of chaos theory in various fields.7 Among these fields (not limited to) were nonlinear dynamics – example articles by Ezequiel del Rio and Sergio Elaskar that argued “intermittency is a particular route to the deterministic chaos characterized by spontaneous transitions between laminar and chaotic 1 Sven Erik Jørgensen, “Chaos,” in Encyclopedia of Ecology, eds. Sven Erik Jørgensen and Brian D. Fath (Massachusetts: Academic Press, 2008), 551. 2 Christian Oestreicher, “A History of Chaos Theory,” Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 9, no. 3 (2007): 280–281. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2007.9.3/coestreicher. 3 Ibid., 282. 4 Richard Steinitz, “Music, Maths & Chaos,” The Musical Times 137, no. 1837 (1996): 15, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1003886; Adam Augustyn, “Chaos Theory: Mathematics and Me- chanics,” Encyclopedia Britannica, accessed on December 29, 2022, https://www.britannica.com/ science/chaos-theory. 5 “What Is Chaos Theory?” Fractal Foundation, accessed December 29, 2022, https://fractalfoundation. org/resources/what-is-chaos-theory/. 6 David Little, “Composing with Chaos; Applications of a New Science for Music,” Interface 22, no. 1 (1993): 24, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09298219308570617. 7 Christos H. Skiadas and Charilaos Skiadas (Eds.), Handbook of Applications of Chaos Theory (Flo- rida: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 116 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 Mohd Fairuz Zamani: Is It Chaotic? An Examination of the Harmonic Materials... 117 dynamics,”8 Ivan Zelinka that discussed mutual relations between determin- istic chaos and evolutionary dynamics,9 and H. Tuan Anh Nguyen, Van Liet Dang, and Shunji Kawamoto that found “the 2D chaotic maps derived from 1D exact chaotic solutions have discrete nonlinear dynamics and may express physical analogs with chaotic properties”10 – data analysis – example articles by Alexander G. Ramm11 that formulated some of the basic results on the theory of integral equations and mention some of its applications, Christopher W. Kulp and Brandon J. Niskala12 that proposed a brief list of tools that can be used to characterize the dynamics of a system from time series data, and Igor V. Ovchinnikov13 that proposed a switching design for the robust stability of uncertain stochastic-switched discrete time-delay systems with interval time- varying delays – and music – Scott Mc Laughlin that made a survey on appli- cations of chaos theory in musical compositions by selected composer, showing “the multidimensionality of composition as a practice and how Chaos Theory can be situated as a similarly anti reductive mode of thought”14. Application of Chaos Theory in Music Through an understanding of chaos, we can recognize that […] there is often deeper order in effect. As such, chaos is among the most moving and meaningful forms of human musi- cal expression.15 8 Ezequiel del Rio and Sergio Elaskar, “The Intermittency Route to Chaos,” in Handbook of Applica- tions of Chaos Theory, eds. Christos H. Skiadas and Charilaos Skiadas (Florida: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016), 3. 9 Ivan Zelinka, “Deterministic Chaos and Evolutionary Dynamics: Mutual Relations,” in Handbook of Applications of Chaos Theory, eds. Christos H. Skiadas and Charilaos Skiadas (Florida: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016), 21. 10 H. Tuan Anh Nguyen, Van Liet Dang and Shunji Kawamoto, “Nonlinear Dynamics of Two-Di- mensional Chaotic Maps and Fractal Sets for Snow Crystals,” in Handbook of Applications of Chaos Theory, eds. Christos H. Skiadas, and Charilaos Skiadas, (Florida: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016), 90. 11 Alexander G. Ramm, “Integral Equations and Applications,” in Handbook of Applications of Chaos Theory, eds. Christos H. Skiadas and Charilaos Skiadas (Florida: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016). 12 Christopher W. Kulp and Brandon J. Niskala, “Characterization of Time Series Data,” in Hand- book of Applications of Chaos Theory, eds. Christos H. Skiadas and Charilaos Skiadas (Florida: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016). 13 Igor V. Ovchinnikov, “Supersymmetric Theory of Stochastics: Demystification of Self-Organized Criticality,” in Handbook of Applications of Chaos Theory, eds. Christos H. Skiadas and Charilaos Skiadas (Florida: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016). 14 Scott McLaughlin, “Composers and Chaos: A Survey of Applications of Chaos Theory in Musi- cal Arts and Research” in Handbook of Applications of Chaos Theory, eds. Christos H. Skiadas and Charilaos Skiadas (Florida: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016), 911. 15 Kenneth McLeod, “Interpreting Chaos: The Paradigm of Chaotics and New Critical Theory,” College Music Symposium 45 (2005): 54. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 117 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 118 The idea of chaos in music has been around for a long time, probably as early as the Medieval era as claimed by Pietro di Lorenzo16 through his analysis of three selected Gregorian chants – Stabat Mater, Victime Paschali, and Dies Irae. Kenneth McLeod argues that codified formal paradigms such as sonata- allegro form are chaos, arguing that “[it is] always mitigated by an infinite, thus unordered, variety of local individual differentiations. No two works are exactly alike[,]”17 implying the idea of chaos also existed during the Classical and Romantic eras. McLeod also claimed that Schenkerian analysis directly foreshadowed the study of chaos theory both in tone and in content, further suggesting that the idea of chaos had existed in the eras of tonal music. However, theorizing chaos in music only came about in the mid-20th cen- tury, stemming from its mathematical counterpart where this theory originat- ed. According to McLaughlin,18 “the general case for linking music and chaos theory can be made on several levels, from the metaphoric to the procedural.” The instances of the application of chaos in music would briefly discuss three musical contemporaries – György Ligeti (1923–2006), Iannis Xenakis (1922– 2001), and Jeff Pressing (1949–2002) – who were regarded as the pioneers in this field, while slightly touching the surface of the application of the said theory in non-Western musical traditions to provide context to and prepare the readers for the centrepiece of this paper; investigating the chaotic element in a piano piece by a Malaysian composer, Razak Abdul Aziz (1959). György Ligeti is possibly one of the most prominent musical composers who used the elements of chaos in his compositions (consciously and sub- consciously). Richard Steinitz, during his interview with Ligeti, mentioned that the composer “felt an instinctive kinship between his musical procedures and the structures being revealed by modern mathematic(s),”19 although eve- ry compositional decision he made was “based on aural kinship rather than calculated.”20 This is demonstrated in Ligeti’s three piano etudes – No. 9 Ver- tige, No. 13 L’escalier du diable and No. 14 Columna infinita – where all three are initially deterministic systems containing hidden variables, in which the amplification of error leads to more-or-less dramatic musical developments.21 However, Ligeti in Steinitz22 claimed that only two of his compositions were deliberately based on the idea of contemporary mathematics of chaos – Désodre 16 Pietro di Lorenzo, “Chaos Structures in Gregorian Chant,” in Musical Creativity / Special Issue: The Journal of the European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (Liege: ESCOM, 2002): 1–11. 17 McLeod, “Interpreting Chaos: The Paradigm of Chaotics and New Critical Theory,” 47. 18 McLaughlin, “Composers and Chaos,” 893. 19 Steinitz, “Music, Maths & Chaos,” 15. 20 Ibid., 17. 21 Ibid. 22 Richard Steinitz, “The Dynamics of Disorder,” The Musical Times 137, no. 1839 (1996): 8, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1003934. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 118 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 Mohd Fairuz Zamani: Is It Chaotic? An Examination of the Harmonic Materials... 119 (based on Koch snowflake) and the fourth movement of Piano Concerto (based on fractal). The chaotic elements in these compositions involved the scalic and note values, phrasing and cycle, and metric manipulation. Iannis Xenakis, a contemporary of György Ligeti, is perhaps another prom- inent figure in the field of composing with chaos. McLaughlin claimed that Xenakis did not work directly with chaos theory. However, he is a modern- ist composer who is directly linked to the amalgamation between music and mathematics.23 Xenakis was interested in how mathematics could be used to structure music. Though he initially opposed the idea of total serialism which incorporated mathematical elements, describing it as “an irrational and fortui- tous dispersion of sounds over the whole extent of the sonic spectrum,”24 the composer later applied various mathematical concepts such as probability the- ory, stochastics, Markovian and game theories and cellular automata into his musical material and structures.25 Makis Solomos (2005) claimed that Xenakis is among the first (if not, the first) composer(s) to implement cellular automata in a musical composition.26 Cellular automata derive from the mathematical theory of automata which is a branch of the theory of control system, which refers to “discrete dynamical systems with simple construction but complex self-organizing behaviour.”27 Xenakis probably first used cellular automata in his work Horos (1986), in which Solomos analysed and demonstrated three instances of cellular automata in this musical composition. Another prominent and important musical figure in composing music with chaos was John Cage (1912–1992). This American composer was known to have composed various works using chaos by manipulating the elements of chance. While Cage never explicitly mentioned these works derived from the notion of chaos, Marc G. Jensen claimed that “In all his work with chance, Cage sought a balance between the rational and the irrational by allowing random events to function within the context of a controlled system.”28 Judy Lochhead exemplified this argument by describing the chaotic elements in Cage’s exemplary work I Ching (1951). In this piano composition, Cage em- ploys chance procedures while setting three parameters – sound object, dura- tion, and dynamic – within the overall form by the specifications of a series of 23 McLaughlin, “Composers and Chaos,” 899. 24 Iannis Xenakis, Formalized Music: Thought and Mathematics in Composition (Indiana University Press, 1971), 23. 25 McLaughlin, “Composers and Chaos,” 900. 26 Makis Solomos, “Cellular Automata in Xenakis’ Music: Theory and Practice,” in Definitive Pro- ceedings of International Symposium Iannis Xenakis, eds. Makis Solomos, Anastasia Georgaki, and Giorgos Zervos (Athens: 2005). 27 Stephen Wolfram, “Universality and Complexity in Cellular Automata,” in Cellular Automata and Complexity, ed. Stephen Wolfram (Florida: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2018), 115. 28 Marc G. Jensen, “John Cage, Chance Operations, and the Chaos Game: Cage and the ‘I Ching’,” The Musical Times 150, no. 1907 (2009): 97. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 119 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 120 numbers.29 This perfectly fits with the characteristics of chaos – random or un- predictable behaviour in systems governed by deterministic laws. Christopher Shultis argued that Cage had adapted chaos into his music without reading about the concept. This is evident during Cage’s interview with Joan Retallack in 1990, where Cage mentioned that he was thinking about the chaos books (Mandelbrot’s The Fractal Geometry of Nature and Gleick’s Chaos: Making a New Science) that he had never read, but had composed works with chaotic elements such as I Ching (1951) and Child of Tree (1975) – many years before this interview took place, claiming that “it [the concept of chaos] is in the air,”30 further suggesting Cage was being metaphorical than procedural with his compositional approach on his “chaotic” works. Jeff Pressing was a composer, performer and researcher of music who per- formed scientific research focusing on motor behaviour and skill, cognitive science and the mathematical modelling of behaviour.31 Pressing analysed improvisation methods through a paper he wrote, explaining the cognitive aspects of improvised performance based on cognitive models of non-linear- ity in movement.32 From this analysis, Pressing proposed a model of musical improvisation that is reductionistic yet synergetic and capable of behavioural novelty, allowing it to be adequately specific to be the basis of the design of “improvising” computer programs. This discussion continued in the following year with his article Nonlinear Maps as Generators of Musical Design.33 Pressing provided his detailed strategies for using the logistic map and similar struc- tures to generate numerical materials, which he can then map onto various musical parameters. He also provided audio examples with accompanying ex- planations for the following structures: logistic map, cube root logistic map, Metz map (modified), predator-prey map (and with reversed variables), com- plex quadratic map (and with barrier), quaternion quadratic map with a barrier, quaternion logistic map, and symmetrized quaternion with a barrier.34 At the end of this discussion, Pressing suggested that the use of mathematics to gen- erate material can be considered a “found process,” in the same aesthetic light as “found objects” in all art forms. Moving on to a more contemporary context, Spanish composer Alberto Posadas (born 1967) has always been fascinated with integrating chaos into 29 Judy Lochhead, “Hearing Chaos,” American Music 19, no. 2 (2001): 231, DOI: https://doi. org/10.2307/3052614. 30 Christopher Shultis, “Cage and Chaos,” Amerikastudien / American Studies 45, no. 1 (2000): 92. 31 Simon Wright, “Jeff Pressing,” accessed January 20, 2023, http://www.move.com.au/artist/ jeff-pressing. 32 Jeff Pressing, “Improvisation: Method and Models,” in Generative Processes in Music, ed. John A. Sloboda (England: Oxford University Press, 1987). 33 Jeff Pressing, “Nonlinear Maps as Generators of Musical Design,” Computer Music Journal 12, no. 2 (1988): 35–46, DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3679940. 34 McLaughlin, “Composers and Chaos,” 900. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 120 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 Mohd Fairuz Zamani: Is It Chaotic? An Examination of the Harmonic Materials... 121 his works. Using mathematical elements of chaos such as fractals, bifurcation, and arborescence, Posadas translated these elements into musical notations. For instance, Posada’s fourth string quartet from the cycle Liturgia Fractal (2003–2007), Arborescencias (2007), as the name suggests, was composed us- ing the bio-fractal model of tree-like structure of arborescence. In his own words, “The tree-like processes that often occur in nature are processes of fractal growth […] In this quartet, the tree-like structure was applied to the factor of time.”35 Posadas added, “This makes the system [arborescence] extremely ‘sensitive’: Even just the smallest change to the duration of a given piece of musical material drastically alters the duration of all the pieces of material that follow.”36 As much as Posada’s attempt to avoid comparison between this work and those of Ligeti, the title of the fourth string quartet immediately brings to mind Xenakis’ music, who had developed the concept of arborescence in the 1970s with his works such as Evryali (1973), Cendrées (1974), and Erikhthon (1974), though Xenakis never theorised about his ar- borescence.37 Posada claimed that he, when composing Liturgia Fractal, was not aware of Xenakis’ arborescent works, therefore both composers dwelling upon this bio-fractal model are purely coincidental and might be regarded as “a happy accident.”38 Posadas also integrated the mathematical models of the respiratory and circulatory systems of mammals in his final quartet in the same cycle, Bifurcaciones (2007).39 The application of chaos theory in music does occur in non-Western mu- sical traditions. For example, Gengxian Cao argues that Chinese traditional music displays “the coexistence of certainty and uncertainty in both (the) mu- sical score and inheritance style.”40 Cao describes this duality as “process” and “evolution”, which Cao argues to be parallel with nonlinear theory (one of many branches of chaos theory). Neville H. Fletcher, when analysing the non- linearity of stringed instruments, European church bell, Chinese gongs and orchestral cymbal, found that the Chinese gongs “exploits the phenomena of chaotic vibration to produce superbly evocative percussive effects.”41 35 Alberto Posadas, Liturgia Fractal (Madrid: Kairos, 2009), 24. 36 Ibid., 24. 37 José L. Besada, “Math and Music, Models and Metaphors: Alberto Posadas’ ‘Tree-Like Structu- res’,” Contemporary Music Review 38, no. 1–2 (2019): 108, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/074944 67.2019.1578123. 38 Ibid., 108. 39 José L. Besada, Metamodels in Compositional Practices: The Case of Alberto Posada’s Liturgia Fractal (Paris: Delatour France/Ircam-Centre Pompidou, 2017), 183–196. 40 Gengxian Cao, “Chaos and Fractal in Chinese Traditional Music Texts and Its Inheritance,” in 5th International Conference of Philosophy of Information (Xi’an: MDPI, 2022), 2. 41 Neville H. Fletcher, Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos in Musical Instruments (Amsterdam: IOS Press, 1993), 117. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 121 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 122 Who Is Razak Abdul Aziz? Razak Abdul Aziz (born 1959) is a Malaysian composer. Possibly among the first (if not, the first) contemporary composers in Malaysia, Razak Abdul Aziz received his academic and compositional training at Skidmore College and Columbia University in the United States of America and the University of Edinburgh in the United Kingdom.42 Among his notable works are 10 Pantun Settings for solo voices, SATB chorus, and two pianos (with an optional solo violin), For Violin and Piano, The Wedding for orchestra, 5 Early Songs for voice and piano, and Etudes for Solo Piano.43 Though considered one of the earliest composers of this music genre in the country, interest towards Razak’s com- positions only came to light in recent years. This is possibly due to the com- poser’s view that “he saw being labelled as a composer is tough as the need to display works is a burden,” which may have been perceived as “being reluctant” to share his works with performers, academics, and in general, the public.44 Zamani wrote an extensive dissertation on preparing his academic recitals fully dedicated to this composer, taking the approach of understanding the inspira- tions behind selected solo and collaborative piano works using Rosenblatt’s Transactional theory.45 He further wrote the details of the performances of these works, where he included the programs for the two academic recitals, the repertoire selection process, and the recitals’ outcomes.46 Razak Abdul Aziz is currently in the process of completing his song cycle Haiku Renditions for voice and piano, where he adapted selected haikus by a Japanese haiku master, Toshi- ji Konishi based on the four seasons – spring, summer, autumn, and winter.47 Studies on the Musical Works of Razak Abdul Aziz As mentioned earlier, interest towards the musical works of Razak Abdul Aziz only surfaced quite recently, though he had been composing music since the 42 Mohd Fairuz Zamani, Mohd Muzhafar Idrus and Goh Yen Lin, “Razak Abdul Aziz: The For- gotten Composer,” SEAN Journal of Management and Business Studies 1, no. 1 (2019): 76, DOI: https://doi.org/10.26666/rmp.ajmbs.2019.1.11. 43 Mohd Fairuz Zamani and Abdul Fattah Abd. Gani, “Razak Abdul Aziz’s 10 Pantun Settings: Imagery behind the Chosen Texts,” International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences 10, no. 6 (2020): 962, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v10-i6/7465. 44 Vance Hall, “Razak Abdul Aziz: The Reluctant Composer,” The Star (November 27, 1988): 30. 45 Mohd Fairuz Zamani, “Performing Works by a Living Composer: Understanding the Musical Inspirations of Razak Abdul Aziz in Selected Piano Works” (PhD diss., University Pendidikan Sultan Idris, 2021). 46 Mohd Fairuz Zamani, “Music of Razak Abdul Aziz: Preparing Chosen Solo and Collaborative Piano Works for Two Academic Recitals,” Wacana Seni Journal of Arts Discourse 20 (2021): 79–85, DOI: https://doi.org/10.21315/ws2021.20.7. 47 Razak Abdul Aziz, “Haiku Renditions and Its Progress (Part 1),” interview by Mohd Fairuz Za- mani, recording on tape, University Sains Malaysia (October 30, 2022); Razak Abdul Aziz, “Hai- ku Renditions and Its Progress (Part 2),” interview by Mohd Fairuz Zamani, recording on tape, Universiti Sains Malaysia (November 28, 2022). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 122 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 Mohd Fairuz Zamani: Is It Chaotic? An Examination of the Harmonic Materials... 123 1980s.48 Zamani is possibly the scholar who has been the strongest advocate for music by this composer, as he is responsible for reintroducing the composer into the public eye by providing the composer’s musical training and discussing past performances of the composer’s works.49 Zamani found out that works by Razak Abdul Aziz were actively performed in the late 1980s to early 1990s and after the 2010s. The nearly 20-year gap of hiatus possibly made the musical audience “forget” the composer and his works, in addition to his view on the “composer” label. One of his compositions, 10 Pantun Settings (a set of art songs written for a combination of voices, pianos, SATB chorus and violin) received great at- tention from Zamani, as he had analysed the work from various perspectives. Zamani analysed the influence of Malaysian traditional performing arts el- ements in this cycle, concluding that the composer had utilized Sabahan tarian magunatip [bamboo dance] and Kelantanese wayang kulit [shadow puppet play] in two of the songs, No. 4 Jangan Tengok Kami and No. 6 Pin- jam Dandang, respectively.50 This work is further analysed from the angles of text and imagery.51 Using interviews with the composer as the main method to collect data, the paper expounded on the relationship between the chosen texts, imageries, and musical elements in this cycle. Zamani and Gani also concluded that, although the composer denied the existence of any form of textual narration in the work, the story behind 10 Pantun Settings is a sad one – an abandoned woman who appears emotionless and stoic towards her child as a coping mechanism towards the hope for the return of her husband despite knowing that he now has a new wife and is never coming back. Analysing from the framework of musico-literary, Zamani and Idrus argue that 10 Pantun Settings is about “the pervasiveness of wretchedness, peripheralization and disappointment across arranged marriages that pro- vides real-life snapshots of loss and grief ” and “provoked a nostalgic saudade and past instabilities of what it means growing up married in preconfigured environments.”52 Batubara, Rustiyanti and Prasetya studied the cross-cultural musical trends between the Asian and Western worlds in Razak Abdul Aziz’s opera, Maria 48 Hall, “Razak Abdul Aziz: The Reluctant Composer,” 30. 49 Zamani, Idrus, and Goh, “Razak Abdul Aziz: The Forgotten Composer.” 50 Mohd Fairuz Zamani, “Magunatip and Wayang Kulit: The Influence of Malaysian Traditional Performing Arts in Razak Abdul Aziz’s 10 Pantun Settings,” International Journal of Applied and Creative Arts 3, no.1, (2020): 1–9, DOI: https://doi.org/10.33736/ijaca.2187.2020. 51 Zamani and Gani, “Razak Abdul Aziz’s 10 Pantun Settings: Imagery behind the Chosen Texts.” 52 Mohd Fairuz Zamani and Mohd Muzhafar Idrus, “Music as Poetry and Performance: Ar- ranged Marriages, Past Instabilities, and Razak Abdul Aziz’s Musical Performance,” 3L The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies 28, no. 1 (2022): 13–14, DOI: http://doi. org/10.17576/3L-2022-2801-01. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 123 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 124 Zaitun.53 Adapting a short original story of slander, deception, social injustice and mistreatment, and saviourship of a marginalized community of disabled women by Fatimah Busu, Razak Abdul Aziz selected a few important sentences in this story as his libretto. Scored for eight voices, string orchestra, one harp, two pianos, celesta, glockenspiel, vibraphone, xylophone, marimba, and unpit- ched percussion instruments (triangles, temple bells, bell tree, finger cymbals, hand cymbals, suspended cymbals, Malay gongs, tam-tam, glass chime, glass, sand blocks, slapstick, wood blocks, temple blocks, geduk, snare drums, tambou- rine, tom-toms and bass drums), the composer used pitch-class set and various procedures of metric manipulations to realize this opera. Batubara, Rustiyanti and Prasetya argued that the composer “wished not to merely compose an opera which would contain elements of the main plot of the short story, instead, he desired to focus on the in-depth message the story had to offer, […].”54 They also stated that the author Fatimah Busu never imagined the short story to be set to music, let alone a full-scale two-hour opera of the short story. From the existing studies of works by Razak Abdul Aziz, we could observe that only in recent years a handful of scholars had shown academic interest in studying the musical works by this composer, although he had started com- posing music as early as the 1980s. The author would now like to continue the discussion with the centrepiece of this study – examining the harmonic ma- terials used in Etude No. 5 using set theory and then determining the chaotic elements from the examination. Method and Analysis This etude comes from a collection of five piano etudes written in 2002 and published in 2009.55 Interviews with Razak Abdul Aziz revealed that Etude No. 5 uses various pitch class sets as its harmonic materials and each phrase is governed by a regional octachord that determines the pitch used in smaller cardinalities (monad, dyad, trichord, tetrachord, etc.).56 Hence, pitch class anal- ysis will be used to examine this work. The analysis will identify the normal and prime forms for a few pitch-class sets used in the composition to illustrate the discussion. There are two prevailing methods of computing prime form, that are by Allen Forte in The Structure of Atonal Music57 and John Rahn in Basic Atonal Theory58. For this analysis, the author chose to use the computing 53 Junita Batubara, Sri Rustiyanti, and Stepanus Hanggar Budi Prasetya, “Maria Zaitun: The Journey from a Novel to Razak Abdul Aziz’s Opera,” Music Scholarship / Problemy Muzykal’noj Nauki, no. 3 (2021), DOI: https://doi.org/10.33779/2587-6341.2021.3. 54 Ibid., 120. 55 Razak Abdul Aziz, Etudes for Piano Solo (Pulau Pinang: The Asian Centre, 2009). 56 Razak Abdul Aziz, “Compositional Materials of Etude no. 5 (Part 1 and 2),” interview by Mohd Fairuz Zamani, recording on tape, University Sains Malaysia ( January 4 and 30, 2023). 57 Allen Forte, The Structure of Atonal Music (Connecticut: Yale Univ. Press, 1973). 58 John Rahn, Basic Atonal Theory (New York: Schirmer Books, 1980). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 124 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 Mohd Fairuz Zamani: Is It Chaotic? An Examination of the Harmonic Materials... 125 method by Rahn as this method is more suitable to describe the harmonic ele- ments in this composition as the set is read in only one direction – ascending. As Forte’s method aims at getting the most compact normal and primes form of a set, meaning, the forms could derive from reading the pitch in ascending or descending direction, this could confuse. Table 1 illustrates the difference between Forte’s and Rahn’s computing methods of prime form using C major and C minor chords as examples. Table 1: Forte’s and Rahn’s prime forms of C major and C minor chords PC Set Prime form (Forte) Prime form (Rahn) (C, Eb, G) (0, 3, 7) (0, 3, 7) (C, E, G) (0, 3, 7) (0, 4, 7) From the example illustrated in Table 1, it could be observed that the prime form in Forte’s computing method for different pitch-class sets could be simi- lar although the member(s) in the pitch-class is/are different, whereas Rahn’s showed a more accurate representation of the pitch-class set, although the prime form is not as compact as Forte’s. Rahn’s method of computing the pitch-class set is also used by other music theorists such as Joseph Nathan Straus in Introduction to Post-Tonal Theory.59 Before delving deeper into the analysis, the author would like to briefly explain the steps to determine the prime form (PF) of a set. There are four (4) steps involved, they are: 1. Gather all members of a cardinality and transpose the pitches in oc- taves wherever necessary into a range within an octave at any preferred register, as demonstrated by the following examples in Figure 1, where (a) is to be transposed into (b). (a) Original trichord structure (b) Transposed into one-octave range Figure 1: Example of the transposition process. 59 Joseph Nathan Straus, Introduction to Post-Tonal Theory (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2005). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 125 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 126 2. Identify the reference pc by finding the biggest interval gap between any two nearest members in a given cardinality. The higher pitch of the biggest gap in that cardinality is the reference pc. Using a similar trichord as above (G#, C, G), the biggest interval is from C to G (7 steps). Hence, the reference pc is G (G=0). 3. Arrange the set so that it has the most compact interval size starting from the reference pc. Transpose the pitches accordingly so that the ar- rangement is within an octave. Hence, the set is to be arranged as (G, G#, C). With G=0, G#=1, and C=5, the prime form is (015). 4. In the case of a tie, choose the set that has the most compact interval size. For example, take this tetrachord (C, D#, G, G#). The set has two instances of the biggest interval, D# to G and G# to C, both being 4 steps apart; meaning the reference pc could either be G or C. Say, the reference pc is G, following steps (i) and (ii), the set is (G, G#, C, D#) or (0,1,5,8). Repeat the process with C now as the reference pc, the set is (C, D#, G, G#) or (0,3,7,8). Comparing both options, we could observe that (G, G#, C, D#) has the most compact interval size, hence G is the reference pc and the prime form is (G G# C D#) or (0158). To obtain the PF of a regional octachord, combine the PF of both cardinali- ties (e.g.: tetrachord + tetrachord, trichord + pentachord) and repeat steps (2) through (4). As mentioned earlier in this section, each phrase is governed by a regional octachord that was determined before the writing of the music took place. This method is applied throughout the piece. For this analysis, the au- thor had chosen the first three phrases to examine and analyse to demonstrate how each phrase is governed by a regional octachord by identifying its PF. The regional octachord is manipulated to produce a few octachord structures in each phrase. Each octachord structure contains one to four octachord(s) (OC). The complete octachord always involves the interaction of cardinalities between the outer voices (OV) and inner voices (IV) playing interchangeable roles; one being a long, sustaining chord like a pedal point while the other is moving, though certain octachords do not require this interaction. The prime form (PF) is to be read from the smallest integer to the largest. The author would use standard music notation and integer tables to il- lustrate the PF for each octachord. The pitches involved would be transposed accordingly within the range of an octave on a single staff using treble clef. Integer tables, which are to be read together with the music notations, are to provide the analysis using numbers. These methods of illustrating the analysis are to aid the readers in understanding the analysis better by comparing both ways presented. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 126 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 Mohd Fairuz Zamani: Is It Chaotic? An Examination of the Harmonic Materials... 127 Phrase 1 The first phrase begins on the first beat of bar 1 until the first semiquaver sex- tuplet on the first beat of bar 9. However, due to the layout of the printed score, the author could only show the first phrase until the end of bar 8, as shown in Figure 2. This should not be an issue in analysing the octachord as the notes are tied from the second half of bar 8 until the said semiquaver sextuplet, keeping the octachord structure intact. Details on the printed score are included in the References should the readers require further examination. Figure 2: Phrase 1 of Etude No. 5. For a clearer illustration, the author dissected the analysis into smaller por- tions. Figure 3 shows the OC 1 and OC 2 of Phrase 1. Note that the author highlights the musical figures by using squares with red outlines. This applies to all other corresponding figures. Figure 3: OC 1 and OC 2 of Phrase 1. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 127 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 128 Figures 4 and 5 analyse the OV, IV, and PF of OC 1 and OC 2. Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 5 8 0 1 IV 0 1 4 8 PF 0 1 2 3 5 7 8 9 Figure 4: OC 1 of Phrase 1. Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 5 8 0 1 IV 5 7 0 1 PF 5 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 Figure 5: OC 2 of Phrase 1. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 128 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 Mohd Fairuz Zamani: Is It Chaotic? An Examination of the Harmonic Materials... 129 Figure 6 shows OC 3 and OC 4 of Phrase 1, which begins at the end of bar 3 and ends somewhere towards the end of bar 5 as illustrated below. Figure 6: OC 3 and OC 4 of Phrase 1. Figure 6: OC 3 and OC 4 of Phrase 1. Figures 7 and 8 are the analyses of the OV, IV, and PF of the second octachord structure of Phrase 1. Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 7 0 2 IV 0 1 2 7 8 PF 0 1 2 3 5 7 8 9 Figure 7: OC 3 of Phrase 1. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 129 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 130 Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 7 0 2 IV 7 8 0 2 4 PF 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 5 Figure 8: OC 4 of Phrase 1. Figure 9 shows OC 5 of Phrase 1, which begins at the end of bar 5 and ends on the first beat of bar 6. Figure 9: OC 5 of Phrase 1. OC 5 does not require any interaction between IV and OV to present itself as a complete octachord, as shown in Figure 10. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 130 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 Mohd Fairuz Zamani: Is It Chaotic? An Examination of the Harmonic Materials... 131 Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B PF 2 3 5 7 8 9 0 1 Figure 10: OC 5 of Phrase 1. Figure 11 illustrates OC 6 of Phrase 1, which begins at the second of bar 6 and ends somewhere in the middle of the third of bar 6. Like OC 5, OC 6 does not require any interaction between IV and OV to present itself as a complete octachord. Figure 11: OC 6 of Phrase 1. Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B PF 3 5 7 8 9 0 1 2 Figure 12: OC 6 of the fourth octachord structure of Phrase 1. Figure 13 shows OC 7 and OC 8 of Phrase 1, which begin at the end of bar 6 and ends at the beginning of bar 9 (the notes are tied from the sustained chord from bar 7 [IV] and the last sounding chord of bar 8 [OV], not shown in the figure). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 131 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 132 Figure 13: OC 7 and OC 8 of Phrase 1. The analyses for OC 7 and OC 8 of Phrase 1 are illustrated in Figures 14 and 15. Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 6 7 0 3 IV 0 1 3 7 PF 8 9 0 1 2 3 5 7 Figures 14: OC 7 of Phrase 1. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 132 7. 10. 2024 10:12:11 Mohd Fairuz Zamani: Is It Chaotic? An Examination of the Harmonic Materials... 133 Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 5 6 0 1 IV 0 1 3 7 PF 0 1 2 3 5 7 8 9 Figures 15: OC 8 of Phrase 1. From the analysis of Phrase 1, the author concluded that the prime form of the regional octachord for Phrase 1 is (01235789). Phrase 2 The second phrase of this etude begins on the second semiquaver of the sex- tuplet group on the first beat of bar 9 and ends on the last beat of bar 15 as shown in Figure 16. Figure 16: Phrase 2 of Etude No. 5. Figure 17 shows the OC 1 and OC 2 of Phrase 2, which begins on the second semiquaver of the sextuplet group on the first beat of bar 9 and ends on the second beat of bar 10. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 133 7. 10. 2024 10:12:12 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 134 Figure 17: OC 1 and OC 2 of Phrase 2. Figures 18 and 19 show the analyses of OC 1 and OC 2 of Phrase 2. Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 7 8 0 1 3 4 IV 0 1 PF 0 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 Figure: 18: OC 1 of Phrase 2. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 134 7. 10. 2024 10:12:12 Mohd Fairuz Zamani: Is It Chaotic? An Examination of the Harmonic Materials... 135 Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 6 0 1 2 3 5 IV 0 1 PF 9 0 1 3 4 5 6 8 Figure 19: OC 2 of Phrase 2. Figure 20 illustrates OC 3, OC, 4, and OC 5 of Phrase 2, which begin on the third beat of bar 10 and ends on the first semiquaver of the third beat of bar 12. Figure 20: OC 3, OC 4, and OC 5 of Phrase 2. Figure 21 through Figure 23 show the analyses of OC 3 through OC 5 of Phrase 2. Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 5 8 0 2 IV 4 8 0 1 PF 6 8 9 0 1 3 4 5 Figure 21: OC 3 of Phrase 2. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 135 7. 10. 2024 10:12:12 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 136 Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 0 2 4 5 IV 4 8 0 1 PF 0 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 Figure 22: OC 4 of Phrase 2. Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 0 2 3 6 IV 4 8 0 1 PF 3 4 5 6 8 9 0 1 Figure 23: OC 5 of Phrase 2. The OC 6, OC 7, and OC 8 of Phrase 2 begin on the second semiquaver of the third beat of bar 12 and end on the first quaver triplet of the third beat of bar 14, as illustrated in Figure 24. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 136 7. 10. 2024 10:12:12 Mohd Fairuz Zamani: Is It Chaotic? An Examination of the Harmonic Materials... 137 Figure 24: OC 6 of Phrase 2. Figures 25 through 27 show the analyses of OC 6 through 8 of Phrase 2. Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 5 0 1 3 IV 9 0 1 5 PF 8 9 0 1 3 4 5 6 Figure 25: OC 6 of Phrase 2. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 137 7. 10. 2024 10:12:12 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 138 Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 0 3 6 8 IV 9 0 1 5 PF 0 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 Figure 26: OC 7 of Phrase 2. Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 3 4 6 0 IV 9 0 1 5 PF 3 4 5 6 8 9 0 1 Figure 27: OC 8 of Phrase 2. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 138 7. 10. 2024 10:12:12 Mohd Fairuz Zamani: Is It Chaotic? An Examination of the Harmonic Materials... 139 The OC 9 and OC 10 of Phrase 2 begin on the second quaver triplet of the third beat of bar 14 and end on the last beat of bar 15, as shown in Figure 28. Figure 28: OC 9 and OC 10 of Phrase 2. Figures 29 and 30 show the analyses of OC 9 and OC 10 of Phrase 2. Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 0 1 4 5 7 8 IV 0 1 PF 5 6 8 9 0 1 3 4 Figure 29: OC 9 of Phrase 2. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 139 7. 10. 2024 10:12:12 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 140 Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 0 1 3 4 5 6 IV 0 1 PF 8 9 0 1 3 4 5 6 Figure 30: OC 10 of Phrase 2. From the analysis of the second phrase, the author concluded that the prime form of the regional octachord for Phrase 2 is (01345689). Phrase 3 The third phrase begins on the first beat of bar 16 and ends on the first qua- ver of bar 23. Similar to the first phrase of this piece, due to the layout of the printed score, the author could only show this phrase until the end of bar 22, as shown in Figure 31. This should not be an issue in analysing the octachord as the notes are tied from the last quaver of bar 22 until the first quaver of bar 23, keeping the octachord structure intact. Figure 31: Phrase 3 of Etude No. 5. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 140 7. 10. 2024 10:12:12 Mohd Fairuz Zamani: Is It Chaotic? An Examination of the Harmonic Materials... 141 Figure 32 shows OC 1 and OC 2 of Phrase 3, which begins on the first beat of bar 16 and ends on the first semiquaver sextuplet of the first beat of bar 18. Figure 32: OC 1 and OC 2 of Phrase 3. Figures 33 and 34 show the analyses of OC 1 and OC 2 of Phrase 3. Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 6 7 0 1 2 IV 0 1 6 PF 0 1 3 4 6 7 8 9 Figure 33: OC 1 of Phrase 3. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 141 7. 10. 2024 10:12:12 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 142 Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 5 7 8 0 1 IV 0 1 6 PF 1 3 4 6 7 8 9 0 Figure 34: OC 2 of Phrase 3. OC 3, OC 4, and OC 5 of Phrase 3 begin on the second semiquaver sextuplet of the first beat of bar 18 and end on the first quaver of the second beat of bar 20, as illustrated in Figure 35. Figure 35: OC 3, OC 4, and OC 5 of Phrase 3. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 142 7. 10. 2024 10:12:12 Mohd Fairuz Zamani: Is It Chaotic? An Examination of the Harmonic Materials... 143 Figures 36 through 38 show the analyses of OCs 3 through 5 of Phrase 3. Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 0 1 3 4 5 6 IV 0 1 PF 0 1 3 4 6 7 8 9 Figure 36: OC 3 of Phrase 3. Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 6 9 0 1 3 4 IV 0 1 PF 6 7 8 9 0 1 3 4 Figure 37: OC 4 of Phrase 3. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 143 7. 10. 2024 10:12:12 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 144 Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 0 1 4 5 7 8 IV 0 1 PF 6 7 8 9 0 1 3 4 Figure 38: OC 5 of Phrase 3. OC 6, OC 7, OC 8, and OC 9 begin on the second quaver of the second beat of bar 20 until the first quaver of the first beat of bar 23 (note that the first quaver of the first beat of bar 23 is not shown in Figure 39 as explained earlier). Figure 39: OC 6, OC 7, OC 8, and OC 9 of Phrase 3. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 144 7. 10. 2024 10:12:12 Mohd Fairuz Zamani: Is It Chaotic? An Examination of the Harmonic Materials... 145 Figures 40 through 43 show the analyses of OC 6 through 9 of Phrase 3. Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 5 6 9 0 1 3 4 IV 0 PF 8 9 0 1 3 4 6 7 Figure 40: OC 6 of Phrase 3. Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 6 7 8 0 2 3 5 IV 0 PF 7 8 9 0 1 3 4 6 Figure 41: OC 7 of Phrase 3. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 145 7. 10. 2024 10:12:12 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 146 Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 3 4 6 7 9 0 1 IV 0 PF 3 4 6 7 8 9 0 1 Figure 42: OC 8 of Phrase 3. Pitch C C#/Db D D#/Eb E F F#/Gb G G#/Ab A A#/Bb B OV 4 6 7 8 0 1 3 IV 0 PF 4 6 7 8 9 0 1 3 Figure 43: OC 9 of Phrase 3. From the analysis of the third phrase, the author concluded that the prime form of the regional octachord for Phrase 3 is (01346789). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 146 7. 10. 2024 10:12:12 Mohd Fairuz Zamani: Is It Chaotic? An Examination of the Harmonic Materials... 147 Findings and Conclusion From the analysis made by identifying the PF, the author found that each phrase is governed by an octachord that determines the selection of pitches used – (01235789) for Phrase 1, (01345689) for Phrase 2, and (01346789) for Phrase 3. With each octachord being manipulated and transposed to various degrees, which often involved shifting the reference pc to different positions caused by the interaction between IV and OV, this computation reminds the author of the famous Japanese number-placement puzzle Sudoku. What may be perceived as behaving as “random and unpredictable” on the surface is ad- ministered by a “system”, which is in line with the definition of chaos theory, as mentioned by Steinitz and Augustyn. Another chaotic element that the author found in the harmonic material of this etude is that the octachords may be presented in various combinations of car- dinalities, which are (i) tetrachord (IV) + tetrachord (OV), (ii) trichord (IV) + pentachord (OV), (iii) dyad (IV) + hexachord (OV), and (iv) monad (IV) + hep- tachord (OV), besides being presented as complete octachords in several instances. The composer manipulated these cardinalities in the said manner by slowly fluctu- ating the cardinalities of the IV against the OV. This manipulation does not adhere to any predetermined rules set by the composer. Instead, the composer stated in an interview on 30 January 2023 that this is done to his musical taste and aural consideration, using chaos metaphorically rather than as procedural. This could be heard in the performance of this piece, as interpreted by Dr Fairuz Zamani during MusEd’ 21 Lunch Concert on 21 August 2021 (performance of this piece begins at 46’46”).60 Despite this, the composer keeps the combined cardinalities of each phrase to their respective octachords that have been predetermined. Razak Abdul Aziz certainly did not invent the set theory or was not the first composer to integrate the element of chaos into music composition. But, in the author’s opinion and observation based on the analysis made in this paper and experience working with the composer, Razak Abdul Aziz may be among the first (if not, the first) to “marry” set theory and chaos among Malay- sian composers. While many Malaysian contemporary composers are showing great interest towards composing with mixed media, graphic scores, extended techniques, and aleatoric nature (just to name a few) as shown in Freehand An- thology I: 21st Century Malaysian Piano Works,61 Razak Abdul Aziz chose to re- main “conventional” with using common music writing techniques. However, despite not adhering to the contemporary musical trend, Razak Abdul Aziz’s music is unique, and Etude No. 5 is a great example of his musical uniqueness. 60 Malaysian Association for Music Education, “MusEd’ 21 Lunch Concert: Hall 2,” YouTube vi- deo, accessed June 16, 2023, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CSfXQkr4ogE&t=3s. 61 Malaysian Composers Collective, Freehand Anthology I: 21st Century Malaysian Piano Works (Pu- lau Pinang: Rhythm MP Sdn. Bhd., 2019). Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 147 7. 10. 2024 10:12:12 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 148 The author is not denying that a similar compositional procedure may have been done by other composers somewhere else in the world, considering that the set theory has existed for over 100 years and the conscious application of chaos in music had begun in the 1970s. However, this does not degrade the compositional and creative values that the composer imparted in this piano piece, just like how Ludwig van Beethoven’s use of functional harmony in his Piano Sonata in D minor op. 31 no. 2 “The Tempest” does not lessen the value of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s use of functional harmony in his Fantasia in D minor K. 397. They both are unique in their own ways, just like Razak Abdul Aziz’s use of set theory as compared to other composers who may have used a similar approach in their compositional process. Further investigations on the works of Razak Abdul Aziz are needed to explore, understand, and appreciate this composer as his works are currently not gaining adequate academic attention. To date, including this study, only 10 Pantun Settings, 5 Early Songs, Pepatah Episodes, Maria Zaitun, and Etude No. 5 have received academic interest. His other musical works, which is an extensive list, need to be investigated from several perspectives, such as musical, cultural, and literary. Being probably the earliest contemporary composer in Malaysia, Razak Abdul Aziz should be regarded as a Malaysian pioneer – hence a true national treasure. Bibliography Abdul Aziz, Razak. “Compositional Materials of Etude no. 5 (Part 1).” Interview by Mohd Fairuz Zamani. Recording on tape. University Sains Malaysia, January 4, 2023. Abdul Aziz, Razak. “Compositional Materials of Etude no. 5 (Part 2).” Interview by Mohd Fairuz Zamani. Recording on tape. University Sains Malaysia, January 30, 2023. Abdul Aziz, Razak. “Haiku Renditions and Its Progress (Part 1).” Interview by Mohd Fairuz Zamani. Recording on tape, University Sains Malaysia, October 30, 2022. Abdul Aziz, Razak. “Haiku Renditions and Its Progress (Part 2).” Interview by Mohd Fairuz Zamani. Recording on tape, University Sains Malaysia, November 28, 2022. Abdul Aziz, Razak. 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Zamani, Mohd Fairuz. “Music of Razak Abdul Aziz: Preparing Chosen Solo and Collabo- rative Piano Works for Two Academic Recitals.” Wacana Seni Journal of Arts Discourse 20 (2021): 79–85. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21315/ws2021.20.7. Zamani, Mohd Fairuz. “Performing Works by a Living Composer: Understanding the Mu- sical Inspirations of Razak Abdul Aziz in Selected Piano Works.” PhD diss., University Pendidikan Sultan Idris, 2021. Zelinka, Ivan. “Deterministic Chaos and Evolutionary Dynamics: Mutual Relations.” In Handbook of Applications of Chaos Theory, edited by Christos H. Skiadas and Charilaos Skiadas, 21–38. Florida: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2016. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 150 7. 10. 2024 10:12:12 Mohd Fairuz Zamani: Is It Chaotic? An Examination of the Harmonic Materials... 151 POVZETEK Je kaotično? Pregled harmonskega gradiva v Etudi št. 5 za klavir solo Razaka Abdula Aziza Opazovanja kaosa so se raziskovalci lotevali vse od začetka 17. st. A šele v dolgem 19. st. je francoski matematik Henri Poincaré o njem oblikoval ustrezno znanstveno teorijo. Od tedaj je ta našla uporabo v skoraj vseh znanostih, vključno s teorijo glasbe. Uporabo kaosa pri kom- poniranju lahko najdemo tudi v Etudi št. 5 za klavir Razaka Abdula Aziza. Analiza skladbe na podlagi tonskih vrst razkrije več kaotičnih prvin. Z izvirnim pristopom pri opazovanju glasbenega dela, ki upošteva teorijo kaosa, razprava razširja možnosti glasbene znanosti. ABOUT THE AUTHOR MOHD FAIRUZ ZAMANI (fairuzzamani@um.edu.my) is currently attached to the Faculty of Creative Arts, Universiti Malaya as an academic. He received his PhD in Music Performance from Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Master of Performing Arts (Music) from Universiti Malaya, and Bachelor of Music (Composition) and Diploma in Music from Universiti Teknologi MARA, besides professional diplomas from London College of Music (FLCM and LLCM in Pianoforte Performance). Apart from being a scholar and an academic, Mohd Fairuz also regularly performs with the National Symphony Orchestra of Malaysia and composes and arranges music for various establishments and events. O AVTORJU MOHD FAIRUZ ZAMANI (fairuzzamani@um.edu.my) deluje kot učitelj in raziskova- lec na Fakulteti za ustvarjalne umetnosti, Universiti Malaya. Iz glasbenega poustvarjanja je doktoriral na Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, magistriral iz glasbenega poustvarjanja na Universiti Malaya ter dosegel bakalavreat iz kompozicije in diplomo iz glasbe na Universiti Teknologi MARA. Diplomiral je tudi na London College of Music (FLCM in LLCM iz klavirja). Ob svojem pedagoškem in raziskovalnem delu redno nastopa z Malajskim državnim simfoničnim orkestrom ter kompoinira in prireja glasbo za različne izvajalce in dogodke. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 151 7. 10. 2024 10:12:12 Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 152 7. 10. 2024 10:12:12 153 DOI: 10.4312/mz.60.1.153-174 UDK: 78:37.091.3:004.738.5 Trubadur: nadgradnja platforme za e-učenje glasbene teorije1 Klara Žnideršič1, Peter Šavli2, Matija Marolt1, Matevž Pesek1 1Univerza v Ljubljani 2Konservatorij za glasbo in balet Ljubljana IZVLEČEK Nove funkcionalnosti na mobilni platformi za učenje glasbene teorije so usmerjene v prima vista izvajanje ritmičnih in melodičnih vzorcev ter so integrirane v celostno zasnovo platforme, saj ohranjajo enotne poigritvene elemente. Evalvacija uporabniške izkušnje novih igrificiranih pripomočkov je ponudila pozitivne povratne informacije, ki so spodbudni za popularizacijo in nadaljnji razvoj aplikacije. Ključne besede: glasbena teorija, e-učenje, poigritev, prima vista izvajanje ABSTRACT The new features of the mobile platform for music theory exercises focus on sight-reading rhythmic and melodic patterns and are integrated into the overall design of the platform as they maintain consistent gamification elements. The user experience evaluation of the new gamified tools has provided positive feedback, which is encouraging for the wider adoption of the application. Keywords: music theory, e-learning, gamification, sight-reading * Raziskava je bila delno izvedena v okviru temeljnega raziskovalnega projekta Glasba mladih po 1945 in Glasbena mladina Slovenije [številka projekta J6-3135], ki ga financira Javna agencija za raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije iz državnega proračuna. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 153 7. 10. 2024 10:12:12 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lx/1 154 Uvod S hitrim razvojem informacijske tehnologije v preteklih desetletjih je postala di- gitalizacija vse bolj priljubljen proces tudi na primarno netehnoloških področjih, kot je izobraževanje. Tako so računalniki in internet pomembno sooblikovali nove načine učenja,1 velik premik pa se je zgodil tudi na področju neinstituciona- liziranega izobraževanja, ki omogoča napredek v individualnem tempu. Potreba po razvoju računalniških pripomočkov in orodij za podporo izvedbi pouka je postala še izrazitejša v času epidemije, ko je bil velik del učnega procesa presta- vljen iz šolskega v domače okolje. Med inovativnimi pristopi k učenju se je za učinkovito že večkrat izkazala poigritev,2 saj učencem predstavlja nove in sodob- nejše oblike motivacije, slednje pa je še zlasti primerno upoštevati pri razvoju orodij za učenje snovi, ki je učencem pogosto manj privlačna. Na področju glas- benega šolanja v okviru aktualnih učnih načrtov so med učenci neredko najmanj priljubljene teoretične vsebine, med njimi tudi glasbeni nareki. V okviru naše raziskave zato naslavljamo izpostavljeno problematiko in predstavljamo nove digitalne pripomočke za urjenje glasbenih veščin, natančneje prima vista izvajanje ritmičnih in melodičnih vzorcev. Prvi del raziskav je obse- gal razvoj funkcionalnosti inverznega ritmičnega, melodičnega in harmonskega nareka ter njihovo integracijo v obstoječo platformo Trubadur, pri čemer smo iskali načine za vpeljavo obstoječega generatorja ritmičnih in melodičnih vzorcev, uporabo enotnega sistema vrednotenja ter procesiranje in vizualizacijo zvočnih signalov. V drugem delu smo se posvetili preučevanju uporabniške izkušnje med preizkuševalci v eksperimentalnih skupinah. Na podlagi njihovih ocen in pre- dlogov smo ustvarili izboljšano produkcijsko različico, ki smo jo ponudili v širšo uporabo in je usklajena z obstoječimi učnimi načrti glasbenih šol. Članek v naslednjem sklopu predstavlja obstoječo literaturo, ki tematizira e-učenje, poigritev in pristope k urjenju v prima vista izvajanju. Predstavljena je tudi predhodna različica platforme Trubadur, ki smo jo oblikovali pred imple- mentacijo novih pripomočkov za inverzni narek. Tretji sklop opisuje delovanje obeh novih iger za vadbo inverznih narekov, četrti pa zasnovo evalvacije upo- rabniške izkušnje. V petem sklopu predstavljamo rezultate evalvacije, članek pa zaokroža zaključek, ki razlaga rezultate, navaja možnosti za nadaljnje raziskave in seznanja z aktualnim stanjem produkcijske različice. 1 Ronald M. Baecker, »Computers in Education and Learning«, v Computers and Society: Mo- dern Perspectives, ur. Ronald M Baecker (Oxford University Press, 2019), 71, DOI: https://doi. org/10.1093/oso/9780198827085.003.0008. 2 Kingsley Ofosu-Ampong, »The Shift to Gamification in Education: A Review on Dominant Is- sues«, Journal of Educational Technology Systems 49, št. 1 (2020): 113–137, DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177/0047239520917629; Nadire Cavus idr., »The Effects of Gamification in Education: A Systematic Literature Review«, BRAIN: Broad Research in Artificial Intelligence and Neuro- science 14, št. 2 (2023): 211–241, DOI: https://doi.org/10.18662/brain/14.2/452; Nilüfer Zeybek in Elif Saygı, »Gamification in Education: Why, Where, When, and How? A Systematic Review«, Games and Culture 19, št. 2 (2023): 237–264, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/15554120231158625. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 154 7. 10. 2024 10:12:12 K. Žnideršič, P. Šavli, M. Marolt, M. Pesek: Trubadur 155 Pregled literature E-učenje in poigritev Združitev tehnologije in pedagogike je v nenehno razvijajočem se izobraže- valnem okolju privedla do inovativnih rešitev, zlasti na področju e-učenja in poigritve procesov. V raznolikih okvirih šolanja, ki se vse pogosteje preusmer- ja na virtualne platforme, so se inovacije izkazale za prepričljive strategije pri motivaciji in vključevanju učencev. Pretekle raziskave so bile osredotočene predvsem na višje stopnje izobrazbe3 in so zajemale različna področja, med njimi tudi glasbo.4 Raziskave poročajo o pozitivnih aspektih uporabe sodobnih tehnologij, kot so prilagodljivost, dostopnost, podpora samostojnemu učenju, personalizacija in takojšnje povratne informacije, izpostavljeni pa so bili tudi izzivi pri uvajanju e-učenja.5 Na razvoj digitalizacije učenja je imelo velik vpliv obdobje epidemije covid-19, v katerem so zaradi nenadnih sprememb in ne- zadostnih tehničnih veščin učiteljskega osebja nastajali pomisleki o negativnih učinkih učenja na daljavo predvsem na mlajše učence, pozitivni aspekti spo- znavanja z informacijsko-komunikacijsko tehnologijo (IKT) pa bi lahko bili izrazitejši z bolj premišljenim in strokovno podprtim prehodom.6 Raziskovalci so se osredotočali tudi na priložnosti in izzive, ki jih prinaša integracija umetne inteligence v e-učenje.7 3 Robert H Woody, »Music Education Students’ Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation: A Quantitative Analysis of Personal Narratives«, Psychology of Music 49, št. 5 (2021): 1321–1343, DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1177/0305735620944224; Marko Urh idr., »The Model for Introduction of Gamifica- tion into E-Learning in Higher Education«, Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences 197 (2015): 388–397, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.07.154; Simone De Sousa Borges idr., »A Systematic Mapping on Gamification Applied to Education«, v Proceedings of the 29th Annual ACM Symposium on Applied Computing, SAC ’14 (New York, NY, USA: Association for Comput- ing Machinery, 2014), 216–222, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/2554850.2554956; Elias Kyewski in Nicole C. Krämer, »To Gamify or not to Gamify? An Experimental Field Study of the Influ- ence of Badges on Motivation, Activity, and Performance in an Online Learning Course«, Com- puters & Education 118 (2018): 25–37, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.11.006. 4 Michele Biasutti, Roberta Antonini Philippe in Andrea Schiavio, »E-Learning Dur- ing the COVID-19 Lockdown: An Interview Study with Primary School Music Teachers in Italy«, International Journal of Music Education 41, št. 2 (2023): 256–270, DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177/02557614221107190; Woody, »Music Education Students’ Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation«, 1321–1343, Carolyn Wagner; »Digital Gamification in Private Music Education«, Antistasis 7, št. 1 (2017), https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/antistasis/article/view/24904. 5 Biasutti, Antonini Philippe in Schiavio, »E-Learning during the COVID-19 Lockdown«; Ai- tor Martinez-Garcia, Patricia Horrach-Rosselló, Carles Mulet-Forteza, »Evolution and Current State of Research into E-Learning«, Heliyon 9, št. 10 (2023): 1–16, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.heliyon.2023.e21016. 6 Biasutti, Antonini Philippe in Schiavio, »E-Learning during the COVID-19 Lockdown«. 7 Martinez-Garcia, Horrach-Rosselló in Mulet-Forteza, »Evolution and Current State of Research into E-Learning«. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 155 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 156 Poigritev je definirana kot uporaba elementov igre in mehanizmov igre v kontekstih, ki niso igre,8 vendar pa je meja med igrami in igrificiranimi aplika- cijami pogosto zabrisana. V svojem pregledu literature o poigritvi so Behl idr. opredelili štiri glavne teme – personalizacija, učni stili, angažiranost učencev in elementi igre.9 Med najpogosteje uporabljenimi elementi poigritve so bile značke, lestvice najboljših, točke, izzivi, všečki, komunikacijski kanali, zgod- ba, težavnostne ravni, vrstice napredka, ekipno sodelovanje, agenti, medalje, avatarji, časovna omejitev, virtualna valuta, možnost personalizacije, možnost ponovne igre in tekmovanja.10 V anketi med osnovnošolskimi otroki11 so se za najprivlačnejše elemente izkazali grafika, povratne informacije in izzivi. Raziskava De Freitas12 je po- kazala, da so igre lahko učinkovito učno orodje in da je njihova razširjenost le vprašanje časa, zato postaja vse bolj pomembna obravnava metodoloških izzi- vov in razvoj poenotene terminologije. Spet druge raziskave13 pa niso dokazale bistvenega vpliva uporabe elementov poigritve na izboljšavo ocen ali rezulta- tov kvizov, vendar prav tako ne negativnega vpliva na izboljšanje rezultatov in motivacijo. Personalizacija kot napreden pristop k poigritvi je bila evalvirana v okviru raziskave Hassan idr.14 Vzpostavljeni sistem je uporabnikom na podla- gi vnaprej ugotovljenega učnega tipa ponudil prilagojene elemente poigritve. Rezultati so pokazali, da so prilagodljivi elementi občutno vplivali na dvig motivacije za dokončanje nalog, povečanje zanimanja in števila uporabniških interakcij s sistemom. Prima vista izvajanje Na področju glasbene vzgoje je Schüler naslovil izzive, s katerimi se srečuje- jo instrumentalisti in vokalisti, pri čemer se prvi pogosteje srečujejo s težava- mi pri vajah, povezanih s petjem, drugi pa pri vajah za urjenje posluha, kot 8 Sebastian Deterding idr., »From Game Design Elements to Gamefulness: Defining Gamifica- tion«, v Proceedings of the 15th International Academic MindTrek Conference: Envisioning Future Media Environments 11 (2011), 9–15, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/2181037.2181040. 9 Abhishek Behl idr., »Gamification and E-Learning for Young Learners: A Systematic Literature Review, Bibliometric Analysis, and Future Research Agenda«, Technological Forecasting and Social Change 176 (2022), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121445. 10 Alessandra Antonaci, Roland Klemke in Marcus Specht, »The Effects of Gamification in Online Learning Environments: A Systematic Literature Review«, Informatics 6, št. 3 (2019): 1–22, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/informatics6030032. 11 Kalpana Nand idr., »Engaging Children with Educational Content via Gamification«, Smart Learning Environments 6 (2019): 1–15, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-019-0085-2. 12 Sara De Freitas, »Are Games Effective Learning Tools? A Review of Educational Games«, Jour- nal of Educational Technology & Society 21, št. 2 (2018): 74–84. 13 Kyewski in Krämer, »To Gamify or not to Gamify?), 25–37. 14 Muhammad Hassan idr., »Adaptive Gamification in E-Learning Based on Students’ Learning Styles«, Interactive Learning Environments 29 (2019): 1–21, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10494 820.2019.1588745. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 156 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 K. Žnideršič, P. Šavli, M. Marolt, M. Pesek: Trubadur 157 so melodični, ritmični in harmonski narek.15 V središče raziskave je bila torej postavljena sposobnost avdiacije, ki jo Gordon opisuje kot slišanje glasbe, kadar zvok ni fizično prisoten oz. slišanje glasbe v mislih.16 Schüler na področju urjenja avdiacijskih sposobnosti zagovarja integracijo tehnoloških orodij, kot so spletne karaoke SingSnap in platfoma SmartMusic, ki bi pozitivno vplivala na dvig mo- tivacije, povečanje produktivnosti, boljše rezultate na avdicijah in večji napredek v znanju solfeggia v primerjavi s tradicionalnimi vajami.17 Platforma Smart- Music, ki uporabniku zagotavlja vizualne in zvočne povratne informacije, je v Schülerjevi raziskavi znatno povečala motivacijo in uspešnost učencev, ob tem pa je avtor izpostavil tudi učinkovitost drugih podobnih programskih orodij.18 V preteklih letih je bilo razvitih še več aplikacij za urjenje prima vista izva- janja glasbenih vaj in so večinoma na voljo kot spletne aplikacije ali v spletnih trgovinah App Store in Google Play. Ella19 je aplikacija za slušne vaje z igrifi- ciranimi elementi, kot so lestvice uspešnosti in točkovanje, ter podrobno ana- lizo in povratnimi informacijami o natančnosti izvedbe. Različne igrificirane aplikacije za glasbene vaje20 so bile razvite tudi v okviru Zveze kraljevih glas- benih šol ABRSM21 za potrebe glasbenih šolarjev na različnih izobraževalnih stopnjah in uporabnikom ponujajo avtomatsko vrednotenje izvedb. Za samos- tojno delo so primerne različne vaje za urjenje posluha, absolutnega posluha, ritmični in melodični narek in prima vista branje v aplikaciji Perfect Ear22, ki pa ne omogoča nadzora s strani učitelja ali mentorja. Za šolska okolja je prila- gojena aplikacija Sight Reading Factory23, saj ne omogoča le standardnih vaj za solistično a vista izvajanje, temveč tudi skupinsko igro, vendar uporabnikom ne ponuja samodejno generiranih povratnih informacij. Sorodne funkcionalnosti so na voljo tudi v aplikacijah ToneGym24, iClef25 ter Adventure in Music Land26. 15 Nico Schüler, »Modern Approaches to Teaching Sight Singing and Ear Training«, Fac- ta Universitatis, Series: Visual Arts and Music (2021), 83, DOI: https://doi.org/10.22190/ FUVAM2002083S. 16 Edwin E. Gordon, »Research Studies in Audiation: I«, Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, št. 84 (1985): 34. 17 Schüler, »Modern Approaches to Teaching Sight Singing and Ear Training«, 85. 18 Schüler navaja EarMaster Pro, MacGamut, Practica Musica, Auralia, Teoria.com in EarTrainer. Programi avtomatsko generirajo slušne vaje, nekateri pa učiteljem omogočajo tudi ročno izdelavo in ocenjevanje melodičnih, ritmičnih in harmonskih narekov. 19 https://ellaapp.io. 20 Klavirske in violinske lestvice, a vista branje, glasbena teorija in slušno zaznavanje. 21 https://www.abrsm.org. 22 https://www.perfectear.app. 23 https://www.sightreadingfactory.com. 24 https://www.tonegym.co. 25 Za urjenje branja v različnih notnih ključih. Adriano Baratè, Andrea Brugaletta in Luca Ludovico, »A Mobile Serious Game to Foster Music Sight Reading with Different Clefs«, v Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Computer Supported Education (Prague, Czech Repub- lic: SCITEPRESS – Science and Technology Publications, 2023), 397–403, DOI: https://doi. org/10.5220/0012059500003470. 26 Za otroke od 9 do 13 let. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 157 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 158 Platforma Trubadur Zgodnejša različica odprtokodne spletne platforme Trubadur za urjenje glasbe- nega posluha in njene evalvacije so bile v preteklosti že predstavljene v številki Muzikološkega zbornika.27 Platforma je tedaj podpirala samodejno generiranje melodičnega in ritmičnega nareka ter uporabnikom omogočala individualno vadbo in opravljanje domačih nalog s takojšnjimi povratnimi informacijami, učiteljem pa je ponujala vpogled v uspešnost dijakov, ki so platformo uporabljali v okviru šolskih predmetov. Pri razvoju generatorjev intervalnega in ritmičnega nareka je bilo upoštevanih več vidikov kompleksnosti, vaje pa so bile glede na učni načrt razvrščene po težavnosti. Za ohranitev smiselnosti tako ritmičnih kot melodičnih vaj je bil potreben psevdonaključni pristop h generiranju, pri čemer je bil algoritem prilagojen smernicam glasbenih pedagogov. V želji po večji atraktivnosti platforme in motivaciji uporabnikov so se avtorji odločili za različne elemente poigritve, ki so jih vključili v uporabniški proces. Uporabniku je tako omogočeno ustvarjanje lastnega profila in avatarja, osvajanje značk za dosežke, napredovanje po stopnjah ter razvrstitev na lestvici uspešnosti. Evalvacija te različice je potekala v več krajših obdobjih, njeni rezultati pa so platformo prikazali v zelo svetli luči in so presegli celo pričakovanja avtorjev.28 Večina kritik se je nanašala zgolj na dizajn aplikacije, kar je bilo naslovljeno v nadaljnjem razvoju platforme in je zdaj sodobnejšega ter privlačnejšega izgleda za srednješolce. V tem obdobju je bila razvita še funkcionalnost harmonskega nareka in ritmičnega nareka za osnovnošolce. Nekdaj odzivna spletna apli- kacija, ki je bila prilagojena mobilnim napravam, je zdaj primarno mobilna aplikacija, ki je na voljo v spletnih trgovinah Google Play in App Store, vse navedene funkcionalnosti pa so s posodobljenim dizajnom še vedno dostopne tudi na spletnem mestu https://trubadur.si. Inverzne igre V okviru nadgradnje platforme Trubadur smo v preteklem letu razvili nove funkcionalnosti, ki so prav tako kot že implementirani glasbeni nareki osre- dotočene na izpopolnjevanje avdiacijskih sposobnosti uporabnika. Vrzel, ki je nastala na področju vaj za prima vista izvajanje, smo naslovili z inverznimi glasbenimi nareki. Medtem ko je pri predhodno implementiranih standardnih narekih uporabnik sprejel ritmični, melodični ali harmonski vzorec v obli- ki zvočnega signala in ga je nato po posluhu vnesel v notno črtovje, sta pri inverznih ritmičnih narekih vlogi zamenjani in uporabnik postane izvajalec vzorca, ki je podan v grafičnem zapisu. Zaradi tehničnih vidikov procesiranja zvočnih signalov so bile inverzne oblike narekov razvite v dveh delih – prvi je 27 Matevž Pesek, Peter Šavli in Matija Marolt, »Razvoj platforme Trubadur in novi izzivi v prihajajočih letih«, Muzikološki zbornik 58, št. 2 (2022): 51–79, DOI: https://doi.org/10.4312/mz.58.2.51-79. 28 Prav tam, 68. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 158 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 K. Žnideršič, P. Šavli, M. Marolt, M. Pesek: Trubadur 159 bil ritmični, drugi pa melodični in harmonski. Ker je bil z razvojem platforme glavni poudarek preusmerjen v uporabo na mobilnih napravah, nove funkcio- nalnosti inverznega nareka niso bile implementirane v različici spletne aplika- cije, temveč zgolj v mobilni aplikaciji. Prednost inverznih iger je tudi v tem, da učence in dijake navaja na uporabo pravilne pevske tehnike. Slika 1: Mobilni uporabniški vmesnik platforme Trubadur. Inverzni ritmični narek Inverzni ritmični narek za generiranje vzorcev uporablja algoritem, ki je bil razvit v predhodnih fazah in je v uporabi tudi za vaje standardnega ritmične- ga nareka. Generirani vzorec je v obliki grafičnega zapisa predstavljen upo- rabniku, ta pa ga zapoje v mikrofon naprave, na kateri uporablja aplikacijo. Uporabnik lahko svoj vnos posluša in ga po želji ponovno posname, nato pa ga potrdi. Zvočni signal je v aplikaciji pretvorjen v binarni zapis, ki ločuje Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 159 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 160 med zaznanim zvokom in tišino. Binarni zapis je primerjan z referenčno binarno predstavitvijo, ki je bila izračunana na podlagi generiranega vzorca, pri čemer so za sinhronizacijo in primerjavo nastavljene tolerančne vrednosti za zamik časa začetka in trajanje not, ki dovoljuje 25 % odstopanje od refe- renčne vrednosti. Na podlagi rezultatov primerjave je uporabnik seznanjen s samodejno generiranimi povratnimi informacijami o uspešnosti izvedbe ritmičnega vzorca. Inverzni melodični in harmonski narek Osnovna zasnova inverznega melodičnega oz. intervalnega nareka je podob- na ritmičnemu, dodan pa je referenčni izhodiščni ton vzorca, ki ga lahko uporabnik po potrebi zviša ali zniža za oktavo in tako vajo prilagodi svojemu pevskemu registru. Za procesiranje vhodnega signala so uporabljene obstoje- če programske knjižnice, ki na podlagi algoritma zaznavajo frekvence in jih pretvarjajo v notne vrednosti. Človeški glas s fizikalnega vidika ni preprosto sinusno nihanje, zato je posamezni referenčni ton izbran na podlagi pogo- stosti pojavitev na odsekih časovne premice. Tak pristop se je izkazal za pri- mernega, saj je bila reprezentacija zapetih not realizirana v načinu piano roll, kjer uporabnik v realnem času sledi zaznanemu melodičnemu gibanju. Pri- merjava zaznanih not z izhodiščnim generiranim vzorcem ustvarja podlago za samodejno vrednotenje pravilnosti izvedbe, ki se uporabniku prikazuje z obarvanjem not v danem vzorcu, pri čemer zelena ponazarja pravilno zapet ton, z rdečo pa je v primeru napake izpisan napačno zapet ton. Kot posebna oblika melodičnega nareka je bil razvit tudi harmonski na- rek. Zaradi naravnih omejitev pevskega aparata, ki praviloma ne omogoča so- časnega petja večih tonov hkrati, je bila edina smiselna realizacija inverznega harmonskega nareka v obliki razloženih akordov. Slednji so v svojem bistvu sestavljeni iz dogovorjenih intervalnih zaporedij, kar pomeni, da so generi- rani vzorci zgolj podskupina vzorcev inverznega melodičnega nareka, proces izvajanja vaje in prepoznavanja tonov pa je enak zgoraj opisanemu. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 160 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 K. Žnideršič, P. Šavli, M. Marolt, M. Pesek: Trubadur 161 Slika 2: Tri različice inverznega melodičnega nareka. Končna oblika (desna zaslonska slika) vključuje »piano roll« pogled v realnem času in pravilno ali napačno zapete tone v notnem črtovju. Evalvacija uporabniške izkušnje Evalvacijo novih funkcionalnosti smo zaradi različne narave nalog izvedli v dveh delih. V prvem delu so sodelujoči v raziskavi preizkušali naloge inverzne- ga ritmičnega nareka, v drugem delu pa naloge inverznega melodičnega in harmonskega nareka. Zaradi časovnih omejitev sta bili skupini anketirancev zbrani za vsak del posebej. Anketiranci so najprej odgovarjali na demografska vprašanja o spolu, starosti, instrumentu, ki ga igrajo, letih formalnega učenja instrumenta in letih glasbenega šolanja. Nadaljnja vprašanja, ki se nanašajo na uporabniško izkušnjo, pa so bila izbrana iz že uveljavljenih standardiziranih vprašalnikov UEQ in Meega+. Vprašalnik UEQ Vprašalnik o uporabniški izkušnji UEQ (angl. User Experience Questionnaire) so leta 2008 predstavili Laugwitz, Held in Schrepp.29 Ta vprašalnik zajema vidike pragmatične in hedonične kakovosti, zajete v 26 točkah, ki so jih avtorji 29 Bettina Laugwitz, Theo Held in Martin Schrepp, »Construction and Evaluation of a User Experi- ence Questionnaire«, v HCI and Usability for Education and Work, ur. Andreas Holzinger (Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, 2008), 63–76, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-89350-9_6. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 161 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 162 razvrstili v šest kategorij. Slovenski prevod vprašalnika so prispevali Matjaž Debevc, Saša Jazbec in Julija Lapuh Bele,30 ki so naslove kategorij poimenovali: atraktivnost, preglednost (pragmatična), učinkovitost (pragmatična), vodljivost (pragmatična), stimulativnost (hedonična) in originalnost (hedonična). Vsako izmed 26 lastnosti produkta, vrednotenih na lestvici, označujeta dva pojma nasprotnega pomena, pri čemer se polovica parov pojmov začne s pozitivnim, polovica pa z negativnim izrazom. Anketiranci vsak element ocenijo na 7-sto- penjski Likertovi lestvici, v priročniku za uporabo lestvice pa so predstavljeni tudi načini interpretacije rezultatov.31 Avtorji vprašalnika poudarjajo, da so za- radi izračuna povprečja odzivov sodelujočih z različnimi mnenji in težnjami odzivanja (izogibanje skrajnim ocenam na lestvici) vrednosti nad +2 in pod -2 zelo malo verjetne.32 30 Martin Schrepp, Andreas Hinderks in Jörg Tomaschewski, »User Experience Questionnaire (UEQ)«, pridobljeno 13. februarja 2024, https://www.ueq-online.org. 31 Martin Schrepp, »User Experience Questionnaire Handbook« (2023), DOI: https://doi. org/10.13140/RG.2.1.2815.0245. 32 Prav tam. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 162 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 K. Žnideršič, P. Šavli, M. Marolt, M. Pesek: Trubadur 163 Tabela 1: UEQ vprašalnik Likertova lestvica kategorija nerazveseljiv o o o o o o o razveseljiv atraktivnost nerazumljiv o o o o o o o razumljiv preglednost kreativen o o o o o o o brez fantazije originalnost enostaven za učenje o o o o o o o težak za učenje preglednost osvežilen o o o o o o o uspavajoč stimulativnost dolgočasen o o o o o o o napet stimulativnost nezanimiv o o o o o o o zanimiv stimulativnost nepredvidljiv o o o o o o o predvidljiv vodljivost hiter o o o o o o o počasen učinkovitost nov o o o o o o o star originalnost se ne da upravljati o o o o o o o se z lahkoto upravlja vodljivost dober o o o o o o o slab atraktivnost kompliciran o o o o o o o enostaven preglednost odbijajoč o o o o o o o privlačen atraktivnost zastarel o o o o o o o moderen originalnost neprijeten o o o o o o o prijeten atraktivnost napovedljiv o o o o o o o nenapovedljiv vodljivost raznolik o o o o o o o enoličen stimulativnost zanesljiv o o o o o o o nezanesljiv vodljivost ni učinkovit o o o o o o o učinkovit učinkovitost pregleden o o o o o o o ustvarja zmedo preglednost deluje zatikajoče o o o o o o o deluje tekoče učinkovitost prostoren o o o o o o o prenatrpan učinkovitost lep o o o o o o o grd atraktivnost simpatičen o o o o o o o nesimpatičen atraktivnost nevpadljiv o o o o o o o vpadljiv originalnost Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 163 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 164 Vprašalnik Meega+ Pri evalvaciji melodičnega in harmonskega nareka je bil dodatno uporabljen tudi manjši del vprašalnika Meega+33.Vprašalnik je bil razvit za sistematič- no ocenjevanje kakovosti izobraževalnih igrer v računaniškem izobaževanju z vidika uporabnika.34 Model obsega dva primarna vidika kakovosti – izkušnjo igre in uporabnost –, za potrebe naše evalvacije pa smo iz nabora 35 vprašanj izbrali sedem metrik, ki so jih uporabniki ovrednotili na petstopenjski lestvici strinjanja:35 1. Igra je bila zabavna. 2. Igra je bila primerno težka. 3. Igra je povezana s snovjo pri pouku. 4. Aplikacija je lepa. 5. Igro bi priporočal sošolcem. 6. Pravila igre so lahka in razumljiva. 7. Ko naredim napako, jo lahko popravim. Za povratne informacije o tem, kaj je bilo uporabnikom všeč ter kateri so nji- hovi predlogi za izboljšave in dodatni komentarji, je bil na voljo tudi prostor za odprte odgovore. Rezultati evalvacije Eksperimentalni skupini V skupini, ki je preizkušala orodje za inverzni ritmični narek, je sodelovalo petnajst udeležencev, med katerimi je bila večina moškega spola (enajst sodelu- jočih). Dve tretjini udeležencev sta bili uvrščeni v starostni okvir do 25 let, trije udeleženci so bili stari med 26 in 40 let, dva udeleženca pa med 41 in 60 let. Skupino sodelujočih so sestavljali pretežno glasbeniki (trinajst anketirancev) in dva glasbena pedagoga. Med glasbeniki jih pet igra en instrument, po štirje pa igrajo dva in tri različne instrumente36. Najpogosteje zastopan instrument je bil klavir, ki ga je navedlo sedem udeležencev, sledita mu kitara in solo petje (vsakega od njiju je navedlo pet udeležencev), nato pa še bobni in harmonika (vsakega po trije udeleženci), trobenta (dva udeleženca) ter evfonij, kontrabas, rog in tuba (vsakega je navedel po en udeleženec). Obseg trajanja formalnega učenja je zajemal vse od nič do preko deset let šolanja. Največ udeležencev 33 Model za vrednotenje izobraževalnih iger [ang. Model for the Evaluation of Educational Games]. 34 Giani Petri, Christiane Gresse von Wangenheim in Adriano Borgatto, MEEGA+: A Method for the Evaluation of Educational Games for Computing Education (2018). 35 Oznaka skrajno levo je predstavljala oceno »sploh se ne strinjam s trditvijo«, skrajno desno pa »popolnoma se strinjam s trditvijo«. 36 Kot instrument smo uvrstili tudi solo petje. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 164 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 K. Žnideršič, P. Šavli, M. Marolt, M. Pesek: Trubadur 165 (sedem) je bilo deležnih formalne izobrazbe najmanj deset let, sledi jim šest udeležencev, ki so se formalno šolali med šest in devet let, en udeleženec se je šolal eno leto, eden pa ni bil deležen formalne glasbene izobrazbe. Druga eksperimentalna skupina se je osredotočala na inverzni melodični narek, njena sestava pa je bila nekoliko kompleksnejša. Eksperiment je pote- kal v dveh tednih in je vključeval sedem udeležencev v prvem tednu ter osem v drugem tednu, pri čemer je v obeh tednih sodelovalo pet udeležencev. Po prvem tednu evalvacije je bilo orodje izboljšano na podlagi povratnih infor- macij uporabnikov in predloženo v ponovno evalvacijo nekaterim članom prve skupine in novim uporabnikom. Vsi udeleženci so bili dijaki prvega letnika Konservatorija za glasbo in balet Ljubljana, večina med njimi pa je bila moških (trinajst udeležencev). Vsi udeleženci so bili stari med 16 in 21 let, trajanje uče- nja njihovega primarnega instrumenta (oz. petja) pa je zajemalo vse od enega do trinajst let. Trije udeleženci so se instrumenta učili več kot deset let, deset sodelujočih se je instrumenta učilo med šest in devet let, dva udeleženca pa eno oz. dve leti. Formalno glasbeno izobrazbo so udeleženci pridobivali od enega do enajst let. En udeleženec se je formalno izobraževal več kot deset let, deset se jih je izobraževalo med šest in devet let, štirje pa so se formalno izobraževali eno oz. dve leti. Najpogosteje zastopan instrument je bil saksofon (štirje ude- leženci), sledijo mu klavir oz. jazz klavir (trije udeleženci), petje in trobenta oz. jazz trobenta (po dva udeleženca) ter bobni, kontrabas, kitara in pozavna (po en udeleženec). Rezultati UEQ vprašalnikov Izračunane povprečne vrednosti ocen uporabnikov dajejo spodbudne rezultate in kažejo na pozitivno recepcijo. Po naših pričakovanjih so bile začetne ocene inverznega melodičnega nareka v prvem tednu nekoliko nižje in so se po im- plementaciji predlaganih izboljšav aplikacije v drugem tednu raziskav zvišale. Prva skupina anketirancev je v drugem tednu v primerjavi s prvim večinoma podala višje rezultate, druga skupina, ki ni bila seznanjena s prejšnjo različico aplikacije in je sodelovala zgolj v drugem tednu, pa je kategorije večinoma vre- dnotila višje od prve skupine. Vizualna reprezentacija primerjave povprečnih ocen obeh skupin je predstavljena na Sliki 3. Ocene inverznega melodične- ga nareka so bile v petih od šestih kategorij UEQ vprašalnika višje od ocen inverznega ritmičnega nareka z izjemo kategorije učinkovitosti, ki je bila pri ritmičnem nareku nekoliko višja. Najnižjo oceno je prejela kategorija original- nosti v 1. tednu raziskave. V skladu z merili za tolmačenje rezultatov vprašalni- ka37 je bila najnižje uvrščena kategorija stimulativnosti v 1. tednu vrednotenja inverznega melodičnega nareka, ki je bila označena za podpovprečno, najvišje pa preglednost in originalnost v 2. tednu vrednotenja inverznega melodičnega 37 Schrepp, »User Experience Questionnaire Handbook«, 6. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 165 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 166 nareka ter učinkovitost v ocenjevanju inverznega ritmičnega nareka, ki so bile vse označene kot odlične. V vseh treh skupinah so pragmatične kakovostne oznake prejele višje ocene kot hedonične kakovostne oznake, kar je prikazano na Sliki 5. Slika 3: Primerjava odgovorov skupin ocenjevalcev inverznega melodičnega nareka v dru- gem tednu. Slika 4: Rezultati skupine ocenjevalcev inverznega ritmičnega nareka. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 166 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 K. Žnideršič, P. Šavli, M. Marolt, M. Pesek: Trubadur 167 Slika 5: Primerjava odgovorov vseh skupin, razvrščenih v tri glavne kategorije. Rezultati odgovorov izbranih vprašanj iz vprašalnika Meega+ (glej Sliko 6) so prav tako pozitivni, saj so vse povprečne ocene presegale srednjo vrednost na lestvici od 1 do 5. Omembe vredno je vprašanje, ki se navezuje na možnost odpravljanja napak, ki je edino, katerega povprečna ocena ni presegla vrednosti 4. Takšni rezultati dodatno podpirajo pozitivne odzive na funkcionalnost in- verznega melodičnega nareka v vprašalniku UEQ, saj kažejo na visoko stopnjo zadovoljstva uporabnikov na večih področjih uporabniške izkušnje. Slika 6: Rezultati izbranih vprašanj Meega+ vprašalnika. Drugi odzivi uporabnikov Poleg številskega vrednotenja uporabniške izkušnje so za nadaljnji razvoj in izboljšavo aplikacije ključnega pomena tudi opisne opombe in predlogi. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 167 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 168 Nekaj komentarjev uporabnikov se je navezovalo na tehnične vidike aplika- cije, kot so preobčutljivost in nezadostna kalibracija mikrofona ter sinhroni- zacija vizualnega in slušnega metronoma. Predlagana je bila tudi implemen- tacija funkcionalnosti zaznavanja drugih zvočnih signalov, ne le človeškega glasu. Slednja bi v primeru možnosti sočasnega zaznavanja glasu in ploska po mnenju uporabnika lahko omogočila tudi izvedbo poliritmičnih vaj. Več uporabniških komentarjev se je navezovalo na vsebino aplikacije, saj opozar- jajo na pravilnost ritmične notacije z ozirom na taktovski način ter upošte- vanje daljših notnih trajanj, podpirajo pa možnost nastavljive težavnosti in tolerance odstopanja ter uporabe metronoma med snemanjem. Uporabniki so ponudili tudi inovativne predloge za nadgradnjo, med njimi vaje za pre- poznavanje modusov in način izoliranega uporabniškega okolja, ki bi upo- rabnikom omogočal vnos lastnih ritmičnih ali melodičnih vaj. Eden izmed predlogov je bil tudi, da bi bilo potrebno aplikacijo dovršiti s pedagoškega vidika, vendar pa konkretnejše argumentacije uporabnik ni ponudil. V apli- kaciji so uporabniki videli novo zabavno možnost za vajo solfeggia, pohvalili pa so idejo in uspešno realizacijo. Mnenje glasbenih pedagogov Dva glasbena pedagoga, ki sta sodelovala v raziskavi, sta podala mnenji o upo- rabi funkcionalnosti inverznega ritmičnega nareka za namene poučevanja, ven- dar sta si njuni stališči o tem precej nasprotni. Prvi pedagog zagovarja naravni razvoj občutka za ritem in čustveno doživljanje glasbe brez vpliva tehnologije. Aplikacijo sicer ocenjuje kot koristno za samostojne učence, ki se želijo uriti v natančnosti pri ritmičnih narekih, ne zdi pa se mu primerna za nižje glasbene šole in otroke do 15. leta starosti. Razlog za to utemeljuje v sproščenosti, ki da je potrebna za pridobivanje naravnega ritma in časovnega občutka, a je funkci- onalnost aplikacije po njegovem mnenju ne more zagotoviti. Nasprotno drugi pedagog v aplikaciji vidi velik potencial, še posebej, če bi bili v prihodnosti implementirani predlogi o vključitvi kompleksnejših ritmov in funkcionalnosti (poliritmov, sestavljenih taktovskih načinov, triol, kvartol, pentol ipd.). Peda- gog poudarja nujnost tehnične natančnosti aplikacije in upoštevanja notnega trajanja, ki so pomembni za profesionalni razvoj glasbenika. Po njegovem mne- nju bi bila funkcionalnost uporabna na vseh stopnjah glasbenega izobraževa- nja, v kolikor ustreza notacijskim standardom. Zaključek Razširitev obstoječe aplikacije Trubadur s funkcionalnostmi inverznega rit- mičnega, melodičnega in harmonskega nareka se je v naši študiji izkazala za uspešno. Med tem ko je zgodnejša verzija aplikacije vključevala zgolj glas- bene nareke, usmerjene v zapisovanje slušnih vaj, smo z inverznimi nareki Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 168 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 K. Žnideršič, P. Šavli, M. Marolt, M. Pesek: Trubadur 169 uporabnikom ponudili možnost za urjenje prima vista izvajanja ritmičnih in melodičnih vzorcev. Raziskava uporabniške izkušnje je prinesla pozitivne povratne informacije. Sprva nižje ocene inverznega melodičnega nareka so se, kot smo pričakovali, v drugem tednu zvišale, saj smo upoštevali komentarje in implementirali pre- dlagane izboljšave. Poleg tega je druga skupina, ki je ocenjevala le v drugem tednu in ni bila seznanjena s prejšnjo različico, vsako kategorijo na lestvici ocenila višje kot prva v obeh tednih. Pozitiven odziv so dodatno potrdile ocene izbranih vprašanj iz vprašalnika Meega+, vendar velja omeniti, da je kategorija možnosti odpravljanja napak uporabniškega vnosa prejela manj kot štiri točke od petih, kar kaže na prostor za izboljšave na tem področju. V prihodnje bi lahko uporabniško izkušnjo še dodatno izboljšali z upoštevanjem predlogov sodelujočih v raziskavi, za potrebe integracije v pedagoški proces pa nasvete glasbenih pedagogov. Naklonjenost pedagogov k uporabi tehnoloških orodij v učnem procesu se v strokovni literaturi38 kaže za enega ključnih dejavnikov pri popularizaciji med učenci, pri čemer se je izkazalo, da pogostost uporabe infor- macijsko-komunikacijske tehnologije v učnem okolju ni pogojena s predhodno glasbeno izobrazbo učiteljev.39 Na podlagi teh ugotovitev bi bilo z namenom širše vpeljave platforme v šolsko okolje primerno zbrati še več odzivov glasbe- nih pedagogov. Skupno gledano odzivi v naši raziskavi kažejo, da lahko takšna orodja za računalniško podprto vadbo glasbene teorije koristijo tako glasbenemu izobra- ževanju kot tudi samostojnemu učenju, elementi poigritve, kot so uporabljeni na platformi Trubadur, pa prispevajo k privlačnosti in motivaciji pri učenju. Skromno število udeležencev v raziskavi predstavlja majhno oviro v ustvar- janju povsem neomajnih zaključnih sklepov, vendar vseeno zagotavlja po- membne vpoglede v uporabniško izkušnjo in osnovne povratne informacije. V primeru, da bi ob tem želeli opazovati še učinke rabe aplikacije na rezultate učenja in celoten pedagoški proces, pa bi bilo potrebno zagotoviti večji stati- stični vzorec in kontrolno skupino ter strogo nadzorovati parametre. Funkcionalnost inverznega melodičnega in harmonskega nareka je že umeščena v produkcijsko različico aplikacije, ki je brezplačno dostopna v sple- tnih trgovinah App Store za naprave z operacijskim sistemom iOS in Google Play za naprave z operacijskim sistemom Android ter postaja vse bolj prilju- bljena med učenci in učitelji. V prihajajoči posodobitvi platforme Trubadur je načrtovana tudi vpeljava vaj za inverzni ritmični narek, ki so bile evalvirane v naši raziskavi. 38 Atipat Boonmoh, Thidaporn Jumpakate in Sodsai Karpklon, »Teachers’ Perceptions and Expe- rience in Using Technology for the Classroom«, CALL-EJ 22 (2021): 1–24. 39 Barbara Kopačin in Mateja Verdir, »Uporaba informacijsko-komunikacijske tehnologije pri pouku glasbene umetnosti« (2022), 427–441, DOI: https://doi.org/ 10.26493/978-961-293-139-1.427-441. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 169 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 170 Viri in literatura Antonaci, Alessandra, Roland Klemke in Marcus Specht. »The Effects of Gamification in Online Learning Environments: A Systematic Literature Review.« Informatics 6, št. 3 (2019): 1–22. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/informatics6030032. Baecker, Ronald M. »Computers in Education and Learning.« V Computers and Society: Modern Perspectives, uredil Ronald M Baecker. Oxford University Press, 2019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198827085.003.0008. Baratè, Adriano, Andrea Brugaletta in Luca Ludovico. »A Mobile Serious Game to Fos- ter Music Sight Reading with Different Clefs.« V Proceedings of the 15th Interna- tional Conference on Computer Supported Education, 397–403. Prague, Czech Repub- lic: SCITEPRESS – Science and Technology Publications, 2023. DOI: https://doi. org/10.5220/0012059500003470. 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DOI: https://doi. org/10.22190/FUVAM2002083S. Wagner, Carolyn. »Digital Gamification in Private Music Education.« Antistasis 7, št. 1 (2017). https://journals.lib.unb.ca/index.php/antistasis/article/view/24904. Woody, Robert H. »Music Education Students’ Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation: A Quantsitative Analysis of Personal Narratives.« Psychology of Music 49, št. 5 (2021): 1321–1343. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735620944224. Zeybek, Nilüfer, in Elif Saygı. »Gamification in Education: Why, Where, When, and How? A Systematic Review.« Games and Culture 19, št. 2 (2023): 237–264. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1177/15554120231158625. SUMMARY Troubadour: Upgrading the Music Theory E-Learning Platform The study focuses on computer-assisted music theory training and begins with a review of the relevant literature on e-learning, gamification and technology-assisted sight-reading training. It also briefly introduces the earlier version of the gamified e-learning platform for music theory exercises, Troubadour. While the previous version of the application focused exclusively on musical dictation as transcription exercises, the main goal of the present study was to develop and integrate inverse rhythmic and melodic dictation exercises into the afo- rementioned platform. These new exercises are primarily aimed at sight-reading training, while retaining the existing exercise generation and evaluation systems. Crucially, they are integrated with gamified elements such as achievement badges, progress levels and leader- boards, which collectively create an engaging and rewarding learning environment. Accurate Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 171 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1 172 processing of the user’s audio input and the use of existing gamified elements were central to the development phase. Subsequently, we conducted an evaluation of the user experience with the new gamified tools using the UEQ questionnaire and selected metrics from the Meega+ questionnaire. User feedback showed positive results, especially in terms of novelty, clarity, and efficiency, as categorized by the UEQ analysis tools. Initially lower scores for the inverse melodic dictation rating increased as expected in the second week after the users’ comments were taken into account and suggestions for improvement were implemented. In addition, the second group, who only rated the improved version and were unfamiliar with the previous one, rated each category of the scale higher than the first group in both weeks. The positive response was also confirmed by the ratings of selected questions from the Meega+ questionnaire, although it is worth noting that the category of error correction options for user input received less than four out of five points, indicating room for improvement in this area. In addition, we included two music teachers in the evaluation process who shared their personal opinions on technology-enhanced music teaching. The willingness of educators to use technological tools in the learning process is considered a key factor for their popularization among students. Therefore, it would be useful to gather more feedback from music educators to support a wider implementation of the platform in educational settings. The inverse melodic and harmonic dictation functionality is already included in the production version of the app, which is available for free on the App Store for iOS devices and on Google Play for Android devices and is becoming increasingly popular with students and teachers. For the upcoming update of the Troubadour platform, the introduction of exercises for inverse rhythmic dictation is planned, which have been evaluated in our research. O AVTORJIH KLARA ŽNIDERŠIČ (klara.znidersic@fri.uni-lj.si) zaključuje magistrski študij muzi- kologije na Filozofski fakulteti v Ljubljani, kjer je diplomirala leta 2021. Od leta 2023 je članica Laboratorija za računalniško grafiko in multimedije na Fakulteti za računalništvo in informatiko Univerze v Ljubljani. Ukvarja se z raziskovanjem sodobnih pristopov h glasbeni pedagogiki ter kvalitativnim vrednotenjem zbirk odprtih podatkov. PETER ŠAVLI (peter.savli@kgbl.si) je diplomiral na Akademiji za glasbo v Ljubljani, leta 1995 na univerzi Yale prejel umetniško diplomo ter doktoriral leta 1999 na Univerzi Cornell. Od leta 2004 je profesor na Konservatoriju za glasbo in balet v Ljubljani in kot docent za teoretične predmete občasno predava na Akademiji za glasbo v Ljubljani. Uveljavljen je kot skladatelj z obširnim komornim, zborovskim in mladinskim opusom. MATIJA MAROLT (matija.marolt@fri.uni-lj.si) je profesor na Fakulteti za računalništvo in informatiko Univerze v Ljubljani, kjer je vodja Laboratorija za računalniško grafiko in multimedije. Med njegove raziskovalne interese sodijo pridobivanje informacij iz glasbe, ra- čunalniška grafika in vizualizacija. Osredotoča se na probleme, kot so ocenjevanje melodije in ritma, segmentacija in organizacija zvoka ter vizualizacija glasbenih zbirk. MATEVŽ PESEK (matevz.pesek@fri.uni-lj.si) je docent in raziskovalec na Fakulteti za računalništvo in informatiko Univerze v Ljubljani, kjer je leta 2012 diplomiral in leta 2018 doktoriral. Od leta 2009 je član Laboratorija za računalniško grafiko in multimedije. Njegovi Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 172 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 K. Žnideršič, P. Šavli, M. Marolt, M. Pesek: Trubadur 173 raziskovalni interesi so iskanje glasbenih informacij, glasbeno e-učenje, biološko navdahnjeni modeli in globoke arhitekture. ABOUTH THE AUTHORS KLARA ŽNIDERŠIČ (klara.znidersic@fri.uni-lj.si) is completing her master’s degree in musicology at the Faculty of Arts in Ljubljana, where she graduated in 2021. Since 2023, she has been a member of the Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Multimedia at Fa- culty of Computer and Information Science of the University of Ljubljana. Her research interests include modern approaches in music pedagogy and qualitative evaluation of open data collections. PETER ŠAVLI (peter.savli@kgbl.si) graduated from the Academy of Music in Ljubljana, he received an Artist Diploma from Yale University in 1995 and in 1999 a doctorate at Cornell University. Since 2004, he works at the Ljubljana Music and Ballet Conservatory and occa- sionally teaches as an Assistant Professor for theoretical subjects at the Academy of Music in Ljubljana. He is an established composer with an extensive chamber and choral oeuvre. MATIJA MAROLT (matija.marolt@fri.uni-lj.si) is Professor at the Faculty of Computer and Information Science, where he is the head of the Computer Graphics and Multimedia Laboratory. His research interests are information retrieval from music, computer graphics, and visualization. It focuses on problems such as melody and rhythm estimation, segmenta- tion and organization of sound, search and visualization of music collections. MATEVŽ PESEK (matevz.pesek@fri.uni-lj.si) is an Assistant Professor and Researcher at the Faculty of Computer Science and Informatics of the University of Ljubljana, where he graduated in 2012 and received his doctorate in 2018. Since 2009, he has been a member of the Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Multimedia. His research interests are information retrieval from music, including e-learning, biologically inspired models and deep architectures. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 173 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 174 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 175 DOI: 10.4312/mz.60.1.175-204 UDK: 78.02(510):004.8 Revolutionizing Music Production with ChatGPT Applications: Accessibility, Creativity, and Impact on the Industry in China Wang Yi Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, China ABSTRACT This study investigates the revolutionization of the application of ChatGPT with respect to its accessibility, creativity, and impact on music industry in China. To achieve this, the study employed Z-test technique for difference in proportion and the ordered logistic regression model. These methods were used to explore deeper into suitable strategies using survey with a sample size of 385 music artists including music producers, songwriters, artists/musicians, and sound engineers. Keywords: revolutionization, music production, ChatGPT accessibility, ChatGPT creativity, ChatGPT impact, China IZVLEČEK Raziskava se osredotoča na prevratne spremembe, ki jih s smislu dostopnosti, ustvarjalnosti in vpliva na glasbeno ustvarjalnost na Kitajskem prinaša uporaba ChatGPT orodij. Da bi to dosegla uporablja tehniko Z-testa za razliko v razmerju in model urejene logične regresije. Ti dve metodi sta bili uporabljeni za bolj poglobljeno raziskavo različnih pristopov na vzorcu 385 glasbenikov, vključno z glasbenimi producenti, skladatelji, izvajalci in tonskimi oblikovalci. Ključne besede: preobrat, glasbena ustvarjalnost, ChatGPT dostopnost, ChatGPT ustvar- jalnost, vpliv ChatGPT, Kitajska Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 175 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lx/1 176 Introduction The field of music production has witnessed remarkable advancements due to the rapid development of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learn- ing technologies (Anantrasirichai and Bull 2022). One of the most significant developments in this field is the emergence of large language models (LLMs) like ChatGPT, developed by OpenAI (Floridi and Chiriatti 2020). ChatGPT is a state-of-the-art conversational AI model trained on a vast corpus of text data, enabling it to engage in human-like conversations, answer follow-up questions, and assist with a wide range of tasks (OpenAI 2022). As the music industry continues to embrace digital transformation, the potential applica- tions of ChatGPT in music production have received significant attention from researchers, artists, and industry professionals (Woods 2023). However, the integration of AI and machine learning into the creative pro- cess has caused remarkable debate (Lamers 2023). Some praise it as a revo- lutionary tool capable of pushing the boundaries of artistic expression, while others express concerns about the potential risks and challenges it may pose (Fernandes 2006). The application of ChatGPT to music production raises several critical research problems and fuels ongoing debates within the aca- demic and artistic communities, including in China. Figure 1 shows the rise of AI in music generation. Figure 1: The rise of AI-Generated music. One key issue revolves around the accessibility of this technology and its potential impact on democratizing the music production process (Goodwin 2004). Traditionally, creating music has been a skill-intensive endeavour, of- ten requiring years of training and expertise in areas such as music theory, instrument proficiency, and sound engineering (Pati, Gururani, and Lerch 2018). The advent of AI-powered tools like ChatGPT raises questions about Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 176 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 Wang Yi: Revolutionizing Music Production with ChatGPT Applications 177 whether they can lower the barriers to entry, enabling individuals with lim- ited musical backgrounds to engage in music production more easily, which could have a significant impact on the music industry in China. Another critical research problem centres around the creativity and originality of AI- generated music. While ChatGPT has demonstrated remarkable language generation capabilities, concerns have been raised about its ability to truly capture the essence of human creativity and emotional expression in the field of music (Sturm et al. 2019). Some researchers argue that AI-generated mu- sic may lack the depth, and personal touch that distinguishes great works of art, while others contend that AI could potentially augment and enhance human creativity by providing new perspectives and unexplored avenues for artistic exploration (Clancy 2021; Manu 2024). This debate is particularly relevant in China, where the preservation of cultural heritage and traditional art forms is a significant consideration. Furthermore, the extensive adoption of ChatGPT in music production rais- es questions about the potential factors that could influence its revolutioniza- tion. These factors may include technological advancements, regulatory frame- works, intellectual property considerations, and the acceptance and adoption rates among artists, producers, and industry stakeholders (Frosio 2024; Zhu et al. 2024). In China, the government’s policies and regulations regarding AI and its applications in the creative industries will play a crucial role in shaping the adoption and impact of technologies like ChatGPT (Duester 2024). Last- ly, the application of ChatGPT in music production is not without potential risks and challenges. Concerns have been raised about the ethical implications of AI-generated music, such as issues surrounding authorship, ownership, and the potential for AI to displace human artists and musicians (Lucchi 2023). Furthermore, there are technical challenges related to the integration of AI systems like ChatGPT into existing music production workflows, as well as the need for robust evaluation and quality control mechanisms to ensure the output meets artistic and creative standards. In China, these concerns may be further compounded by cultural and societal factors, as well as the regulatory environment surrounding AI and creativity. Given these research problems and ongoing debates, this study aims to contribute to the understanding of this emerging field by examining the acces- sibility of the application of ChatGPT on music production, scrutinizing the creativity of AI-generated music, determining the factors affecting the revolu- tionization of ChatGPT in music production, and exploring the potential risks and challenges of its application in China. Figure 2 depicts the sketch of the application of ChatGPT with respect to its accessibility, creativity, and impact on music industry. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 177 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 178 Figure 2: Sketch of the application of ChatGPT. The novelty of this study lies in its threefold focus: to the best of our know- ledge, there has been no empirical study on the impact of ChatGPT applica- tions on music production in China, particularly concerning its accessibility, creativity, and overall impact on the industry. This research aims to fill this gap by providing a comprehensive analysis of these critical aspects. Second, ChatGPT was introduced in November 2022, thus, there is a need of more studies to explore the literature on this area so that more insights could be revealed from this new invention that is currently being revolutionizing the various aspects of life across the world. Furthermore, the focus on the unique Chinese market, with its distinct artistic traditions, regulations, and societal perceptions regarding AI integration into creative industries, adds a novel di- mension. Finally, it will serve as a research guide / building ground especially to student researchers in exploring more information about this novel area of research. The rest of this study will be formulated into four sections, namely review of related literature, methodology for achieving the objectives of the study, presentation and discussion of the results, and concluding remarks based on the findings of the study. Review of Related Literature Theoretical Review The theoretical review of this study is centered on the theory of Disruptive Innovation (DI). DI has gained popularity as a term used by Clayton Chris- tensen to explain how emerging competitors might disrupt established or- ganizations in the 1990s (Christensen et al. 2018). According to the notion, a Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 178 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 Wang Yi: Revolutionizing Music Production with ChatGPT Applications 179 product or service starts off in a basic position at the lower end of a sector by being cheaper and more available. It then aggressively moves up, eventually replacing established competitors. Disruptive innovation often originates in specialized sectors but has the capacity to eventually affect whole industries and alter the dynamics between existing incumbents and emerging entrants. artificial intelligence (AI), specifically generative AI, derived from the Chat- GPT application, is significantly transforming the production and consump- tion of music (Olayeni 2023). Nevertheless, the process of creating music is swiftly changing from being limited to a small group of individuals with spe- cialized equipment and extensive knowledge in music theory and composition to becoming accessible to anybody (Sturm et al. 2019). Furthermore, pushing the boundaries of what is imaginable in terms of song composition entails the use of AI-driven automated music. The possibilities for exploring and testing the music are limitless, as it is feasible to create innumerable variations of a single track. AI can be utilized by musicians to experiment with innovative soundscapes, unconventional rhythmic patterns, and even unexplored gen- res by combining different established forms with original sounds (Lee et al. 2021). In recent years, the process of discovering songs has become more personalized due to the ability of AI to understand and adjust to individual consumer preferences (Dornig 2017). AI is decentralizing the music business by equalizing the competitive environment for independent musicians and producers. According to Zhou (2023), AI is facilitating a new era for musi- cians and music producers by equipping them with the necessary resources to create high-quality tunes. Figure 3 is the portraying of the circle of music understanding to music generation. Figure 3: The circle of music understanding to music generation. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 179 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 180 Empirical Review ChatGPT applications are revolutionizing music production by enhancing accessibility and creativity, significantly impacting the industry by facilitating innovative workflows and democratizing music creation. This transformation is emphasized by AI’s ability to extend human capabilities and alter compo- sitional processes, as well as its profound impact on the music business model and production techniques (Gioti, 2021; Shang and Sun, 2020). Therefore, this research aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current inte- gration of ChatGPT, a form of generative artificial intelligence, in the music industry, examining its role in shaping innovative musical field and its impli- cations for future industry standards. ChatGPT has been utilized to enhance music composition and production processes. Researchers have found that ChatGPT can generate creative and original musical compositions, provid- ing musicians with a source of inspiration and new ideas (Lu et al. 2023). For instance, Knotts and Collins (2020) explored how music developers view AI and their interest in collaborating creatively with AI technologies. The sur- vey highlighted a forward-looking stance on AI in music, emphasizing the potential future applications of AI rather than its present capabilities. More experienced programmers showed a greater degree of skepticism about the current and future role of AI. As Koe (2023) stated, “the tool was launched in November 2022 and has since been making waves across the internet for its detailed and often shockingly human like responses to queries including music industry”. Buckle (2023) discovered that ChatGPT is the preferred artificial intelligence (AI) tool among musicians, with 30 % of them utilizing AI for songwriting and composition. This finding came from a recent survey conducted by Pirate, which queried 1000 musicians about their top 10 AI tools for music production. Ray (2023) carried out an extensive study focus- ing on the background, applications, main challenges, bias, ethics, limitations, and future prospects of ChatGPT. This study delves into how ChatGPT is transforming scientific research across various aspects, such as data process- ing, hypothesis generation, collaboration, public outreach, and music produc- tion. Furthermore, the paper looks into the possible challenges and ethical issues related to using ChatGPT in research, emphasizing the need to find a balance between AI-driven innovation and human expertise. Faster Capi- tal (2024) explored that artificial intelligence has fundamentally changed the world of music and offers numerous applications for musicians, producers, and listeners. ChatGPT, an advanced AI model from OpenAI, is revolution- izing the music industry in many ways. Steigner (2024) found that Chat- GPT’s integration into the music industry has transformed aspects of song- writing, production, collaboration, and the overall creative process. ChatGPT has been instrumental in generating lyrics and melodies, fostering collabora- tion among artists, and revolutionizing music production techniques, making Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 180 7. 10. 2024 10:12:13 Wang Yi: Revolutionizing Music Production with ChatGPT Applications 181 it an essential tool for musicians aiming to explore new creative possibilities. Warnerfjord (2023) studied ChatGPT 3.5-turbo’s creation of MIDI music, finding it stylistically consistent but simpler than human compositions. The analysis, involving both technical metrics and user feedback, indicated low- er satisfaction among experienced musicians with the AI-generated pieces. Bonjack and Trujillo (2024) analyzed AI in music discovery, highlighting its evolution and potential in librarianship, focusing on improving search, meta- data handling, system integration, and discovery platforms. Minghai et al. (2023) discussed enhancing productivity with AI, covering its applications in communication, data analysis, project management, and creativity. The study emphasizes AI’s role in automating tasks, improving decisions, and increasing efficiency, urging users to consider each application’s functions and potential limitations, including data privacy and ethics. Lastly, Sexton (2023) discussed MuseNet by OpenAI, an AI capable of composing four-minute pieces with different instruments and styles, from country to classical. Unlike ChatGPT and DALL-E, MuseNet operates without formal musical training, using transformer models to predict musical sequences. Results favor popular music renditions over classical, producing basic but effective backing tracks. Going from the review of the existing literature, it is evident that there is scarce of studies that empirically analyzed the relationship between ChatGPT applications on music industry. In fact, the research is so limited that there are few studies available for review. This lack of research is not surprising, given the novelty of the field, especially considering that the application was only in- troduced in November 2022. Furthermore, focus with specification of impact of the accessibility and creativity of the ChatGPT application as an empirical analysis is almost absent. Moreover, the application of statistical techniques is scarce to rigorously analyze the connection for more insights to the develop- ment of the application in revolutionizing the music industry. Therefore, more research on this relation is needed using empirical evidence and advance statis- tical techniques that can appropriately be used to execute the focus of the study so as to enrich and expand the few existing literature theoretically, empirically, and methodologically. Data and Methods Data Source The data for this study will be primarily collected through a questionnaire. The questionnaire will focus on aspects such as ChatGPT accessibility, creativity, impact, as well as potential risks and new challenges associated with its ap- plication in music production. Therefore, the study will utilize qualitative data obtained from the questionnaire. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 181 7. 10. 2024 10:12:14 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 182 To achieve the first objective which is examining the accessibility of the application of ChatGPT on music production, the questions asked include: have you used ChatGPT applications for music production; where yes or no responses provided which coded as 1 and 0, respectively. If yes, how has the accessibility of ChatGPT applications impacted your music production pro- cess? (Select all that apply) a) Increased access to creative tools b) Reduced the need for technical expertise c) Enhanced collaboration with other musicians/ producers d) Improved efficiency in music production, where each have binary response of yes and no coded as 1 and 0 (i.e., agreeing or disagreeing with the statement). If no, what are the reasons for not using ChatGPT applications for music production? (Select all that apply) a) Lack of awareness about Chat- GPT applications b) Concerns about the quality of output c) Limited access to necessary technology d) Prefer traditional music production methods, where each have binary response of yes and no coded as 1 and 0 (i.e., agreeing or disagreeing with the statement). To meet the second objective which is scrutinizing the creativity of the application of ChatGPT on music production, the questions asked include: In your opinion, how has the use of ChatGPT applications impacted your creativity in music production? a) Significantly increased creativity b) Moder- ately increased creativity c) No significant impact on creativity d) Moderately decreased creativity e) Significantly decreased creativity, which coded as 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 as likert scale, respectively. How often do you rely on ChatGPT appli- cations for generating new musical ideas or inspiration? a) Very often b) Often c) Occasionally d) Rarely e) Never, this coded as 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 as likert scale, respectively. Have you found ChatGPT applications to be helpful in exploring new musical genres or styles? a) Yes b) No, this coded as 1 and 0, respectively. To address the third objective this is determining the factors affecting the revolutionization of the application of ChatGPT on music production. This is a regression form of objective; hence, the questions asked include: do you believe that ChatGPT applications will revolutionize the music industry? a) Yes b) No c) Unsure; which is the dependent variable “ChatGPT revolutioni- zation on the music industry” and is to be coded as yes = 2, no =1, unsure =0). If yes, in what ways do you think ChatGPT applications will revolutionize the music industry? (Select all that apply) a) Democratization of music produc- tion b) Increased competition among musicians/producers c) Redefining the role of human creativity in music production d) Changing the dynamics of music collaborations. These will serve as part of the independent variables as ways in which the ChatGPT can revolutionize the music industry, where each will be coded with 0 and 1 as no and yes (i.e., agreeing or disagreeing with the statement). If otherwise, what are the reasons for your skepticism about the impact of ChatGPT applications in revolutionize the music industry? (Select all that apply) a) Lack of human touch and emotion in AI-generated music Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 182 7. 10. 2024 10:12:14 Wang Yi: Revolutionizing Music Production with ChatGPT Applications 183 b) Fear of job displacement for musicians/producers c) Limited capabilities of ChatGPT applications in music production d) Other (please specify). These will also serve as part of the independent variables as the reasons which artists are skeptical about the impact of ChatGPT applications in revolutionizing the music industry, where each will be coded with 0 and 1 as no and yes (i.e., agreeing or disagreeing with the statement). Would you be willing to collabo- rate with AI-generated music in your future projects? a) Yes b) No c) Unsure. These will in addition serve as part of the independent variables as the will- ingness of the artists to collaborate with AI-generated music in their future projects which will be coded with 2 = yes, no =1, and unsure = 0. The last is an open-ended question as: Please provide any additional comments or insights regarding the impact of ChatGPT applications on music production and the industry as a whole. To accomplish the fourth and last objective which is exploring the poten- tial risks and challenges of the application of ChatGPT on music production, the format of the questions followed as: Please rate the following potential risks and challenges associated with the application of ChatGPT in music production on a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 represents “Not significant” and 5 rep- resents “Highly significant”. These include: Lack of creativity and originality in music production due to reliance on AI-generated suggestions; Inability of ChatGPT to understand complex musical concepts and nuances; Potential for bias in AI-generated suggestions, leading to homogenization of music styles; Difficulty in maintaining a human touch and emotional connection in music created with AI assistance; Legal and copyright issues arising from the use of AI-generated content in music production; Dependence on AI-generated suggestions leading to a decline in human musical skills and expertise; and Ethical concerns regarding the use of AI in music production, such as replac- ing human musicians and producers. Population and Sample Size The population of this study is the number of music artists on online music platforms in China which as of 2020, around 419.000 music artists had of- ficially opened accounts on online music platforms in China (Statista 2023). For the sample size, merging error formula will be used to calculate the sample size. Assuming the 95 % confidence level (which corresponds to a Z-score of approximately 1.96) and a margin of error of 5 % (expressed as 0.05). Using these values the recommended sample size for the population of 419.000 with a 95 % confidence level and a 5 % margin of error is approximately 385 music artists, namely music producers, songwriters, artists/musicians, and sound en- gineers. Those are the people whom the questionnaire administered to. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 183 7. 10. 2024 10:12:14 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 184 Reliability Test of the Instrument In order to determine the reliability of the instrument used in the study, the questionnaire will be administered randomly on the targeted people in the study area and the reliability of the data will be analyzed through the use of the Cronbach’s Alpha reliability test which is a test used by researchers to demon- strate that the instrument constructed or adopted in research fit the purpose (Taber 2018). Technically speaking, Cronbach’s alpha is not a statistical test – it is a coefficient of reliability (or consistency) represented by alpha (a) where based on the rule of thumb, a research instrument is considered reliable when the reliability coefficient is at least 0.70, thus, indicating that the questionnaire is reliable for the data collection (The UCLA Statistical Consulting Group 2020). Estimation Techniques The estimation techniques employed include descriptive statistics which is to analyze the demographic characteristics of the participants. Second, is the Z- test technique for difference in proportion for the analysis of the first, second, fourth objectives of the study. In Z-test, the calculated Z-test also called Z- score will be compared with the tabulated Z-test at 1 %, 5 %, and 10 % levels of significance where the respected tabulated Z-test is between -2.54 to 2.54, -1.96 to 1.96, and -1.645 to 1.645, i.e. at 1 %, 5 %, and 10 %, respectively. Third, to achieve the third objective of the study, considering that in achieving this objective there is dependent and independent variables where the dependent variable has ordered responses, this study will employ Ordered Logistic Re- gression (OLR) model. However, the functional specification of the model can be specified as follows: (1) where RMP, DMP, ICMP, RRHCMP, CDMP, LHTEAM, FDMP, LC- CAMP, and WCAMFP represent revolutionization of music production through the ChatGPT applications, democratization of music production, increasing competition among musicians/producers, redefining the role of human creativity in music production, changing the dynamics of music col- laborations, lack of human touch and emotion in AI-generated music, fear of job displacement for musicians/producers, limited capabilities of ChatGPT * 1 * 1 2 * 2 0 1 2 i i i i i i Y if Y is Y if Y is Y id Y κ κ κ κ = ≤ = ≤ ≤ = ≥ exp( ) ( ) , 0,1, 2,..., 1, 1 [exp( )] i j i i j X P Y j j M X β κ β κ − > = = − + − 1 1 exp( )( 1) 1 1 [exp( )] i i i XP Y X β κ β κ − = = − + − 1 1 exp( ) exp( ) ( ) , 2,..., 1 1 [exp( )] 1 [exp( )] i j i j i i j i j X X P Y j j M X X β κ β κ β κ β κ − − − − = = − = − + − + − 1 1 exp( )( ) 1 [exp( )] i M i i M XP Y M X β κ β κ − − − = = + − 1 1( 0) 1 exp( )i P Y Z κ = = + − 2 1 1 1( 1) 1 exp( ) 1 exp( )i i P Y Z Zκ κ = = − + − + − 2 1( 2) 1 1 exp( )i P Y Z κ = = − + − Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 184 7. 10. 2024 10:12:14 Wang Yi: Revolutionizing Music Production with ChatGPT Applications 185 applications in music production, and willingness to collaborate with AI-gen- erated music in your future projects, respectively; β0 is the constant term; β1, β2, β3, β4, β5, β6, and β7 are the respective coefficients of the explanatory vari- ables; and et is the stochastic term of the model. Ordered logistic regression model is a probabilistic model also known as the proportional odds model. In this model, there is an observed ordinal varia- ble, Y. This Y, in turn, is a function of another variable, Y*, that is not measured whose values determine what the observed ordinal variable Y equals. The Y* has various threshold point represented by a symbol κ (Williams 2021). Thus, for a variable with an ordered response as in this study where the responses (M = 2, 1, and 0) of the observed ordinal variable Y (the dependent variable), the ordered logistic regression model can be stated as in equation (1) as follows (Williams and Quiroz 2019): (1) Hence, using the assumed logistic distribution of the disturbance term, the ordered logistic regression model can be used to estimate the probability that the unobserved variable Y* falls within the various threshold limits as in equa- tions (2) as follows: which implies (2) In the case of M = 3(i.e., 0, 1, and 2 as in our case), these equations can be * 1 * 1 2 * 2 0 1 2 i i i i i i Y if Y is Y if Y is Y id Y κ κ κ κ = ≤ = ≤ ≤ = ≥ exp( ) ( ) , 0,1, 2,..., 1, 1 [exp( )] i j i i j X P Y j j M X β κ β κ − > = = − + − 1 1 exp( )( 1) 1 1 [exp( )] i i i XP Y X β κ β κ − = = − + − 1 1 exp( ) exp( ) ( ) , 2,..., 1 1 [exp( )] 1 [exp( )] i j i j i i j i j X X P Y j j M X X β κ β κ β κ β κ − − − − = = − = − + − + − 1 1 exp( )( ) 1 [exp( )] i M i i M XP Y M X β κ β κ − − − = = + − 1 1( 0) 1 exp( )i P Y Z κ = = + − 2 1 1 1( 1) 1 exp( ) 1 exp( )i i P Y Z Zκ κ = = − + − + − 2 1( 2) 1 1 exp( )i P Y Z κ = = − + − * 1 * 1 2 * 2 0 1 2 i i i i i i Y if Y is Y if Y is Y id Y κ κ κ κ = ≤ = ≤ ≤ = ≥ exp( ) ( ) , 0,1, 2,..., 1, 1 [exp( )] i j i i j X P Y j j M X β κ β κ − > = = − + − 1 1 exp( )( 1) 1 1 [exp( )] i i i XP Y X β κ β κ − = = − + − 1 1 exp( ) exp( ) ( ) , 2,..., 1 1 [exp( )] 1 [exp( )] i j i j i i j i j X P Y j j M X X β κ β κ β κ β κ − − − − = = − = − + − + − 1 1 exp( )( ) 1 [exp( )] i M i i M XP Y M X β κ β κ − − − = = + − 1 1( 0) 1 exp( )i P Y Z κ = = + − 2 1 1 1( 1) 1 exp( ) 1 exp( )i i Y Z Z κ = = − + − + − 2 1( 2) 1 1 exp( )i P Y Z κ = = − + − Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 185 7. 10. 2024 10:12:14 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 186 simplified as follows: Hence, the probabilities of whether the application of ChatGPT is revolution- izing the music production according to the factors based on each of the three different distress categories of the response variable (Y). Presentation and Discussion of the Results Table 1: Reliability test1 Items Cronbach’s Alpha No of sub-items Accessibility of the application of ChatGPT on production. 0.831 3 Creativity of the application of ChatGPT on music production. 0.902 3 Impact of the application of ChatGPT on music production. 0.884 5 Potential risks and challenges of the application of ChatGPT on music production. 0.784 7 Table 1 shows the reliability test on items for investigating the revolutioniza- tion of the application of ChatGPT with respect to its accessibility, creativity, and impact on music industry. Following the rule of thumb, the Cronbach’s Alpha (a) value for each of the group of items is above 0.70, therefore, the research instrument is considered reliable which means the questionnaire is reliable. 1 Source: Author’s computation. * 1 * 1 2 * 2 0 1 2 i i i i i i Y if Y is Y if Y is Y id Y κ κ κ κ = ≤ = ≤ ≤ = ≥ exp( ) ( ) , 0,1, 2,..., 1, 1 [exp( )] i j i i j X P Y j j M X β κ β κ − > = = − + − 1 1 exp( )( 1) 1 1 [exp( )] i i i XP Y X β κ β κ − = = − + − 1 1 exp( ) exp( ) ( ) , 2,..., 1 1 [exp( )] 1 [exp( )] i j i j i i j i j X X P Y j j M X X β κ β κ β κ β κ − − − − = = − = − + − + − 1 1 exp( )( ) 1 [exp( )] i M i i M XP Y M X β κ β κ − − − = = + − 1 1( 0) 1 exp( )i P Y Z κ = = + − 2 1 1 1( 1) 1 exp( ) 1 exp( )i i P Y Z Zκ κ = = − + − + − 2 1( 2) 1 1 exp( )i P Y Z κ = = − + − Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 186 7. 10. 2024 10:12:14 Wang Yi: Revolutionizing Music Production with ChatGPT Applications 187 Table 2: Demographic characteristics of the participants2 Gender Freq Percent Cum Female 156 40.52 40.52 Male 229 59.48 100.00 Total 385 100.00 Age Freq Percent Cum 18-24 52 13.51 13.51 25-34 123 31.95 45.46 35-44 172 44.68 90.14 45-54 34 8.83 98.97 55 and above 4 1.03 100.00 Total 385 100.00 Type of music occupation Freq Percent Cum Music producers 73 18.96 18.96 Songwriters 64 16.62 35.58 Artists/musicians 166 43.12 78.70 Sound engineers 82 21.30 100.00 Total 385 100.00 Years of experience in the music industry Freq Percent Cum 0-4 37 9.61 9.61 5-9 302 78.44 88.05 10-14 44 11.43 99.48 15 and above 2 0.52 100.00 Total 385 100.00 Table 2 shows the demographic characteristics of the participants. From the table, the total number of music artists was 385 where 156 are females (40.52 %) and 229 are males (59.48 %) which means majority are males. The gender distribution of the respondents is within reality as there are more male’s music artists in the country. The age distribution of the artists shows 52 (13.51 %), 123 (31.95 %), 172 (44.68 %), 34 (8.83 %), and 4 (1.03 %) artists are within the age group 18–24, 25–34, 35–44, 45–54, a 55 and above, respectively, which means that majority of the artists participated are youth and middle-aged art- ists within the age of 18–44 that is about 90 % of the proportion. This reflects the reality considering the fact that ChatGPT is a new technology introduced that also has an application in music production. Hence, youth and middle- aged artists are more likely to be the dominants in its application. For the type of music occupation distribution, 73 (18.96 %), 64 (16.62 %), 166 (43.12 %), and 82 (21.30 %) are music producers, songwriters, artists/musicians, and 2 Source: Author’s computation. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 187 7. 10. 2024 10:12:14 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 188 sound engineers, respectively, where according to the distribution, majority of the respondents are artists/musicians. For the years of experience of the artists in the music industry, 37 (9.61 %), 302 (78.44 %), 44 (11.43 %), and 2 (0.52 %) artists are within the age group of experience 0–4, 5–9, 10–14, and 15 and above, respectively. This suggests that majority of the respondents have an ex- perience in the music industry of 5–14 years of experience. Table 3: Z-test on whether you ever used ChatGPT application for music production3 H01: Accessibility of ChatGPT applications is not impacting music production process by increasing access to creative tools Group Obs Mean Std Err [95 % Conf Interval] 0 39 0 0.1601282 -0.3138 0.3138 1 346 1 0.0537603 0.8946 1.1053 z = z = -5.9202 Pr(Z < z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 1.0000 Table 3 is the presentation of the result on whether you ever used ChatGPT application for music production, where the test statistic of the z-score is sig- nificant at the 1 % level. It shows that 39 artists have never access the ap- plication of ChatGPT for music production, while 346 have. This indicates that majority of the artists are aware with the introduction of ChatGPT for music production and have ever access its application for music production. Considering that there are 346 artists who have ever used ChatGPT in their music production, the rest of the analysis will be on only those 346 artists so that the finding of the study will not be affected by data mining problem. However, from the table, the null hypothesis will be rejected, concluding that the majority of the artists have accessed the ChatGPT application for music production. The significant z-score at the 1 % level indicates a strong deviation from the null hypothesis, suggesting a widespread adoption of ChatGPT in the music industry. This finding underscores the increasing integration of AI technologies in creative processes, reflecting a shift in how artists are engaging with new tools for music creation. 3 Source: Researcher’s computation. The Asterisk * denotes significance at 1 % level. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 188 7. 10. 2024 10:12:14 Wang Yi: Revolutionizing Music Production with ChatGPT Applications 189 Table 4: Z-test on the accessibility of the application of ChatGPT on music production4 H01: Accessibility of ChatGPT applications is not impacting music production process by increasing access to creative tools Group Obs Mean Std Err [95 % Conf Interval] 0 143 0 0.084 -0.164 0.164 1 203 1 0.070 0.862 1.138 z = -9.1596 Pr(Z < z) = 1.0000 Pr(Z > z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 0.0000* H02: Accessibility of ChatGPT applications is impacting music production process by reducing the need for technical expertise 0 195 0 0.072 -0.140 0.140 1 151 1 0.081 1.160 0.841 z = -9.2250 Pr(Z < z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 1.0000 H03: Accessibility of ChatGPT applications is not impacting music production process by enhancing collaboration with other musicians/producers 0 162 0 0.079 -0.154 0.154 1 184 1 0.074 0.856 1.144 z = -9.2817 Pr(Z < z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 1.0000 H04: Accessibility of ChatGPT applications is not impacting music production process by improving efficiency in music production 0 139 0 0.084 -0.166 0.166 1 207 1 0.070 0.864 1.136 z = -9.1192 Pr(Z < z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 1.0000 Table 4 presents the z-test results on how has the accessibility of ChatGPT applications impacted music production process, where the result shows that the test statistics of the z-score are significant at 1 % level, leading to the rejec- tion of the null hypothesis. This suggests that the accessibility of ChatGPT applications is indeed affecting the music production process, particularly by facilitating access to creative tools, enhancing collaboration with other musi- cians/producers, and improving efficiency in music production. However, it’s 4 Source: Researcher’s computation. The Asterisk * denotes significance at 1 % level. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 189 7. 10. 2024 10:12:14 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 190 important to note that this increased accessibility does not diminish the need for technical expertise in the field. The significant findings highlight the role of ChatGPT in augmenting the creative process, emphasizing that while it enhances certain aspects of production, it does not replace the fundamental skills and knowledge required in music production. Table 5: Z-test on what are the reasons for not using ChatGPT applications for music production?5 H01: The reason for not using ChatGPT applications for music production is not due to the lack of awareness about ChatGPT applications Group Obs Mean Std Err [95 % Conf Interval] 0 11 0 0.302 -0.591 0.591 1 28 1 0.189 0.630 1.138 z = -2.8102 Pr(Z < z) = 0.3125 Pr(Z > z) = 0.3450 Pr(Z > z) = 0.9975 H02: The reason for not using ChatGPT applications for music production is not due to the concerns about the quality of output 0 16 0 0.25 -0.490 0.490 1 23 1 0.208514 0.591 1.409 z = -3.0718 Pr(Z < z) = 0.0011* Pr(Z > z) = 0.0021* Pr(Z > z) = 0.9989 H03: The reason for not using ChatGPT applications for music production is not due to the limited access to necessary technology 0 14 0 0.647 0.172 1.122 1 25 1 0.636 0.218 1.054 z = 0.0331 Pr(Z < z) = 0.5132 Pr(Z > z) = 0.9736 Pr(Z > z) = 0.4868 H04: The reason for not using ChatGPT applications for music production is the prefer- ence of traditional music production methods 0 17 0 0.2425356 -0.475 0.475 1 22 1 0.2132007 0.582 1.418 z = -3.0967 Pr(Z < z) = 0.0010* Pr(Z > z) = 0.0020* Pr(Z > z) = 0.9990 5 Source: Researcher’s computation. The Asterisk * denotes significance at 1 % level. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 190 7. 10. 2024 10:12:14 Wang Yi: Revolutionizing Music Production with ChatGPT Applications 191 Table 5 displays the z-test results on what are the reasons for not using Chat- GPT applications in music production. The test statistics of the z-score are significant at the 1 % level. In this analysis, the null hypotheses are accepted for reasons such as lack of awareness about ChatGPT applications and limited access to the necessary technology, indicating that these are not major factors deterring usage. However, the null hypotheses are rejected for concerns about the quality of output and a preference for traditional music production meth- ods, indicating that these are significant reasons why artists refrain from using ChatGPT applications for music production. This distinction highlights that while technical accessibility might not be a barrier, perceptions of quality and adherence to traditional methods are critical factors in the adoption of Chat- GPT in music production. Table 6: Z-test on whether ChatGPT application is impacting creativity in music production?6 H01: The application of ChatGPT is increasing the creativity of the artists in music production Group Obs Mean Std Err [95 % Conf Interval] 0 138 0 0.0851257 -0.166 0.167 1 204 1 0.0700141 0.862 1.137 z = -9.0728 Pr(Z < z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 1.0000 Table 6 is the presentation of the result on whether ChatGPT application is impacting creativity in music production. The test statistic of the z-score is significant at the 1 % level, indicating that the use of ChatGPT applications is associated with a decrease in creativity in music production. This finding sug- gests that while ChatGPT may offer various benefits in terms of efficiency and accessibility, it might have a counterproductive effect on the creative aspect of music production, potentially leading to concerns about the application’s influ- ence on the artistic process. 6 Source: Researcher’s computation. The Asterisk * denotes significance at 1 % level. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 191 7. 10. 2024 10:12:14 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 192 Table 7: Z-test on how often do you rely on ChatGPT applications for generating new musical ideas or inspiration?7 H01: The artists often rely on ChatGPT applications in music production Group Obs Mean Std Err [95 % Conf Interval] 0 228 0 0.0662266 -0.130 0.129 1 118 1 0.0920575 0.820 1.180 z = -8.8180 Pr(Z < z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 1.0000 Table 7 presents the results on how often you rely on ChatGPT applications for generating new musical ideas or inspiration, with the test statistic of the z-score being significant at the 5 % level. This indicates that artists frequently depend on ChatGPT applications for sparking new musical ideas or gaining inspiration. The significance at the 5 % level, although less strong than the 1 % level typically used for more rigorous conclusions, still suggests a notable trend in the use of ChatGPT in the creative process of music production, highlight- ing its role as a tool for creative inspiration among artists. Table 8: Z-test on have you found ChatGPT applications to be helpful in exploring new musical genres or styles?8 H0: ChatGPT applications are not helpful in exploring new musical genres or styles Group Obs Mean Std Err [95 % Conf Interval] 0 71 0 0.1186782 -0.232 0.232 1 275 1 0.0603023 0.881 1.118 z = -7.5120 Pr(Z < z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 1.0000 Table 8 presents the results of a study on whether ChatGPT applications aid in exploring new musical genres or styles, with the test statistic of the z-score being significant at the 1 % level. This significant finding suggests that Chat- GPT applications are indeed helpful in exploring new musical genres or styles. The strong level of significance indicates a clear positive impact of ChatGPT on the diversification and innovation in music production, allowing artists to venture beyond their familiar territories and experiment with novel sounds and compositions. 7 Source: Researcher’s computation. The Asterisk * denotes significance at 1 % level. 8 Source: Researcher’s computation. The Asterisk * denotes significance at 1 % level. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 192 7. 10. 2024 10:12:14 Wang Yi: Revolutionizing Music Production with ChatGPT Applications 193 Table 9: Z-test on the potential risks and challenges associated with the application of ChatGPT in music production9 H01: Lack of creativity and originality in music production due to reliance on AI-gener- ated suggestions is not potential risk and challenge Group Obs Mean Std Err [95 % Conf Interval] 0 133 0 0.086711 -0.170 0.169 1 213 1 0.068518 0.866 1.134 z = -9.0485 Pr(Z < z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 1.0000 H02: Inability of ChatGPT to understand complex musical concepts and nuances is not potential risk and challenge 0 145 0 0.0830455 -0.163 0.490 1 201 1 0.0705346 0.862 1.138 z = -9.1779 Pr(Z < z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 1.0000 H03: Potential for bias in AI-generated suggestions, leading to homogenization of music styles is not potential risk and challenge 0 125 0 0 .0894427 0.175 0.175 1 221 1 0.0672673 0.868 1.132 z = -8.9354 Pr(Z < z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 1.0000 H04: Difficulty in maintaining a human touch and emotional connection in music cre- ated with AI assistance is not potential risk and challenge 0 154 0 0.0805823 -0.158 0.158 1 192 1 0.0721688 0.856 1.141 z = -9.2443 Pr(Z < z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 1.0000 H05: Legal and copyright issues arising from the use of AI-generated content in music production is not potential risk and challenge 0 144 0 0.0833333 -0.163 0.163 1 206 1 0.0703598 0.862 1.138 z = -9.1689 Pr(Z < z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 1.0000 9 Source: Researcher’s computation. The Asterisk * denotes significance at 1 % level. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 193 7. 10. 2024 10:12:14 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 194 H06: Dependence on AI-generated suggestions leading to a decline in human musical skills and expertise is not potential risk and challenge 0 161 0 0.078811 -0.154 0.154 1 244 1 0.066815 0.870 1.131 z = -9.6785 Pr(Z < z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 1.0000 H07: Ethical concerns regarding the use of AI in music production, such as replacing human musicians and producers is not potential risk and challenge 0 170 0 0.0766965 -0.150 0.150 1 216 1 0.0680414 0.867 1.418 z = -9.7534 Pr(Z< z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z >z) = 0.0000* Pr(Z > z) = 1.0000 Table 9 presents the z-test results on the potential risks and challenges of inte- grating ChatGPT in music production, where the test statistics are significant at the 1 % level, leading to the rejection of all null hypotheses. This demon- strates that the application of ChatGPT in music production is fraught with significant risks and challenges that cannot be ignored. The primary concern is the impact on creativity and originality, as there is a risk that artists may become overly reliant on AI-generated suggestions, potentially leading to a dilution of personal artistic expression and a loss of the unique creative trigger that defines great music. The inability of ChatGPT to fully understand com- plex musical concepts and nuances poses another significant challenge, raising questions about the depth and authenticity of AI-assisted music production. Furthermore, the potential for AI to introduce bias could result in the homo- genization of music styles, stifling the diversity and richness of musical expres- sion that is vital to the vibrancy of the industry. Another critical aspect is the difficulty in maintaining the human touch and emotional connection in music created with AI assistance. Music, at its core, is an emotional art form, and the risk of losing this essential element could alienate listeners and diminish the art’s impact. Moreover, legal and copyright issues surrounding AI-generated content present a complex web of challenges, as the industry grapples with defining ownership and intellectual property rights in the context of AI con- tributions to creative work. The dependence on AI-generated suggestions also raises concerns about the erosion of human musical skills and expertise. As art- ists potentially lean more on AI for creativity, there is a fear that this could lead to a decline in the development and honing of human musical talents. Lastly, ethical concerns regarding the use of AI in music production, particularly the notion of AI replacing human musicians and producers, bring to the forefront a debate about the future direction of the music industry and the role of tech- nology in artistic creation. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 194 7. 10. 2024 10:12:14 Wang Yi: Revolutionizing Music Production with ChatGPT Applications 195 Table 10: Results of ordered logistic regression model10 RMP Coef Std Err z P>z 95 % Conf Interval DMP 2.13919 .537356 3.98 0.000* 1.085991 3.192388 ICMP .0322592 .4353449 0.07 0.941 -0.821001 .8855195 RRHCMP 3.198065 .5102499 6.27 0.000* 2.197994 4.198137 CDMP 1.21111 .4096089 2.96 0.003* 0.4082917 2.013929 LHTEAM -1.244414 .3989723 -3.12 0.002* -2.026385 -.4624424 FDMP -0.820828 .344886 -2.38 0.006* -0.564371 .7875566 LCCAMP -19.21091 1170.261 -0.02 0.987 -18.92885 20.744587 WCAMFP 0.590413 .2028911 2.91 0.004* -0.582683 .62126358 /cut1 -20.98804 1170.261 -2314.657 2272.681 /cut2 -16.23699 1170.261 -2309.906 2277.432 Table 10 reports the results of ordered logistic regression model on the deter- minant factors affecting the revolutionization of the application of ChatGPT on music production. From the table, democratization of music production (DMP), increased competition among musicians/producers (ICMP), redefin- ing the role of human creativity in music production (RRHCMP), changing the dynamics of music collaborations (CDMP), and willingness of the artists to collaborate with AI-generated music in their future projects (WCAMFP) are positively and significantly related with the revolutionization of music produc- tion using ChatGPT applications (RMP) except ICMP which is insignificant. This means that democratization of music production, redefining the role of human creativity in music production, changing the dynamics of music col- laborations, and willingness of the artists to collaborate with AI-generated mu- sic in their future projects will increase the likelihood of the revolutionization of the music production using ChatGPT applications. However, increased in competition among musicians/producers is not likely to impact it. Furthermore, lack of human touch and emotion in AI-generated music (LHTEAM), fear of job displacement for musicians/producers (FDMP), and limited capabilities of ChatGPT applications in music production (LCCAMP) are negatively and significantly related with the revolutionization of music production using Chat- GPT applications except LCCAMP which is insignificant. This means that lack of human touch and emotion in AI-generated music and fear of job displace- ment for musicians/producers will decrease the likelihood of the revolutioniza- tion of the music production using ChatGPT applications; however, limited ca- pabilities of ChatGPT applications in music production is not likely to affect it. However, the threshold parameters are -20.98804 and -16.23699 which tell that since there are three possible values for Y (i.e. M = 3), the values for Y are: 10 Source: Researcher’s computation. The Asterisk * denotes significance at 1 % level. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 195 7. 10. 2024 10:12:14 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 196 Yi = 0 if Y*i is ≤ -20.98804 Yi = 1 if -20.98804 ≤ Y*i ≤ -16.23699 Yi = 2 if Y*i ≥ -16.23699 Table 11: Predictive margins of the response variable11 Delta-method Margin Predict Margin Std Err z P>z 95 % Conf Interval 0 0.0975328 0.0138777 7.03 0.000* 0.070333 0.1247327 1 0.3523476 0.0182272 19.33 0.000* 0.3166229 0.3880723 2 0.5501196 0.0125345 43.89 0.000* 0.5255524 0.5746869 Table 11 shows the predictive margins of the response variable which are the predicted probabilities on the probability of the occurrence of the response variable, i.e., the revolutionization of the music production using ChatGPT applications, From the table, it is evident that the probability of unsure of whether the ChatGPT applications is revolutionizing the music production is 9.8 %, while the probability of the ChatGPT applications is not revolution- izing the music production is 35.2 %, and the probability of the ChatGPT applications is revolutionizing the music production is 55 %. This can be repre- sented graphically as in Figure 4. It can be glance from this table that there is a high probability of the occurrence of Y than not occur or unsure, and then fol- lowed by the probability of not occur, and lastly the least probability of unsure. Figure 4: Graphical representation of the predictive margins of the response variable.12 11 Source: Researcher’s computation. The Asterisk * denotes significance at 1 % level. 12 Source: Researcher’s computation. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 196 7. 10. 2024 10:12:14 Wang Yi: Revolutionizing Music Production with ChatGPT Applications 197 To ensure the statistical healthiness of the model which is by testing the model assumptions. There are several ways to test the proportional odds/ parallel lines assumption of the ordered logit model, namely Wolfe Gould test, Brant test, score test, likelihood ratio test, and Wald test. Table 12: Tests of the parallel regression assumption13 Chi2 df P>Chi2 Wolfe Gould 1.3462 8 0.4031 Brant 0.4423 8 0.6231 Score 0.4623 8 0.3332 likelihood ratio 2.5728 8 0.6231 Wald 0.5835 8 0.1230 Table 12 is the tests of the parallel regression assumption of the estimate or- dered logistic regression model estimated in the study. According to the table, all the probabilities of the Chi2 of the tests statistics insignificant, thus, re- jected the null hypothesis that the proportional odds assumption of the model is violated. Therefore, the proportional odds assumption of the model is not violated; hence, satisfying the validity of the ordered logistic regression model used in this study. The main finding of this study is that ChatGPT use is completely chang- ing the music industry in terms of influence, innovation, and accessibility. This result is consistent with Knotts and Collins’ (2020) assessment of the attitudes of music developers toward artificial intelligence and their desire for innovative partnerships with AI technology. Koe (2023) found that since its creation, the ChatGPT app has gained popularity online for its thorough and frequently startlingly human-like answers to a variety of questions, including those on the music industry; According to Buckle (2023), 30 % of musicians use Chat- GPT as their preferred artificial intelligence (AI) tool for songwriting and composition; According to Ray (2023), ChatGPT is transforming scientific research in a number of areas, including data processing, hypothesis develop- ment, teamwork, and public outreach (including music composition); Accord- ing to Faster Capital (2024), artificial intelligence has radically transformed the music industry and has a wide range of uses for producers, performers, and fans; Steigner (2024) asserts that the incorporation of ChatGPT into the music industry has revolutionized composition, production, teamwork, and the creative process in general. 13 Source: Researcher’s computation. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 197 7. 10. 2024 10:12:14 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lix/1–2 198 Concluding Remarks This study investigates the revolutionization of the application of ChatGPT with respect to its accessibility, creativity, and impact on music industry in China using survey with a sample size of 385 music artists including music producers, songwriters, artists/musicians, and sound engineers. The findings revealed that, in terms of accessibility of the application of ChatGPT in music production, it found to be improving efficiency in music production and en- hanced collaboration with other musicians/producers, whereas those that are not accessing it is because they prefer traditional music production methods and concerns about the quality of output. Furthermore, in terms of creativity of the application of ChatGPT in music production, it found to be decreas- ing the creativity of the artists, while the artists often rely on ChatGPT ap- plications for generating new musical ideas / inspiration, and it is helpful in exploring new musical genres or styles. Moreover, the factors influencing the revolutionization of the application of ChatGPT on music production include democratization of music production, redefining the role of human creativ- ity in music production, changing the dynamics of music collaborations, and willingness of the artists to collaborate with AI-generated music in their future projects; while the factors limiting it include lack of human touch and emotion in AI-generated music and fear of job displacement for musicians/producers. Additionally, the potential risks and challenges associated with the applica- tion of ChatGPT in music production are numerous. Lack of creativity and originality in music production due to reliance on AI-generated suggestions. Inability of ChatGPT to understand complex musical concepts and nuances. Potential for bias in AI-generated suggestions, leading to homogenization of music styles. Difficulty in maintaining a human touch and emotional connec- tion in music created with AI assistance. Legal and copyright issues arising from the use of AI-generated content in music production. Dependence on AI-generated suggestions leading to a decline in human musical skills and expertise. Ethical concerns regarding the use of AI in music production, such as replacing human musicians and producers. Based on the findings, the following recommendations were brought to improve the application of ChatGPT and reduce its potential risks. First, in- corporate a comprehensive database of music theory, production techniques, and industry trends to provide more accurate and relevant information to us- ers. Second, enable users to collaborate with ChatGPT in real-time to brain- storm ideas, receive feedback, and work on music projects together. Third, de- velop integrations with popular music production software such as Ableton Live, Pro Tools, or FL Studio to streamline workflows and provide users with more tools to enhance their music production process. Fourth, utilize machine learning algorithms to analyse user preferences and behaviours to provide Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 198 7. 10. 2024 10:12:14 Wang Yi: Revolutionizing Music Production with ChatGPT Applications 199 personalized recommendations for music samples, plugins, and production techniques. Fifth, create interactive tutorials and guides within the ChatGPT application to help users learn new music production skills, techniques, and best practices. Sixth, partner with music producers, engineers, and artists to provide expert advice, insights, and tips within the ChatGPT application. Sev- enth, implement voice recognition technology to allow users to interact with ChatGPT using voice commands, making it easier and more intuitive to use while working on music projects. Eighth, allow users to provide feedback on the ChatGPT application to continuously improve its functionality, accuracy, and relevance to the music production community. The limitation of this study is that ChatGPT application is an emerging area of research which was introduced just November 2022; hence, new infor- mation about the application is at follow. Therefore, incoming research could build on the findings of this study to provide more insights on the revolutioni- zation of the ChatGPT application on music industry. Moreover, further stud- ies could concentrate on exploring more avenues for improving the ChatGPT application in advancing its application on music industry. Ethics declarations Ethical approval In conducting this research, ethical guidelines were strictly adhered to, includ- ing the maintenance of confidentiality and anonymity. Participants’ rights will be respected throughout the research process. Informed consent As the study involves an online survey, respondents have the option to volun- tarily respond to the questionnaire. If a respondent chooses to participate, their consent is automatically given; otherwise, it is declined. Competing interest The authors declared no competing interests. Funding The work was supported by the Shandong Province Social Science Planning Research Project, grant number 23DWYJ06. 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Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 202 7. 10. 2024 10:12:14 Wang Yi: Revolutionizing Music Production with ChatGPT Applications 203 POVZETEK Preobrat v ustvarjanju glasbe z uporabo ChatGPT aplikacij: dostopnost, ustvarjalnost in vpliv na dejavnost na Kitajskem Vključevanje Chat GPT orodij v proces ustvarjanja glasbe je spodbudilo živahne diskusije v dejavnosti. Raziskovalci zagovarjajo mnenje, da ta orodja odpirajo prostor za ustvarjal- nost in dajejo možnosti za sodelovanje in eksperimentiranje. Mnenja so, da bodo orodja UI lahko razmaknila meje glasbene ustvarjalnosti in omogočila umetnikom raziskovanje novih zvokov in slogov. Na drugi strani pa kritiki izražajo skrb, da bo preveliko zanašanje na UI zadušilo izvirnost in človeško domiselnost pri ustvarjanju glasbe. Skrbi jih, da bo uporaba algoritmov privedla do poenotenja glasbene ustvarjalnosti in zmanjšala vlogo individualnosti osebnih slogov skladateljev. Kljub omenjenemu razhajanju, se nadaljuje raziskovanje vpliva ChatGPT orodij na produkcijo glasbe na Kitajskem s ciljem, prido- biti razumevanje celotnega spektra možnosti in izzivov, ki jih nova tehnološka revolucija prinaša. Zato poskuša pričujoča raziskava dati bolj poglobljeno razumevanje morebitne revolucije v ustvarjanju glasbe z uporabo Chat GPT orodij, pri čemer bo upoštevala tako navdušeno podporo kot previdno skepso udeleženih ustvarjalcev. Osredotoča se na vpra- šanje, kako ta orodja povečujejo dostopnost za ustvarjalce in spodbujajo ustvarjalnost z inovativnimi orodji ter analizira vpliv na glasbeno dejavnost na Kitajskem. Pričujoča raziskava prispeva k izboljšanemu razumevanju načina, na katerega dostopnost, ustvarjalnost in vpliv ChatGPT spreminjajo ustvarjanje glasbe na Kitajskem. Izpolnjuje štiri cilje. Prinaša empirično podprto analizo, kakšen vpliv ima ChatGPT na ustvarjanje glasbe na Kitajskem. S tem zapolnjuje vrzel v dosedanjem raziskovanju in s celovito analizo osvetljuje vprašanja dostopnosti, ustvarjalnosti in vpliva na glasbeno dejavnost. Raziskava poskuša nadaljevati pomembno opazovanje vpliva novih ChatGPT orodij, ki je nujno za razumevanje tega novega in svetovno odmevnega pojava. Posebna dimenzija raziskave je tudi osredotočenje raziskave na kitajsko glasbeno tržišče, ki ima specifično umetniško tra- dicijo, ureditev in družbeni odziv na vključevanje UI v glasbeno ustvarjanje. Izsledki raziskave so pokazali, da so orodja izredno dostopna in da so povečala učin- kovitost pri ustvarjanju glasbe ter izboljšala možnosti za sodelovanje med glasbeniki oz. producenti. Tisti glasbeniki, ki orodja ne uporabljajo, delajo to po lastni izbiri in dajejo prednost tradicionalnemu načinu ustvarjanja, predvsem zaradi strahu pred nižjo kvaliteto. Nova orodja so v splošnem zmanjšala ustvarjalnost umetnikov, ker se pogosto zanašajo na ChatGPT orodja za ustvarjanje novih idej, je pa v pomoč pri raziskovanju novih glasbenih žanrov in slogov. Ob tem spremembe v glasbeni ustvarjalnosti povečujejo dejavniki, kot so demokratizacija ustvarjanja glasbe, drugačno določanje vloge človekove ustvarjalnosti pri ustvarjanju glasbe, spreminjanje dinamike sodelovanja pri glasbeni produkciji in priprav- ljenost umetnikov, da pri svojih projektih uporabijo orodja UI. Na drugi strani zaviralno vplivajo pomanjkanje človeškosti in občutenosti v s pomočjo UI izdelani glasbi in strah pred izgubo delovnih mest za glasbenike in druge glasbene producente. Muzikološki zbornik 2024-FINAL.indd 203 7. 10. 2024 10:12:14 muzikološki zbornik • musicological annual lx/1 204 ABOUT THE AUTHOR WANG YI (wangyi9103@163.com) is the Deputy Director of the Music Department at Qingdao University of Science and Technology, China and the part-time Deputy Secretary of the School Youth League Committee. Her research focuses on composition, composition techniques, and AI music production. She holds a Master of Music from Missouri State University, USA and a PhD from Bangkokthonburi University, Thailand. O AVTORICI WANG YI (wangyi9103@163.com) je namestnica direktorja Oddelka za glasbo na Uni- verzi za znanost in tehnologijo v Qingdau (Kitajska) in delno zaposlena sekretarka Odbora Lige šolske mladine. Njeno raziskovanje se usmerja v kompozicijo, tehnike komponiranja in ustvarjanje glasbe s pomočjo UI. Magistrirala je na Missouri State University (ZDA) in doktorirala na Bangkokthonburi University (Tajska). 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