A Ab bs st tr ra ac ct t
The relations between the participation in out-of-
school sports activities and success in school were
studied using a sample of 2023 fourth-class pupils
of primary schools in the Gorenjska region (1048
boys and 975 girls). Data were collected by means
of a questionnaire, which was designed based on
information obtained in previous studies (Petrovi? et
al., 1998). The basic goal of our research was to
establish potential statistically significant differ-
ences between the frequency of participation in out-
of-school sports activities and success in school as
well as between the form of participation in out-of-
school sports activities and success in school.
Statistically significant differences between the vari-
ables were verified by means of the chi-squared
test. The research confirmed that statistically signifi-
cant differences do exist. Pupils who regularly par-
ticipate in sports activities are more successful at
learning. Similarly, there is also a statistically signifi-
cant difference between learning success and the
form of a sports activity. Pupils training in sports
clubs or under trainers’ supervision achieve better
school results than those who participate in non-
organised sports activities.
Key words: primary school, school success, learning
success, out-of-school sports activity
1 1 F Fa ac cu ul lt ty y  o of f  E Ed du uc ca at ti io on n, ,  U Un ni iv ve er rs si it ty y  o of f  P Pr ri im mo or rs sk ka a, ,  
S Sl lo ov ve en ni ia a
2 2 S Sc ci ie en nc ce e  a an nd d  R Re es se ea ar rc ch h  C Ce en nt tr re e  o of f  R Re ep pu ub bl li ic c  o of f  
S Sl lo ov ve en ni ia a, ,  U Un ni iv ve er rs si it ty y  o of f  P Pr ri im mo or rs sk ka a, ,  S Sl lo ov ve en ni ia a
* Corresponding author: 
Faculty of Education, University of Primorska
Cankarjeva 5, SI-6000 Koper, Slovenia
T el.: +386 (0) 5 66-31-260, fax: +386 (0)5 66-31-268
E-mail: rado.pisot@uni-lj.si
I Iz zv vl le eč če ek k
Na vzorcu 1048 učencev in 975 učenk četrtega
razreda osnovnih šol v gorenjski regiji smo ugotavl-
jali relacije med izvenšolskim ukvarjanjem s špor-
tom in učnim uspehom. Podatke smo zbrali z anket-
nim vprašalnikom, sestavljenim na osnovi rezultatov
predhodnih raziskav (Petrovič et al., 1998). Osnovni
cilj naše raziskave je bil ugotoviti, ali obstajajo statis-
tično značilne razlike med načinom izvenšolskega
ukvarjanja s športom in splošnim učnim uspehom.
Statistično značilne razlike med spremenljivkama
smo ugotavljali s Hi-kvadrat testom. Raziskava je
potrdila, da statistično značilne razlike obstajajo.
Deklice in dečki, ki se redno ukvarjajo s športom,
dosegajo boljši učni uspeh. Podobne rezultate smo
ugotovili tudi pri ugotavljanju statistične značilnosti
med učnim uspehom in obliko športne aktivnosti.
Otroci, ki vadijo v športnih klubih in pod vodstvom
trenerja, dosegajo boljši učni uspeh od tistih, ki se s
športom ukvarjajo v neorganiziranih oblikah.
Ključne besede: osnovna šola, učni uspeh, izvenšols-
ka športna dejavnost 
Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, ISSN 1318-2269 Kinesiologia Slovenica, 9, 1, 49-61 (2003)
4 49 9
I IN NF FL LU UE EN NC CE E  O OF F  O OU UT T- -O OF F- -S SC CH HO OO OL L  S SP PO OR RT TS S/ /M MO OT TO OR R
A AC CT TI IV VI IT TY Y  O ON N  S SC CH HO OO OL L  S SU UC CC CE ES SS S
V VP PL LI IV V  I IZ ZV VE EN NŠ ŠO OL LS SK KE E  G GI IB BA AL LN NE E/ /Š ŠP PO OR RT TN NE E  A AK KT TI IV VN NO OS ST TI I
O OT TR RO OK K  N NA A  U UČ ČN NI I  U US SP PE EH H
R Ra ad do o    P Pi iš šo ot t
1 1, ,2 2
* *
J Jo oc ca a    Z Zu ur rc c
2 2

I IN NT TR RO OD DU UC CT TI IO ON N
The World Health Organization (WHO) has classified movement/sports inactivity among the
three most common causes of mortality nowadays. The WHO quotes that lack of physical
activity causes two million deaths a year. Some authors (Fras, 2001, 2002) classify smoking as
the first and physical inactivity as the second mortality risk factor.
Problems related to physical inactivity occur with adults as well as children who have been
assuming a sedentary lifestyle. Walking or cycling to school has been replaced by the use of
the public transport, computer games and television programs have replaced playground
games. According to the WHO report, more than two thirds of children are not sufficiently phys-
ically active (Agita mundo – movement for health, 2002), being thus deprived of the positive
influence of movement. Research findings designate children who perform sports activities on
a regular basis as those with lower percentage of fat in total body composition than children
who are physically inactive (Malina, 1991; in Pišot, & Završnik, 2001). Physically active children
also have higher bone density, better aerobic endurance, a higher level of functional-motor
abilities (Beunen, Malina, Renson, Simons, Ostyn, & Lefevre, 1992; in Pišot, & Završnik, 2001),
are less overweight and thus have a normal physical weight (Pišot, & Završnik, 2001).
Transversal studies prove that even in five-year-old children with better functional activities
lower values of blood pressure were recorded (Dietz, & Gortmaker, 1985; in Pišot, & Završnik,
2002).
The role of physical activity with children and adolescents is not only to assist in development
of motor efficiency of their organisms and the habit of performing regular physical activity,
which is the only condition preventing chronic non-contagious diseases in the adulthood. It
also ensures complete bio-psychosocial development of children. Physical activity aims at
establishing a proper influence on cognitive development (intellectual development, develop-
ment of thought, acquisition of theoretical concepts and knowledge) as well as on emotional
and social development (positive self-image and socialisation). The progress in one field caus-
es changes and progress in other fields (Pišot, & Završnik, 2002). Therefore, the development
of motor abilities in children is to be considered in a broader sense, rather than merely in rela-
tion to physical activities (Gardner, 1995).
T o young people, physical activity is a way of communication, it helps them become self-confi-
dent, experience success, establish interpersonal relations and integrate into society (Agita
mundo – movement for health, 2002). The role of movement in a child’s social and emotional
development is discussed by T omori (1990, p. 32), stating that a lack of physical activity in child-
hood leads to more serious consequences later in the adulthood. 
In order for the physical activity to have any effect at all it has to be performed on a regular basis.
General expert opinion is that unorganized physical exercise performed once a month has no
effect on the psychosomatic status of individuals, except for the publicity and hedonistic effect
(Petrovič, Ambrožič, Sila, & Doupona, 1998). Expert opinion differs with respect to the definition
of the frequency of a regular sports activity. Some experts consider physical activity to be reg-
ular if performed at least twice a week (Petrović, Ambrožič, Sila, & Doupona, 1996; Petrović et
al., 1998), while the WHO defines regular activity as movement/sports activity performed daily
for at least thirty minutes (Agita mundo – movement for health, 2002). The intensity of exercise
is to be mentioned here as well. For a long time, only a highly intensive exercise - as the basic
element of physical training for the physical endurance model - was considered beneficial to
Out-of-school sports activity and school success Kinesiologia Slovenica, 9, 1, 49-61 (2003)
5 50 0

health. The recent recommendations of American experts promote physical activity for a
health model that differs from the previous model basically because it stimulates moderate
physical activity. Today we are confident that positive effects on health result not only from a
highly intensive physical activity, namely moderate movement suffices (Fras, 2001).
There is a large discrepancy between the WHO’s recommendations on the frequency of regu-
lar physical activity and the frequency of weekly hours of sports education in the first years of
elementary school education in the Republic of Slovenia. According to the WHO’s recommen-
dations, three school hours of physical education per week are insufficient to produce a bene-
ficial effect on children’s development. In addition to the sports education provided by
schools, out-of-school movement/sports activity has to be performed, the type of activity
being chosen by children and/or their parents.
Several researchers (Brilej, 1995; Končan, 1998; Lebar, 2000; Pavlič, 1997; Pirnat, 2000) stud-
ied the possibilities of performing out-of-school movement/sports activities in the Republic of
Slovenia. Accurate analysis of different Slovene towns, municipalities and tourist areas was
carried out, including the inventory of sports facilities, descriptions and evaluations of move-
ment/sports programmes, analyses of the trainer staff structure and the internal organization
of the performers of movement/sports activities (financing, the transition from public to private
ownership, marketing) as well as the proposals for further measures aimed at increasing indi-
viduals’ possibilities of joining the movement/sports activities. Research mostly focuses on
the possibilities of adults, individuals, older than 18, to participate in movement/sports activity.
Some research data are available about the possibilities of high-school students (age 15 to
18). Data about the possibilities of elementary-school children (age 6 to 15) are extremely rare.
Therefore, an accurate study on actual possibilities of young children to join organized forms of
out-of-school movement/sports activities should be carried out. In our opinion, the schools
themselves represent the principal location where such activities are carried out, since they
ensure the facilities and the staff involved in the performance of movement/sports activities.
As such, schools represent public, non-profit and secondary providers of sports activities.
They are the object of the public interest and are thus financed from the state budget.
To take a step closer to the abovementioned study, we collected data on the current situation
with regards to the possibilities of children aged 6 to 15 to participate in out-of-school sports
activities in elementary schools in the Gorenjska region. Elementary schools involved in the
study as providers of out-of-school sports activities claimed to be satisfied with the variety of
motor/sports activities offered to children of different age, gender and interest group. A third
even considered their offer to be excellent. However, it would be interesting to compare their
claims to the opinions of children participating in those activities. According to schools, the
interest for the motor/sports activities they offer is considerable, in some schools even excep-
tional. They estimate the current facilities for motor/sports activities to be very good (more than
25%), adequate (approximately 50%), bad (less than 25%). Schools were also asked to com-
ment upon the possibilities of further expansion of the motor/sports activities. The main reser-
vation, as stated by the providers of the motor/sports activities, was the additional education of
the current staff and recruitment of new trainers. The lack of adequate staff is the major prob-
lem. Trainers involved in sports programmes in schools are financially poorly rewarded. As a
consequence, most trainers soon give up voluntary work, which in turn results in lower quality
of motor/sports programmes and less qualified trainers. It prevents schools from offering
each child an out-of-school activity that suits his developmental characteristics and personal
interests’ best.
Out-of-school sports activity and school success Kinesiologia Slovenica, 9, 1, 49-61 (2003)
5 51 1

Organized motor/sports activity, being conducted by professional staff, is generally consid-
ered to be of higher quality than non-organized exercise in terms of intensity, duration, type of
exercise and the course of progress. However, it should be stressed that not all forms of organ-
ized sports activities are quality exercise. In order to determine the level of quality of the per-
formance of sports activities, data on trainers’ education do not suffice. The actual quality of
the performance of the motor/sports activities should be evaluated. Different approaches are
adopted in working with children than in working with adults. Quality planning, namely the
choice of adequate contents of sports activities, and quality performance of the motor/sports
activities with children must include the knowledge of the basic rules of children’s growth and
development as well as their developmental characteristics. One-sided goals are not based
on this principle. As such, they do not take into account the primary goals of sports activities on
the part of the children (creativity, success, pleasure, amusement, play) and lead to approach-
es and methods (the choice of unsuitable learning techniques and teaching methods) that are
incongruent with the principles of motor development, psychomotor learning and are in addi-
tion aggressive to children (Pišot, 1999).
Quality motor/sports activity has a positive effect on children’s development. At the same time,
it develops all abilities and personal characteristics required to achieve success in school. The
general learning success depends on a number of different factors. Some of them are exter-
nal, which a child cannot influence in any way. These factors are the education within the fami-
ly, the social and economic status of the family, the broader milieu, teacher’s errors in the eval-
uation and physical conditions of the environment (temperature, light, noise, furniture and
other equipment, learning facilities). Different means and approaches (for example, move-
ment) may influence some internal learning factors, namely physiological factors (the learner’s
physical condition, health and emotional state) and psychological factors (intellectual and
emotional abilities, the learner’s self image, certain personality traits like caution, accuracy
and persistence, cognitive styles and previous knowledge) (Marentič-Požarnik, 1988).
The relationship between out-of school motor/sports activities and learning success has so
far seldom been the object of research, however, most of the research findings report a posi-
tive statistical correlation between the two.
In the research by Petrovič, Strel and Ambrožič (1982) a correlation was made between the
general learning success, the grade in mathematics and the out-of-school motor/sports activ-
ities of children. The relation between the level of participation in out-of-school motor/sports
activities and good learning results proved to be statistically significant. The best learners
achieved both the highest grades in school and acquired the highest level of motor abilities.
Female learners who achieved excellent learning success in mathematics also achieved the
highest levels of motor abilities.
Papič (1997) studied the relationship between the level of motor abilities and grades in mathe-
matics. In her research, she related grades in mathematics to values in the sports educational
file of children attending classes one to four. The research involved 287 school children. They
were divided into two groups according to their learning success in mathematics (77 children
with excellent grade) and according to the values in their sports educational file (54 children with
above average values). The research data prove the relation between the grade in mathematic
and motor abilities represented by the values in the sports educational file to be statistically sig-
nificant. Thus, elementary school children (class one to four) with above average results in the
sports educational file, i.e. children who participated in regular quality motor/sports activities,
Out-of-school sports activity and school success Kinesiologia Slovenica, 9, 1, 49-61 (2003)
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also achieved high learning success in mathematics. Also, children with excellent grade in
mathematics achieved high results in the sports educational file (Papič, 1997).
Novak (1998) studied the relationship between the general learning success and swimming
abilities of 328 school children attending the third class in eleven elementary schools in Koper.
She discovered statistically significant relations between swimming abilities and learning suc-
cess. The relations were more evident with girls. School children with highly developed swim-
ming abilities achieved a better learning success.
The research conducted by Petkovšek (1984) studied the correlation between the out-of-
school sports activity frequency and the general learning success. She discovered
motor/sports activity increased in proportion to learning success. Most children with excellent
and very good learning success frequently participated in sports activities, while children with
good and sufficient learning success participated in sports activities only occasionally.
Children with insufficient grades never participated in sports activities. 
The research carried out so far points to a statistically significant relation between the
motor/sports activity and the general learning success. In our research, the problem and the
goal were based upon these findings. However, the focus of our study was the relation between
the frequency (regular, occasional) and the form (organized, non-organized) of participation in
out-of-school sports activities and general learning success. Statistically significant relations
were sought with school children attending the fourth class of elementary schools in the
Gorenjska region. Our hypothesis stated that children regularly engaged in organized forms of
sports activities achieve a better learning success than children engaged in sports activities
occasionally and in non-organized forms.
M ME ET TH HO OD D
P Pa ar rt ti ic ci ip pa an nt ts s
The research covered elementary schools in the Gorenjska region. In June 2000 fourth-class
children were asked to participate - from 34 central schools or 69 elementary schools consider-
ing also the branch schools. As many as 33 central schools and their branch schools in the
Gorenjska region confirmed their co-operation in the research. The final number of respondents
was 2023 - of which 1048 males and 975 females, namely 84.3% of children initially involved in
the study. A high response rate provides for the objectivity of the data obtained in the research.
The youngest child was nine years old and the oldest was thirteen years old. The average age
of children involved in the research was 10.5 years (SD = 0.5 year).
I In ns st tr ru um me en nt ts s
The questionnaire used in this study was designed on the basis of data collected in the longi-
tudinal researches by Petrovič, Ambrožič, Sila, & Doupona (1996, 1998). The purpose of the
questionnaire was to carry out an inquiry among children attending the fourth class. The ques-
tionnaire included the following variables: gender, age, frequency or level of participation in
out-of-school sports activities.
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Respondents were asked to evaluate how often they participate in sports activities. Frequency
of participation was evaluated on 6-point scale (value 1: “I do not participate in sports activities
at all.”; value 2: “I participate in sports activities a couple of times a year.”; value 3: “I participate
in sports activities once to twice a month.”; value 4: “I participate in sports activities once a
week.”; value 5: “I participate in sports activities twice to three times a week.”; value 6: “I partici-
pate in sports activities every day.”). 
Answers were interpreted by means of three variables: 
a) Regular sports activity (values 5 and 6); 
b) Occasional sports activity (values 2, 3 and 4), and 
c) Non-active (value 1). 
Form of participation in the sports discipline most frequently practised by individual respon-
dents.
Respondents were also asked to choose one or more forms among seven forms (form 1: “I
train in a sports club.”; form 2: “I train in a sports association / school group.”; form 3: “I train
under a trainer’s supervision.”; form 4: “I do not train.”; form 5: “I participate in sports activities
alone or with my parents.”; form 6: “I participate in sports activities with friends.”; form 7: “I do not
participate in sports activities at all.”) of participation in the sports disciplines given. If no given
forms applied to an individual pupil, they could write their additional answer. 
Answers were interpreted by means of three variables:
a) Organized form of sports participation (forms 1, 2 and 3)
b) Non-organized form of sports participation (forms 4, 5 and 6)
c) Non-participation in sports activity (form 7). 
General learning success was evaluated as the general learning success in the third grade of
the elementary school or in the previous school year.
P Pr ro oc ce ed du ur re e
Data were collected from June 1 to June 23, 2000. The first contact with schools participating in
the research was established by means of a telephone conversation with the school’s head-
master. After the headmaster agreed to the school’s participation in the research, the adminis-
tration of questionnaires was discussed (with the headmaster and the fourth-grade teacher(s)).
In some schools researchers personally explained the teachers and pupils the purpose of the
inquiry and gave general instructions for the administration of the questionnaire, whereas other
schools decided to carry out the inquiry using in-house staff. Questionnaires were sent to the lat-
ter, with instructions and a stamped envelope for the filled-in questionnaires attached. In both
cases, pupils individually filled in the questionnaires. Additional explanations, if needed, were
given by the researcher present or by the teacher supervising the inquiry. The expected time for
the administration of the questionnaires was ten minutes, thus the inquiry was carried out either
during the break, during or after the school lessons.
In accordance with the goals and hypotheses of the research, basic statistical parameters (fre-
quency of individual answers, cumulative frequency, arithmetic mean, minimum and maxi-
mum value, standard deviation) were calculated for individual variables. Contingency tables
were used to determine statistically significant relations between the frequency of participa-
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tion in movement/sports activities and the general learning success as well as relations
between the form of participation in movement/sports activities and the general learning suc-
cess. The dependence between the variables was verified by means of the chi-squared test. 
R RE ES SU UL LT TS S
T Ta ab bl le e  1 1: :  C Cl la as ss si if fi ic ca at ti io on n  o of f  s sc ch ho oo ol l  c ch hi il ld dr re en n  a ac cc co or rd di in ng g  t to o  t th he e  g ge en ne er ra al l  l le ea ar rn ni in ng g  s su uc cc ce es ss s
L Le eg ge en nd d: :
f – frequency or number of values
f% - percentage of values
F – cumulative frequency
M = 4. 10
SD = 0. 93
The general school success is represented in each value with the school children attending
the fourth class in elementary schools in the Gorenjska region. Data in the T able 1 indicate that
in the third grade (the school year 1998/99) the majority of these children achieved excellent
general school success (42. 1%), 12.3% achieved very good general school success, while the
rest were less successful. Insufficient results were recorded only in 0.7% of children. The arith-
metic mean (M) of the general school success of children involved in the research was very
good. This data is confirmed also by low standard deviation (SD).
The largest share of pupils with excellent and those with very good school success participate
in out-of-school sports activities at least two to three times a week. The majority of children with
good learning success engage in sports activities every day. The bulk of children with sufficient
and insufficient learning success participate in motor/sports activities two to three times a week
(see T able 2). Of physically inactive children most are pupils with good learning success (34. 1%).
The majority of pupils engaging in sports activities occasionally achieved excellent and very
good learning success. However, their share among all respondents is 20.4 % of all pupils with
very good and 13.7 % of pupils with excellent school success. Pupils with excellent learning suc-
cess are by far the most physically active. As much as 79.5 % of pupils with excellent learning
success engage in sports activities at least twice a week, their share being 33.4 % of the total.
The results indicate that the increase in learning success (the number of successful children) is
parallel to the frequency of out-of-school motor/sports activity. There is an important difference
in learning success between pupils engaging in sports activities regularly and those engaging
in sports activities occasionally. Learning results of children participating in sports activities
once a week are more similar to those of children participating in sports activities occasionally
than to those of children who engage in sports activities regularly. The chi-square test proved
the difference between the frequency of engagement in out-of-school sports activities and the
general learning success to be statistically significant. These variables are highly correlated. 
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T Ta ab bl le e  2 2: :  D Di if ff fe er re en nc ce es s  i in n  t th he e  g ge en ne er ra al l  s sc ch ho oo ol l  s su uc cc ce es ss s  a ac cc co or rd di in ng g  t to o  t th he e  f fr re eq qu ue en nc cy y  o of f  p pa ar rt ti ic ci ip pa at ti io on n  i in n  s sp po or rt ts s  a ac ct ti iv vi it ti ie es s
L Le eg ge en nd d: :
fe – empirical (actual) frequencies
ft – theoretical frequencies
value 1: Absence of participation in sports activities.
value 2: Participation in sports activities a couple of times a year.
value 3: Participation in sports activities once to twice a month.
value 4: Participation in sports activities once a week.
value 5: Participation in sports activities twice to three times a week.
value 6: Participation in sports activities every day.
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T Ta ab bl le e  3 3: :  D Di if ff fe er re en nc ce es s  i in n  t th he e  g ge en ne er ra al l  s sc ch ho oo ol l  s su uc cc ce es ss s  a ac cc co or rd di in ng g  t to o  t th he e  f fo or rm m  o of f  p pa ar rt ti ic ci ip pa at ti io on n  i in n  s sp po or rt ts s  a ac ct ti iv vi it ti ie es s
L Le eg ge en nd d: :
fe – empirical (actual) frequencies
ft – theoretical frequencies
form 1: Training in a sports club.
form 2: Training within a sports association / school group.
form 3: Training under a trainer’s supervision.
form 4: Absence of training.
form 5: Participation in sports activities alone or with my parents.
form 6: Participation in sports activities with friends.
form 7: Absence of participation in sports activities.
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The results of the research confirm a statistically significant relationship between the general
learning success and the frequency of participation in out-of-school sports activities (T able 3).
Children participating in organized forms of out-of-school sports activities achieve better
learning success. Respondents engaged in sports activities in sports clubs or under a train-
er’s supervision achieved a significantly better learning success than respondents engaged
in non-organized forms of sports activities or those who do not participate in sports activities at
all. The best statistical correlation was established between the learning success and organ-
ized sports activity supervised by a trainer (the independence hypothesis was refused by
means of risk lower than 0.0%). In terms of statistical characteristics, the participation in sports
activities in sports clubs lagged only slightly. 
The importance of organized forms of sports activity is also confirmed by poor learning suc-
cess of children not engaged in any form of sports activity. The largest share of those achieved
good learning success (60.9%). Children with sufficient and insufficient learning success rep-
resent an extremely large share, namely 13.3% out of 19.8% of all respondents who stated com-
plete absence of participation in sports activity. Children who are not engaged in any form of
sports activity achieve the lowest learning success out of all fourth-grade children in the
Gorenjska region. Between the variables a statistically significant correlation was established. 
The learning success and participation in sports activities with parents or individually highly cor-
relate (p = 0.00). Children engaged in this form of sports activity achieved better learning suc-
cess. However, the results are questionable due to the fact that the statement given in the ques-
tionnaire is not explicit enough (engaging in sports activity with parents should be stated sepa-
rately from individual engagement in sports activity) and because of the multiplicity of state-
ments chosen, since the data analysis took into account all answers of a respondent, not only
the answer indicating the most characteristic out-of-school sports activity. The same is true of
the results indicating a statistically significant relationship between the learning success and
the form of sports engagement by the statement ‘I do not participate in sports activities at all’.
The results also showed that engagement in sports activities with friends and participation in
school sports associations/groups are not correlated. 
D DI IS SC CU US SS SI IO ON N
The research confirmed a statistically significant relationship between the frequency of out-of-
school motor/sports activity and the general learning success as well as between the form of
out-of-school motor/sports activity and the general learning success. Children participating in
sports activities on a regular basis achieve better learning success. The independence
hypothesis between the variables was refused by means of risk lower than 0.0 %. The same
results were recorded as the dependence between learning success and the form of sports
activity was established. Children who train in sports clubs and those engaging in sports activ-
ities under a trainer’s supervision achieve better learning success than those participating in
non-organized forms of sports activity.
These results match the results obtained in similar studies. The research carried out by
Petrovič, Strel, & Ambrožič (1982), and Petkovšek (1984) shows that regular participation in
organized sports activities, besides the obligatory sports education in schools three times a
week, is significantly related to better learning success.
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The results mentioned above probably allow for numerous interpretations. It is feasible that
greater participation in sports activities on the part of more successful children originates in
the fact that they are interested in many different matters and thus participate in different out-of-
school activities, including sports activities. Better learning success also prevails on parents to
allow their children to spend their free time participating in various out-of-school activities,
instead of spending it all on the preparation for the following school day. When learning suc-
cess becomes poorer, the first measure parents usually take is to prevent their children from
further participation in out-of-school activities.
The second and a more likely interpretation of the relationship between out-of-school participa-
tion in sports activities and learning success is based on scientific findings related to the inte-
gration of a child’s development. Movement or participation in sports activities conditions chil-
dren’s development in general. A weakened motor development also means a weakened cog-
nitive, emotional and social development. Movement thus also develops personal characteris-
tics representing the internal factors in the learning success, namely physiological factors (the
learner’s physical condition, health and emotional state) and psychological factors (intellectual,
emotional and social abilities as well as the learner’s self image). According to the theory on
internal and external factors in learning success, movement/participation in sports activities
could be defined as an external factor with crucial influence on the formation of internal factors.
However, we have no evidence of the actual influence of sports exercise on learning success.
To obtain such evidence, an experimental study should be carried out, so that results of the
experimental group could be compared to those of the control group. Only by means of an
experimental research it would be possible to draw conclusions based on actual scientific
data regarding the effect of movement/sports activity on learning success.
On the basis of the findings of our research we may conclude that it is of critical importance to
enable every child to engage in organized forms of the sports activity (s)he is interested in, that
is the sports activity (s)he prefers. (S)He will attend such sports activity regularly, thus develop-
ing in all areas as much as possible. “Since the basic condition for quality, effective and pleas-
ant participation in sports activities is complied with only when a sports activity is chosen
according to an individual’s interests and wishes as well as adjusted to their needs, capabili-
ties and knowledge” (Pišot, & Sila, 2000, p. 182).
In our opinion, school represents a unique opportunity for schedule, organization, logistics
and supervision of movement activities for young people. It is the school’s duty and responsi-
bility to ensure all aspects of children’s and adolescents’ growth and development. According
to the data by the WHO, in most countries the school’s regular sports activity programme is the
only systematic opportunity for young people to participate and learn about physical activity
(Agita mundo – movement for health, 2002).
Healthy individuals represent a social and economical benefit for a state. Regular physical
activity results in lower health care costs, higher productiveness, more successful education,
less sick leaves and greater economical profit (Agita mundo – movement for health, 2002).
Physical activity and health bear positive effects on the society as a whole, thus they change
from a merely private gain into the public gain, accounting for public finance invested into activ-
ities that promote motor/sports activity and a healthier lifestyle. So we should continue to strive
for the adoption of effective public health measures aimed at promoting physical activity and,
consequently, improvement of public health (Pišot, & Završnik, 2002).
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5 59 9

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A Ac ck kn no ow wl le ed dg ge em me en nt ts s
We should like to thank the headmasters, vice-headmasters, fourth-grade teachers and their
pupils from the elementary schools in the Gorenjska region that participated in the research.
Received: 25 September 2002 - Accepted: 20 May 2003
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