1 The Clash of Cultural and Political Narratives Edited by Barbara Predan, Daša Tepina The Clash of Cultural and Political Narratives 2 1 Excerpt from the review by Dr Gal Kirn The collection consists of nine contributions by authors of various disciplines. They shed light on the role of culture, offering a diverse range of in-depth and scientifically sound insights into the cultural characteristics of the Non-Aligned Movement. The contributions are not marked by some nostalgic glimpse into the past, but by a critical and partially affirmatory sting of overlooked heritage. The monograph furthermore brings new paradigmatic approaches and raises new methodological and theoretical considerations of the topics it analytically addresses. Through plural approaches, the collection deftly illuminates the habitually overlooked cultural practices on the periphery—geographic and thematic—and, with critical reflection, situates them within the contemporary currents of postcolonial research (critical contributions). Spanning a range of scientific disciplines—culturology, sociology, history, economy, art history and design—the contributions bring novel scientific discoveries and interpretations and are the result of an interplay of different newly developed methodological approaches in the area of digital humanities. This allows the authors to explore the Non-Aligned Movement while systematically and confidently tackling the topics of new economic policies, the definition of Non-Aligned Modernism, cultural diplomacy, cultural mechanisms, art and design, gift exchange within the movement and collaborations within the biennial artistic hubs. On top of that, the monograph also offers a supremely stimulating basis for further research in these areas, and will hopefully be recognised as appropriate introductory reading for the study of the non-aligned. Ljubljana 2023 Impressum Barbara Predan, Daša Tepina (eds.) THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED The Clash of Cultural and Political Narratives Published by University of Ljubljana Press For the publisher Gregor Majdič, Rector of the University of Ljubljana Issued by Academy of Fine Arts and Design, University of Ljubljana For the issuer Alen Ožbolt, Dean of the Academy of Fine Arts and Design, University of Ljubljana Reviewers Dr Gal Kirn, Dr Kaja Kraner Translation and Proofreading Soglasnik Language Cooperative Design Barbara Šušteršič Print Matformat 2 Print run 3 150 copies Price € 24.90 Kataložna zapisa o publikaciji (CIP) pripravili v Ljubljana 2023 Narodni in univerzitetni knjižnici v Ljubljani Tiskana knjiga COBISS.SI-ID= 160144899 ISBN 978-961-297-143-4 E-knjiga COBISS.SI-ID= 160124163 ISBN 978-961-297-142-7 (PDF) The book was published with the financial help of the Slovenian Research and Innovation Agency. Responsibility for the content of the articles lies with their authors. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International We extend our heartfelt gratitude to the curator of the Musum of Yugoslavia, Ana Panić, License (except photographs). for the extensive pictorial material from the Museum’s Nesvrstani – likovna collection. We also owe thanks for the help and cooperation of Špela Šubic, the curator of the First digital edition. Museum of Architecture and Design, Ljubljana. A digital copy of the publication is available at: https://ebooks.uni-lj.si/ https://www.aluo.uni-lj.si/en/research/publishing The scientific treatise is a product of the research project J7-2606, Models and https://www.aluo.uni-lj.si/raziskovanje/zalozniska-dejavnost/ Practices of Global Cultural Exchange and Non-Aligned Movement: Research in the Spatio-Temporal Cultural Dynamics, which is financed by the Slovenian Research DOI: 10.51938 /9789612971427 and Innovation Agency (ARIS). Table of Contents 4 5 9 Petra Černe Oven Research in the Field of Art Requires Infrastructure, Research Projects and Research Programmes Foreword 13 Barbara Predan, Daša Tepina The Culture of Non-Alignment Introduction 01 21 Paul Stubbs The Non-Aligned Movement and the New International Economic and Information Orders: Yugoslavia, the Global South and the UN 02 41 Nadja Zgonik Eastern, Western or Non-Aligned Modernism? The Case of Yugoslavia 03 59 Jure Ramšak Non-Alignment, Yugoslav Diplomacy and the Establishment of Cross-Cultural Links with Africa 04 81 Barbara Predan The Impacts of Non-Aligned Design 05 111 Aleš Gabrič The Culture of the Non-Aligned Countries on the Slovenian Cultural Horizon 06 131 Mitja Velikonja Images of Friendship: Analysis of Artworks, Ethnological and Applied Arts Gifts from Non-Aligned Countries to the President of SFRY, Josip Broz 07 6 173 Petja Grafenauer 7 Cultural Cooperation Between India and the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in The 1960s and 1970s: A Case Study of the International Biennial of Graphic Arts 08 199 Daša Tepina Yugoslav–Egyptian Cultural Relations: A Case Study of Art Intersections in Ljubljana and Alexandria in the 1960s and 1970s 09 223 Petra Černe Oven The Challenges of Developing Methods of Visualisation in Digital Humanities Projects and What the Design Profession Can Contribute 247 Notes on the Contributors 251 Abstracts 260 Povzetki 269 Index Foreword 8 9 At the Department for Theoretical Studies of the Academy of Fine Arts and Design of the University of Ljubljana (UL ALUO) we pursue research in the field of art, design and restoration and conservation, which we recognise is important for many reasons. Scientific analysis of these areas encourages innovation and creativity by fostering new ideas, thus facilitating questioning and pushing boundaries, often with the aim of challenging conventional thinking. The artistic approach to research gives artists and designers the opportunity to experiment with various materials, techniques and concepts, which leads to the development of new artistic ideas and design solutions. Scientific research, meanwhile, analyses the present condition, generates new knowledge and develops new methodological approaches. Art and design are powerful vehicles of cultural and social commentary and as such enjoy broad cultural and social influence. Research in this area helps us understand and address social, cultural and political questions and probe, as it were, the tempera-ture of society in the past, present and future. The Department for Theoretical Studies of the Academy of Fine Arts and Design of the University of Ljubljana also covers the field of cultural heritage research, where it has made important contributions to its interpretation, understanding and conservation. By studying the historical artistic and design movements, techniques and artifacts, the THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED FOREWORD researchers can open a special window into the past, conserving the University of Ljubljana thus not only stimulates the generation cultural traditions and providing valuable context for modern ar-of new knowledge and theoretical concepts, but also enriches the tistic and design practices. The research helps us recognise new artistic production and spurs innovation in the cultural ecosystem trends and opportunities in a world that, ultimately, needs to be re-to which UL ALUO belongs, thereby helping us to find answers to designed into a sustainable one—in every sense of the word. the current social challenges and needs. Accordingly, we will work Newly researched facts precipitate new thoughts and insights, to secure, as soon as possible, new research funds for further re-stimulate dialogue and bring about positive change. In art and de-search projects and, in particular, for a research programme that sign, we analyse how creative practices can enhance the human will allow us to conduct more strategic and focused research over experience and contribute to well-being on the psychological, the longer term. emotional and cognitive level, leading to insights on how to create meaningful and impactful experiences for individuals, as well as diverse communities with their specific needs. Petra Černe Oven, For the members of the Department for Theoretical Studies at Head of the Department for Theoretical Studies the Academy of Fine Arts and Design of the University of Ljubljana, the project Models and Practices of Global Cultural Exchange and Non-Aligned Movement: Research in the Spatio-Temporal Cultural Dynamics (J7-2606 ARRS Basic Research Project) was the first project at the Academy of Fine Arts and Design in Ljubljana that offered the opportunity for interdisciplinary collaboration, since the members of the Department otherwise cover different theoretical fields, work in different departments and with different groups 10 of students. In contrast to our usual commitments, which repre-11 sent a barrier, the opportunity to undertake a joint research project brought us closer together. Working together with other Slovenian researchers from a range of institutions (Faculty of Social Sciences of the University of Ljubljana, Institute of Contemporary History and the Science and Research Centre of Koper) and with the international partner (Institute of Art History, Croatia) had numerous positive consequences for the development of theoretical sciences at the UL ALUO, as it enabled us to step up the exchange of knowledge, ideas, new perspectives and approaches, while each of us contributed innovative solutions and approaches to the research challenges. The joint research efforts fostered a mutually beneficial syner-gistic relationship, which can bring positive effects to the uniting members through the exchange of knowledge among students, professors and researchers in different fields at UL ALUO. The collaboration also connects us to researchers from other faculties of the University of Ljubljana, as well as other scientific research institutions. The broader range of topics also allows students to acquire varied competences and insights into different aspects of fine art, design and related disciplines. The joint scientific research of the members of the Department for Theoretical Studies of the Academy of Fine Arts and Design of Introduction Confrontations of Dominant Cultural-Political Narratives 12 Turning history on its head opens up whole new worlds of possibility. 13 Howard Zinn In the last decades, the growing number of in-depth examinations of overlooked and deliberately marginalised topics seems to indicate almost a trend in contemporary research. For those of us who conduct research in the cultural sphere, especially in the field of art and design, these themes are something that often seems to be part of everyday reality. But it is exactly this status of the ordinary that is actually alarming. Being permanently marginalised, art and design researchers often accept with a too high degree of resignation the dismissive attitude of the academic research community towards everything the traditionally established scientific fields often struggle to even classify. This is simply a consequence of the fact that we, art and design researchers, are constantly challenged by the rest of the scientific community expressing doubt as to whether our work in the field of art and design even belongs in the field of research. Moreover, most of the time we experience the problem related to the evaluation of research results and recognition of their excellence, especially if they are partly the result of artistic research or a combination of artistic and scientific research. Why? Simply because they cannot be classified (or worse, pigeon-holed) according to the established parameters of scientific THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED INTRODUCTION excellence.1 Therefore, as researchers, we remain unclassified and led to effects at the level of the Non-Aligned Movement that manion the margins, but determined to drastically change this situation fested in the global cultural and artistic field. The research project step by step, one element after another, and to constantly draw at-aimed to define the notion of Non-Aligned Movement culture in tention to the overlooked possibilities and potentialities through terms of a diverse and overlapping temporality, rather than adopt-the practice of research in the field of art and design. ing the idea of chronological and linear trajectories of the dominant The research on Models and Practices of Global Cultural Ex-narratives of the period. During the course of the research, we were change and Non-Aligned Movement (funded by the Slovenian Re-constantly aware that we are dealing with a world subject to con-search and Innovation Agency (ARRS J7-2606)) confirms these stant change, upheaval and conflict, and that—as will be shown potentialities in a unique way. In fact, after only two years of re-further ahead in the present proceedings—art and design (in their search work and despite being only half-funded, the project was broader field of activity) can be identified and interpreted as areas already recognised by the public Agency for its excellence and list-that are often overlooked yet are extremely important for identi-ed among the four best interdisciplinary and bilateral research proj-fying the specificities of this period. These fields are, in fact, often ects financed by the Agency in 2022. Today, as the research project evasive in nature, but this characteristic is, paradoxically, the very is coming to an end after three years, a group of eight Slovenian basis permitting them to confront existing and dominant cultu ral-researchers are credited as authors of 21 presentations of results political narratives. at national and international conferences, 20 scientific papers, one The scope of the research project in terms of geography was retrospective monographic exhibition, one scientific monograph limited to the political geography of the Non-Aligned Movement. and two proceedings with papers (the first with the interim results This gave us an insight into the different artistic, political and social were published in 2022 in the collection Vpogledi/Perspicacités, processes that significantly influenced the development of differ-while the second publication is now in front of you). In addition, we ent dynamics on the global cultural scene. In the recent past, which also organised eleven research conferences, methodological workis the focus of the research, the existing models and practices of 14 shops and discussions. cultural exchange as products of national and transnational cultur-15 The present proceedings are thus the final monograph of the al policies enabled the project research to describe, analyse and project Models and Practices of Global Cultural Exchange and explain the conceptual, performative and organisational aspects Non-Aligned Movement: Research in the Spatio-Temporal Cultural of the USA and the Soviet Union, as well as the cultural policies Dynamics, which combined research in the fields of history, art his-of several key countries of the Non-Aligned Movement—Yugosla-tory, culture, economics and sociology in an interdisciplinary and via (SFRY), India, the Middle East, Africa and Cuba—which clearly bilateral manner (bringing together researchers from Slovenia and demonstrates the political and cultural diversity of the Movement. Croatia). The research was based on the hypothesis that the accel-Despite the project being half-funded, the present mono-erated process of decolonisation in the 1960s, which defined the graph encompasses the main conclusions drawn on the basis of articulation of cultural needs and cultural policies in the countries diverse methodology, which was further developed in the course of the Non-Aligned Movement, created new institutional mecha-of the project. The extensive body of existing literature on the topic nisms and new models or practices of cultural exchange. As demon-that was the basis for research is included in the freely accessible strated through the examples selected in our three-year study, this publication List of Archival Collections and Bibliography of Titles on the Political Economy, Social Situation and Cultural Exchange 1 Exhibitions are an illustrative example of this. If several years of research result in an exhibition curated by the author, it has no scientific value according to the current of the Non-Aligned Movement.2 Semi-structured interviews were evaluation framework. In the document Typology of documents/works for bibliog-conducted with key individuals who were active in the Non-Aligned raphy management in the Cobiss system, the exhibition is listed under point 3.12 and defined as follows: “Event organised by the author of the works exhibited or by Movement and state bodies and responsible for defining the na-the author of the installation.” This clearly shows that the researcher’s work which tional cultural policies of the SFRY or other non-aligned countries. results in an exhibition as a form of public presentation is not even recognised, let To provide a starting point for the research and a common method-alone properly evaluated. In comparison to other results of research work, the exhibition is awarded only 5 expert points. A similar problem arose during the prepara-ological framework, we conducted a series of methodological dis-tion of the document Evaluation Methodology of Research Programmes at the Uni-cussions and organised scholarly workshops with invited speakers versity of Ljubljana as publishing houses that primarily publish research results from the field of art and design have been completely omitted from the list of Slovenian 2 Slovene title: Seznam arhivskih zbirk in bibliografija naslovov o politični ekonomiji, publishing houses. družbeni situaciji ter kulturni izmenjavi Gibanja neuvrščenih. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED INTRODUCTION and experts sharing in-depth insights into the Non-Aligned Move-and argues that although the Non-Aligned Movement did not suc-ment. These workshops enabled us to strengthen connections and ceed in establishing a socialist globalism that would undermine establish a common inter-research understanding between the the Western canon in art, it did form a set of fundamental elements researchers participating in the project and coming from different that provide a good basis for understanding geopolitical relations theoretical backgrounds and disciplines. The core of the research in art today. work was primarily centred on the study of materials deposited in In the next paper, Non-Alignment, Yugoslav Diplomacy and the national archives of the republics of the former SFRY, particu-the Establishment of Cross-Cultural Links with Africa, Jure Ramšak larly in the archives in Ljubljana, Zagreb and Belgrade. In the case draws on material from federal and republican foreign affairs agen-of design, the studied materials were also obtained from British arcies in order to show how Yugoslav diplomats in each of the se-chives, notably the Royal College of Art Special Collections and the lected sub-Saharan countries acted in the role of cultural media-University of Brighton Design Archives. In structuring and program-tors, analysing their understanding of postcolonial cultural realities ming the archive module, archival standards (ISAD (G), EAD) and and identifying the cultural manifestations on both sides that they metadata standards were applied for the use of archival material as helped to organise. well as for the documentation of research data and its description. The first part of the monograph concludes with a paper by Bar-The newly developed archive module and the Can_is programme bara Predan, in which she applies the historical method to explain were fundamental for carrying out analyses of social networks (net-how Yugoslav designers, building on the Yugoslav Non-Aligned works of professionals, artists, architects, cultural and economic Movement and workers’ self-management, in the 1970s and 1980s policy makers, cultural workers) as well as networks of cultural brought the idea of decentralisation and the questioning of epis-programmes, institutions and cultural/political concepts. Network temic colonialism to the Global South and the Global North, under-and spatio-temporal analyses with data visualisation proved to be lining the role of participation and the importance of considering important analytical tools, which were central to the project and the voices from the so-called periphery of design. 16 permitted to establish a data-driven, decentralised view of social, The second part of the monograph presents a selection of dif-17 cultural and political phenomena through interpretative and quan-ferent examples of cultural and technical exchanges. In the paper titative analysis. The Culture of the Non-Aligned Countries on the Slovenian Cultur-In terms of content, the monograph can be roughly divided into al Horizon, Aleš Gabrič provides examples illustrating Yugoslavia’s two parts. The first part consists of papers that provide an in-depth position regarding scientific, technological and cultural coopera-view of the period through the lens of economics, art and design. tion between the members of the Non-Alignment Movement. The In the paper titled The Non-Aligned Movement and the New Inter-author demonstrates that Yugoslavia’s ideas also had a significant national Economic and Information Orders: Yugoslavia, the Global influence on the formulation of common positions of the Non-South and the UN, Paul Stubbs analyses the politics of non-align-Aligned Movement, promoted by its members in the context of inment and the new international economic order. The paper reveals ternational organisations. But, as Gabrič shows, due to the numer-how, in the 1970s, socialist Yugoslavia and the countries of the ous difficulties faced by the non-aligned countries, different levels Global South united in the Non-Aligned Movement, together with of development, geographical distance and the legacy of colonial-the G77 members, began to focus on economic issues in order to ism, only a small portion of the ideas were implemented (despite oppose neo-colonialism. One of the most important achievements the common policy). was the New Economic Order (NIEO) adopted in the UN in 1974 and The paper Images of Friendship: Analysis of Artworks, Ethno-promoted by UN agencies—UNESCO and UNCTAD. Stubbs’ paper logical and Applied Arts Gifts from Non-Aligned Countries to the aims to identify the seeds of a revolt against hegemony from which President of SFRY, Josip Broz by Mitja Velikonja presents the re-it might be possible to draw inspiration against the present global sults of in-depth research focused on the gifts received by Pres-neoliberal order. ident Tito from the leaders and delegations of the non-aligned In the article Eastern, Western or Non-Aligned Modernism? countries, which are kept in the Belgrade Museum of Yugoslavia The Case of Yugoslavia, Nadja Zgonik analyses the definition of repositories. In the paper, the author analyses both the visual lan-non-aligned modernism from the perspective of art history. In this guage of artworks as gifts and their various cultural codes. The pa-paper, the author explores the concept of non-aligned modernism per concludes with a comparative analysis of the visual language THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED INTRODUCTION of artworks presented as gifts and the group of ethnological and to be continued: both in the context of exploring the models and applied arts gifts. practices of cultural exchange of the Non-Aligned Movement and The next two papers examine Yugoslavia’s cultural and political in the context of the current and continuing culture of non-align-exchanges with India and Egypt starting from the same basis—the ment in the field of art and design research. Ljubljana International Biennial of Graphic Arts. In the paper Cultural Cooperation Between India and the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the 1960s and 1970s: A case study of the International Barbara Predan, Daša Tepina Biennial of Graphic Arts, Petja Grafenauer explores the diversity of Ljubljana, 5 July 2023 readings of artworks in different contexts. Examining the example of the International Graphic Biennial and the cultural-artistic links between India and the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the 1960s and 1970s, the author focuses on the links connecting Indian artists to the Biennial and on the systemic arrangements for the exchange of other cultural events between the SFRY and India. In the paper, Yugoslav–Egyptian Cultural Relations: A Case Study of Art Intersections in Ljubljana and Alexandria in the 1960s and 1970s, Daša Tepina studies the influence of the Non-Aligned Movement on the cultural relations between the former Yugoslavia and Egypt in the 1960s and 1970s, analysing them and observing their effect on the reception of art of the non-aligned countries in the former Yugoslavia. 18 The monograph concludes with a paper by Petra Černe Oven 19 on the importance and role of visualisations in science, entitled The Challenges of Developing Methods of Visualisation in Digital Humanities Projects and What the Design Profession Can Contribute. In the article, the author also discusses the digital project tool Can_is and the importance of design in the development of digital humanities tools. The author furthermore highlights the possible introduction of visualisation methodologies as these can influence interdisciplinary research and its results. The paper also deals with the development of a methodological approach in the context of visualisation, i.e. the aspect which is necessary for the optimal presentation of the project results. At the same time, the paper also suggests the direction for possible future improvements. Howard Zinn in the preface to the series The New Press People’s History writes that only by looking away from the so-called historical truth can we begin to learn “about the masses of people who did the work that made society tick”. Moreover, by looking away new insights can be gained only if a shift in perspective is accompanied by changing the lens through which we observe and interpret the world. The latter is crucial according to Zinn, because only this allows us to see that “as the lens shifts the basic narratives change as well”. The results of the three-year research confirm this necessity and at the same time reinforce our conviction that the work needs Paul Stubbs 01 20 21 Although, in factual terms, the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) formally began with a summit in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, in September 1961, a “spirit of non-alignment” can be traced much further back. In what stands to become a definitive history of NAM up to 1992, Jurgen Dinkel devotes the first two chapters of his book to the Brussels Congress Against Colonialism and Op pression of 1927—that led to the formation of the League Against Imperialism and For National Independence—and to the Afro-Asian Conference in Bandung in 1955.1 Fragments of a philosophy of non-alignment can also be found in Nehru’s writings and, indeed, in terms of realpolitik, in the agreement between India and China in 1954 known as the Panchsheel Principles, based on mutual respect for sovereignty, non-aggression, non-interference, co-operation, and peaceful co-existence.2 India and China were, of course, important states in the Band ung Con ference, which led to a communique articulating ten principles which, in broad terms, elaborate upon, and universalise, the * This text is the result of the collaborative research project Models and Practices of Global Cultural Exchange and the Non-Aligned Movement. Research in the Spatio-Temporal Cultural Dynamics (IPS-2020-01-3992), supported by the Croatian Science Foundation and the Slovenian Research Agency. 1 Dinkel, The Non-Aligned Movement, pp. 1–2. 2 Verma, Jawaharlal Nehru. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PAUL STUBBS Panchsheel Principles, making more direct refe ren ce to the Charter 13 August 1961.8 Although there were only 25 participating states, of the United Nations. As Willetts notes, “peaceful coexistence” was with many in Latin America persuaded not to attend by the United viewed by pro-Western governments as too radical and replaced, at States in the context of Cuba’s involvement, there were also more Bandung, by the eighth principle of “settlement of all international than 40 representatives of liberation movements, left-wing parties, disputes by peaceful means”.3 Made possible by, and focused on, trades unions, and the like. Although the conference was dominat-processes of decolonisation, the countries gathered in Bandung ed by questions of security and, indeed, nuclear disarmament, it did made only vague reference to economic questions, resulting in a not shy away from economic questions. The conference communi-rather bland commitment to a “general desire for economic co-op-que linked economic inequalities to imperialism and colonialism in eration […] on the basis of mutual interest and respect for econom-N E U a more radical form than in Bandung, stating that H ic sovereignty”.4 Similarly, Bandung hinted at cultural co-operation D T without ever really pinning down what was meant by “culture”. In H AN efforts should be made to remove economic imbalances inherited the context of a frozen border dispute between India and China, a from colonialism and imperialism. […] It (is) necessary to close, through second Bandung never happened. AL SOUT accelerated economic, industrial and agricultural development, the ever-Instead, socialist Yugoslavia, emerging from international iso-E GLOBH widening gap in the standards of living between the few economically lation after the break with Stalin in 1948, sought new allies in oppo-VIA, T advanced countries and the many economically less developed coun-A sition to the two hegemonic global power blocs led, respectively, tries.9 by the Soviet Union and the United States. A meeting on the island of Brijuni between Yugoslav President Tito, Indian Prime Minister Indeed, in what can be seen as an early formulation of ideas that Nehru and Egyptian President Nasser in July 1956 became “one led to the New International Economic Order,10 the states meet-of the constitutive myths of socialist Yugoslavia”5 and, indeed, of TION ORDERS: YUGOSL ing in Belgrade agreed to hold a Conference on Economic Devel-non-alignment itself. The final document called for “the intensifi-FORMA opment in Cairo in 1962. The Conference communique focused on N 22 cation of efforts to speed-up the development of underdeveloped D I low rates of growth in the developing countries, observing that “the 23 regions” as central to the establishment of “a permanent and stable IC AN terms of trade continue to operate to the disadvantage of the de-peace among nations”. It reiterated the importance of “internation-veloping countries, thus accentuating their unfavourable balance al economic and financial cooperation” and called for a UN special of pay ment position”.11 fund for economic development”.6 TIONAL ECONOM In terms of the NIEO, the holding of the first United Nations The idea of a non-aligned summit crystallised in September TERNA Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) in Geneva from 1960 at a meeting in the Yugoslav mission to the UN in New York, N 23 March to 16 June 1964, one of the key demands from the Cairo EW I on the occasion of the 15th UN General Assembly, attended by Tito, E NH economic conference, supported by many of the Soviet bloc coun-Nasser, and Nehru as well as Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana and Su-D T tries,12 was crucial. In addition, at the first UNCTAD conference the karno of Indonesia. Nehru, in particular, was reluctant to commit T AN EN Group of 77 (G77) developing countries was established, with Yu go-to regular conferences, much less a permanent organisation, only VEM slavia as a founding member. Hence, almost overnight, there was agreeing to attend the Belgrade summit in September 1961 hava multiplication of arenas in which global economic inequalities ED MO ing received assurances that it would be a one-off event. Both the could be discussed and in which the newly decolonised nations ALIGN Bandung and Belgrade conferences can be seen as performative, could find their voice. UNCTAD, under the initial leadership of Ar - presenting the developing nations on a global media stage.7 In the E NON-TH gen tinian economist Raul Prebisch, much of whose work on de-case of the Belgrade event, fears of limited media coverage dissi-clining terms of trade for peripheral economies informed the think-pated once work had begun on the building of the Berlin Wall on ing behind the NIEO, became “the multilateral site where the global 8 Dinkel, The Non-Aligned Movement, p. 98. 3 Willetts, The Foundations of the Non-Aligned Movement, p. 61. 9 Tadić and Drobnjak, Documents of the Gatherings of the Non-Aligned Countries, p. 18. 4 Records of the UNESCO General Conference 21st session. 10 Astonishingly, Whelan, who argues this, completely ignores the role of the Non-5 Petrović, Jugoslavija stupa na Bliski Istok, p. 139. Aligned Movement in organising the Cairo event, p. 201. 6 Tadić and Drobnjak, Documents of the Gatherings of the Non-Aligned Countries, p. 9. 11 Cairo Declaration of Developing Countries. 7 Dinkel, The Non-Aligned Movement. See also Turajlić, Film as the Memory Site of the 12 Taylor and Smith, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), 1961 Belgrade Conference, pp. 203–231. pp. 9–10. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PAUL STUBBS South might articulate its needs and problems”.13 However, from its lematic notion of the importance of the reaffirmation of “national very beginnings, it faced inevitable contradictions between acting cultural identity” and “the establishment of a national personali-as a technical assistance agency, being an analytical “think tank”, ty”.18 As Vijay Prashad has suggested, all newly independent deco-an “honest broker” between the North and the South, and a “global lonial nation states sought, albeit in different ways, to “assemble South advocate”, which severely limited its achievements.14 a history and an aesthetic”.19 This new “cultural canon” needed to During the first UNCTAD, the statement from the G77 expli citly be created and disseminated by a nationalist intelligentsia and was referred to “UNCTAD as a significant step towards creating a new far from “natural” as the Cairo declaration seems to suggest. At and just world economic order […] involv(ing) a new inter national di-the same time, as Prashad also suggests, such a notion was not vision of labour oriented towards the accelerated indu strialization N E U at all incompatible with ideas of the importance of promoting cul-H of developing countries […] (and) a new framework of international D T tural exchange and an anti-imperialist cultural internationalism.20 trade that is wholly consistent with the needs of accelerated de-H AN The statement does, however, illustrate that, at least in terms of velopment”.15 The Non-Aligned Summit in Cairo in 1964 further reits work in formal conferences, NAM was a transnational body that fined the critique of existing global economic and social inequality, AL SOUT reinforced, rather than challenged, the idea that sovereign nation stating E GLOBH states were privileged global actors or, in the case of national liber-VIA, T ation movements, future sovereign nation states. A the structure of the world economy and the existing international institutions of international trade and development have failed either to reNAM and the NIEO duce the disparity in the per capita income of the peoples in developing There was a six-year hiatus in NAM summits between 1964 and and developed countries or to promote international action to rectify 1970, for a variety of reasons that are too complicated to elaborate serious and growing imbalances between developed and developing TION ORDERS: YUGOSL upon here. In the context of a lowering of political tensions be-countries.16 FORMA tween the two superpowers, a reinvigorated NAM was born at the N 24 D I Lusaka, Zambia, summit of September 1970. The hastily arranged 25 The first time NAM explicitly addressed cultural imaginaries was IC AN summit was, in many ways, a result of close collaboration between during the Preparatory Meeting for the second NAM summit, held President Tito of Yugoslavia and a new generation of leaders, nota-in the Sri Lankan capital Colombo in March 1964. The last of 11 bly Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia, Julius Nyerere of Tanzania and In-themes discussed was “Cultural, Scientific and Educational Coop-TIONAL ECONOM dira Gandhi of India, who all insisted on the movement being more eration” including the consolidation of international and regi onal TERNA pro-active, no longer just a “talking shop” and, crucially, focusing organisations working on the topic. Hence, although not ex pli citly N much more centrally on economic questions.21 The Lusaka summit EW I mentioned, a major focus here was, clearly, on influencing the main E NH included a Declaration on Non-Alignment and Economic Progress UN body whose mandate included these themes, The United Na-D T which represented an early iteration of the ideas that were to be tions Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). T AN EN enshrined in the New International Economic Order (NIEO) less “Culture”, still undefined, was said to “widen the mind and enrich VEM than four years later. The statement referred to “the poverty of life”, with cultural cooperation, alongside economic and scientific developing nations” and their “economic dependency” as a “struc-ED MO cooperation, necessary for deepening understanding, consolidat-tural weakness of the world economic order”, with the colonial ALIGN ing justice, freedom and peace, and contributing to development.17 past leading to a “neo-colonialism that poses insurmountable dif-By the time of the NAM summit of October 1964, the “preservation E NON-TH ficulties in breaking the shackles of economic dependency”. This and fostering of national culture” was one part of the Economic echoed both Prebisch’s analyses of the economics of the periphery Declaration, combining a critique of the effects of “cultural imperi-and Kwame Nkrumah’s critique of “neo-colonialism”.22 The state-alism” as a form of “alien ideological dominati on” with a not unprob-ment called on the UN to bring about “a rapid transformation of the 18 Ibid., p. 91. 13 Ibid., p. 1. 19 Prashad, The Darker Nations, p. 86. 14 UNCTAD, UNCTAD: First twenty years. 20 Ibid., p. 88. 15 Sauvant, The Early Days of the Group of 77. 21 Willetts, The Non-Aligned Movement. 16 Tadić and Drobnjak, Documents of the Gatherings of the Non-Aligned Countries, p. 31. 22 Prebisch, The Economic Development of Latin America, p. 22; Nkrumah, Neo-Colo-17 Ibid., p. 32. nialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PAUL STUBBS world economic system, particularly in the fields of trade, finance of commodity exporters could act together in a similar way. Alge-and technology, so that economic domination yields to economic ria, effectively chair of NAM after the Algiers summit, and a vocal co-operation”.23 member of OPEC, acted to secure a special session of the UNGA Three years later, the NAM summit in Algiers from 5–9 Sep-to adopt the NIEO. This special session broadened the agenda and, tember 1973 included an Economic Declaration that referred to im-effectively, “embedded OPEC’s confrontation with the industrial perialism as a form of “open aggression against the economies of states over oil into a confrontation of the entire Third World with peoples who do not submit to foreign domination24” and contained the developed states over raw materials and development”.28 an outline plan of action. Stating that “the international strategy of The NIEO included a Programme of Action summarised by development” had failed, with 70% of the world’s population sub-N E U Nymoen in terms of five core clusters: Sovereignty; Trade; Mod-H sisting on only 30% of the world’s income, the statement called on D T ernisation; International Decision-Making; and Development As-the UN General Assembly to draw up a charter of economic rights H AN sistance.29 It was followed by a Charter of Economic Rights and and duties of states. As Jankowitsch and Sauvant have demon-Duties of States (CERDS) which was adopted at the regular 29th strated,25 the Declaration on the Establishment of a New InterAL SOUT session of the UNGA on 12 December 1974 by 115 votes to 6 against, national Economic Order, adopted without objection at a Special E GLOBH with 10 abstentions.30 Those voting against or abstaining, exclu-UN General Assembly (UNGA) held on 1 May 1974, uses the same VIA, T sively states from the Global North, were concerned with Article 2 A logic and much of the same phrasing. The NIEO expressed the ur-of Chapter II of CERDS, reinforcing the right of national sovereignty gency of establishing a new order over a nation’s “wealth, natural resources, and economic activities”, a principle enshrined in the NIEO, stating that each State has the based on equity, sovereign equality, interdependence, common interest right “to nationalize, expropriate or transfer ownership of foreign and co-operation among all States, irrespective of their economic and TION ORDERS: YUGOSL property, in which case appropriate compensation should be paid political systems which shall correct inequalities and redress existing FORMA by the State adopting such measures, taking into account its releN 26 injustices, make it possible to eliminate the widening gap between the D I vant laws and regulations and all circumstances that the State con-27 developed and developing countries and ensure steadily accelerating IC AN siders pertinent”. A number of countries, led by the Cubans, had economic and social development and peace and justice for present been advocating for some time that the power of multi-national and future generations.26 corporations needed to be curbed and the lessons of Algeria’s own TIONAL ECONOM partial nationalisation of oil companies in 1971 was now followed by Shortly after the Algiers summit, of course, the oil shock of October TERNA other producers. 1973 occurred in the context of the Yom Kippur war when a coali-N The NIEO still divides commentators today, much as it did at EW I tion of Arab states, led by Egypt and Syria, launched a surprise at-E NH the time of its development. Some suggest that it was so radical tack against Israel, aiming to take back territory lost in the conflict D T in its structuralist critique of the global economic order that it was in 1967. No more than a week after the conflict began, a group of T AN EN bound to fail in the context of opposition from those with most to oil-producing Gulf States, already organised through the Organiza-VEM lose from such a shift, whilst others suggest that it never, actual-tion of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), raised the price of ly, amounted to very much in terms of real change but was, rath-ED MO crude oil by over 70%, whilst also cutting exports and implementing er, piecemeal in its conceptualisation and designed to create the ALIGN an embargo on oil exports to the United States and Western allies. conditions for the continued dominance of a reformed “embedded In December 1973, OPEC doubled the benchmark price of a barrel E NON-TH liberalism”.31 The articulation of the NIEO was important, I would of crude oil.27 Although its membership included both net oil ex-suggest, not least because of its holistic nature, bringing together a porters and importers, NAM welcomed OPEC’s move at first, with number of themes that had tended to be kept separate. In addition, the Algerians in particular seeing the possibility that other groups it brought questions of the global economic architecture into an 23 Tadić and Drobnjak, Documents of the Gatherings of the Non-Aligned Countries, p. 47. 28 Ibid., p. 72. 24 Ibid., p. 86. 29 Nymoen, The United States’ Economic Hegemony, p. 19. 25 Jankowitsch and Sauvant, The Initiating Role of the Non-Aligned Countries, pp. 41–77. 30 United Nations General Assembly. Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States, 26 United Nations General Assembly Sixth Special Session, Declaration on the Estab-Resolution 3281 (XXIX). lishment of a New International Economic Order. 31 See, for example, Ruggie, International regimes, transactions, and change: embed-27 Jankowitsch and Sauvant, The Initiating Role of the Non-Aligned Countries, p. 67. ded liberalism in the postwar economic order, pp. 379–415. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PAUL STUBBS arena of political debate, namely the UN, in which the countries of of anticolonial worldmaking and represented an attempt to chan-the Global South had a real voice. Although only fully articulated nel the UN as the means for the creation of “an egalitarian global later, along with Prebisch and Nkrumah noted above, the work of economy”,36 combining a Marxist “diagnosis of economic depen-Algerian legal scholar Mohammed Bedjaoui was also important in dence” with prescriptions “articulated within the terms of a liberal underpinning the NIEO. The basis of Bedjaoui’s analysis was that political economy”.37 international law needed radical reform, as it remained a tool of In the end, the United States and its allies ensured, ultimately, neo-colonial domination, constraining the actions of decolonial that a very different new international order, underpinned by the states through the burden of “a host of unwarranted obligations”.32 ideology of neoliberalism, prevailed. Indeed, it was the NIEO on the As Ozsu has suggested, a critique of existing legal structures went N E U global scene, as much as the rise of the new left at home, that ener-H hand in hand with a firm belief in the possibility of creating a new le-D T gised a radical neo-conservative backlash, perhaps most clearly argal order that would be both emancipatory and truly universal. For H AN ticulated in a 1982 report from the right-wing Heritage Foundation, Bedjaoui and others, this legal order would form the bedrock upon describing the NIEO as “a simplistic scheme to redi stribute the which principles of self-determination, the right to development, AL SOUT world’s wealth and resources to more than 100 under developed na-and sovereignty over natural resources, could be institutionalised, E GLOBH tions, creating a global welfare state financed mainly by the US and prioritising universal, collective, economic and social rights over in-VIA, T the western industrial nations” and attacking the “Fabian social-A dividualistic human rights. ism” of the NIEO as no more nor less than “a secret plan to create a Well before the second oil shock of 1979, as Spaskovska has world government”.38 The 1980s saw a shift in terms of the locus of argued, a sense of “triumphalism” associated with the passing of global governance from the United Nations where, despite the veto the Declaration on the NIEO, quickly gave way to a sense of “dread” powers of the permanent members of the Security Council, newly amongst some NAM Member States, including Yugoslavia.33 Al-TION ORDERS: YUGOSL decolonised nations could muster a majority of votes, and towards though there was a sense that energy interdependence could be FORMA global International Financial Institutions, notably the Internation-N 28 a part of “collective self-reliance” of states on the periphery, splits D I al Monetary Fund and the World Bank, where voting rights were 29 between oil exporting and oil importing states tended to grow, and IC AN linked directly to economic power. In short, “the US argued that the these were exploited by the United States and its allies who be-UN was not an appropriate forum for NIEO discussions and con-gan to be more vocal in their opposition to the NIEO. In addition, sistently suggested to move negotiations on development to oth-authors such as Samir Amin, from a radical left perspective, saw TIONAL ECONOM er international institutions”39 which, even if they did not control the NIEO as “a rebellion by the bourgeoisies of the periphery over TERNA them directly, tended to act in the interests of a hegemonic global the unequal division of the exploited proceeds from the periphery”, N capitalist order. EW I an obfuscation of the real choice between capitalism and social-E NH Serving, in many ways, more to fragment and dissipate the ism as global systems and, thus, contributing little to “the struggle D T NIEO within the UN system than to clarify things, UNESCO and, of the Third World against the dominant-imperialist hegemony”.34 T AN EN more directly, the United Nations Institute for Training and ReNAM’s call for a kind of voluntaristic reform of the international VEM search (UNITAR) were tasked with commissioning a number of economic order was seen by some as futile, precisely because “the studies to set out the intellectual foundations of the NIEO and to ED MO global capitalist system […] continues to evolve under pressures ensure that it went “beyond economics”. UNITAR, in collaboration ALIGN more salient than those generated by this Movement”.35 Socialist with the Mexico-based Centre for the Economic and Social Stud-Yugoslavia was, also, sceptical of the NIEO initially, not least be-E NON-TH ies of the Third World (CEESTEM), produced some 16 volumes of cause it was perceived as being driven by Algeria, a country which, overviews, regional analyses, and thematic issues, directed by the since the overthrow of Ben Bella, was no longer a close ally, and Hungarian philosopher Ervin László.40 This, in many ways, kept the was criticised for using NAM to pursue its own interests. At the NIEO alive as an intellectual idea long after it had been rejected same time, as Getachew has suggested, the NIEO formed the apex 36 Getachew, Worldmaking After Empire, p. 100. 32 Ozsu, In the Interests of Mankind as a Whole, p. 131. 37 Ibid., p. 145. 33 Spaskovska, Crude Alliance, p. 529. 38 MacBride, Preface, p. xvii. 34 Amin, Self-Reliance and the New International Economic Order, p. 205. 39 Nymoen, The United States’ Economic Hegemony, p. 68. 35 Shaw, The Non-Aligned Movement and the New International Economic Order, p. 139. 40 László, Preface to the UNITAR-CEESTEM NIEO Library, pp. vii–xiv. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PAUL STUBBS by US-led hegemony on the global political scene. UNESCO, along and inter-regional forms of cooperation were now seen as much with NAM and others, worked to create the idea of a New World more possible. By the time of the NAM Summit in Havana, Cuba, Information and Communications Order (NWICO) as “a corollary to in September 1979, the creation of a pan-African news agency was the NIEO”41 which, in some ways, represented a continuation of ar-greeted “with satisfaction” even though the relationship of this to guments around the NIEO and to extend them into the spheres of NANAP was not addressed. “The Promotion of Culture and Cultural culture, communications and mass media. Cooperation Among Non-Aligned Countries” was a specific agenda item in Havana, linking the NIEO to “the affirmation of cultural NAM and the NWICO identity” and suggesting, again rather simplistically, that “the ap-Some of the antecedents of what became the NWICO can be N E U pre ciation of the values of different civilisations could contribute H found in the establishment of the Non-Aligned News Agency Pool D T to wards defining original models of indigenous development.”48 (NANAP) in January 1975. NANAP was a product of a growing con-H AN Around the same time, UNESCO took up the concept of “en-cern that information and news media needed to be central to dogenous development”, discussed in a meeting in Quito, Colom- “collective self-reliance”. At the same time, as Slaček Brlek has sug-AL SOUT bia, in August 1979. The term remained vague but appeared to be gested, NANAP mirrored some of the contradictions of NAM itself E GLOBH based, like many of the principles of NAM itself, on the idea that with the more pragmatic leadership of the Yugoslavs in conflict, to VIA, T “development cannot be patterned on an outside model” but A a degree, with the more radical critiques of “cultural imperialism” “must be freely chosen by each society”.49 A Working Group was emanating from some NAM members.42 Indeed, what I have termed established in 1980 to report on “Relations between endogenous Yugoslavia’s “liminal hegemony”43 meant that, as in many other as-development and tendencies towards modernization as reflected pects of NAM’s work, the dominant role of, in this case, the Yugoslav in UNESCO’s programme”, with a strong link to its work on popu-news agency Tanjug, needed to be played down in favour of the ap-TION ORDERS: YUGOSL lar participation. This resulted in a kind of technicisation of many pearance of a more multilateral, more horizontally egalitarian, form FORMA of the issues and a focus on country-by-country case studies and N 30 of cooperation.44 By 1980, NANAP had expanded to include over 50 D I projects, an emphasis on “socio-cultural context”50 and “a revised 31 news agencies and information services but, reaching a daily ex-IC AN economic philosophy in which the market economy is humanized change of 40,000 words by 1983, remained extremely small in rela-by man-centred development (sic)”.51 tion to the “Big Four” global news agencies whose combined daily At the same time, a more radical strand of work focused on the output was some 33 million words in 1978.45 TIONAL ECONOM impact of transnational corporations. As Schiller suggests, the fo-By the time of the NAM summit in Colombo, Sri Lanka, in Au-TERNA cus on market domination and neo-colonialism in culture and com-gust 1976, under the thematic heading “Press Agencies Pool”, it was N munications, gaining pace throughout the 1970s, was underpinned EW I stated that “a new international order in the fields of information E NH by three developments: the independence of new decolonial states and mass communications is as vital as a New International Eco-D T after successful national liberation struggles, the global expansion nomic Order”.46 Colonialism was said to have created a “vast and T AN EN of US-led capitalism, and the development of new rapid global com-ever-growing” communication gap between the non-aligned and VEM munications technology and infrastructure.52 NANAP, albeit on a “the advanced countries” resulting in domination and dependency rather small scale, and a new international information order were, ED MO with the majority of countries “reduced to being passive recipients therefore, logical extensions of national liberation struggles and ALIGN of biased, inadequate and distorted information”.47 Self-reliance in represented attempts to secure “cultural sovereignty” along with terms of information was seen as being enabled by technological E NON-TH “economic sovereignty”. As these calls concretised into the idea breakthroughs and linkages between national, bilateral, regional of a New World Information and Communications Order, developing countries’ demands concen trated on what became known as 41 UNESCO, UNESCO’s Contribution to the Attainment of the Objectives of the New In the 4Ds: democratisation, deco lonisation, demonopolisation, and ternational Economic Order: Report by the Secretary-General, 22 C/13. 42 Slaček Brlek, The Creation of the Non-Aligned News Agencies Pool, pp. 37–63. 48 Ibid., p. 381. 43 Stubbs, Introduction, pp. 3–33. 49 Final Communique of the Asian-African Conference in Bandung, 24 April 1955, p. 5. 44 Slaček Brlek, The Creation of the Non-Aligned News Agencies Pool. 50 UNESCO’s Contribution to the Attainment of the Objectives of the New International 45 Ibid., p. 56. Economic Order. 46 Tadić and Drobnjak, Documents of the Gatherings of the Non-Aligned Countries, p. 173. 51 Ibid. 47 Ibid. 52 Schiller, Decolonization of Information, p. 36. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PAUL STUBBS development.53 In a sense, then, in this period, whilst UNESCO, litical, cultural, and economic problems differ from one country to NAM and others either avoided defining culture or limited it to rath-another and, within a given country, from one group to another”.58 er simplified understandings of indigeneity and national identity, a Not unlike their stance towards the NIEO, the United States “concrete policy agenda” was formulated and agreed addressing and its allies utilised shifting tactics to ensure that the NWICO was “global media practices” and underpinned by “far-reaching claims never implemented. Critics of the NWICO pointed to the way in about the impact of media on (national) cultures, their role in na-which one of the leading figures in NAM, Indira Gandhi, had sup-tional development and in the (un)making of international order.54 pressed the mass media and limited the freedom of journalists af-In a way reminiscent of the contradictory roles of UNCTAD ter declaring a state of emergency in India in 1975, inferring from in relation to the NIEO, UNESCO, under the leadership of Mahtar N E U this the tendency of developing countries to censor information. H M’Bow from Senegal, saw the NWICO as a way of placing itself cenD T Even before this, in 1972, the United States was the only dissenting tre-stage in the institutionalisation of global reform in the sphere H AN voice against the UNESCO Principles on the Use of Satellite Broad-of communications, whilst inevitably becoming embroiled, some-casting which required satellite broadcasters to, at least, negotiate times despite itself, in controversy and conflict. Radical voi ces such AL SOUT with receiving countries before broadcasting.59 In the second half as the Algerian legal scholar Mohammed Bedjaoui went as far as to E GLOBH of the 1970s, the US offered a degree of support, if largely token-blame the blocking of the NIEO on the power of the largest news VIA, T istic, to those developing country news agencies that adopted A agencies, suggesting that this vicious circle needed to be broken.55 “Western modes of organization and work” and which acquiesced Seeking compromise, UNESCO proposed an Inter national Comin “market-determined” systems.60 Indeed, the idea of a “balanced mission known as the MacBride Commission after its chairperson free market” in information,61 not unlike the idealised free market Sean MacBride. The Commission’s final report “Many Voices, One in some iterations of the NIEO, was one that could garner support World”, published in 1980,56 sought to reconcile the irreconcilable, TION ORDERS: YUGOSL from many countries. in the process presenting little more than a functional list of “cru-FORMA Nevertheless, responding to vocal neoconservative critics, and N 32 cial problems facing mankind (sic) today” stripped of theoretical D I buoyed by a global “roll-out neoliberalism” in the form of deregula-33 and political substance57 and, yet, garnering a deal of support from IC AN tion, the United States, followed by the United Kingdom, sought to the Global South seeing it as containing a set of winnable demands attack UNESCO as a symbol of a totalitarian, even communist, at-and, indeed, criticism from the United States and its allies as being tack on freedom, in this case, the freedom of large US media corpo-too radical. TIONAL ECONOM rations, dressed up as the “free flow of information”. Making a series Resolution 4/19 adopted by the 21st session of the UNESCO TERNA of impossible demands such as the rapid introduction of weighted General Conference held in Belgrade stated that the basis of the N voting, which did not even gain the support of many erstwhile allies, EW I NWICO should consist of a number of elements including: the eliE NH the United States withheld its contributions to UNESCO and formal-mination of imbalances and inequalities; the elimination of the neg-D T ly withdrew from the organisation in 1984, not returning until 2003.62 ative effects of monopolies; removal of barriers to the free flow of T AN EN The United Kingdom withdrew a year later, rejoining in 1997. These balanced information and ideas; plurality of sources of information; VEM withdrawals occurred despite the fact that the MacBride report, the press and journalistic freedom; capacity building for developing 1980 UNESCO General Conference and, in particular, the 1983 UNES-ED MO countries; and “respect for each people’s cultural identity and for CO General Conference, essentially “depoliticized” communications ALIGN the right of each nation to inform the world public about its inter-issues and replaced them with technocratic calls for development ests, its aspirations and its social and cultural values”. Interesting-E NON-TH assistance.63 The 1985 General Conference, without the US and the ly, the resolution rejected universalistic solutions, sta ting: “diverse UK as members, saw a renewed, final, push by NAM states for ele-solutions to information problems are required be cause social, po-ments of the NWICO but this, too, proved to be in vain. 53 Carlsson, The Rise and Fall of the NWICO, p. 40. 58 Records of the 21st General Conference. 54 De Beukelaer, Pyykkonen and Singh, Globalization, Culture and Development, p. 108. 59 Schiller, Decolonization of Information, p. 40. 55 Ibid., p. 125. 60 Ibid., p. 46. 56 Many Voices, One World: Towards a New More Just and More Efficient New World Infor-61 Preston et al, Hope & Folly, p. 121. mation and Communication Order. 62 Scher, UNESCO Conventions and Culture as a Resource, pp. 197–202. 57 Mansell and Nordenstreng, Great Media and Communication Debates, p. 24. 63 Carlsson, The Rise and Fall of the NWICO, p. 52. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PAUL STUBBS The “Unfailure” of the NIEO and NWICO media and so-called “citizen journalism”, the growth of significant It is far from an easy task to assess the “afterlives” of the NIEO and new media production in the Global South, and the taking up by NWICO and whether there are any lessons that can be drawn from non-state actors of the struggle for “The Right to Communicate”.69 them for the contemporary period. What both initiatives show Ultimately, whilst the NIEO and NWICO can continue to inspire, clearly, however, is that the 1970s was the decade in which the how to update the content of these demands to respond to con-Non-Aligned Movement had its greatest influence in terms of the temporary crises may be easier than envisioning the who, when discourses, if not always the praxis, of global governance. This in-and how of real change in the global economic, cultural, ecological, fluence was a result of a rejuvenated NAM attaining a new balance social and political orders today. between a degree of formalisation, through a three-year rotating N E UH chairperson, and continued flexibility to act as a kind of incubator D T for new ideas allowing for the cultivation of “a stronger political H AN awareness than that of the G77”.64 Socialist Yugoslavia continued to prefer “practical” solutions as opposed to what they perceived AL SOUT as more “radical” ideas and maintained a degree of ambivalence re-E GLOBH garding their own continued “liminal hegemony” of the movement. VIA, TA This was reflected in the critique of Algeria as “privatizing” NAM during and after the 1973 summit at the time it took on leadership of the push for the NIEO, and in a very different way, attempts to persuade first Tunisia and, later, India, to take more of a lead, even if only symbolically, in NANAP.65 Both the NIEO and NWICO were also TION ORDERS: YUGOSL a product of strong interlinkages, a mix of advocacy and critique, FORMAN 34 of the United Nations and its agencies, specifically UNCTAD and D I 35 UNESCO. IC AN Any attempt to remember, recover and re-assemble elements of the NIEO and the NWICO for a re-envisioning of contemporary global economic, cultural, political and social relations must ad-TIONAL ECONOM dress changed conjunctural conditions, including the longevity of TERNA neoliberal hegemony, even if sometimes “zombie-like”,66 and the N EW I fact that the voice of Global South is by no means as strong in areE NH nas of global governance as it was in the initial period after colo-D T nial rule ended. In his incisive analysis of the potential relevance of T AN EN the NIEO, Gilman borrows Jennifer Wenzel’s notion of “unfailure”67 VEM suggesting that “although the historically specific institutional de-ED MO mands of the NIEO during the 1970s went unrealized, one can make ALIGN a credible case that the undead spirit of the NIEO continues to haunt international relations”,68 an argument that can be widened E NON-TH to include the NWICO and to go far beyond international relations. As Carrie Buchanan has suggested, elements of the NWICO have, indeed, been achieved “by other means” through the rise of social 64 Ibid., p. 54. 65 Slaček Berlek, The Creation of the Non-Aligned News Agencies Pool. 66 Peck, Zombie Neoliberalism and the Ambidextrous State, pp. 104–110. 67 Wenzel, Bulletproof. 69 Buchanan, Revisiting the UNESCO Debate on a New World Information and Commu-68 Gilman, The New International Economic Order, p. 10. nication Order, pp. 391–399. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PAUL STUBBS SOURCES AND LITERATURE Petrović, Vladimir. Jugoslavija stupa na Bliski Istok: stvaranje jugoslovenske blisko-istočne politike 1946–1956 (Yugoslavia’s Presence in the Middle East: The Making of Yugoslav Middle Eastern Policy 1946–1956). Belgrade: Institut za savremenu istoriju, 2007. LITERATURE Prashad, Vijay. The Darker Nations: A People’s History of the Third World, New York: Amin, Samir. Self-Reliance and the New International Economic Order. In: Herb Addo New Press, 2008. (ed.) Transforming the World Economy: Nine Critical Essays on the New International Economic Order, Sevenoaks: Hodder and Stoughton, 1984 (first published 1977), pp. Prebisch, Raul. 1962. The Economic Development of Latin America and its Principal 204–219. Problems”, Economic Bulletin for Latin America 7, No 1 (1962), pp. 1–22. Buchanan, Carrie. Revisiting the UNESCO Debate on a New World Information and N Ruggie, John Gerard. 1982. International regimes, transactions, and change: embed-Communication Order: Has the NWICO been achieved by other means?, Telematics E U ded liberalism in the postwar economic order, International Organization 26, No 2 H and Informatics 32, No 2 (2015), pp. 391–399. D T (1982), pp. 379–415. H AN Carlsson, Ulla. The Rise and Fall of the NWICO, Nordicom Review 24, No 2 (2003), pp. Scher, Philip W. UNESCO Conventions and Culture as a Resource, Journal of Folklore 31–67. Research, 47, No 1–2 (2010), pp. 197–202. 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Doi: https://ojs.inz.si/pnz/article/ Gilman, Nils. The New International Economic Order: a reintroduction, Humanity: an FORMAN view/3984/4521. 36 International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development 6, No 1 D I 37 (2015), pp. 1–16. IC AN Spaskovska, Ljubica. ‘Crude Alliance’: Economic Decolonisation and Oil Power in the Non-Aligned World, Contemporary European History 30 (2021), pp. 528–543. Jankowitsch, Odette and Karl P. Sauvant. The Initiating Role of the Non-Aligned Countries. In: Karl P. Savant (ed.). Changing Priorities on the International Agenda, Stubbs, Paul. Introduction. In: Paul Stubbs (ed.). Socialist Yugoslavia and the Non-Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1978, pp. 41–77. TIONAL ECONOM Aligned Movement, Montreal: McGill-Queens’ University Press, 2023, pp. 3–33. László, Ervin. Preface to the UNITAR-CEESTEM NIEO Library. In: Jorge Alberto Lozoya TERNAN Tadić, Bojana and Miloš Drobnjak. Documents of the Gatherings of the Non-Aligned and Haydee Birgin (eds.) Social and Cultural Issues of the New International Econom-Countries Volume 1, Belgrade: Međunaradna politika, 1989. EW I ic Order, New York: Pergamon Press, 1981, pp. vii–xiv. E NH D T Taylor, Ian and Karen Smith. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development MacBride, Sean, Preface. In: William Preston, Jr., Edward S. Herman and Herbert I. (UNCTAD), London: Routledge, 2007. T AN Schiller (eds.). Hope & Folly: The United States and UNESCO, 1945-1985, Minneapolis: EN University of Minnesota Press, 1989. VEM Turajlić, Mila. Film as the Memory Site of the 1961 Belgrade Conference of NonAligned States. In: Paul Stubbs (ed.). Socialist Yugoslavia and the Non-Aligned Move-Mansell, Robin and Kaarle Nordenstreng. Great Media and Communication De-ED MO ment, Montreal: McGill-Queens’ University Press, 2023, pp. 203–231. bates: WSIS and the MacBride Report, Information Technologies and International ALIGN Develop ment 3, No 4 (2007), pp. 15–36. UNCTAD. UNCTAD: First twenty years, IDS Bulletin 15, No 3 (1984). E NON- Nkrumah, Kwame. Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism, New York: Inter-TH Verma, D. P. Jawaharlal Nehru: Panchsheel and India’s Constitutional Vision of Interna tional Publishers, 1971 (first published 1965). na tional Order, India Quarterly 45, No 4 (1989), pp. 301–323. Ozsu, Umut. 2015. In the Interests of Mankind as a Whole: Mohammed Bedjaoui’s Wenzel, Jennifer. Bulletproof: Afterlives of Anticolonial Prophecy in South Africa and New International Economic Order, Humanity: An International Journal of Human Beyond, Chicago: University Press, 2020. Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development 6, No 1 (2015), pp. 129–43. Whelan, Daniel. ‘Under the Aegis of Man’: The Right to Development and the Origins Peck, Jamie. Zombie Neoliberalism and the Ambidextrous State, Theoretica Crimi no-of the New International Economic Order, Humanity: an International Journal of Hu-logy 14, No 1 (2010), pp. 104–110. man Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development 6, No 1 (2015), pp. 93–108. Willetts, Peter. The Non-Aligned Movement: The Origins of a Third World Alliance, London: Fran ces Pinter, 1978. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PAUL STUBBS Willetts, Peter. The Foundations of the Non-Aligned Movement: The Trouble with UNESCO Digital Archives. UNESCO’s Contribution to the Attainment of the Objec-History Is That It Is all in the Past. In: Paul Stubbs (ed.). Socialist Yugoslavia and the ti ves of the New International Economic Order: Report by the Secretary-General, 22 Non-Aligned Movement, Montreal: McGill-Queens’ University Press, 2023, pp. 59– 83. C/13, 12 September 1983, UNESCO General Conference 22nd Session, para 78, 1983. Available at: UNESCO, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000056637 (accessed on 7 February 2023). DIGITAL SOURCES CVCE Website. Final Communique of the Asian-African Conference in Bandung, 24 April 1955. Available at: https://www.cvce.eu/en/obj/final_communique_of_the asian_african_conference_of_bandung_24_april_1955-en-676237bd-72f7-471f-949a-88b6ae513585.html (accessed on 4 February 2023). N E UH International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems (Chair Sean D T MacBride). Many Voices, One World: Towards a New More Just and More Efficient H AN New World Information and Communication Order, Paris: UNESCO, 1980. Available at: http://www.un-documents.net/macbride-report.pdf (accessed on 16 February 2023). AL SOUT Nymoen, Marius Roska. The United States’ Economic Hegemony: A study of how the E GLOBH attempt to establish a New International Economic Order was repudiated by the US within the framework of the United Nations Genderal Assembly, 1974-1980, Master’s VIA, TA Thesis. Available at: Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), 2017, https://ntnuopen.ntnu.no/ntnu-xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/2455306/marius_ros-ka_nymoen_master.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (accessed on 23 January 2023). Sauvant, Karl. The Early Days of the Group of 77, UN Chronicle 51, No 1 (2014). Avail-TION ORDERS: YUGOSL able at: https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/early-days-group-77 (accessed on 6 February 2023). FORMAN 38 D I 39 United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law. Note on the Charter of Eco-IC AN nomic Rights and Duties of States, UN General Assembly Resolution 3281, 12 December 1974. Available at: https://legal.un.org/avl/ha/cerds/cerds.html (accessed on 6 February 2023). 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Records of the General Conference 21st session, Belgrade, 23 September to 28 October 1980. Available at: UNESCO, https://unesdoc.unesco. org/ark:/48223/pf0000114029.page=144 (accessed on 17 February 2023). UNESCO Digital Archives. Domination or Sharing? Endogenous Development and the Problem of Knowledge, 1981. Available at: UNESCO, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ ark:/48223/pf0000219118 (accessed on 14 February 2023). Nadja Zgonik 02 40 41 In recent years, there has been a lively discussion about the definition of visual art that emerged on Yugoslav soil after the Second World War. The rediscovery of art in the European East after the fall of the Iron Curtain, which had previously been hindered by Cold War tensions, led to a simplistic definition that referred to the artistic production of the second half of the 20th century in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia as “Eastern art”. This definition applies to Yugoslavia as well as to other post-communist countries, regardless of its specific situation, since it was not part of the Warsaw Pact. But there was also a bipolarity within Eastern art itself: on the one hand, this was the period of ideologically controlled art directed by the ruling power, i.e. politico-programmatic or ideologically supported art, to which the entire public space was devoted, and on the other hand, it is the era in which politically subversive guerrilla art emerged at the same time, created underground by supporters of cultural alternatives. In the art historical literature dominated by the Western canon at the time, the political changes in Eastern Europe triggered research interest in a previously overlooked segment of the art of a large part of Europe; thus, * The article is a result of the research project J7-2606, Models and Practices of Global Cultural Exchange and Non-Aligned Movement: Research in the Spatio-Temporal Cultural Dynamics, which is financed by the Slovenian Research Agency (ARRS). THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED NADJA ZGONIK the defining socio-political framework became the interpretive Under these new mental conditions, the situation of Yugoslavia in substructure from which the art of specific geostrategic positions, the period from 1945 to the fall of the Berlin Wall appears as specif-such as the territory of Yugoslavia, could hardly escape. However, ic, and this specificity is symptomatic and deserves special atten-in recent academic conferences and debates in the field, increas-tion because of the elements on which Yugoslavia’s participation in ing attention has been paid to the study of definitions related to the (cultural) Cold War was based. In the framework of postcolonial the development of Yugoslav art and, more broadly, popular cul-research, we focus on the cultural-political practices of the Non-ture. Yugoslavia’s political identity was characterised by a number Aligned countries, while the crisis of liberal capitalism leads us to of peculiarities. It was socialist, but adopted elements of a market examine other forms of property, such as social property. The key economy and introduced social ownership instead of state owner-element in this case is the principles of global cultural exchange ship. It was also a politically non-aligned country. In problematising and, in particular, the process of tracking its flows in the specific the term “former East,” Igor Zabel was one of the first to point out conditions of the political organisation of the world in the post-the little-reflected problem of the interchangeable use of the terms World War II period. “post-communist art” and “Eastern art,” which are taken for granted After the year 2000, historians in the countries that emerged as identical, with “East” not being determined by geographic loca-after the collapse of the socialist federation of Yugoslavia gradually tion or the “cultural essence” attributed to it, but understood as a began to take an interest in the specifics of Yugoslav international VIA political label.1 He wondered why something from the past that had A cultural policy and the forms of intercultural relations. In the pro-been abandoned (socialism) should define the present, especially cess, the question of the extent to which the United States, as a since the difference in political order between East and West no capitalist power, shaped the socialist Yugoslav reality came to the SE OF YUGOSL longer existed. Zabel described the period after 1980 as a turning A E C fore. Croatian historian, Tvrtko Jakovina was the first to address point in the history of art, and went on to argue that due to the H these issues, from US economic aid immediately after Yugoslavia’s changed socio-political circumstances (the death of President ISM? T exclusion from the Cominform and break with the Eastern Bloc to 42 Tito, the introduction of a market economy and de mo cratisation US propaganda campaigns on Yugoslav soil, such as the installa-43 on the one hand, and the return of centralism and ideological con-ED MODERN tion of the Supermarket USA exhibition at the 1957 Zagreb Fair. trol on the other), Yugoslav art of that period began to take on the ALIGN In 2002, Jakovina published his first monograph, Socijalizam na identity of socialist art, which it had not developed in the past.2 In američkoj pšenici (1948–1963) [Socialism on the American Grain this context, it can be hypothesised that the newly defined identity (1948–1963)], followed in 2003 by his second work, Američki komu-was imposed on Yugoslavia as an instrumentalisation of the new TERN OR NON-nistički saveznik: Hrvati, Titova Jugoslavija i Sjedinjene američke geopolitical relations, since in the 1980s, when the “West” emerged države 1945–1955 [The American Communist Ally: Croats, Tito’s Yu-victorious from the Cold War, its interest in seeing Yugoslavia as a TERN, WESS goslavia and the United States 1945–1955]. The same year also saw country “somewhere in between” waned. EA the publication of his treatise Narodni kapitalizam protiv narodnih While a few decades after the end of the Cold War the accep-demokracija: američki super-market na Zagrebačkom velesajmu tance of the definition of Yugoslav art as Eastern seemed unprob-1957. godine [National Capitalism versus National Democracy: lematic, today, with a changed view of the global art aspect, the American Supermarket at the Zagreb Fair in 1957] published in situation is different. This image is no longer limited to the binary Zbornik Mire Kolar Dimitrijević (2003). In Serbia, the influence of system of Western and Eastern art. With the inclusion of the Glob-American popular culture, especially music and film, on Yugoslav al South in the integral scheme, the model of evaluation is also culture was studied by Radina Vučetić before 2010; her articles changing. The black-and-white image of a world consisting of areas Rokenrol na zapadu istoka – slučaj Džuboks [Rock and roll in the characterised by artistic freedom in the West and politically and West of the East – the Case of Džuboks] and Džez je sloboda: džez ideologically controlled art in the East (provoked only occasionally kao američko propagandno oružje u Jugoslaviji [Jazz is Freedom: by underground artists) is a phenomenon of the past. Awareness Jazz as an American Propaganda Weapon in Yugoslavia] were pub-of far more complex global contexts is increasingly asserting itself. lished in 2007 and 2009 and appeared in the journal Godišnjak za društvenu istoriju. Her third article from this early period, Kauboji u partizanskoj uniformi: američki vesterni i partizanski vesterni u Ju-1 Zabel, Intimacy and Society, p. 81. 2 Ibid. goslaviji šezdesetih godina 20. veka [Cowboys in Partisan Uniforms: THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED NADJA ZGONIK American and Partisan Westerns in Yugoslavia in the 1960s] was (political) expectation, and in this sense the emergence of abstract art published in 2010 in the journal Tokovi istorije. Until then, such top-in the Yugoslav cultural scene and its acceptance was not only a reac-ics were, if at all, the subject of specialised international research tion to the necessity of the domestic environment, to ‘modernise’ artis-that focused mainly on political and economic history and paid less tic production, but also a confirmation of art’s actual departure from attention to culture. the totalitarian doctrine of socialist realism and the acceptance of a The exhibition Socialism and Modernity: Art, Culture, Politics cultural policy that brought Yugoslav society—through the aforemen-1950–1974 (Socijalizam i modernost: umjetnost, kultura, politika tioned symbolic meaning of abstraction—closer to the ethos of the 1950–1974), shown at the Museum of Contemporary Art in Zagreb free world.4 in late 2011, was the first to go beyond simply examining the Americanisation of Yugoslav culture. It can be described as ground-At the end of the 1940s and in the first half of the 1950s, such an breaking in several respects. Its focus encompassed all are as and amalgamation of political and artistic motifs could be observed ev-examined the views and connections between politics, culture, erywhere in Europe (with the exception of the Eastern Bloc coun-and art. This approach made it possible to draw certain conclu-tries), which could also be seen against the background of develop-sions about the identity of art in this period and opened a space ments in the domestic art scene.5 for its identification that went beyond the definition based on its The programme of the Union of Communists of Yugoslavia, VIA geopolitical Easternness or the concept of Americanised popular A adopted at the Seventh Congress held from 22 to 26 May 1958 in culture. The mere thesis of the continuity of postwar Yugoslav (so-Ljubljana,6 already emphasised the liberation of artistic and cultur-cialist) art with the prewar art of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia shifted al life from the administrative interference of the authorities and SE OF YUGOSL its definition into the context of examining Western connections A E C from etatist and pragmatic views of cultural creation, as well as through the prism of traditional cultural influences that dominated H “the struggle against the bourgeois class mystification of the his-in previous centuries as the basis for the postwar development of ISM? T tory of culture and of cultural values, and also against the ignorant, 44 Yugoslav art. primitive and sectarian underestimation of the cultural heritage of 45 Despite the change of political system and social revolution, ED MODERN the past, which the socialist society, being the natural historical it was possible to confirm postwar Yugoslav cultural individuality ALIGN heir of the cultural heritage, accepts and cultivates, as one of the on the basis of relations with prewar culture; however, this ques-elements for building a classless civilization”.7 tion had to be posed anew. Ljiljana Kolešnik continues to argue for The exhibition Socialism and Modernity was conceived by the definition that a process of reconstruction of modernity was TERN OR NON-Ljiljana Kolešnik and curated by Sandra Križić Roban, Tvrtko Jako-underway in Yugoslavia in the early 1950s. In doing so, she points vina, Dejan Kršić and Dean Duda, who also provided extensive to the need to connect to the experience of prewar modernism, TERN, WESS scholarly contributions to the catalogue. In the joint editorial, they which attempted to deconstruct the brief period of socialist real-EA emphasised the sociological basis as a fundamental aspect of the ism. She completely excludes the experience of partisan art, since analysed art epoch and posed the question of the nature of the it cannot be placed in the historical context either as an attempt connection between the cultural modernisation processes in the at modernisation or as mere political art. Kolešnik also uses the society of the former Yugoslavia and the international visual cul-syntagma “process of reconstruction of modernism” to affirm the ture of modernism. The curators brought to the fore the question realisation of a process that ended in the mid-1950s with a suc-of whether this connection could have led to an identification with cessful “reconstruction of the means of expression of modern art, modernism.8 They hypothesised that in the post-war period the overcoming the initial resistance to abstraction, and establishing socialist society of Yugoslavia assumed the role of producer of its a relationship of trust between art criticism and abstract art”.3 She own vision of modernity. The main goal of the exhibition was notes that 4 Ibid. the process of reconstruction of modernism in Yugoslavia after the break 5 Ibid. with the Soviet Union was undoubtedly determined by a very similar 6 Program Saveza komunista Jugoslavije (Program of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia), p. 245. 7 Ibid., p. 246. 3 Kolešnik, Konfliktne vizije moderniteta i poslijeratna moderna umjetnost, p. 130. 8 Kolešnik, Socijalizam i modernost, p. 5. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED NADJA ZGONIK to neu tralise, at least partially, the consequences of twenty years of of the market. Orientation to modernism embodied by the West trivialisation of the emancipatory effect of the socialist concept of cul-was also an experiment aimed at testing possible ways of allow-ture, or, in other words, to examine some new interpretations of post-ing forms of Western culture to penetrate a country whose system, war modern Yugoslav art that emerged within the framework of the due to its specific political position, found itself in a space between narratives associated with the new national art histories of the former the principles of Eastern art production, socialist realism, and the Yugoslav countries.9 Western currents steered into abstract art by the United States. When asked about the attitude of politics towards the pro-Western The decisive political turning point and impetus for the changes in activities of the galleries, Zoran Kržišnik, initiator of the Internation-postwar Yugoslavia that led to the situation described above was al Graphic Exhibition of Ljubljana in 1955 and long-time director of the dispute with the Cominform in June 1948, which culminated the Ljubljana Biennial of Graphic Arts, as the event was called from in Yugoslavia’s exclusion from the Warsaw Pact. Since the Soviet 1973 on, replied: “Art was used as a bridge to overcome the mistrust Union no longer provided economic aid, Yugoslavia was forced to of foreign countries. The motive was economic pene tration.”11 With seek it in the West. The country received it not from the pro-com-the gradual departure from socialist realism and the acceptance munist Western democracies, but from the anti-communist United of Western modernism, a new artistic field began to develop that States. In fact, Yugoslavia and the United States had a mutual inter-allowed Yugoslavia to present itself abroad through its travelling est in cooperation. Yugoslavia needed help in the economic sphere, VIAA exhibitions as a non-(Eastern) bloc country that did not dictate ar-and the United States wanted to strengthen its political position in tistic expression and allowed artistic freedom. After all, Yugoslavia Eastern Europe. US economic support was critical for Yugoslavia had two different “customers”: the liberal and democratic Western SE OF YUGOSL to get back on its feet. At a time when the world was dominated A E C world, to which it had to present the shiny “brand” of socialism, and, by Cold War doctrine, Yugoslavia’s situation was unique in the po-H on the other hand, the orthodox Marxist political majority at home. larised picture of the world because it could occupy a special po-ISM? T Marketing was something Yugoslavia began to learn at an acceler-46 sition between the blocs. In the United States, Yugoslavia was reated pace in the late 1950s. Politicians realised that modern art was 47 ferred to as “America’s communist ally”. The country quickly began ED MODERN a necessary element in international circles and in communicating to experiment with forms of socialist development. It rejected the ALIGN with the world to overcome distrust of the young socialist state. basic principles of Soviet socialism, i.e. central administration and This was not only part of Yugoslavia’s efforts to market its symbolic state ownership, and instead introduced social ownership, gradu-capital in foreign policy terms, to gain prestige and recognition for al decentralisation, and workers’ self-management.10 The gradual TERN OR NON-the country’s political relevance, but also played an important role rai sing of living standards and the building of a welfare state were in monetising the “Yugoslavia” brand as a prerequisite for the suc-the goals by which policymakers sought to demonstrate convinc-TERN, WESS cessful marketing of its products, which were to be characterised ingly to the world that there was a different kind of communism EA by modernity and progressiveness. The country’s presence on in-than that of the Soviet Union and that a socialist social order could ternational markets acted as a “melting pot” that produced a Yugo-also be attractive. The innovations that Yugoslavia introduced into slav identity that did not exist domestically and was as suitable as the socialist system undermined the ideological monolithicity of possible for external communication. Cultural diplomacy proved to the Eastern Bloc and provided the country with political alliances be very effective in implementing the soft power policy, especially in the West that it desperately needed-but only insofar as they did by supporting the image of the Yugoslav economy for the purpose not threaten its sovereignty. of trade in goods and obtaining foreign currency, which was importIn order to become acceptable to the West and so that the ant for economic development. products of its economy, which it wanted to export to Western mar-The country’s ambition in terms of the policy of cultural ex-kets, were no longer perceived within the framework of an unat-change with the West is reflected in its adaptability and openness to tractive socialist design mediocrity that made them uncom petitive the systems of artistic presentation adopted by the Western world. on the market, Yugoslavia began to pay more attention to the laws In the spring of 1966, the exhibition Yugoslavia: Contemporary 9 Ibid. 10 Repe, Vpliv zahodnih držav na domači sceni/The Influence of Western Countries on 11 Unpublished written interview with Zoran Kržišnik, Nadja Zgonik, 2004 (record kept Yugoslavia’s Internal Situation, p. 361. by the author). THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED NADJA ZGONIK T endencies: The Younger Generation opened at the invitation of In the field of cultural exchange with the West, there was no the Corcoran Gallery, Washington. It was the most comprehensive real basis for integrating the cultural policy of non-alignment that exhibition of contemporary Yugoslav art in the United States up Yugoslavia began to pursue in the 1960s. The popular trend of ex-to that time. Yugoslavia’s presentation was the seventh in a series hibiting naive art all over the world could be a first attempt to proof exhibitions—after Germany, Japan, France, and others—that mote an art that, by its deformalisation, escapes the Western can-offered national surveys of contemporary art and that the gallery, on of high art and allows artistic expressions even by people who which otherwise focused primarily on the art of earlier periods, had do not have the opportunity to receive an academic education. begun to organise under the leadership of director Hermann Wil-However, the fact is that for Yugoslav art, the Western art market liams, Jr.12 The Yugoslav side refused to accept the condition that and art institutions were the only existing network to fall back on in the selection of works for the exhibition be made by an American order to give local artists the opportunity to establish themselves curator,13 and the gallery did not object. The result was a revised worldwide and gain visibility and recognition, but also to test their list of artists, a combination of the curator’s preliminary selection value on a competitive art market that did not exist in the East. and new names added after Williams’ six-week summer stay in Yu-The motivation of Yugoslav cultural policy to test the validity of the goslavia and visits to the artists’ studios in Belgrade, Za greb, and artistic corpus through the lens of the free market can be seen in Ljubljana.14 The fact that the selection of Yugoslav artists made by the attempt to establish a “state” sales gallery, namely the Adria Art VIA a foreign curator could be confirmed testifies to the willingness of A Gallery, which was founded in New York in 1967 in an exclusive loca-state cultural policy to rely on an outside view in determining the tion on Madison Avenue and was active for just over a year.18 It was evaluation criteria for identifying artistically important works. What founded in cooperation with the business community, but it was SE OF YUGOSL is also clear is the acceptance of the position that it is not political A E C the business community’s lack of understanding of the specifics but professional criteria that are decisive for the successful inclu-H of the art market that led to the gallery’s rapid demise. Its initiator sion of artists in the international art system. The comprehensive ISM? T was Zoran Kržišnik, a brilliant promoter of pro-Western Yugoslav 48 exhibition of fifty-one works by thirteen artists was a positive sur-art in the West and a champion of national political concepts at a 49 prise to American audiences. Critics noted that it “resoundingly ig-ED MODERN time when it became necessary to organise a global art image of nores the official dogma of socialist realism which for 40 years has ALIGN the world at home and to confirm Yugoslavia within the framework hamstrung artists in Soviet Union”15 and that “the art now being of domestic politics—in terms of non-aligned ideology—through a produced in communist Yugoslavia is anything but what we com-globally oriented art event. monly think of as Communist art”.16 They noted that artists in Yugo-TERN OR NON- The Ljubljana Biennial of Graphic Arts, founded in 1955, was slavia are remarkably free, as Yugoslav Ambassador to the United the most important art event in Yugoslavia, which, according to States Veljko Mićunović17 also pointed out in his speech opening TERN, WESS Bojana Videkanić, contributed to the consolidation of the idea the exhibition. In communication with the West, the adoption of EA of non-alignment.19 With its inclusive policy, free of political divi-modernism and the pro-Western orientation proved beneficial; the sions and accepting individual (and not only national) requests fact that a communist state fully adopted the Western canon of art for participation, it was the event that gave expression to the idea and, above all, implemented the concept of personal freedom—at of non-aligned modernism in Yugoslavia.20 In the introduction to least in the sense of allowing a variety of artistic expressions, from the catalogue prepared on the occasion of the second exhibition abstract tendencies to figurative art—really impressed Western in 1957, Zoran Kržišnik wrote that art can be not only an aesthetic audiences. experience, but also a means of mutual learning and promoting understanding between nations around the world that have diff erent world views.21 For him personally, the Biennial was a springboard to 12 AJ 559, box 89. Letter from Hermann Williams to Aleksandar Zambeli, 8 October 1963. 13 AJ 559, box 89, Letter 03-55/79, 24 May 1965. 18 For more information, see Zgonik, Jugoslovanska socialistična umetnost na 14 Ibid. ameriškem trgu. 15 Blumenfeld, Slavs without Marx. 19 Videkanić, Nonaligned Modernism, see chapter 4, The Ljubljana Biennale of Graphic 16 Getlein, Out of Yugoslavia. Arts: Articulating Nonaligned Modernism, pp. 176–213. 17 AJ 559, box 89, Remarks by Yugoslavian Ambassador. In: Micunovic at the preview of 20 Ibid. the exhibition, 7 January 1966. 21 Kržišnik, II. mednarodna grafična razstava, p. [7]. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED NADJA ZGONIK establish contacts with museum directors and private gallery own-the time, sculptures and paintings from the non-aligned countries ers from the West, as well as a medium to support the penetration did not end up in Yugoslav museums of modern art, but in ethno-of Yugoslav art in the West; and although he did not strive to devel-graphic museums. In fact, there was no clear opinion about what op a platform dedicated to the exhibition of Third Way art, unknown interest these objects served. Were they objects of ethnographic worldwide, thus contributing to its global recognition, the event he or anthropological interest, crafts or works of art, examples of folk directed nevertheless created a place that could have become the art, naive art, or art experimentally exploring the fusion of Western nucleus of Third Way art had it provided adequate reflection. influences with indigenous cultural tradition? In Yugoslavia, the Lilijana Stepančič analyses the positive impact of the Lju-founding of the Museum of Non-European Cultures in 1964 in the bljana Biennial of Graphic Arts on the culture of African countries Goričane Manor near Medvode, Slovenia, was the turning point and raises the question of whether the event was needed more that promoted acquaintance with the cultures of Asian, African by artists or by politicians.22 African artists from the diaspora did and Latin American countries, which, despite excellent contacts, not have the opportunity to participate in the presentations of were relatively unknown due to a lack of information.26 In the field the countries in which they had previously lived, nor to appear as of culture, it was the first public state institution that reflected the representatives of the countries to which they had immigrated, so aspirations of the non-aligned political movement in Yugoslavia. the possibility of applying individually to participate in the Biennial From its beginnings in 1964 until the end of 1990, this successful VIA was a practical solution.23 For example, after the adoption of the A and well-visi ted museum was headed by the ethnologist Pavla General Assembly resolution UN in 1962, which condemned South Štrukelj. Until the establishment of the Museum of African Art – The Africa’s apartheid policy and called on other nations to boycott this Veda and Dr. Zdravko Pečar Collection in Belgrade in 1977, it was the SE OF YUGOSL African country, the Ljubljana Biennial was the only event where, in A E C only Yugoslav museum focused on the presentation of non-Euro-contrast to Yugoslavia’s official political stance, it was possible to H pean cultures, especially from non-aligned countries. It should also exhibit works by South African artists that could be described as ISM? T be mentioned that in these new public museums the collections 50 examples of alternative or underground art, since they expressed a of non-European cultures were built according to the principle of 51 critique of apartheid.24 According to Stepančič, participation in in-ED MODERN a collection policy that went beyond the colonial collecting. The ternational events was part of the processes that took place in the ALIGN collections were not built from the top down, but on the basis of newly established African countries and were associated with the relationships between museum staff and amateur collectors, and formation of national cultures—in line with the belief that art can in contact with students from non-aligned countries. In addition, successfully reflect the existence of a particular nation. TERN OR NON- they were supplemented by donations from students, artists, and, Stepančič concludes the article with the idea that the Ljublja-to a considerable extent, the Yugoslav presidency.27 The trend of na Biennial of Graphic Arts played a pioneering role in advocating TERN, WESS replacing the term “ethnographic museum” with “museum of world new definitions of African art, and that the definition of postco-EA cultures” has only gained worldwide acceptance in recent decades. lonial modernity can also be largely based on the hierarchisation The only institution in Yugoslavia dedicated to non-aligned art between the leading art produced in art centres and the art that (which is reflected in its name) was the “Josip Broz Tito” Art Gallery is distant from these centres—that is, on the division between cen-of Non-Aligned Countries, founded in 1984 in Titograd (now Pod-tral and peripheral art that unites forms of artistic production in gorica), Montenegro, which specialised in collecting and present-marginal political geographies.25 This phenomenon can also be ob-ing the art and cultures of non-aligned and developing countries. served in Europe, which is divided into artistic leading and marginal In 1994, it was renamed the “Gallery of Contemporary Art”, but re-actors. tained its collection of art from non-aligned countries. Apart from the Biennial of Graphic Arts, the most tangible re-Recently, it has been observed that the concept of non-align-sult of the Non-Aligned Movement in Yugoslavia was the impulse to ment has successfully moved from the sphere of political ideology collect postcolonial art. However, due to the prevailing mentality at to the sphere of art historical terminology and has also gained popularity and a presence in literature. The Museum of Contemporary 22 Stepančič, Pionir sprememb, p. 52. 23 Ibid., p. 58. 24 Ibid., pp. 59–60. 26 Palaić, Muzej neevropskih kultur v Goričanah. 25 Ibid., p. 63. 27 Ibid., pp. 200–202. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED NADJA ZGONIK Art (Muzej savremene umetnosti) in Belgrade led the research their own stamp on the Western model and create an anti-imperi-project “Non-Aligned Modernism” (Nesvrstani moderni zmi) start-alist, anti-colonialist and transnational culture, or in other words, it ing in 2011, which was financially supported by the Erste Stiftung points out how the aspirations of progressive political movements and resulted in six booklets examining various aspects of the could be reflected in art in order to break away from colonialism movement published between 2015 and 2016. The term “non-and capitalism.30 aligned modernism” was used by Bojana Videkanić in the title of The fact is, however, that the term “non-aligned art” is a con-her 2013 dissertation Nonaligned Modernism: Yugoslavian Art and temporary terminological product that did not exist as a label to Culture from 1945–1990, which was published in book in 2019 as describe developments in the art field during the historical period Non-Aligned Modernism: Socialist Postcolonial Aesthetics in Yu-of the Non-Aligned Movement, i.e. the 1960s and 1970s. Although goslavia, 1945–1985. Its central theme is the Ljubljana Biennial of the political and social principles of the Non-Aligned Movement Graphic Arts. The term “non-aligned modernist art movement” was were theoretically explored, especially by Edvard Kardelj, who sum-used in Armin Medosch’s 2016 monograph on the aesthetics of the marised them in the book Yugoslavia in International Rela tions and New Tendencies,28 while the two exhibitions of artworks from the the Non-Aligned Movement (1979), their cultural aspect remained Marinko Sudac Collection of Yugoslav and Eastern European Art without programmatic basis; the term did not even prevail termino-were titled, the first in Milan FM Centro per l’Arte Contemporanea logically, and cultural policy showed no real interest in its identifica-VIA in 2016 Non-Aligned Modernism and the second at the Ludwig Mu-A tion. The alternative art scene did not react to it with movements or seum of Contemporary Art in Budapest in 2017 Non-Aligned Art. In artistic manifestos either, although it strongly identified itself with 2016, the exhibition Slovenia and Non-Aligned Pop, curated by Pet-the processes of decolonisation and the liberation movements, SE OF YUGOSL ja Grafenauer, was held at the Maribor Art Gallery. In recent years, A E C especially in the 1960s. Ivana Bago argues that in defining the numerous events, scientific conferences and exhibitions have H phenomenon of non-alignment in the cultural sphere, one could been dedicated to the cultural phenomena of the Non-Aligned ISM? T draw in particular on the existing anti-colonialist theories of Frantz 52 Movement, carefully avoiding using a term that would associate Fanon, which have recently received much attention. In addition, 53 non-alignment with a specific artistic expression. In this context, ED MODERN she mentions the theoretical attempt of literary theorist Stanko I would like to refer to the exhibition Southern Constellations: The ALIGN Lasić, who used the term “Fanonist vision of Yugoslav culture” to Poetics of the Non-Aligned,29 curated by Bojana Piškur, which was describe Krleža’s rejection of both socialist realism and Western shown at the Metelkova Museum of Contemporary Art in Ljublja-modernism as an appropriate path for Yugoslav culture as early as na, Slovenia, in 2019 and moved to Gwangju, South Korea, in 2020 TERN OR NON- 1968, the year of student unrest and Yugoslavia’s first serious socio-and Rijeka, Croatia, in 2021. In 2021, the 60th anniversary of the first political crisis.31 conference of the Non-Aligned Movement in Belgrade, the number TERN, WESS In recent decades, a political reading of art production has of different events and discussions around the movement greatly EA prevailed over aesthetics, fundamentally changing the perception increased. of the artistic past. Instead of examining the conceptual world of Bojana Videkanić examines non-aligned modernism in art an autonomous art field, the focus is now on visual art as a sub-from the end of World War II to 1980 and reconstructs the cultural field of the broader field of visual culture, which is understood as movement of Non-Aligned countries as a path that paralleled po-another social symptom of a particular socio-political or econom-litical and global cooperation in the field of culture. She links the ic system—in this case, a socialist social order with underpinning concept to the characteristics that shaped Yugoslav society, such elements of market capitalism, a non-aligned, anti-colonialist and as the struggle for national liberation and postcolonialism, and anti-imperialist state that, due to the specifics of its political sys-points out the tendency to adopt the Western canon, highlighting tem, asserted itself on the international stage as a leading player the awareness of its shortcomings, as it did not take into account in the Non-Aligned Movement and gained considerable prestige colonisation and the experience of the war of liberation. Moreover, worldwide. On the international cultural scene, on the other hand, the concept highlights the need for Non-Aligned countries to put it established itself by adapting as much as possible to the Western 28 Medosch, New Tendencies. 29 A catalogue was published to accompany the exhibition: Soban, Južna ozvezdja/ 30 Vasile, Nonaligned Modernisms. Southern Constellations. 31 Bago, Yugoslav Fanonism and a Failed Exit from the (Cultural) Cold War, p. 285. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED NADJA ZGONIK canon and adopting the models of modernism, especially abstrac-the Non-Aligned Movement—socialism, federalism, self-govern-tion, which was seen as an art that affirmed and expanded artistic ment, movement for national liberation, and strengthening of Third freedom. Previously, modernism had already enabled the fusion be-World political power—could be ex pe ri mentally confronted with tween the art of non-European cultures and the Western artistic the art phenomena in socialist Yugo slavia. The political concept of line of development, drawing from traditional Japanese printmak-non-alignment, which was never fully realised, was not able to fos-ing and African sculpture, searching for Oriental models in Art Nou-ter an art that would undermine the Western canon through the fur-veau, and discovering previously unknown geographies through ther development of socialist globalism; in fact, the movement was art; however, it remained limited to the appropriation of aesthetic too short-lived to create the necessary infrastructure, i.e. a compre-models and bore a strong resemblance to the politics of exploita-hensive system of art institutions that would allow the creation and tion, similar to the politics of the emerging capitalism of the time. establishment of new art currents. However, it was the catalyst for In order to reconstruct the “non-aligned style”, it is necessary processes that are taking place today, where interest in the study to go beyond the sphere of art history and enter the realm of the an-of postcolonial cultures and in the study of the art of the Global thropology of visual art and the visual, for which the media reports South is increasingly coming to the fore in the context of the previon the presidential couple Tito and Jovanka Broz are particularly ously incomplete picture of world art. It is necessary to overcome suitable, dealing with their travels around the world, their peace the initial theoretical deficit—non-aligned art was not a movement VIA missions aboard the ship Galeb and their personal image. It was A that emerged from manifestos or art programmes, nor was it the their travels that had the greatest influence on the politics of the subject of a coherent critique, but the phenomena they represent, Non-Aligned Movement. Photos of sumptuous receptions where although disparate, are a good platform for the construction of a SE OF YUGOSL Tito was greeted by an enthusiastic crowd, or pictures of gala A E C new worldview of art. Even before modernism, art movements were dinners published in all the world’s media, were part of the media H named in a backward-looking way. communication that tended to present the combination of Tito’s ISM? T 54 dandyism and Jovanka’s exquisite style, which, according to the 55 former director of the Ethnographic Museum in Belgrade, Mirjana ED MODERN Menković, was a true fashion icon in the Eastern world and else-ALIGN where.32 Her particular fondness for integrating embroidery and patterns from folk art into garments draws attention to the need to articulate the relationship between non-aligned aesthetics and TERN OR NON-folk art. The great interest of state cultural policy in naive art and the promotion of art production by self-taught artists should also TERN, WESS be seen in this context. This is in line with the communist ideolo-EA gy that art for the people should be created by the people, which found theoretical support in the writings of one of the greatest Yugoslav art experts, Otto Bihalji-Merin. The search for an independent, third way in art that would coexist with Western and Eastern idioms was a unique challenge that the dominant cultural milieus that dictated the politics of interpretation in art did not accept as their own. Yugoslavia’s situation was probably unique in that it was able to create the basis for new forms of cultural participation of decolonised and marginalised areas from its mainstream position, as well as in the realm of politics, where it helped open up possibilities for a new global political model. The political principles that Yugoslavia pursued as a member of 32 Adanja Polak, Ekskluzivno – Iz ormana Jovanke Broz. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED NADJA ZGONIK SOURCES AND LITERATURE Repe, Božo. Vpliv zahodnih držav na domači sceni /The Influence of Western Countries on Yugoslavia’s Internal Situation. In: Jasna Fischer et al. (ed.). Jugoslavija v hladni vojni/Yugoslavia in the Cold War. Ljubljana: Inštitut za novejšo zgodovino and ARCHIVAL SOURCES Toronto: University of Toronto, 2000, pp. 361–366. AJ – Archive of Yugoslavia: Soban, Tamara (ed.). Southern Constellations: The Poetics of the Non-Aligned. Ljublja-AJ 559 – Savezna komisija za kulturne veze sa inostranstvom (Federal Commis-na: Moderna galerija, 2019. sion for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries) Stepančič, Lilijana. Pionir sprememb: države iz Afrike na grafičnih bienalih v Ljubljani MG + MSUM, documentation – archive, periodicals library med letoma 1955 in 1991. Likovne besede, No 115 (2020), pp. 52–63. Nadja Zgonik’s personal archive Videkanić, Bojana. Nonaligned Modernism: Socialist Postcolonial Aesthetics in Yugoslavia, 1945–1985. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2019. LITERATURE Vučetić, Radina. Džez je sloboda: džez kao američko propagandno oružje u Jugoslaviji. Godišnjak za društvenu istoriju, 16, No 3 (2009), pp. 81–101. Bago, Ivana. Yugoslav Fanonism and a Failed Exit from the (Cultural) Cold War. In: Anselm Franke, Nida Ghouse, Paz Guevara and Antonia Majaca (eds.). Para politics. Cul-Vučetić, Radina. Kauboji u partizanskoj uniformi: američki vesterni i partizanski vester-tural Freedom and the Cold War. Berlin: Sternberg Press and Haus der Kulturen der ni u Jugoslaviji šezdesetih godina 20. veka. Tokovi istorije, No 2 (2010), pp. 130–151. Welt, 2021, pp. 285–293. VIAA Vučetić, Radina. Rokenrol na zapadu istoka – slučaj Džuboks. Godišnjak za društvenu Blumenfeld, F. J. Slavs without Marx. Newsweek, 7 February 1966. istoriju, 13, No 1 (2007), pp. 71–87. Getlein, Frank. Out of Yugoslavia. The New Republic, 12 February 1966. SE OF YUGOSL Zabel, Igor. Intimacy and Society: Post-communist or Eastern Art? In: Igor Španjol A E C (ed.). Contemporary Art Theory. Zürich: JRP Ringier, Dijon: Les presses du réel, 2012, H Jakovina, Tvrtko. Narodni kapitalizam protiv narodnih demokracija. Američki su-pp. 80–109. per-market na Zagrebačkom velesajmu 1957. In: Damir Agičić (ed.). Zbornik Mire Ko-ISM? T lar-Dimitrijević. Zagreb: FF Press, 2003, pp. 469–479. Zgonik, Nadja. Jugoslovanska socialistična umetnost na ameriškem trgu. Primer pro-56 daj ne galerije Adria Art v New Yorku 1967–1968. In: Časopis za kritiko znanosti, 44, No 57 Jakovina, Tvrtko. Američki komunistički saveznik. Hrvati, Titova Jugoslavija i Sjedin-ED MODERN 283 (2021), pp. 30–43. jene američke države 1945-1955. Zagreb: Profil international, Srednja Europa, 2003. ALIGN Jakovina, Tvrtko. Američki super-market na Zagrebačkom velesajmu 1957. godine. In: PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS Damir Agičić (ed.). Zbornik Mire Kolar Dimitrijević. Zagreb: FF Press, 2003, pp. 469– 479. Newsweek, 1933–. TERN OR NON- Jakovina, Tvrtko. Povijesni uspjeh šizofrene države: modernizacija u Jugoslaviji 1945– 1974. In: Ljiljana Kolešnik (ed.). Socijalizam i modernost: umjetnost, kultura, politika The New Republic, 1914–. 1950.–1974. Zagreb: Muzej suvremene umjetnosti, 2012, pp. 7–52. TERN, WESSEA Jakovina, Tvrtko. Socijalizam na američkoj pšenici (1948-1963). Zagreb: Matica hrvat-DIGITAL SOURCES ska, 2002. Adanja Polak, Mira. Ekskluzivno – Iz ormana Jovanke Broz. Available at: YouTube, Kolešnik, Ljiljana. Konfliktne vizije moderniteta i poslijeratna moderna umjetnost. In: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JB1WVYFZTC4&t=589s (accessed on 27 January Ljiljana Kolešnik (ed.). Socijalizam i modernost: umjetnost, kultura, politika 1950.–1974. 2022). Zagreb: Muzej suvremene umjetnosti, 2012, pp. 127–208. Vasile, Iolanda. Nonaligned Modernisms: interview with Bojana Videkanic. Available Kržišnik, Zoran. Uvod. In: II. mednarodna grafična razstava, Ljubljana 1957. Ljubljana: at: Buala, https://www.buala.org/en/face-to-face/nonaligned-modernisms-interview-Sekretariat za organizacijo mednarodnih razstav v Ljubljani, 1957, pp. [5–7]. with-bojana-videkanic (accessed on 27 January 2022). Medosch, Armin. New Tendencies: Art at the Threshold of the Information Revolution (1961–1978). Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2016. Palaić, Tina. Muzej neevropskih kultur v Goričanah: prakse pridobivanja zunajev-ropskih zbirk, povezanih z gibanjem neuvrščenih. Etnolog, vol. 29, No 80 (2019), pp. 185–208. Program Saveza komunista Jugoslavije donesen na sedmom kongresu Saveza komunista Jugoslavije 22.–26. travnja 1958. Belgrade: Izdavački centar Komunist, 1988. Jure Ramšak 03 58 59 Introduction Within the framework of non-alignment as a fundamental foreign policy orientation and a cultural imaginary from which socialist Yugoslavia drew the meaning of its position on the global stage during the Cold War, Africa occupied a prominent place. This was not just due to the fact that by the 1980s, virtually all countries on this continent, with the exception of the Apartheid South African regime, joined the Non-Aligned Movement (hereinafter: NAM); it was also a consequence of the symbolic significance of Africa as a metaphor of people’s power, unity and future and as that geopolitical arena in which Yugoslavia was having to constantly validate its new global role and significance.1 In the 1970s and 1980s especially, Yugoslavia’s role was put to the test when the concepts of the “North-South Dialogue” and “Collective Self-Reliance”, or “South-South Cooperation”, were introduced into the language of global reform efforts, in both cases by the NAM and its sister organisation, the Group of 77 * The article is a result of the research projects J7-2606, Models and Practices of Global Cultural Exchange and Non-Aligned Movement: Research in the Spatio-Temporal Cultural Dynamics, N6-0304, Rendering a Globalization Otherwise and the research programme P6-0272, The Mediterranean and Slovenia, which are financed by the Slovenian Research Agency (ARRS). 1 Radonjić, A Non-Aligned Continent. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED JURE RAMŠAK (G77).2 Yugoslavia, as an important co-creator of these ideas and the East-West axis of analysis is still predominant.5 Interactions be-political advocate of this agenda, as well as the “more developed tween the Global North and Global South, and within the South it-developing country” of Europe, as it defined itself, was to adopt an self, have received less attention.6 Similarly, the cultural dimensions especially agile approach based on solidarity. This was an explicit of Yugoslav non-aligned internationalism have so far been the sub-expectation especially of the African countries, which were by and ject of only a few studies.7 Their number may soon increase, howev-large on the other end of the development ladder, i.e. among the er.8 This paper does not delve into analysis based on cultural stud-most economically underdeveloped.3 ies; the intent is instead to provide the emerging field of research In addition to transforming political and economic relations, with a political framework from the perspective of diplomatic and which was what Yugoslav foreign policy and the diplomatic service intellectual history that will more clearly indicate the significance devoted by far the most attention to, the claim of decoloniality also and place of Yugoslav cooperation with the non-aligned countries, included a change in the global cultural patterns, which in the new-both in the context of Yugoslavia’s cultural cooperation with foreign ly established decolonised countries took place in parallel with the A countries in general, and in terms of the relative importance given to formation of independent cultural production. To this end, the nec-culture in relation to the other components of Yugoslav non-aligned essary technical skills had to be transferred to local creators. For TH AFRIC internationalism. Taking into account the specific institutional cir-example, there were numerous requests addressed to Yugoslavia KS WI cum stances within Yugoslavia and the international context, the N from African countries for help with education and training, espe-present analyses also help us understand why the crisis of the 1980s cially in filmmaking.4 In this paper, the focus of our interest will be RAL LI LTU so severely weakened the cross-cultural links with Africa when they the mediating role of Yugoslav diplomacy, that is, those rare diplo-had only recently been established—links that would never again mats—members of an otherwise robust network of diplomatic and be restored to the same extent. consular missions in African countries—who covered the field of T OF CROSS-CU cultural cooperation. In parallel, we will cover the contributions of ENM The universalism of Yugoslav non-aligned 60 specialised institutions and individuals with similar responsibilities internationalism 61 within Yugoslavia. In our analysis of the publications and archival TABLISH E ES As a political and social project, third-worldism (tiers-mondisme) documents of federal and republican foreign policy bodies, we will H D T was built on the assumption that the popular masses of the Glob-pay particular attention to the political dimensions of the cultur-Y ANC al South harboured revolutionary aspirations whose realisation al spectrum of Yugoslav non-aligned internationalism, dwelling on would be inevitable—brought about by history itself, through the the following questions: how was Yugoslavia able to establish itself PLOMA convergence of pre-colonial forms of egalitarianism and a future V DI as a partner to decolonised countries with varying socio-economic A utopia. The first generation of leaders there saw a strong, cen-systems in the competition with other purveyors of alternative glo-tralised state as the means to win and consolidate this fundamen-balisation (the Eastern Bloc and China)? How were the activities T, YUGOSL EN tal post-colonial transformation, with alliances based on the spirit M related to cultural cooperation integrated into the platforms of the of organic collectivism as the international backstop.9 Serving as NAM and the—at the time strongly associated—United Nations ALIGN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)? What NON-5 Paulmann, Auswärtige Repräsentationen. Shaw and Youngblood, Cinematic Cold were the criteria for and priorities of bilateral cultural cooperation War. Barnhisel, Cold War Modernists. Wulf, U.S. International Exhibitions. Fosler-Lus-and which artistic practices were most often involved? What theo-sier, Music in America’s Cold War Diplomacy. Phillips, Martha Graham’s Cold War. 6 Djagalov, From Internationalism to Postcolonialism. Dragostinova, The Cold War retical reflection accompanied this unique phenomenon in the his-from the Margins. Vu, Tuong and Wasana Wongsurawat (ed.), Dynamics of the Cold tory of encounters between Europeans and Non-Europeans, and War in Asia. Day, Tony and Maya Liem, ed., Cultures at War. Xu, Lanjun, The Southern Film Corporation. what was Yugoslavia’s role in this context? 7 Vučetić, Uspostavljanje jugoslovenske filmske saradnje. Vučetić, We Shall Win. Vide-In the body of literature dealing with the public and cultural di-kanić, Nonaligned Modernism. Slaček Brlek, Yugoslavia’s commitment to third-world-plomacy of capitalist and socialist countries during the Cold War, ism. 8 I have in mind mainly the academic discussion that was started at two international scientific conferences in 2021: The Non-Aligned Movement & Socialist Yugoslavia. 2 Dinkel, Fiebrig and Reichherzer, ed., Nord/Süd. Exploring Social, Cultural, Political and Economic Imaginaries (23–26 February 2021, 3 SI AS 1271, box 6, Društveno-politička kretanja u Africi sa osvrtom na mesto i ulogu online) and Towards a Conjuctural Political Economy of Non-Alignment and Cultural SFRJ i odnose sa afričkim zemljama, April 1985, p. 46. Politics (Rijeka, 27–29 September 2021). 4 Vučetić, Uspostavljanje jugoslovenske filmske saradnje. Vučetić, We Shall Win. 9 Berger, “After the Third World”, p. 34. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED JURE RAMŠAK the most typical example of the latter is the founding of the NAM, pecially in aid in the form of arms and other equipment, with which which in 1961 brought to Belgrade the leaders of 25 Asian, African, Yugoslavia—initially more in the name of solidarity and its own tra-Latin American and European countries with a common interest dition of national liberation struggle during the Second World War, in consolidating a non-hierarchical form of comprehensive mutual but later also for pragmatic economic interests—helped many lib-cooperation and promoting an alternative to the bipolar division of eration movements.15 the world at the time.10 The Yugoslav “discovery” of the African continent was also But Tito’s Yugoslavia, prior to establishing itself as one of the ac com panied by treatises in which Yugoslav intellectuals were main architects of the collective policies of the period known as developing the idea of kinship or even renouncing their race, like the Bandung era—after the site of the first Afro-Asian conference, the surrealist writer and poet Oskar Davičo. In his travelogue Črno not yet attended by Tito’s official representatives—, would first na belem (Black on White, 1962), in which he proclaimed himself have to face a campaign that sought to distance it, as a European a “former white man”, he emphasised that the Yugoslav peoples country taking moderate positions in international negotiations, A themselves had been “slaves” for centuries. The essential message from the Global South. As the Canadian historian Jeffrey James they wanted to convey to their new African comrades was that they Byrne notes, a crucial debate was taking place in these latitudes TH AFRIC were a “different kind of white people”—the first Europeans free of between 1962 and 1965 on whether the notion of the “Third World” KS WI both prejudice and any pretensions to future supremacy.16 They N was a matter of identity—“typically Southern, non-white, poor and saw themselves as thus embodying an equal partner that could post-colonial”—or a broader project, open to anyone sharing the RAL LI LTU prove to Africans that there are forces outside the pan-African same goals.11 According to the first interpretation, championed by framework they can rely on.17 Mao Zedong’s China, which aspired to a leading position in the de-In the process of establishing cross-cultural ties, Yugoslavia, colonised world and had already become embroiled in a bitter ideo-T OF CROSS-CU much like in its establishment of political and economic relations logical conflict with the “revisionist” Yugoslavia,12 the Yugoslavs—a ENM throughout the world, prioritised the values of non-alignment, pri-62 white, industrialised nation—were supposed to be fundamentally marily cooperation with countries with different socio-political 63 incapable of understanding the problems of the southern hemi-TABLISH E ES systems, over the socialist internationalism evangelised by the sphere. H D T East ern European countries.18 As early as the late 1950s, the writer The Chinese were conducting their racially tinged campaign Y ANC and diplomat Marko Ristić, who at that time headed the Federal mainly in the young African countries and tried to push out of this Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries, which part of the world not only the Yugoslav foreign policy but also the PLOMA operated under the Federal Executive Council (the government), V DI first efforts at spreading Yugoslav culture. At the second Afro-Asian A described cultural diplomacy as an extraordinary tool for cultiva-Writers’ Conference in Cairo, for example, the Chinese threatened ting a new culture of coexistence; he felt that without this “cultural the Egyptian organisers with departure if a Yugoslav representative T, YUGOSL EN blood transfusion”, this principle of international relations would M were to be present.13 Overall, however, the Chinese campaign had have remained an empty phrase.19 With respect to cultural coop-limited impact. Yugoslavia, while indeed atypical among countries ALIGN eration with countries of the Global South, with their wide range where the experience of colonialism was still very fresh or even on-NON- of socio-economic systems and political regimes, the bar had been going, had no shortage of other means—discoursive, ideological, set very low. As a group of experts from the Institute for Develop-political and economic—of effectively building links with Africa.14 ing Countries in Zagreb recommended to those responsible for in-The strong common anti-imperialist orientation was manifested esternational cultural and educational cooperation in the mid-1970s, Yugoslavia should strive to develop relations with all developing 10 Thomas, The Theory and Practice, p. 75. In recent literature, more detailed descrip-countries, the only exception being those where racial, ethnic or re-tions emerged of the genesis of the diplomatic steps that culminated in the Belgrade ligious discrimination was prevalent. Fascist regimes and countries Summit and defined the further development of the NAM: Dinkel, Die Bewegung Bündnisfreier Staaten. Bogetić, Nesvrstanost kroz istoriju. Dimitrijević in Čavoški, ed., The 60th Anniversary. 15 Lazić, Arsenal of the Global South. 11 Byrne, Beyond Continents. 16 Radonjić, “From Kragujevac to Kilimanjaro”, pp. 60–61. 12 Bogetić, Sukob Titovog koncepta. 17 Rajak, “Companions in misfortune”, p. 82. 13 Selinić, Savez književnika Jugoslavije, p. 177. 18 Cf. Burton et al., ed., Navigating Socialist Encounters. 14 Sladojević, Beyond the Photographic Frame, p. 99. 19 Videkanić, Nonaligned Modernism, p. 140. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED JURE RAMŠAK fully engaged within neo-colonial relations were also avoided, while metropolises, the local intellectual elites remained sceptical of all others were to be offered equal opportunities without any re-the new, socialist “masters”.24 This was also the impression that gional preferences. According to the experts at the Zagreb Institute Ranka Kavčič Božović, Assistant to the President of the Federal for Developing Countries, those countries of the Global South that Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries, got in were at that time experimenting with their own versions of Marx-Mali during her visit of several West African countries in 1969. The ism had to be given special attention, but the greatest success was young intellectuals there were suspicious of the influence of the expected in cooperation with the partners that most consistently Soviet Union and China. By contrast, they viewed Yugoslavia with pursued a policy of non-alignment.20 great sympathy because of its non-alignment and respect for the principle of sovereignty.25 Even years later, Yugoslav diplomats in The cultural attachés (who weren’t) Angola observed that their country’s “information and propagan-The programming documents of the NAM in the first decade of da” activities, which were usually considered as including cultural its existence did not yet single out mutual cultural and educationA cooperation, were clearly more adaptable and consequently more al cooperation. This changed with the Algerian Summit in 1973, successful than the unrefined approaches of the Eastern European where mutual visits, exchanges of artists and scholars, schol-TH AFRIC socialist countries.26 arships, participation in festivals, exchanges of books and other KS WI The basic legal framework for cultural exchanges consisted N media and similar activities were identified as desirable forms of of bilateral agreements on cultural and educational cooperation. solidarity-based joint action capable of overcoming Western cul-RAL LI LTU Even though, by the early 1970s, Yugoslavia had entered into 17 tural impe rialism.21 The Yugoslav Federal Assembly and the Exec-such agreements with African countries,27 the programmes out-utive Council had already emphasised cooperation with develop-lining a specific set of activities were far fewer, and as a result, iming countries a few years earlier as part of the Yugoslav policy of T OF CROSS-CU plementation always fell short of plans. In Sub-Saharan Africa, the developing cultural links with foreign countries,22 but in the early ENM first such agreement was with Sudan, dating to 1959, followed by 64 days, this was not without organisational issues. In the case of Af-Guinea, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Mali, Dahomey (Benin), Senegal, Nige-65 rica in particular, the Yugoslav diplomats who paved the way for TABLISH E ES ria and Congo-Brazzaville by the mid-1960s, mostly coinciding with artists and various professionals in the field of artistic production H D T Tito’s tour of West and East Africa.28 Cultural exchange account-were not only faced with a lack of adequate infrastructure, but Y ANC ed for one-fifth of the funds earmarked for scholarship schemes, also with fierce competition. In the 1960s, contenders from other which came mostly out of the Yugoslav federal budget and to a socialist countries, each with their own vision of creating a new PLOMA lesser extent out of the republican budgets, with some support V DI world, began challenging the stream of cultural products that had A also provided from time to time by the enterprises that were doing been pouring in from the former colonial metropolises, with every-business with the countries in question.29 one locked in an intense competition for the affections of this part T, YUGOSL EN Although by the mid-1970s, the network of Yugoslav diploma-M of the world. The Soviet Union, German Democratic Republic and tic-consular missions in African countries had grown enormously, China, were, for example, most active in developing their own net-ALIGN they were understaffed, and their work reports clearly indicate that works on the ground, being willing to distribute their films under NON-cultural or public diplomacy came as a distant second to the politi-more favourable conditions than a more commercially oriented cal and economic tasks. It was often their own press attachés who Yugoslav provider could.23 were tasked with initiating and coordinating cultural exchanges. In On the one hand, the competitive and financially better sup-the 1960s, it was discussed that cultural attachés should be posted ported Eastern European cultural advance into the decolonised count ries, which in the early years of their existence hardly had 24 Ibid., p. 62. More on the perception of Soviet assistance in the construction of the a cul tural budget of their own at all, did have some success. On new African states can be found in Osei-Opare’s Uneasy Comrades. the other hand, having just broken out from the grip of the former 25 AJ 559, box 70, Izveštaj o boravku Ranke Kavčič-Božović, pomočnika predsednika Savezne komisije za kulturne veze sa inostranstvom, u nekim zemljama Zapadne Afrike, December 1969, p. 20. 20 Cvjetičanin, Projekcija dugoročne prosvjetno-kulturne suradnje, pp. 15–16. 26 DAMSP, PA, 1985, box 7, document 49071, 20 February 1985. 21 Videkanić, Nonaligned Modernism, p. 142. 27 Jemuović in Lah, Naučna, tehnička i kulturna saradnja, p. 128. 22 AJ 559, box 70, document 69.3-20, 11 September 1969. 28 Merhar, Mednarodno kulturno sodelovanje, p. 48. 23 Vučetić, Uspostavljanje jugoslovenske filmske saradnje, p. 61. 29 Cvjetičanin, Projekcija dugoročne prosvjetno-kulturne suradnje, p. 87. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED JURE RAMŠAK at least in the regional centres in Africa and Asia.30 Ten years later, they resonate with and appeal to local audiences, that is, be com-however, Sub-Saharan Africa had only a single such post system-prehensible without extensive additional explanations.36 atised, namely for the embassy in Nigeria.31 The idea was floated A fixture of cultural exchanges with Sub-Saharan countries of opening new Yugoslav cultural information centres, like those in was the hosting of (academic) folklore ensembles on both sides. Western Europe and in the USA, but at the end of the 1970s, still The visit of the folklore group Ivo Lola Ribar from Belgrade in 1969 during the “golden age” of cooperation with the non-aligned coun-was the first Yugoslav cultural manifestation in Kenya.37 Music and tries, it was decided that no such centres would be opening in Asia, art events of this type were also popular in Yugoslavia. For example, Africa and Latin America.32 The plan was nevertheless to bolster there were three groups visiting from Ghana in the late 1970s and Yugoslav presence at least in those regional centres that received early 1980s as guests of the Ljubljana Festival, the Dubrovnik Sum-the most media coverage. In Sub-Saharan Africa these were the mer Games and the International Children’s Festival in Šibenik.38 ones in Congo, Senegal, Tanzania and Côte d’Ivoire. In addition to The tour of the Tanzanian college of arts Bagamoyo across Yugo-the translation of Yugoslav texts into French and English, transla-A slavia in 1987 attests to the fact that such logistical feats kept being tions into Swahili were also planned.33 undertaken even at the end of the 1980s, when funds were already On multiple occasions, cultural attachés, or rather, whoever TH AFRIC in short supply.39 Zagreb-based Africanist Biserka Cvjetičanin, not-performed these tasks at the Yugoslav embassies, in liaison with KS WI ing the frequency of folklore-tinged cultural exchanges, pointed out N the Federal Secretariat for Foreign Affairs, the federal and repub-that the hypertrophy of exotica can also result in the narrowing of lican institutes for international scientific, technical, educational RAL LI LTU potentials for cultural interaction, although, in her view, it was ob-and cultural cooperation (ZAMTES) and the cultural institutions vious that folklore, in all its forms, was simply the most recognised involved, provided information on potential institutional partners among the traditions of the countries of the Global South.40 or artists in particular countries, facilitated contacts and took part T OF CROSS-CU Ostoja Gordanić Balkanski, the “unofficial sculptor of the Non-in the organisation and realisation of individual cultural events. ENM Aligned Movement”, also borrowed from the traditional sculptural 66 This included finding suitable venues, and logistical assistance techniques of Sudan and many other “exotic spaces of the Third 67 with transport, as well as securing support from prominent figures TABLISH E ES World”, as he put it in one of the interviews.41 As early as 1974, the in the political life of the host countries.34 Familiar with the prefer-H D T only Yugoslav artist who, as he declared himself, consciously turned ences of the local population, they also suggested which types of Y ANC his back on Paris,42 focused all his creativity on the topos of the cultural manifestations would reach the largest audience given the NAM and began to create sketches for its flag and coat of arms, as limi ted financial resources.35 PLOMA well as memorials for the places where the summits of the NAM V DIA were held.43 While the Yugoslav Federal Secretariat did not accept From folklore to modernism: typical forms of Gordanić’s proposals, his portrait of Robert Mugabe did end up on cultural manifestations T, YUGOSL EN the wall of the Harare Convention Centre, where the eighth sumM Much like the criteria for political cooperation, the artistic-aesthet-mit of the movement was held.44 The Zimbabwean commission ic criteria in the field of cultural cooperation with members of the ALIGN from the Yugoslav artist was not an isolated case, however. In 1956, NAM were vague. In addition to the fact that the artworks had to fit NON-for example, Ethiopia sent a request to the “good painter” to paint the developing countries’ equally ill-defined ideological and political portraits of their statesmen.45 Yugoslav master artists would later conception of cooperation and not conflict with the cultural norms also be invited to post-revolutionary Angola, which was otherwise of the host countries, emphasis was placed on the requirement that 36 Cvjetičanin, Projekcija dugoročne prosvjetno-kulturne suradnje, p. 44. 30 AJ 559, box 70, Informativno-propagandna delatnost Jugoslavije prema zemljama 37 AJ 559, box 69, Lagos – 1987, 9 June 1969. Afrike i Azije, 12 November 1969, p. 4. 38 DAMSP, PA, 1985, box 28, document 429243, 21 June 1985. 31 DAMSP, PA, 1978, box 61, document 412462, 1 March 1978. 39 DAMSP, PA, 1987, box 149, document 6304, 12 October 1987. 32 Ibid. 40 Cvjetičanin, Projekcija dugoročne prosvjetno-kulturne suradnje, p. 51. 33 Ibid. 41 Vjesnik, 31 August 1989, Dletom za Treći svet. 34 DAMSP, PA, 1978, box 84, document 477729, 31 March 1978; 1986, box 150, document 42 Ibid. 433152, 31 July 1986. 43 DAMSP, PA, 1974, box 173, document 44741, 31 January 1974. 35 AJ 142/II, box A-187, Ambasada SFRJ Dar es Salam, Izvještaj za 1980-u godinu, Janu-44 Vjesnik, 31 August 1989, Dletom za Treći svet. ary 1981, p. 17. 45 AJ 559, box 58, 1956: Jugoslavija – Etiopija, undated. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED JURE RAMŠAK typically a destination for non-established artists from the Eastern films that were well received by audiences in Luanda.53 In Kenya, European “fraternal” socialist countries.46 As far as group guest by contrast, the screening of Delić’s Sutjeska did not go down well exhibitions are concerned, modern graphic art gained a represen-with the audiences accustomed to American films.54 tative place in Yugoslav fine art. In a repertoire selected to be put In the field of literature, the Struga Poetry Evenings occupied up in ten African countries, it was represented by 102 examples (by a special place in the creation of cross-cultural links. Through the Mersad Berber, Janez Bernik, Janez Boljka, Bogdan Borčić, Jože Ciu-mediation of Yugoslav diplomats, many well-known African writ-ha, Stojan Ćelić, Emir Dragulj, Ivo Friščić, Jože Horvat - Jaki, Vladimir ers came to Struga. Shortly after the signing of an agreement on Makuc, Edo Murtić, Jože Spacal and others).47 cultural cooperation with Ghana, this increasingly renowned inter-For the more critical observers among Yugoslav diplomatic national meeting hosted the president of the Ghana Association circles, it was the Second World Black and African Festival of Arts of Writers, Atukwei Okai,55 followed by several of his colleagues.56 and Culture in Lagos in 1977 in particular that was responsible for The town in the south of Macedonia was also visited by Angolan broadening the horizons about the reach of African creativity. As A poets,57 as well as those from Guinea, after the Yugoslav embas-they themselves acknowledged, the assumption until very recent-sy in Conakry funded their air tickets.58 The most famous African ly had always been that the continent had little to contribute to TH AFRIC participant of the Struga Evenings was undoubtedly the first Sen-modern world culture apart from its wealth of folklore. At that time, KS WI egalese President, poet and one of the founders of the theory of N however, modernist approaches to African theatre were beginning négritude, Léopold Sédar Senghor, who was awarded the festival’s to be evident, especially in Nigeria, which is where the first African RAL LI LTU prize, the Golden Wreath, in 1975.59 The high-ranking guests start-theatrical troupe to come to the Belgrade International Theatre ed giving the event on Lake Ohrid an air of political exclusivity, as Festival (BITEF) was from.48 They later tried to have the National illustrated by a written remark by the Federal Secretary for Foreign Theatre of Zaire come to Belgrade, but technical issues ended up T OF CROSS-CU Affairs, Josip Vrhovec, in the early 1980, when the Macedonian or-preventing them from realising that goal.49 ENM ganisers were about to invite back Senghor, as a past prize-winner: 68 One of the more frequent areas of cultural cooperation with “We have no interest in Senghor continuing to come to Yugoslavia 69 Africa was in film; this was not limited to the screening of Yugoslav TABLISH E ES [...].”60 At the same time, Vrhovec’s secretariat was working hard to films, but also included joint productions. Yugoslav film exports re-H D T get the Guinean Minister of Justice and former ambassador to Yu-mained largely commercial in nature and perpetually troubled by Y ANC goslavia, as well as Senghor’s poetic rival, Sikhé Camara, to come issues with distribution, since, with the exception of a few African to Struga.61 countries, the entire network was in the hands of foreign private PLOMA V DI companies.50 A new market for the great partisan epics opened up A Together towards cultural decolonisation? in the 1970s in countries like Ethiopia and Angola, both of which The 1979 Summit of the NAM in Havana recognised culture as one were undergoing revolutionary transformation and trying to “ed-T, YUGOSL EN of the cornerstones of social development in general, a vehicle of M ucate” their cinema audiences accordingly.51 After the Yugoslav national emancipation and non-alignment, and of better mutual embassy gave the office of the first Angolan president, Agostinho ALIGN understanding. Cultural cooperation among the members and the Neto, a copy of Janković’s Krvava bajka (Bloody Tale), the Angolans NON-dissemination of knowledge in this field were seen as strength-were immediately willing to buy the film, as it had left a profound ening the common intellectual and material potential needed for impression on the president.52 While not all Yugoslav blockbusters more rapid development, underlining the need to strengthen bilat-were subtitled in Portuguese, there were other partisan-themed eral and multilateral cooperation, including through the creation of 46 DAMSP, PA, 1978, box 5, document 433353, 29 May 1978. 53 DAMSP, PA, 1978, box 5, document 464834, 24 November 1978. 47 DAMSP, PA, 1980, box 145, document 46116, 31 January 1980. 54 DAMSP, PA, 1975, box 82, document 413348, 26 March 1974, p. 16. 48 DAMSP, PA, 1975, box 191-192, document 439693, appendix: Informacija o uslovima za 55 DAMSP, PA, 1975, box 37, document 416688, undated. rad u Zapadnoj i Centralnoj Africi na zadacima u oblasti informacija i kulturno-naučne 56 DAMSP, PA, 1985, box 28, document 429243, 21 July 1985. saradnje i aktuelnim problemima, 17 July 1975, p. 24. 57 DAMSP, PA, 1985, box 7, document 49071, 20 February 1985, p. 20. 49 DAMSP, PA, 1980, box 145, document 456873, 11 November 1980. 58 DAMSP, PA, 1986, box 118, document 432444, 28 July 1986. 50 Cvjetičanin, Projekcija dugoročne prosvjetno-kulturne suradnje, p. 57. 59 Spaskovska, Comrades, Poets, Politicians. 51 DAMSP, PA, 1978, box 33, document 442749, 18 July 1978. 60 DAMSP, PA, 1980, box 145, document 4742, 18 January 1980. 52 DAMSP, PA, 1978, box 5, document 416743, 15 March 1978. 61 DAMSP, PA, 1980, box 145, document 43199, 17 January 1980. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED JURE RAMŠAK joint institutions in the field of culture.62 This did not, in Yugoslavia’s tute’s director, Basil T. Kossou, who had previously been a guest of view, imply that the NAM needed a common cultural policy—some-the Federal ZAMTES, what was probably the largest manifestation thing Yugoslavia was rather reluctant to do, considering the histor-of African culture in socialist Yugoslavia, called the Days of Infor-ical, political and religious differences among the members.63 How-mation on African Culture, was organised in Belgrade (and partly ever, Yugoslav intellectuals were able to identify to a large extent in Novi Sad and Zagreb) in March 1980. The multi-day event includ-with the concept of “the humanism of development”, as formulated ed not only film screenings and book exhibitions, but also a series by UNESCO under the leadership of the Senegalese geographer of lectures and panel discussions featuring distinguished African and Honorary Doctor of the University of Belgrade, Amadou Mahtar experts in the fields of literature, linguistics and history, some of M’Bow, in harmony with the aspirations of the Global South. The whom were former ministers and ambassadors, and was presented essence of the concept was that development could not be interas one of the first tangible results of the efforts to implement the preted solely in economic terms, but also in the social and cultural Havana Declaration.68 sense. It was in this context that the conclusion of the 1970 UNES-A The key issues discussed both at the interviews at the individu-CO Intergovernmental Conference on Institutional, Administrative al specialised institutes in Belgrade and Zagreb, as well as in front of and Financial Aspects of Cultural Policies was formulated, namely TH AFRIC the general public (the proceedings were later published), echoed that either the development is endogenous, or there isn’t one, and KS WI the intentions to mobilise culture and cultural cooperation as a N that every nation, large or small, has something to contribute to the means of struggle against (Western) hegemony and as an instru-world and something to receive from it.64 The Yugoslav Marxist unRAL LI LTU ment of economic and technological independence and national derstanding of culture went a step further in this respect, arguing identity. According to Kossou, the order of the “Third World”—as a that culture has no independent goals of its own above or beyond political and ideological concept, not a cultural entity, as he point-the goals of general social development.65 Culture was thus conT OF CROSS-CU ed out—also included individual small European countries that textualised as a part of broader efforts towards changing the global ENM had won their autonomy from one of the great powers. These coun-70 economic relations and fostering cooperation among the devel-tries—not especially rich, but also not burdened by very low gross 71 oping countries (“South-South” cooperation)—two of the flagship TABLISH E ES social product, as described by the Senegalese expert, clearly al-projects of the NAM and its sister organisation, the G77, in the H D T luding to Yugoslavia—have recognised the parallels between their 1970s and 1980s. In this urge to find their own expression in the new Y ANC fate and that of African, Asian and Latin American countries with world constellation, humanist intellectuals from the south-east of much worse conditions, and thus achieved great prestige in Kos-Europe and those from the Global South were united by a common PLOMA sou’s eyes.69 African participants from countries with various for-V DI experience of their peripheral position and dependence on exterA eign policy profiles had varying experiences with regard to relations nal forces, both in the past and in the present, which could only be with the two major socialist purveyors of alternative globalisation dealt with through definitive emancipation.66 T, YUGOSL EN projects, the Soviet Union and China, with the former occasionally M The Yugoslav Commission for UNESCO also facilitated the first referred to as an “ideological coloniser”, offering its services only contacts with the African Cultural Institute of Dakar, founded in ALIGN on the condition of acceptance of its orthodoxies.70 By contrast, 1972, that took up a leading role in the cultural “decolonisation and NON-Yugoslavia was seen as a partner who respected the imperative emancipation” of the African continent through activities such as of cooperating as equals, which is why, on this occasion as well, education, research, linguistics, film development and the develop-a number of proposals were addressed to Yugoslavia for cooper-ment of traditional crafts and arts. By the end of the 1970s, a total ation or expert assistance in the fields of library science and book of 19 founding countries had joined.67 In cooperation with the Insti-trade, radio and television production, and archaeology, as well as initiatives for cooperation in the research projects at the previously 62 6th Summit Conference of Heads of State or Government of the NAM. mentioned Dakar Institute.71 63 Kolešnik, Practices of Yugoslav Cultural Exchange. 64 Iacob, Southeast by Global South, p. 259. 65 Cvjetičanin, Švob-Đokić and Jelić, Kultura i novi međunarodni ekonomski poredak, 68 Ibid., p. 3. p. 12. 69 Kosu, Perspektive i svrha, pp. 100–101. 66 Iacob, Southeast by Global South, 257. 70 Benin, Gabon, Obala Slonovače, p. 193. 67 DAMSP, PA, 1980, box 145, document 4298/3, 22 May 1980, appendix: Izveštaj o »Dan-71 DAMSP, PA, 1980, box 145, document 4298/3, 22 May 1980, appendix: Izveštaj o ima informacija o kulturi Afrike«, p. 1. »Danima informacija o kulturi Afrike«, pp. 19–21. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED JURE RAMŠAK On Yugoslavia’s list of priorities for the development of cultur-and the “small”, and between the “metropolitan” and the “peripheral links with foreign countries, the neighbouring countries and the al” cultures, as well as to break down the hierarchy of differences non-aligned countries came first and second. It was only in third imposed by certain cultural models, as expressed by the Federal place that Western countries followed; in reality however, they were Secretary for Foreign Affairs, Raif Dizdarević, in the introduction to the ones with whom most exchanges took place.72 Cultural coop-the gallery catalogue.79 The plan was to allow participation of reperation with the non-aligned countries began to decline as early as resentatives of other non-aligned countries on the Gallery’s man-1981, likely due to the general economic crisis, which caused the agement boards. However, when this later triggered a complicated earmarked funds to dry up and sparked controversy between the procedure for the amendment of its sta tute, no further steps were federal and republican authorities over what portion of the costs taken in this direction.80 each of them should bear.73 At a time when Yugoslavia and most The very naming of the Gallery, after the late President and of the members of the NAM were becoming less financially capa-one of the founders of the NAM, Josip Broz – Tito, showed that ble and losing influence in the world,74 one last major project of A Yugoslavia was counting on this institution in the capital of Mon-cross-cultural cooperation in this context was taking place: the Jo-tenegro to cement its place in the future political topography of sip Broz Tito Gallery of Art of the Non-Aligned Countries. TH AFRIC the movement. The importance it ascribed to it is also shown by The gallery opened on 1 September 1984 in the premises of the KS WI the unsuccessful plans to have the inauguration conducted by the N former Petrović Palace in Titograd (Podgorica). Preparations had be-Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi as the leader of the presiding gun some three years earlier, when the NAM Coordinating Bureau in RAL LI LTU member.81 Even more so than in the cases described above, the New York was informed of the plans, and at the VII. Summit in New Yugoslav diplomatic network showed zeal in engaging with artists Delhi in 1983, there was already mention of the gallery in the Final who were willing to donate their works, which was the only way to Declaration, where members were also encouraged to contribute T OF CROSS-CU expand the gallery’s collection. In Angola, for example, artists such actively to the creation of the Gallery’s fund and activities.75 As a ENM as Paulo Jazz, Filipe Salvador, Manecas de Carvalho, Fernando Val-72 pioneering joint institution with the aim of “cultural decolonisation”, entino and Augusto Ferreira were approached, and the donated 73 the Gallery was to do more than just collect, preserve and exhibit TABLISH E ES paintings were given suggestive titles: The Moment of Aggression, outstanding archaeological and ethnological artefacts and contem-H D T The Freeing of the Slaves, The Secret of Rebellion, The Black Tear.82 porary artworks from non-aligned countries—the intent was to pro-Y ANC A total of 206 exhibits from 21 countries came from Africa, includ-vide a space for the education and training of visiting artists and at ing traditional wooden sculptures, examples of Makonde art, ritual the same time serve as a kind of meeting point for the intellectual PLOMA shields and masks, and contemporary paintings and prints.83 Some V DI production related to the affirmation of the cultural values of this A of these exhibits would later end up back in the countries of the part of the world.76 This integral approach to art as a catalyst for fac-Global South as part of guest exhibitions of the Gallery in Titograd ing the social challenges of the Global South was also hinted at with T, YUGOSL EN (for example in Harare, Lusaka and Dar es Salaam).84 Yugoslav dip-M title of the international conference “Art and Development”, co-or-lomats also invited artists, among them the well-known Zimbabwe-ganised by UNESCO, which was held at the Gallery in October 1985. ALIGN an sculptor Bernard Matemera, to come to visit the Gallery, and The conference was attended by 40 participants from 21 non-aligned NON-to then bequeath it the works created during the visit.85 Other reand developing countries, which included African representatives nowned guest artists included Bunama Kosa from Guinea and Vito-from Gabon, Ghana, Mali, Seychelles, Ghana and Uganda.77 rio Madonga from Tanzania, whose visits were covered by the jour-One of the “most widely known galleries in the world”, as the nalists from those countries.86 Since the visiting artists had to pay Yugoslav ambassador to Angola described it,78 put itself on the map by striving to transcend the artificial distinctions between the “big” 79 Piškur, Druga ozvezdja, p. 19. 80 DAMSP, PA, 1987, box 149, document 5494, 9 September 1987. 72 DAMSP, PA, 1986, box 118, document 43942, 21 January 1986. 81 DAMSP, PA, 1984, box 155, document 435390, 16 July 1984. 73 DAMSP, PA, 1983, box 114, document 445277, 22 November 1983. 82 DAMSP, PA, 1987, box 149, document 428719, 15 June 1987. 74 Atwood Lawrence, The Rise and Fall. Byrne, Africa’s Cold War. 83 DAMSP, PA, 1987, box149, document 04508, 23 June 1987. 75 DAMSP, PA, 1984, box 155, document 435390, 16 July 1984. 84 DAMSP, PA, 1986, box 150, document 432558, 28 July 1986. Piškur, Druga ozvezdja, 76 Ibid. p. 18. 77 DAMSP, PA, 1985, box 153, document 7458, 1 November 1985. 85 Čelebić, Galerija umetnosti neuvrščenih. 78 DAMSP, PA, 1987, box 149, document 04508, 11 June 1987. 86 Shihata, 14 September 1987, A Meeting of Non-Aligned Arts. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED JURE RAMŠAK for their trips to Yugoslavia themselves, Yugoslav diplomats during among domestic and foreign experts in the fields of education and the difficult circumstances also pro posed Solomonic solutions, culture, which were somewhat in tune with the emerging postco-such as engaging a somewhat less established painter or sculptor lonial thought of the time. Through these events, organised either instead of a renowned artist from Mozambique, who would go on in Yugoslavia or in the partner non-aligned countries, a handful of to create works in Titograd and then sell them in a sales exhibition, Yugoslav experts emerged who were able to substantively discuss the proceeds of which would have been enough to buy the airline the characteristics and problems of cultural production in different tickets.87 parts of Africa. At the same time, it became apparent that cultural policies in Conclusion individual NAM member countries were not oriented towards en-According to a definition in one of the Yugoslav documents that couraging broad interaction.90 This was not only characteristic of were written around 1980 and reflected the general principles of Yugoslavia, but also of the great national cultures such as the Chi-non-alignment, the goal of the educational and cultural coopera-A nese and Iranian, or the various Indian cultures, which failed to con-tion was to foster awareness of common social issues and needs stitute themselves as subjects capable of establishing links with and with that the strengthening of the spirit of solidarity among TH AFRIC other cultures of the Global South, but were subject to transfers the members of the movement and other developing countries.88 KS WI only in relation to Western European cultures.91 The cultural coop-N To what extent the various promoters of Yugoslav non-aligned ineration in the (relatively short) period discussed, when the idea of ternationalism succeeded in doing so, and whether in doing so RAL LI LTU comprehensive cooperation between non-aligned and developing they managed to subvert the Eurocentric perspective, is a ques-countries flowered, can therefore be said to have faced similar is-tion that the sources we analysed do not permit us to fully answer. sues as the mutual economic integration of this part of the world,92 Yugoslav diplomacy largely internalised the general principles of T OF CROSS-CU namely that it has rarely moved beyond an administratively im-non-alignment, and as far as its cultural arm was concerned—and ENM posed framework to where it could have a life of its own, driven by 74 to the extent that we can even speak of cultural diplomacy as an initiatives by non-institutional actors. When many of the cross-cul-75 independent endeavour when talking about Africa and the Global TABLISH E ES tural links with Africa, having just barely been established, weak-South, in light of the extremely limited human and material resourc-H D T ened and broke down in the chaotic situation of the late 1980s, it es available for its implementation—it went somewhat beyond the Y ANC became all the more difficult to re-establish them once Yugoslavia tasks of typical propaganda activity as pursued by both Western and its successor states lost their role as a key European link in the and Eastern countries at the time. It is telling that in Slovenia in PLOMA NAM. V DI particular, in the first half of the 1980s, 82% of all manifestations of A cultural exchange with Sub-Saharan Africa took place on this continent, and only the remaining 18% in Africa,89 which in itself reveals T, YUGOSL ENM efforts to bring arts from that region closer to Yugoslav and Slovene audiences. ALIGN Being familiar with the local environment, Yugoslav diplomats NON-also had a say in what kind of art made its way into the cooperation programmes. Their efforts were initially dominated by logistical and financial concerns, although they were also aware, at least in some cases, of the need to represent different, including also modern, artistic expressions in cultural exchanges. The Federal Secretariat for Foreign Affairs was also involved in international debates 87 DAMSP, PA, 1987, box 149, document 441436, 23 September 1987. 88 DAMSP, PA, 1980, box 145, document 4298/3, Medjusobna saradnja nesvrstanih i 90 Cvjetičanin, Švob-Đokić and Jelić, Kultura i novi međunarodni ekonomski poredak, zema lja u razvoju u oblasti obrazovanja i kulture, undated, p. 1. p. 36. 89 SI AS 1271, box 6, Znanstveno-tehnično in prosvetno-kulturno sodelovanje SR Slove-91 Ibid., p. 68. nije z afriškimi deželami v obdobju 1981–1984, 4 June 1985. 92 Ramšak, Poskus drugačne globalizacije, p. 779. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED JURE RAMŠAK SOURCES AND LITERATURE Dimitrijević, Duško, and Jovan Čavoški (ed.). The 60th Anniversary of the Non-Aligned Movement. Belgrade: Institute of International Politics and Economics, 2021. ARCHIVAL SOURCES Dinkel, Jürgen. Die Bewegung Bündnisfreier Staaten: Genese, Organisation und Politik 1927–1992. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2015. AJ – Archive of Yugoslavia: AJ 142 – Socijalistički savez radnog naroda Jugoslavije. Dinkel, Jürgen, Steffen Fiebrig and Frank Reichherzer (ed.). Nord/Süd: Perspektiven AJ 559 – Savezna komisija za kulturne veze s inostranstvom. auf eine globale Konstellation. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2020. DAMSP – Diplomatski arhiv Ministarstva spoljnih poslova Srbije: Djagalov, Rossen. From Internationalism to Postcolonialism: Literature and Cinema PA – Politička arhiva. Between the Second and the Third Worlds. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2020. SI AS – Archive of the Republic of Slovenia: SI AS 1271 – National Council for International Relations. Dragostinova, Teodora. The Cold War from the Margins: A Small Socialist State on the Global Cultural Scene. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2021. A LITERATURE Fosler-Lussier, Danielle. Music in America’s Cold War Diplomacy. Berkeley: University TH AFRIC of California Press, 2015. Atwood Lawrence, Mark. The Rise and Fall of Nonalignment. In: Robert McMahon (ed.). The Cold War in the Third World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013, pp. 139–155. KS WIN Iacob, Bogdan Christian. Southeast by Global South: The Balkans, UNESCO, and the Cold War. In: James Mark, Artemy M. Kalinovsky and Steffi Marung (ed.). Alternative Barnhisel, Greg. Cold War Modernists: Art, Literature, and American Cultural Diplo-RAL LI Globalizations: Eastern Europe and the Postcolonial World. Bloomington: Indiana Uni-LTU macy. New York: Columbia University Press, 2015. versity Press, 2020, pp. 251–270. Benin, Gabon, Obala slonovače. Kultura: Časopis za teoriju i sociologiju kulture i kul-Jemuović, Rodoljub, and Avguštin Lah. Naučna, tehnička i kulturna saradnja Jugo-tur nu politiku, Nos 51–52 (1980), pp. 171–198. slavije sa zemljama u razvoju. Ljubljana: Centar za proučavanje saradnje sa zemljama T OF CROSS-CU EN u razvoju pri FSPN, 1972. M Berger, Mark T. “After the Third World”: History, destiny and the fate of Third Worldism. 76 Third World Quarterly 25, No 1 (2004), pp. 9–39. Kolešnik, Ljiljana. Practices of Yugoslav Cultural Exchange with Non-Aligned Count-77 TABLISH ries. In: Paul Stubbs (ed.). Socialist Yugoslavia and the Non-Aligned Movement: Social, Bogetić, Dragan. Sukob Titovog koncepta univerzalizma i Sukarnovog koncepta regio-E ESH Cultural, Political and Economic Imaginaries. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University nalizma na samitu nesvrstanih u Kairu 1964. Istorija 20. veka 35, No 2 (2017), pp. 101–118. D T Press, 2023, pp. 176–202. Y ANC Bogetić, Dragan. Nesvrstanost kroz istoriju: od ideje do pokreta. Beograd: Zavod za Kosu, Bazil. Perspektive i svrha kulturne saradnje nesvrstanih. Kultura: Časopis za teo-udž be nike, 2019. PLOMA riju i sociologiju kulture i kulturnu politiku, Nos 51–52 (1980), pp. 99–114. V DIA Burton, Eric, et al. (ed.). Navigating Socialist Encounters: Moorings and (Dis) Entan-Lazić, Milorad. Arsenal of the Global South: Yugoslavia’s Military Aid to Nonaligned glements between Africa and East Germany during the Cold War. Berlin, Boston: De Count ries and Liberation Movements. Nationalities Papers 49, No 3 (2021), pp. 428– Gruyter, 2021. T, YUGOSL 445. ENM Byrne, Jeffrey James. Africa’s Cold War. In: Robert McMahon (ed.). The Cold War in the Merhar, Teja. Mednarodno kulturno sodelovanje Jugoslavije z državami članicami ALIGN Third World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013, pp. 101–123. gi ba nja neuvrščenih [Yugoslavia’s International Cultural Cooperation with the NAM NON- mem ber countries]. In: Bojana Piškur et al. Južna ozvezdja: poetike neuvrščenih Byrne, Jeffrey James. Beyond Continents, Colours, and the Cold War: Yugoslavia, Al- [Southern Constellations: The Poetics of the Non-Aligned]. Ljubljana: Museum of Mo-geria, and the Struggle for Non-Alignment. The International History Review 37, pg. 5 dern Art, 2019, pp. 43–68. (2015), pp. 912–932. Osei-Opare, Nana. Uneasy Comrades: Postcolonial Statecraft, Race, and Citizenship, Cvjetičanin, Biserka. Projekcija dugoročne prosvjetno-kulturne suradnje Jugoslavije Ghana-Soviet Relations, 1957–1966. Journal of West African History 5, No 2 (2019), pp. sa zemljama u razvoju (skraćena verzija). Zagreb: Institut za zemlje u razvoju, 1976. 85–111. Cvjetičanin, Biserka, Nada Švob-Đokić and Jordan Jelić. Kultura i novi međunarodni Paulmann, Johannes. Auswärtige Repräsentationen: Deutsche Kulturdiplomatie nach ekonomski poredak. Beograd: Jugoslovenska komisija za saradnju s Uneskom, 1982. 1945. Köln: Böhlau, 2005. Čelebić, Marina. Josip Broz Tito Gallery of Art of the Non-Aligned Countries. In: Ta-Phillips, Victoria. Martha Graham’s Cold War: The Dance of American Diplomacy. Ox-mara Soban (ed.). Južna ozvezdja: poetike neuvrščenih [Southern Constellations: The ford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2020. Poetics of the Non-Aligned]. Ljubljana: Museum of Modern Art, 2019, pp. 95–96.Day, Tony, and Maya Liem (ed.). Cultures at War: The Cold War and Cultural Expression in Piškur, Bojana. Druga ozvezdja: druge zgodovine, druge modernosti [Other Constel-Southeast Asia. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010. lations: Other Histories, Other Modernities]. In: Bojana Piškur et al. Južna ozvezdja: THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED JURE RAMŠAK poetike neuvrščenih [Southern Constellations: The Poetics of the Non-Aligned]. Lju-Xu, Lanjun. The Southern Film Corporation, Opera Films, and the PRC’s Cultural Diplo-bljana: Museum of Modern Art, 2019, pp. 9–21. macy in Cold War Asia, 1950s and 1960s. Modern Chinese Literature and Culture 29, pg. 1 (2017), pp. 239–282. Radonjić, Nemanja. “From Kragujevac to Kilimanjaro”: Imagining and re-imagining Afri ca and the self-perception of Yugoslavia in the travelogues from socialist Yugoslavia. Godišnjak za društvenu istoriju 23, No 2 (2016), pp. 55–89. PERIODICALS Radonjić, Nemanja. A Nonaligned Continent: Africa in the Global Imaginary of So cia-Shihata: Shirika la Habari la Tanzania (Dar es Salaam), 1976–1999. list Yugoslavia. In: Paul Stubbs (ed.). Socialist Yugoslavia and the Non-Aligned Movement: Social, Cultural, Political and Economic Imaginaries. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s Vjesnik Socijalističkog saveza radnog naroda Hrvatske (Zagreb), 1940–2012. University Press, 2023, pp. 302–328. Rajak, Svetozar. “Companions in misfortune”: From passive neutralism to active DIGITAL SOURCES un-commitment – the critical role of Yugoslavia. In: Sandra Bott et al. (ed.). Neutrality and Neutralism in the Global Cold War. Between or within the blocs? London, New 6th Summit Conference of Heads of State or Government of the Non-Aligned Move-York: Routledge, 2016, pp. 72–89. A ment. Available at: http://cns.miis.edu/nam/documents/Official_Document/6th_ Summit_FD_Havana_Declaration_1979_Whole.pdf (accessed on 10 December 2021). Ramšak, Jure. Poskus drugačne globalizacije: slovensko gospodarstvo in dežele v raz-TH AFRIC voju 1970–1990 [Pursuit of an alter-globalization: the Slovenian economy and developing countries, 1970–1990]. Acta Histria e 23, No 4 (2015), pp. 765–782. KS WIN Selinić, Slobodan. Savez književnika Jugoslavije i nesvrstane zemlje od kraja pedesetih RAL LI LTU do početka osamdesetih godina 20. veka. Istorija 20. veka 37, No 1 (2019), pp. 175–192. Shaw, Tony, and Youngblood, Denise J. Cinematic Cold War: The American and Soviet Struggle for Hearts and Minds. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2010. T OF CROSS-CU ENM Slaček Brlek, Sašo. Yugoslavia’s commitment to third-worldism in the struggle for a 78 new world order. Kurswechsel, No 3 (2020), pp. 26–34. 79 TABLISH Sladojević, Ana. Beyond the Photographic Frame: Interpretation of Photographs from E ESH the Museum of Yugoslavia’s Collection in a Contemporary Context. In: Radina Vučetić D T and Paul Betts (ed.). Tito in Africa: Picturing Solidarity. Belgrade: Museum of Yugosla-Y ANC via, 2017, pp. 93–125. PLOMA Spaskovska, Ljubica. Comrades, Poets, Politicians – Aco Šopov, Léopold Sédar Seng-V DIA hor and the Cultural Politics of Non-Alignment: a paper for the research work shop Towards a Conjuctural Political Economy of Non-Alignment and Cultural Politics. Rijeka, 27–29 September 2021. T, YUGOSL ENM Thomas, Darryl C. The Theory and Practice of Third World Solidarity. Westport: Praeger, ALIGN 2001. NON- Videkanić, Bojana. Nonaligned Modernism: Socialist Postcolonial Aesthetics in Yugoslavia, 1945–1985. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2019. Vu, Tuong, and Wasana Wongsurawat (ed.). Dynamics of the Cold War in Asia: Ideology, Identity, and Culture. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. Vučetić, Radina. Uspostavljanje jugoslovenske filmske saradnje s Afrikom. Godišnjak za društvenu istoriju 24, No 2 (2017), pp. 57–81. Vučetić, Radina. We Shall Win: Yugoslav Film Cooperation with FRELIMO. Revista Críti-ca de Ciências Sociais, No 118 (2019), pp. 131–150. Wulf, Andrew. U.S. International Exhibitions during the Cold War: Winning Hearts and Minds through Cultural Diplomacy. London: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015. Barbara Predan 04 80 81 At the time of the Non-Aligned Movement, Yugoslavia had a special Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries. According to Bojana Piškur, this commission “organised exhibitions outside Yugoslavia”, with the “exchanges happening at all levels of cultural production.” Piškur continues, however, that “architecture, urbanism and industrial design [had] a special, somewhat different status, being considered state-supported vehicles of new modernist tendencies, compatible with the idea of creating a new socialist society”.1 This is also borne out by archival records which reveal, among other things, that architects, urban planners and industrial designers in non-aligned countries provided assistance in setting up study programmes, lectured at universities and also did much of the planning and building in practice.2 * The article is a result of the research project J7-2606, Models and Practices of Global Cultural Exchange and Non-Aligned Movement: Research in the Spatio-Temporal Cultural Dynamics, which is financed by the Slovenian Research Agency (ARRS). 1 Piškur, Južna ozvezdja, p. 10. 2 SI AS 1140, box 20/453, Zimbabve – angažiranje slovenskih strokovnjakov, 1987–1988; box 20/468, ZAMTES Ljubljana – Iraq; box 36/707, ZAMTES Ljubljana – ILO – roster slovenskih kandidatov, 1985. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED BARBARA PREDAN In light of the above, our exploration of Slovenian design in the Slovenian designers and architects during their membership in the context of non-alignment forks, roughly speaking, into two main di-Non-Aligned Movement, professional work in the Global North and rections. One of them leads to the West, the Global North—which the Global South were not mutually exclusive. In the text we will for Slovenian designers had always been the primary focus. At the use the historical method to illuminate examples of Yugoslav pol-same time, engagement with the Global South in the field of de-icymakers—building on the Yugoslav Non-Aligned Movement and sign and architecture merits consideration as well. This is where workers’ self-management in the 1970s and 1980s—introducing the we find the architects and designers who ventured there on the ba-idea of decentralisation and questioning of epistemic colonialism sis of international economic agreements with non-aligned coun-to both the Global South and the Global North, and in doing so tries.3 One of those was, for example, the architect Božidar Janez highlight the role of participation and the importance of taking into Gvardjančič, who supervised housing construction in the province account the voices from the so-called periphery of design. of Gharyan between 1968–1970 and then later in Tripoli. He subsequently went to Kenya, where he designed, built and supervised ru-A Brief Overview of the Professionalisation ral healthcare facilities in 1971–1978. Between 1982 and 1983 in Iraq, of Slovenian Design and its Background architect Vlado Emeršič worked as an architect, designer and co-The professionalisation of Slovenian design was marked by the ordinator. He would later go on to design a pharmaceutical plant in period after the Second World War, which was characterised by Nigeria and low-cost housing in Sudan.4 In 1987, working for LIZ en-the accelerated post-war reconstruction and deliberate industria-gineering under the auspices of Rudis, architects Marija Jugovec, lisation of society. There is, however, another factor crucial for Tanja Robek, Meta Deu and Matija Suha dolc built the Sonipec shoe the understanding of the Yugoslav path towards industrialisation factories in the Algerian towns of Fren da, El Bayadh and Bousaada.5 paved with socialism, namely the active integration of society with The present study shows from the outset that the roles of Slo-the aim of establishing an alternative to the prevailing ideology of venian designers in the Global North and the Global South were ED DESIGN the time, which entailed the division of the world into blocs in a 82 more or less diametrically opposed. In the first case, a desire for ALIGN perpetual state of Cold War. In the Informbiro period following the 83 recognition and active involvement on the part of the so-called Tito-Stalin split of 1948, Yugoslavians chose to reject both of the advanced Other was evident, while in the latter, the approval was TS OF NON-C major blocs’ ideologies—the ideology of Western capitalism, as obviously inherent to the role of the one who possesses and self-PAM well as the state socialism of the East. In the former, the problem E I lessly shares knowledge. That said, on the Yugoslav side, according TH they identified was that in capitalism, the integration of society is to Bojana Piškur, the impetus for the sharing of knowledge was not mostly carried out by the market, with partial assistance from the understood as the desire to civilise others (as had often been the state. In the centrally planned socialist societies, by contrast, this case when done by the “developed and advanced” West).6 Rather, integration is predominantly a responsibility of the state, with par-Yugoslavia “cultivated the image of a culture/state whose goal in tial assistance from the market.8 In the area of international rela-helping others was to help them establish themselves in a role that tions, the path beyond bloc politics in Yugoslavia in the 1950s and [had] yet to be created and clearly defined”. Piškur refers to the lat-especially the 1960s was represented by the non-aligned move-ter as the “Big Brother paradigm, which from today’s perspective is ment—the so-called policy of peaceful co-existence9—while the just as problematic”.7 alternative in the area of the sociology of work was built on the Despite the sometimes awkward positioning and the endless idea of socialist self-management. All of the above also proved vital balancing act that had to be kept up, it should be stressed that for for the further professionalisation and development of Slovenian design. The country’s rapid and deliberate industrialisation when 3 SI AS 1140, box 19/425, Federal Executive Council of the SFRY – Algeria, 1984; 20/459, it found itself in isolation in 1948 forced the Yugoslav industry to ZAMTES Ljubljana – Iraq – Realisation of the Agreement on the Cooperation in the develop its own products, which on the other hand represented Field, 1985; 20/474, Zvezni ZAMTES – North Yemen – cultural and educational coop-the foundation for the professionalisation of industrial design. If eration, 1983. 4 Ibid. the 1950s were a pioneering time in Yugoslav design, the 1960s can 5 Špela Šubic’s interview with architect Matija Suhadolc, 5 July 2022. Carried out for the purposes of the work by Predan and Šubic: Zakaj je vaza podobna hiši? 6 Messell, Globalization and Design Institution, p. 91. 8 Kavčič, Sociologija dela, p. 325. 7 Piškur, Južna ozvezdja, pp. 13–14. 9 Prashad, The Darker Nations, p. 96. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED BARBARA PREDAN be seen as a time of institutionalisation. This is also evidenced by Yugoslavia’s international credibility and the favourable image achieved the development of national and international professional orga-through Tito’s innovative in ter national politics. The 1st Summit of the nisations in the field of design. Non-Aligned Move ment, which took place in 1961 in Belgrade, was a re-The first formal steps towards the professionalisation of design sounding and high-profile success on a global scale. Building on such in Yugoslavia were taken in the early 1950s within professional as-accom plishments, how ever, much could also be done in cultural and sociations.10 Further professionalisation of institutions at a fe de ral other fields, with considerable potential for success.16 level took place in the 1960s. At the time, the Federation of Associations of Applied Arts Artists and Designers of Yugoslavia (SULU-Among such successes is the first international Industrial Design PUDJ) established SPID YU, the Secretariat for Industrial Design.11 Biennial (BIO). It was founded in Ljubljana a mere three years af-In organisational terms, SPID YU was considered a typical example ter accession to the ICSID. Attesting to the excellence and inter-of polycentricity and self-management, with the federation bringing national visibility of the first two Biennials is the participation of together the designers’ associations of the individual republics that some of the world’s leading names in design at the time, both on were formed in 1951–1953. In 196112 SPID YU joined the ICSID (Inter-the jury and on the advisory board: Misha Black, Wim Crouwel, Gillo national Council of Societies of Industrial Design), an association Dorfles, Charles Eames, Tomas Maldonado, Paul Reilly, Henri Vien-established in 1957 in Paris. It was founded by European and Ameri-ot and Marco Zanuso.17 In 1966, the international relevance of Slo-can designers wishing to improve the professional status of design-venian graphic design was recognised by the International Council ers, encourage collaboration among industrial designers worldwide of Graphic Design Associations (ICOGRADA). Founded in London and establish unified international standards regulating the design only three years prior, the organisation held its second congress in profession.13 In Europe and America, like here, national design or-Bled, Slovenia. ganisations were the first to be formed. The desire for growth and In the early 1960s, during their studies of design and architec-the increasing interest in the internationalisation of design led to ED DESIGN ture, those who would eventually become the most active members 84 the emergence of first design conferences and magazines in the ALIGN of the Slovene designers’ association were already regu larly under-85 international space and eventually international organisations.14 going further training and attending international design confer-The founding of the ICSID was accompanied from the outset by the TS OF NON-C ences abroad. Standing out with his insightfulness and perspicaci-rhetoric of cultural internationalism, which was meant to transcend PAM ty was the aforementioned industrial designer Saša J. Mächtig. The E I borders by building bridges of understanding. However, as point-TH other striking example in this text will be the designer and architect ed out by Tania Messel, from the very start, as its objectives and Janja Lap.18 In the early 1960s, Lap joined a research team at the modes of operation were being formulated, sources of friction were Royal College of Art in London on a British Council scholarship and, encountered—most often as a direct result of Cold War policies, after returning to Slovenia in the 1980s, designed the interior of a overly dominant local agendas and conflicting design ideologies.15 army training centre in Libya. In the heated atmosphere in 1961, the Secretariat for Industrial Design (SPID YU) entered the international scene with the desire Mächtig’s Metamorphoses to internationalise Yugoslav design. According to the Slovenian in-Among the Slovenian professional and general public, Mächtig dustrial designer Saša J. Mächtig, the decision was undoubtedly, at is most known for his red kiosk K67, which dates back to the late least in part, based on 1960s, and as a professor and co-founder of the Department of Design at the Academy of Fine Arts in 1984. His work in journalism and 10 In 1951, the Designers’ Society of Slovenia (DOS), initially named the Association of his regular international engagements, by contrast, are lar gely un-Artists of Applied Arts of Slovenia, was created. Likewise in the 1950s, the Industrial known. In this treatise, we will focus on the latter, and the mid-1970s Design Studio (SIO) began operating under the auspices of the Association of Artists of Applied Arts in Zagreb, as well as in Belgrade under the auspices of their own period in particular. In this period, Saša J. Mächtig wrote the essay association (Keller, Dizajn, p. 110). 11 Ibid., p. 115. 12 Although the texts analysed mention various years, 1961 is cited most frequently (mainly in connection with the 2nd ICSID Congress in Venice in 1961). 16 Mächtig, Ravnikar in design, p. 257. 13 Messell, Design Across Borders, p. 131. 17 Gnamuš, ed., Katalog BIO, p. 12 and 24. 14 Woodham, Twentieth-Century Design, p. 176. 18 MAO AJL owns an extensive collection of personal documents, sketches, blueprints, 15 Messell, Design Across Borders, p. 131. manuscripts and typescripts, photographs and products. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED BARBARA PREDAN Metamorphoses 2,19 the idiosyncratic sequel to Metamorphoses,20 in design, the Yugoslav contribution to the field of participatory de-which he had published in the Sinteza magazine in 1969. Unlike sign currently remains overlooked. This is despite the fact that, as the first essay, which dealt primarily with the role of architecture we will show below, his work left lasting traces. in society, this 1970s article was much more political and critical The first time that Mächtig introduced the essay Metamor-towards the broader society. Quoting Mächtig: “The essay is based phoses 2 to the public was at the conference of the British orga-on the Yugoslav attitudes towards the global process of social and nisation DIA in Dubrovnik in the autumn of 1974. A year later, the national emancipation and the democratisation of international essay was also accepted for the IX ICSID Congress in Moscow. relations, and, in this context, with the new role of the design pro-The author’s intent with the article was to provide starting points fession in modern society.”21 In Metamorphoses 2, Mächtig drew for the international community to “address concrete questions special attention to the urgent need for establishing participation about the role of the profession in the context of Yugoslav self-in design: management as both a social theory and practice”.27 When he arrived at the Congress in Moscow, however, he learned he would The recognition of the need for interdisciplinary approach, cooperation not get to present the text as part of the “Design and State Politics” of decision-makers and participation of users should shift the focus of topic. The official explanation was that there was insufficient our endeavours. Within this framework designers in today’s changing time; unofficially, the reason was that the text was considered too world can play a much more important and socially responsible role political. According to Mächtig’s record of the Congress, entitled than was possible in their quality of “form-givers” when they were de-Kronologija dogodka [Event Chronology], he was approached by pendent on a territorially restricted market in industrialised countries Vladimir Zinchenko, then the deputy director of the scientific reand on rich clients.22 search institute for industrial design VNIITE of the Soviet Union, who “intervened in connection with the part of the text that It is worth mentioning here that the authors who study the field ED DESIGN mentioned Vietnam, Czechoslovakia and Big Brother”.28 Zinchenko 86 of co-creation and participation in design and co-design—starting ALIGN warned him, Mächtig reports, that the Congress was not intended 87 from the economic practices of cooperatives and other co-manage-to be political in nature, whereas the text in question was highly ment and self-determination practices of the 19th and 20th centu-TS OF NON-C political, and that since the Congress was supported by politicians, ry—consider the 1970s to be the time that these topics entered the PAM the organisers wished to avoid complications.29 Mächtig, indignant E I field of design. Most of them trace the origin of participatory design TH over these developments, protested loudly both to the local orga-to the Scandinavian worker struggles,23 as well as to a conference nisers of the Congress and the international organisation the ICSID. titled Design Participation, which was organised by the Design ReHis objections did not help, however, and he was not granted any search Society in Manchester, England, in 1971, and which remains time at the podium. an exceedingly important reference point even today.24 User-cen-The reasons for this decision by the organisers are likely to be tred design is considered by the authors of these texts as having found in the events preceding the start of the Moscow Congress. origins in the political activism of the civil rights movements;25 they As Dmitry Azrikan writes, throughout the preparation phase of the call it a “US-driven phenomenon” that involves deliberate inclusion IX ICSID Congress, themed “Design for Human Beings and Society”, of users in the design process.26 Despite Mächtig’s active role in the VNIITE institute’s cooperation with the Science and Technol-ensuring recognition of the significance of participatory practices ogy Committee was exemplary. Before the start of the Congress, however, the opening of the multimedia exhibition in one the most prestigious Moscow halls, the Rossia Concert Hall, was forbidden. 19 MAO, Mächtig, Metamorfoze 2. 20 Mächtig, Metamorfoze. In the exhibition, which had already been set up, the designers from 21 MAO, Mächtig, Kronologija dogodka, p. [1]. VNIITA were hoping to present the role of industrial design in every-22 MAO, Mächtig, Metamorfoze 2, p. 22. day life on 16 large screens, highlighting its ubiquity and its impact 23 See Bødker, Creating Conditions for Participation, in Greenbaum and Loi, Participation, the camel and the elephant of design. on the quality of life. Azrikan wrote, however, that 24 Cross, ed., Design Participation. 25 See Sanoff, Three Decades of Design and Community, in Luck, What is it that makes 27 MAO, Mächtig, Kronologija dogodka, p. [1]. participation in design participatory design? 28 Ibid. 26 Sanders in Stappers, Co-creation and the new landscapes of design, p. 5. 29 Ibid., pp. [1–2]. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED BARBARA PREDAN a couple of days before the Congress opened, a mysterious panic sud-the ICSID’s overly centralist organisation intensified.34 As Tania denly came over the Committee. Although everything was built, orga-Messell explained, the ICSID, promoted by the United Nations In-nized, and prepared, all now was totally banned, including slides which dustrial Development Organisation (UNIDO), expanded deliberate-were to support the [Soviet] panelists presentations. Nothing was ex-ly in the 1970s, with developing countries actively joining. But the plained. The Soviet portion of the Congress was converted to a boring main problem soon became apparent in that the ICSID simplistical-bureaucratic format. I tried to draw something with a marker on a piece ly imagined its cooperation with these countries as the gathering of paper during my presentation. All of my slides were locked up.30 of international design experts aimed at “facilitating the implementation of foreign productivity guidelines in large and small-scale Azrikan saw this as a clear signal to the design profession from industries”.35 They proclaimed themselves the hol ders of knowl-the Soviet authorities at the time. The political authorities evi-edge and progress, as someone who wishes to and is capable of dently identified design as a potential threat, since it involved so-helping, yet they were not actually interested in knowing the whole cial changes in the cultural and economic sphere. Mächtig’s Event picture. This is evident from the minutes of the executive council of Chronology does not make clear the extent to which the Yugoslav the ICSID from 1970. Josine des Cressonnières, Secretary General delegation of designers was aware of the situation and these de-of the organisation, explained the reasons for the dissemination of velopments. In light of the criticism directed at the organisation-aid to developing countries as follows: al deficiencies and the view that articles by the Eastern European delegates were “either restrained or low quality”,31 it is reasonable The only justification of the ICSID is to help. We must do it with all the to assume that they were not really aware of the political pressures assets and means particular from the ICSID which derive from its in-behind the scenes. A critique by Goroslav Keller likewise includes ternational status and allow for: A) exchange and information (which only a brief observation that the Congress in Moscow felt lethar-we can do better than anyone). B) a channel of assistance of more ad-gic and lacked meaningful discussions, reactions and disagree-ED DESIGN vanced countries, no longer in need of help (Sweden for instance) to-88 ments.32 Despite everything, however, the event would prove to be ALIGN wards those who need [sic] it acutely.36 89 of key importance for Mächtig’s subsequent steps and his active participation in the ICSID’s international events. TS OF NON-C This view, held with the blind conviction of its own correctness and Mächtig would speak again in 1976, this time at the IX ICSID PAM uncritically following the guidelines set by UNIDO that call for fo-E I General Assembly in Brussels. It is readily apparent from the min-TH cusing on industrial development, deliberately ignored the broader utes of the General Assembly that the Yugoslav delegates’ presen-social, cultural and educational impacts of such an approach. In tation was carefully thought-out and well prepared. As delegates the 1970s and 1980s, however, this attitude gradually became a tar-from a non-aligned country, members of the Yugoslav associa-get of strong criticism, even by some of the active members of the tion of designers SPID YU objected to the excessive centralism ICSID from developed countries. Calls were made to cease doing displayed by the international organisation. The result of such a things for the so-called periphery and instead begin doing things regime, they felt, was the loss of regional contributions from less with them, as it is only through cooperation that technological in-developed countries. At the same time, at the General Assembly, dependence can be achieved.37 Among those critics, several stood Mächtig, proceeding from his Metamorphoses 2 essay, advanced out in particular: Gui Bonsiepe, Victor Papanek, Paul Hogan38 and a thesis that the West ought to recognise that “there is no single finally, Saša J. Mächtig. At the IX Ge ne ral Assembly of the ICSID model that would make it possible to easily transfer experiences in Brussels, the latter offered the following two proposals: “The and principles from one profession, or one country, to another”.33 statute of the ICSID should prepare the basis that would provide a In the 1970s and 1980s, similar criticism began to be voiced by place for a representative from the so-called developing countries individual Latin American countries. With the creation of ALADI on the executive board. 2) A working group should be established (Asociación Latinoamericana de Diseño) in 1978, the pressure on 34 Buitrago-Trujillo, The Siege of the Outsiders ALADI, p. 55. 30 Azrikan, VNIITE, p. 64. 35 Messell, Globalization and Design Institutionalization, p. 89. 31 MAO, Mächtig, Kronologija dogodka, p. [3]. 36 UBDA, No 6, ICD/04/1, Minutes ICSID Executive Board Meeting, 17–18 January 1970. 32 Keller, Kongres bez freed-backa, p. 19. 37 Bonsiepe, Precariousness and Ambiguity, p. 13. 33 MAO, Mächtig, Metamorfoze 2, p. 20. 38 Messell, Globalization and Design Institutionalization, pp. 92–93. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED BARBARA PREDAN to examine the issues related to participation and self-manage-of erosion of power, conflicts and beliefs heading towards some sort of ment.” He added: levelling of the old oppositions in and of ideological consensus, but an active attempt at construing an order of domination, able to dismiss We are aware that our professional impact on society is not as great as any resistance, or any alternative, by imposing itself as self-evident it could be. [...] we have failed so far to develop adequate methods of and inescapable. Our time is therefore not a “post-time” but “anti-time”. participation, even though the methods of interdisciplinary work have The evolution we have witnessed in the past three decades is, strictly already become common practice. Nevertheless, as these methods speaking, intellectual counter-revolution.41 are too professionally oriented and our task is to find new ways and develop new methods that allow the participation of design-makers, In this light it is perhaps easier to understand why Mächtig’s afore-designers and users at all levels in our design process, I propose that a mentioned efforts and calls for a different approach were often new working group be established in order to deal with the problem and deemed overly political. The origin of this anti-time—and its result-methods of participation and self-management.39 ing cyclicality—in design go back much further than three decades. In his report from the Milan Congress of 1983, Mächtig wrote: This principle, he continued, was increasingly becoming “a topic of interest in Scandinavia, Great Britain and some Latin American The discussion on the latest developments in design associated with countries, whereas in Yugoslavia, this has already been implement-the most developed countries became even more heated during the ed within the sociopolitical system”.40 So it was already in the mid-Congress. Ever since the 1960s it has become apparent that functional-1970s that Mächtig, at numerous international events, called for ism has lost motivation in design. Of course the so-called post-industri-greater participation of designers, decision-makers and users on all al era does not understand the historical moment through the denunci-levels. He further called for an understanding that the denial of the ation of industry, even though the latter can no longer be the source of fact that our world is shared should cease and that the affairs of all ED DESIGN cultural inspiration.42 90 (including those of the developing countries) should be treated as ALIGN 91 matters of community. He called for the development of methods Despite the explicitly obvious active constructing of an order of that would stimulate interdisciplinarity, decentralisation, partici-TS OF NON-C domination by the developed countries, the international council pation, cooperation and self-management. With just a handful of PAM of the ICSID, eventually—at the end of the 1970s and beginning of E I adjustments to bring them up to date, these words and approach-TH the 1980s—acquiesced to considering the alternative that was be-es would not sound out of place in our “new” world of the present. ing proposed by the Yugoslav delegates and the participants from Though it may sometimes appear as if the ideas of self-manage-Latin America. In 1980, at the 11th General Assembly in Paris, they ment and non-alignment are no longer palatable in these “new” adopted a proposal—based on the amended initiative by Vesna times, we can see that the modern efforts to find alternatives to Popović and Saša J. Mächtig—to establish a working group on the the current economic system—ones oriented more towards shar- “future and structure of the ICSID”.43 As something of a mission ing, cooperation and co-creation among all the stakeholders in the statement for the group, they wrote in the report of the General process—in fact revolve around ideas that had, in the past, repeat-Assembly (under Article 7.3.1.7 – ICSID FUTURE 79–81) that “a ’nat-edly been implemented or at the very least discussed in profes-ural’ association of member societies should be promoted in order sional circles, only now repackaged in new terminology. Jacques to improve communication and interaction. [...] This should also be Rancière would most likely see this recurrence as the recycling of reflected in the structure of the international organisation”.44 The old ideas from modernity with the old structures remaining exactly where they had already been: 41 Rancière, Je čas emancipacije minil?, p. 134. 42 MAO, Mächtig, Report: ICSID Congress and General Assembly – Milan, October The so-called “grand narrative” of modernity has not been dismissed. In-1983, p. 3. 43 The group’s report, to be discussed at the General Assembly in Helsinki (1981), was stead, its elements have been recycled. What happens is not a process prepared by April 1981. See also (everything by MAO): Mednarodne novice. Informacije. ICSID; ICSID News, p. 1. Mächtig, Report from the 1st meeting of the special working group for the ICSID in Great Britain. Mächtig, Report on the Working Group on the 39 MAO, Minutes of the IX. General Assembly (ICSID), typescript, Brussels 1976, p. 43. Future and Structure of the ICSID. 40 Ibid. 44 Mächtig, Report on the Working Group on the Future and Structure of the ICSID. p. 30 THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED newly established group for the future and structure of the ICSID (ICSID WG/FS) was led by Peter Lord45 and Mächtig was appointed a member. The umbrella working group also included Françoise Jollant (France), Frans van der Put (Netherlands) and Yuri Soloviev (Soviet Union). Apart from the precept mentioned above, the group’s objectives additionally included exploring the options of changing the statute of the ICSID in order to create a more polycentric organisation, delegating the decision-making power to individual regions and establishing better communication, coope ration and democra-cy among ICSID members. Mächtig’s task within the group was to investigate polycentric processes and the practical opportunities for implementing regionalisation. One of the key contributions of the ICSID WG/FS group’s re-port46 was the proposal that the ICSID abandon its position of being a so-called super-governmental organ and instead become a catalyst of activity in member associations. There was to be a shift in emphasis from management and domination towards practice, education and promotion in equal measures. Group members built the polycentric nature of the ICSID on the principle of “self-sufficient, self-promoting local (regional) groups congregating around centres that emerge naturally [...] An important role in this process 92 of association will be played by factors such as necessity, culture 93 and language; at the same time, no region should embrace exclusivity”.47 The Yugoslav organisation SPID YU was recognised as an example of good practice in the area of platforms of exchange. Among the newly established regional groups, the ICSID Asian Regional Group, formed in 1979, was highlighted in particular. Despite the tendency towards regional association on a geographical basis, it was stres sed multiple times in the document that the regional nature of polycentricity should not derive from maps. As a practical example, they cited India and Pakistan, which they deemed (also on the basis of connections within the Non-Aligned Movement) to have more in common with the Latin American countries than their northern neighbours. The result was a short study that included the initial proposal for regional groups that would employ the logic of self-management to ensure their development and balance the needs of individual countries. In addition, Mächtig’s several years of effort and active participation in the group finally bore fruit in 45 Peter Lord, the future Secretary General and President of the ICSID International Council, would later become a key figure, having been an open supporter of Yugoslav Meeting of the Working Group on the Future and Structure of the ICSID. designers’ work within the ICSID from the very beginning. Correspondence between Lord and Mächtig is kept in the MAO archives. Present in the photograph (left to right): Frans van der Put, Mary Mullin, 46 Mächtig, Report on the Working Group on the Future and Structure of the ICSID. Peter J. Lord, Saša J. Mächtig, Françoise Jollant. Paris 1980. 47 Ibid., p. 30. Courtesy of Museum of Architecture and Design, Ljubljana. BARBARA PREDAN 1992, when he succeeded in bringing the ICSID Congress to Ljubljana—by then the capital of independent Slovenia. It is not insignificant that the international organisation (known since 2017 as the World Design Organisation, or WDO) to this day presents itself to the public as a global community of member organisations from six regions.48 Janja Lap’s Community Values Designer and architect Janja Lap, unlike Saša J. Mächtig, is not well known to the Slovenian public (general or professional). It took two years of in-depth research within the scope of the research project Modeli in prakse mednarodne kulturne izmenjave Gibanja neuvrščenih [Models and Practices of International Cultural Exchange] to uncover the extraordinary breadth and multi-layered nature of her work in glass and industrial design, as well as scientific research in the field of systems design. It was Lap who, aged 35 and with the help of a British Council scholarship, moved to London in September 1964, where she joined the research team at the London Royal College of Art (RCA). Two years after her arrival in London, she moved to Sheffield, where she worked as a lecturer at the School ED DESIGN of Architecture, which is part of Sheffield University. Between 1973 94 ALIGN and 1975, she was also lecturing at the famous Architectural Asso-95 ciation School of Architecture in London (AA). Following her return TS OF NON-C to Slovenia, she first took employment as a researcher at the In-PAM stitute for Sociology and Philosophy at what was then called the E ITH Edvard Kardelj University in Ljubljana. Afterwards, in 1979, she began 10 years of employment at Iskra as a designer of electro-optical devices. There she designed at least one (that we know of) project intended for the non-aligned countries. Immediately after her re-tirement in 1989, on the basis of one of the last Slovenian agreements with non-aligned countries, she went to Iraq for six months to teaching at the Department of Architecture of the University of Mosul,49 But the key influence on the work detailed below was her time as a visiting researcher at the RCA in the mid-1960s. In leaving for London, Lap first suspended and later quit her job at the School of Arts and Crafts (known today as the Secondary School for Design and Photography) in Ljubljana. She also left behind her career as an award-winning and established—in Slovenia—architect and designer. In her first year at the RCA, she focused on the research of glass at the Department of Industrial ICSID membership map and proposal of regional associations 48 WDO | People | Regional Advisors and Community Liaisons. ( Report on the Working Group on the Future and Structure of the ICSID, April 1981, p. 40) 49 SI AS 1140, box 20/468, ZAMTES Ljubljana – Iraq: Engagement by University Lecturers Courtesy of Museum of Architecture and Design, Ljubljana. – Janja Lap, 1989. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED BARBARA PREDAN Glass under the mentorship of Robert Goodden. In the second year Systems, already demonstrated her astute recognition that in or-of her residence she joined the research group for hospitals at the der to find an answer, she would have to formulate a unique ap-School of Industrial Design (Engineering). There, she got to know proach to a problem she first had worked on in a highly analytical the head of the research group, professor Misha Black (known for and systematic way. Indeed, from today’s perspective and in light designing the street signs in Westminster; otherwise one of the pi-of the remarkable proliferation of methodological approaches in oneers of hospital equipment optimisation) and professor Bruce design in the last decade, the methods described in her research Archer (known, among other things, as the designer of the first sys-work seem unusually progressive for the mid-1960s and early 1970s tematically developed hospital bed), under whose mentorship she period and remain relevant today. She succeeded in incorporating completed her Master’s thesis. Bruce Archer came to the RCA in the principles of systemic, service-experience and circular design 1962 at the invitation of Black, who entrusted him with leading a re-into her research and planning, while placing everything firmly into search project focused on non-surgical hospital equipment.50 Be-the context of the the architectural and urban planning foundation fore that, he worked for a year at the Ulm School of Design, where underlying the conception of the functionalist city as understood he was invited by Tomás Maldonado, working under the design the-by her first mentor at the Faculty of Architecture in Ljubljana, Ed-orist and lecturer Horst Rittl, among others.51 Archer, as noted by vard Ravnikar.56 Stephen Boyd Davis and Simone Gristwood, worked at the RCA for In April 1979, when she took employment as an industrial de-27 years and was not only a key figure but also the driving force of signer with Iskra Commerce, Lap first entered the world of con-scientific research in the field of design. In the 1960s, he instituted sumer product design, which offered her an opportunity to examine and advanced an approach described as follows: the applicability of her research work. Despite her ambi tious goals, she joined Iskra right when their independent design department to be rigorous, and in particular ‘systematic’, about the nature and prac-was being dismantled. It is no wonder, then, that two years into her tice of designing. He sought to establish a philosophy of design,52 even ED DESIGN employment, upon receiving the international BIO Award, in an in-96 a ‘science of design’,53 a phrase often associated with Herbert Simon’s ALIGN terview for the Iskra newsletter, she pointed out: 97 Sciences of the Artificial. Essential to this science was an understanding that Design Research was the study, not only of design’s methods, TS OF NON-C I always look at things through the magical prism of the future and it is but also of its ontology as a discipline and an activity.54 PAM my utmost wish and hope that design will truly come to life in Iskra and E ITH come to permeate, in the positive sense, the whole company. [...] This The foundation of Archer’s systematic methods of design was the is a goal that all of us together, the whole of Iskra, should be willing to necessity of moving design away from sculptural approaches to sacrifice a lot to achieve. We ought perhaps to consider that design is technological problems. The task of the designer, he asserted, is no longer a good fit for Iskra Commerce and instead reimagine it as an to find ways to incorporate into design thinking “the knowledge of institute operating at two layers: a service layer for addressing every-ergonomics, cybernetics, marketing and management science”, day issues and a second layer, where bona fide development would take thus keeping up with the trend in technology and starting to “adopt place in close association with other development institutes.57 a systems approach that is different than the approach to artefacts”.55 However, in the context of interpreting Lap’s products in the field of After joining the research group for hospitals, Lap focused on industrial design, it is important to keep in mind the aspect that she analysing and understanding the advantages and disadvantages of began to cultivate during her studies of architecture and which she various hospital feeding schemes. Her first study, Hospital Feeding developed further at the RCA, namely the awareness that “we are constantly confronted with the problem of creative heritage, which 50 Boyd Davis in Gristwood, “A dialogue between the real-world and the operational needs to be examined especially in the context of the diversity of model” – The realities of design in Bruce Archer’s 1968 doctoral thesis, p. 187. cultural traditions and the existing social structure”.58 In the 1980s 51 Ibid., p. 186 in Krippendorff, Designing in Ulm and off Ulm. 52 Archer, A view of the nature of design research, p. 33. she additionally pointed out that 53 Archer, The Structure of Design Processes, foreword. 54 Boyd Davis in Gristwood, “A dialogue between the real-world and the operational 56 Žnidaršič, Metoda projektiranja arhitekta Edvarda Ravnikarja, pp. 9–10. model” – The realities of design in Bruce Archer’s 1968 doctoral thesis, p. 185. 57 Ovsenik, Oblikovanje iz lastnih korenin, p. 5. 55 RCA Archer, Systematic method for designers, p. 1. 58 Lap, Industrijsko oblikovanje in vprašanje ustvarjalnosti, p. 13. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED BARBARA PREDAN It is time we asked ourselves if we are capable of recording our periods research in the field of designing for disasters.63 In her text entitled of life through a deeper engagement with the questions of a nation’s Disaster Housing in Yugoslavia, published in 1977 in the New York cultural and social heritage, and, from these starting points, form our magazine Disasters, The International Journal of Disaster Studies own visual concept of industrial design that would, by virtue of its au-and Practice, she wrote that the main challenge in designing for thentic and original expression, be able to equal the European level of disasters is that “All too often people design an item for a disas-industrial product creation.59 ter without taking into account the variety of needs that different cultural groups may have. This is important if the aid is to be of The search for uniqueness and cultural authenticity of expre ssion value and facilitate the rebuilding process.”64 At the same time, by already hinted at the tendencies that would be reflected in society respecting cultural heritage and understanding diversity, Lap also during the breakup of Yugoslavia a decade later. At the same time, followed the guidelines of the Non-Aligned Movement itself. While Lap, by noting the necessity of searching for the so-called historic culture—as Piškur notes—was not a priority for the Non-Aligned aspect of creativity, raised a topic that is still relevant today. This Movement, the cultural policy of the Non-Aligned Movement reflection needs to be interpreted together with her statement strongly condemned cultural imperialism and promoted cultural that she looks at everything “through the magical prism of the fu-diversity and culture hybridisation. Western (European) cultural ture.”60 A similar explanation was put forward by Alison J. Clarke, heritage was to be understood in terms of “comparison”; it was to who argued that it is in fact impossible to look to the future with-be woven into the living culture of colonised peoples, not merely out understanding history, stating that “at the core of the imagi-repeated in new (political) circumstances. Strong emphasis was nary and the speculative within design, history has always played therefore put on “trans-national appreciation of cultural heritages” a major theoretical and conceptual part”. This is why it is such a and a local approach. Here it makes sense to paraphrase Achille problem “that this explosion in contemporary design now largely Mbembe, namely that it is not enough to merely create one’s own neglects, or actively denies through its lack of engagement with ED DESIGN forms and institutions of culture, etc., but that it is also necessary 98 histographical framing and its acritical approach to ‘the social’”.61 ALIGN to translate, fragment and break up the realities and imaginaries 99 The above is key to understanding Lap’s project, which she originating elsewhere, and in the process to use these forms as an designed in the context of the cultural and economic cooperation TS OF NON-C aid to our own development.65 among non-aligned countries. The project encompassed the inte-PAM The above is also evident in her design of the equipment for rior design of the previously mentioned Training Centre in Libya, E ITH the Libyan Tank Crew Training Centre. The preserved blueprints which she planned and implemented in 1984 for the Libyan army. In specify the basic furnishings of the interior with seating for 55 addition to furnishing design, this also included modern computer people. The plan also shows the rational arrangement of desks, and electrooptical equipment by Iskra. The planned Training Cen-club tables and seats in the main hall (the lecture hall) and in the tre, which also had a second role as a service station, was located smaller separate rooms. There are 20 separate rooms intended for somewhere “south of Tripoli in the [Libyan] desert”.62 Božo Vukas individual work and study; one room served as the office of the relates that Iskra Elektrooptika sold a lot of equipment to Libya at Centre’s Chief Officer, two were service rooms and one was used as the time; this being the case, they wished to have a service centre, a lounge. Other than the blueprint, Lap’s estate only includes one and the building designed by Lap was aimed primarily at training more artifact—a single club table, low and stable, of massive and service personnel. relatively heavy construction. The slats on the table surface are Even a brief look at the blueprints form the green folder bearing glued together in a pattern derived from the typical Greek meander. the English title “Training center” makes it clear that Lap’s design process followed the logic she had developed previously during her 63 In addition to her research in the field of hospital design and improving the quality of meals for the most vulnerable segments of the population, Lap also spent two decades meticulously research the field of design in times of crisis (from wars to earth-59 Ibid. quakes). She thoughtfully linked the topic to Slovenian partisan hospitals (focusing 60 Ovsenik, Oblikovanje iz lastnih korenin, p. 5. on the Franja and Jelendol hospitals) and made comparisons of different instances 61 Clarke, The New Design Ethnographers 1968–1974, pp. 73–74. of disaster response. Her research always emphasised the importance and necessi-62 Interview with the design engineer Božo Vukas, 7 July 2022. He also states in the ty of understanding vernacular design and architecture. interview that in 1984, Lap visited the site to make sure everything was carried out 64 Lap, Disaster Housing in Yugoslavia, p. 61. according to the plans. 65 Piškur, Južna ozvezdja, p. 15. 100 101 Janja Lap, plans for the Tank Crew Training Centre, Janja Lap, model club table for the Tank Crew Training Centre, Libya, 1984, Iskra Elektrooptika. Libya, 1984, Iskra Elektrooptika, photo: Aleš Rosa. Courtesy of Museum of Architecture and Design, Ljubljana. Courtesy of Museum of Architecture and Design, Ljubljana. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED The assumption, in light of the designer’s fondness for ancient cultures, is that she sought inspiration in Antiquity, when Cyrenaica— Libya’s north-eastern region—was a Greek colony. The wood stain colour choice was green—unsurprising, considering this was the Islamic world. The ornamentation, discreetly integrated into the table surface, and the choice of the table colour are the only culturally specific details, skilfully woven by the designer into a rational and purposefully designed object. While the choice of wood for the furniture was not informed by an understanding of local goods, it was logical, as the centre’s design process was carried out in cooperation with the Slovenian industry that furnished the buildings. Records of her work in Iraq can be found in the Archives of the Republic of Slovenia.66 They tell us that in the winter semester of 1989/1990 she spent six months in Mosul, teaching Interior and Industrial Design at the School of Architecture of the University of Mosul. Fragmentary anecdotes from this period are also preserved in the report she wrote after her return, which was broadcast on Ars, the 3rd station of Radio Slovenia, in 1993. In the radio pro gramme entitled Spomini, pisma in potopisi [Memories, Letters and Travelogues] she recounts that during her stay, she was thrilled with working with the students, the well-equipped lecture theatres and 102 the remarkable history, which she studied rigorously every week on 103 her days off. At the same time, her report makes it clear that she did not let the historical beauty blind her to the critical perception of Iraqis’ degrading treatment of women, the Kurds and foreigners, as well as the exploitation of foreign experts that she witnessed. Despite that, she managed to break the ice and build mutual trust with the students, as she sensed their hunger for knowledge from a part of the world that they otherwise found largely inaccessible at the time. This last thought reaffirms the strength potential of meetings that go beyond the national perspective and that can result not only in the sharing of knowledge but also in the creation of opportunities for the generation of new knowledge and experience that transcends political ideologies. In this, both Janja Lap and Saša J. Mächtig were without rival. Janja Lap, Tank Crew Training Centre, 66 SI AS 1140, box 20/468, ZAMTES Ljubljana – Iraq: Engagement by University Lecturers Libya, 1984, Iskra Elektrooptika, render: Bor Jarh. – Janja Lap, 1989. Kept by: Academy of Fine Arts and Design, Ljubljana THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED BARBARA PREDAN Shaping Space and Time ignored, but entrusted with self-organisation and given the oppor-Our chosen examples illustrate how Slovenian (and Yugoslav) de-tunity for cooperation. In doing so—if what has been described is signers, in accordance with the Yugoslav social order, actively put into actual practice—we all gain. worked to introduce into the international space the ideas of de-The examples provided therefore show that even a voice from centralisation and the necessity of emancipation to draw atten tion what is seen as the periphery, from a different everyday life—a to voices from the so-called periphery of design. They focused on voice like the Yugoslav one, shaped by non-alignment and social-understanding and developing a holistic approach in the broader ist self-management—can, through practical experience, influence cultural, social and geographical context. They introduced dis-the wider international community. Shaping space and time. How-course on decolonisation into and via their work in design, as well ever, the selected examples also show that voices from the periph-as the possibility of designing new approaches for addressing ery, that is to say, voices from countries with systems considered overlooked and non-aligned cultural elements in design. The main objectionable by the international community, or as unorthodox emphasis was on understanding the significance and role of active experiments, are quickly forgotten by history and design theory. participation both in the design profession and in the community, It thus undoubtedly falls on all of us who draw on this heritage to as well as its role in society in general. keep reminding the world of this, albeit still from the periphery. It Both examples, however, also serve to illustrate the difference needs pointing out that a plurality of voices in the design communi-mentioned at the beginning of this text. Whereas the engagement ty is not something to be feared;70 that what Western authors keep of Slovenian experts in the Global South was (usually) welcome, telling us in their current books—how to participate, how to co-cre-establishing a voice in the Global North actually required con-ate, how to give voice to carriers of capability—is something that frontation. There had to be an attempt to silence, or as Rok Benčin needs to be actually practiced in earnest in the context of writing would put it, there had to be “an attempt to usurp the privileges design history and theory. of thinking and creating”.67 In response to the event, the Yugoslav ED DESIGN 104 designers, in a clear critique that exposed the weakness of the in-ALIGN 105 ternational organisation, showed that privileges are not the property of the self-appointed few, but are inherently universal. And it TS OF NON-C is at this point that we can detect the rudiments of emancipation, PAME I which, according to Benčin, “requires us to break up the con sen-TH sus and introduce a confrontation that exposes seemingly insurmountable social divisions”.68 Jacques Rancière wrote that emancipatory politics “depend on the multiplication of those ope rations of subjectivation that invent the worlds of community as worlds of disagreement”.69 This is exactly what Mächtig and his colleagues managed to achieve as part of the of the Working Group on the Future and Structure of the ICSID. They succeeded in pointing to the seemingly insurmountable social divisions between the Global North and the Global South, and then, by introducing polycentricity and an understanding of the regional approach, to link these into new worlds of community with the possibility of forming their own voice in the global community. They also gained recognition from an international organisation that the world is a community of plural and equal voices, where the voice of the periphery is not to be 67 Benčin, Med mimesis in aisthesis, p. 214. 70 Petra Černe Oven and Marija Nabernik emphatically assert the opposite: we need 68 Ibid., p. 218. to be able “to effectively describe the actual situation and trigger changes that are 69 Rancière, Nerazumevanje, p. 75. necessary at all levels of society”. Development of Scientific Illustration, p. 41. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED BARBARA PREDAN SOURCES AND LITERATURE Bonsiepe, Gui. Precariousness and Ambiguity: Industrial Design in Dependent Count ries. In: Julian Bicknell and Liz McQuiston (ed.). Design for Need: The Social Contribution of Design. London: Pergamon Press, 1976, pp. 13–19. ARCHIVAL SOURCES Boyd Davis, Stephen, Simone Gristwood. ‘A dialogue between the real-world and the MAO – Archive of the MAO: operational model’ – The realities of design in Bruce Archer’s 1968 doctoral thesis. Archive of the designer Janja Lap (AJL). Design Studies 56, 2018, pp. 185–204. Also available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.destud. Mächtig, Saša J. Kronologija dogodka [Event Chronology], typescript, 1975. 2017.11.005 (accessed on 7 March 2023). Mächtig, Saša J. Metamorfoze 2, typescript, 1 November 1974. Mächtig, Saša J. Report on the 1st meeting of the Special Working Group of the Buitrago-Trujillo, Juan-Camilo. The Siege of the Outsiders ALADI. Journal of Design ICSID in Great Britain, Ljubljana, 20 June 1980. History 34, No 1 (2020), pp. 54–68. Mächtig, Saša J., Report: ICSID Congress and General Assembly – Milan, October 1983, typescript, Ljubljana, December 1983. Clarke, Alison J. The New Design Ethnographers 1968–1974: Towards a Critical Histo-Mächtig, Saša J. Report on the Working Group on the Future and Structure of graphy of Design Anthropology. In: Rachel Charlotte Smith, Kasper Tang Vangkilde, ICSID, ICSID Secretariat, Brussels, April 1981. Mette Gislev Kjaersgaard, Ton Otto, Joachim Halse, Thomas Binder (ed.). Design An-Mednarodne novice [International News]. Informacije. ICSID, typescript, Lju-thropological Futures. London: Bloomsbury, 2016, pp. 71–85. bljana 1980. Minutes of the IX. ICSID General Assembly. Cross, Nigel (ed.). Design Participation: Proceedings of the Design Research Society’s Conference, Manchester, September 1971. London: Academy Editions, 1972. RCA – Special Collections & Archives, Royal College of Art: Archer, Bruce L. Case study: designing a bed for British hospitals. Typescript Černe Oven, Petra, Marija Nabernik. Development of Scientific Illustration in Slove-of the conference lecture for the 4th ICSID General Assembly and Congress, nia through Historical, Political, and Technological Perspective. The International Vienna, aspect D – Health. 23 September 1965. Jour nal of Visual Design 13, No 4 (2019), pp. 23–43. Also available at: https://doi. Archer, Bruce L. Systematic method for designers. A reprint of seven partially org/10.18848/2325-1581/CGP/v13i04/23-43” (accessed on 7 March 2023). updated texts published in Design magazine between 1963 and 1964. The collection was published by the Council of Industrial Design in London in 1964. Gnamuš, Marijan (ed.). Katalog BIO [BIO Catalogue]. Ljubljana: Secretariat of the In-ED DESIGN du strial Design Biennial, 1966. SI AS – Archive of the Republic of Slovenia: 106 SI AS 1140 – Institute for International Scientific and Technical Cooperation of ALIGN ICSID News, ICSID, July/August 1980. 107 the Socialist Republic of Slovenia, 1952–1991 Ivanšek, France. I. razstava pohištva v Ljubljani: dobra lekcija za proizvajalce in obliTS OF NON- UBDA – University of Brighton Design Archives: ICSID Archive: C kovalce [The 1st Furniture Exhibition: a Good Lesson for Producers and Designers]. PA Minutes ICSID Executive Board Meeting, 17–18 January 1970, Vienna, 6, M Arhitekt, No 5 (1952), pp. 28–32. E I ICD/04/1. TH Ivanšek, France. Oblikovanje v industriji [Design in Industry]. Arhitekt, No 1 (1951), pp. 26–29. LITERATURE Kavčič, Bogdan. Sociologija dela [Sociology of Work]. Ljubljana: Delavska enotnost, 1987. Ambasz, Emilio (ed.). Italy: The New Domestic Landscape. Achievements and Problems of Italian Design. New York: MoMA, 1972. Keller, Goroslav. Dizajn [Design]. Zagreb: Vjesnik, 1975. Archer, L. Bruce. A view of the nature of design research. Design: Science: Method Keller, Goroslav. Kongres bez freed-backa [Congress without Freed-back]. Čovjek i (ed. Robin Jacques and James Powell). Guildford: Westbury House/IPC Science and pro stor, No 273 (1975), pp. 18–19. Technology Press, 1981, pp. 30–47. Krippendorff, Klaus. Designing in Ulm and off Ulm. In: K.-A. Czemper (ed.). HfG, Ulm: Arnautović, Ilija. Dvoje letnic, dve razstavi pohištva [Two Years, Two Furniture Exhibi-Die Abteilung Produktgestaltung. Dortmund: Verlag Dorothea Rohn, 2008, pp. 55–72. tions]. Arhitekt, No 17 (1955), pp. 24–25. Lap, Janja. Disaster Housing in Yugoslavia. Disasters: The International Journal of Azrikan, Dmitry. VNIITE, Dinosaur of Totalitarianism or Plato’s Academy of Design? Disa ster Studies and Practice 1/1 (1977), p. 61. Design Issues 15, No 3 (1999), pp. 4. Lap, Janja. Industrijsko oblikovanje in vprašanje ustvarjalnosti [Industrial Design and Benčin, Rok. Med mimesis in aisthesis [Between mimesis and aisthesis]. In: Jacques the Question of Creativity], 17 April 1981, Gospodarski vestnik No 15 (1981), p. 15 Rancière. Aisthesis: prizori iz estetskega režima umetnosti [Aisthesis: Scenes from the Aesthetic Regime of Art]. Ljubljana: Maska, 2015, pp. 211–219. Mächtig, Saša J. Metamorfoze [Metamorphoses]. Sinteza, No 13–14 (1969), pp. 13–22. Bernik, Stane. BIO v prerezu štiridesetih let [BIO in a 40-Year Cross-section]. BIO 19, Mächtig, Saša J. Ravnikar in design [Ravnikar and Design]. In: France Ivanšek (ed.). 2004, pp. 11–13. Hommage a Edvard Ravnikar: 1907–1993. Ljubljana: France and Marta Ivanšek, 1995, pp. 245–260. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED BARBARA PREDAN Messell, Tania. Design Across Borders: The Establishment of the International Coun-Bødker, Sussane. Creating Conditions for Participation: Conflicts and Resources in cil of Societies of Industrial Design (ICSID), 1953–1960. Blucher Design Proceedings. Systems Development. Human-Computer Interaction, p. 3 (1996), pp. 215–236. Avail-Taipei: ICDHS, 1, No 1 (2016), pp. 131–137. able at: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327051hci1103_2 (accessed on 7 January 2022). Messell, Tania. Globalization and Design Institutionalization: ICSID’s XIth Congress DOS – Društvo oblikovalcev Slovenije [Designers’ Society of Slovenia]. Available at: and the Formation of ALADI, 1979. Journal of Design History 32, No 1 (2018), https://www.dos-design.si/drustvo/drustvo-oblikovalcev-slovenije (accessed on 29 pp. 88–104. December 2021). Ovsenik, Mara. Oblikovanje iz lastnih korenin: Razgovor z mgr. ing. arh. Janjo Lap, na-Greenbaum, Joan, and Daria Loi. Participation, the camel and the elephant of design. grajenko letošnjega BIO [Design from One’s Own Roots: A Discussion with MA Arch. Kurswechsel, No 2 (2021), pp. 81–85. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/15710882.201 Eng. Janja Lap, the award winner of this year’s BIO], 23 May 1981, Iskra, p. 5. 2.690232 (accessed on 7 January 2022). Papanek, Victor. Design for the Real World: Human Ecology and Social Change. Chi-Luck, Rachael. [Editorial] What is it that makes participation in design participatory cago: Academy Chicago Publishers, 1992. design? Design Studies, p. 59 (C) (2018), pp. 1–8. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j. destud.2018.10.002 (accessed on 7 January 2022). Piškur, Bojana. Južna ozvezdja: druge zgodovine, druge modernosti [Southern Con stellations: Other Histories, Other Modernities]. In: Tamara Soban (ed.). Južna ozvezdja: Sanders, Elizabeth B.-N. and Pieter Jan Stappers. Co-creation and the new land-poetike neuvrščenih [Southern Constellations: The Poetics of the Non-Aligned]. Ljub-scapes of design. Kurswechsel, No 1 (2008), pp. 5–18. Available at: https://doi. ljana: MG + MSUM, 2019. org/10.1080/15710880701875068 (accessed on 7 January 2022). Prashad, Vijay. The Darker Nations: A People’s History of the Third World. New York in WDO | People | Regional Advisors and Community Liaisons. Available at: https://wdo.org/ London: The New Press, 2007. about/people/regional-advisors-community-liaisons/ (accessed on 14 January 2022). Ravnikar, Edvard. Design. Ljubljana: Pekinpah Association, 2017. ORAL SOURCES Rancière, Jacques. Aisthesis: prizori iz estetskega režima umetnosti [Aisthesis: Scenes from the Aesthetic Regime of Art]. Ljubljana: Maska, 2015. ED DESIGN Interview with the design engineer Božo Vukas, 7 July 2022 (notes kept by the author). 108 Rancière, Jacques. Je čas emancipacije minil? [Is the Time of Emancipation Over?], ALIGN 109 Filozofski vestnik 33, No 1 (2012), pp. 133–145. Interview with the architect Mitja Suhadolc, 5 July 2022 (notes kept by Špela Šubic, Museum of Architecture and Design, Ljubljana). TS OF NON- Rancière, Jacques. Nerazumevanje: politika in filozofija [Disagreement: Politics and C PA Philosophy] Ljubljana: Založba ZRC, ZRC SAZU, 2005. ME ITH Sanoff, Henry. Three Decades of Design and Community. North Carolina: NC State University, 2003. Schumacher, E. F. Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered. London: Vintage Books, 1993. Žnidaršič, Rok. Edvard Ravnikar’s Design Method: the Architect’s Procedures for Adapting to Changing Planning Conditions. AB 34/165–166, 2004, pp. 8–33. Woodham, Jonathan M. Twentieth-Century Design. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS Arhitekt: revija za arhitekturo, urbanizem in uporabno umetnost, Ljubljana, 1951, 1952, 1955. DIGITAL SOURCES Archer, L. Bruce. The Structure of Design Processes. Doctoral dissertation. London: Royal College of Art, 1968. Available at: http://researchonline.rca.ac.uk/2949/ (accessed on 2 March 2023). Aleš Gabrič 05 110 111 Yugoslavia and the principles of scientific and cultural exchange among the non-aligned Countries In Yugoslav foreign policy, the Non-Aligned Movement had first and foremost a political and, to a somewhat lesser extent, economic connotation, with cultural connotations far less prominent. Likewise, when emphasising cooperation with the Third World, the developing countries or the non-aligned countries, the leading Yugoslav politicians would typically highlight political issues, while cultural issues remained on the sidelines, struggling to make their way out of administrative frameworks into real life.1 It was not until the 4th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement, held in Algiers from 5 to 10 September 1973, that cultural issues were given significant consideration at the highest levels. The declaration of the conference stressed the need for eliminating “the harmful consequences * The article is a result of the research project J7-2606, Models and Practices of Global Cultural Exchange and Non-Aligned Movement: Research in the Spatio-Temporal Cultural Dynamics, which is financed by the Slovenian Research Agency (ARRS). 1 More on that in: Gabrič, Kulturno in znanstveno sodelovanje neuvrščenih [Cultural and scientific cooperation of among the Non-Aligned countries]; Ramšak, Neuvrščenost, jugoslovanska diplomacija in ustvarjanje transkulturnih vezi z Afriko [Non-Alignment, Yugoslav Diplomacy and the Establishment of Transcultural Links with Africa]. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED ALEŠ GABRIČ of the colonial era” and called for “the preservation of [...] national As one of the leaders of the Third World and the Non-Aligned culture and traditions.” The liberated peoples are to defend from Movement, Yugoslavia encouraged the signing of intergovernmen- “cultural alienation and the imported civilization imposed by impetal agreements on scientific, technical and cultural cooperation. rialism and colonialism”, which should be countered by “reperson-When dealing with those less developed countries that lacked alization and by constant and determined recourse to the country’s democratic traditions, such agreements presented fewer prob-own social and cultural values which define it as a sovereign peo-lems. By contrast, representatives of developed Western democra-ple, master of its own resources”.2 cies often pointed out that the state cannot dictate the content of Reiteration of similar conclusions at subsequent conferences scientific and cultural institutions’ work programmes. As a result, of the Non-Aligned Movement and the lack of agreement at min-some agreements ended up becoming more abstract, containing isterial level meetings serve as evidence that the ideas enshrined fewer specifics. In its report for 1980, the Institute for International in the political declarations were having a hard time finding fertile Scientific, Technical, Educational and Cultural Cooperation of the ground for the development of more authentic connections.3 Com-Socialist Republic of Slovenia (ZAMTES) described its activities mon ground was, in any case, more readily found in the area of sci-as taking place within a framework defined by “a number of docu-entific and technological cooperation, which often represented the ments adopted in recent years at international conferences, such logical continuation of the strengthening of economic cooperation. as the Summits of the Non-Aligned Movement in Colombo and Ha-In the cultural–artistic sphere in the narrower sense, the difficul-vana and the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe, ties in establishing genuine cultural cooperation were far greater. RAL HORIZON LTU as well as by the meetings of the group of 77 developing countries, Beginning with the second half of the 1970s, Yugoslavia’s position or in the framework of the United Nations”.5 That the conferences was that, much like in politics and economics, the non-aligned and IAN CU of the Non-Aligned were listed first was a clear indication of pri-VEN developing countries should coordinate the new principles of inter-orities. That said, even in these frameworks, the Yugoslav, and by E SLO national cooperation in the fields of education, science and culture H extension Slovenian, policy was quite selective: 112 “to establish a common front in the international organisations, es-ES ON T 113 pecially in UNESCO”.4 TRIN Efforts to develop closer co-operation with individual developing coun-It was only after the 6th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement tries that were at higher stages of development, as well as with oil-ex-ED COU in Havana in 1979 that calls for scientific, technical and cultural co-porting countries, manifested in initiatives taken by Slovenia together operation became more explicit. The agreements of the 1980s, the ALIGN with the other republics and the two provinces in terms of more com-last decade of Yugoslavia’s existence, when it was mired in a deep E NON-H plex arrangements at the expense of these countries, in particular for economic crisis, were therefore in many ways limited in scope. co-operation with Libya, Algeria, Iraq, Nigeria, Mexico and China.6 RE OF T Even so, they certainly articulated the Third World’s initiatives and LTU aspirations towards forging closer links in these areas. When the E CU In the cases of countries that could not offer oil or something simi-TH last Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement during Yugoslavia’s ex-larly attractive to Yugoslavia in return, there was a considerable gap istence took place, which was held in Belgrade in early September between aspirations and their translation into serious proposals. 1989, the country had already been embroiled in major internal po-Yugoslavia, a country more economically developed than most oth-litical conflicts. The following years saw the collapse of the country er non-aligned members, often ended up torn between the desire that hosted both the first and—at the time—the most recent NAM to obtain “free technical assistance on the one hand, and the actu-conference, and with this, the story of scientific, technical and cul-al, limited capabilities on our part, especially in light of the limi ted tural cooperation between Slovenia—in the form of Yugoslavia— financial resources, on the other hand”.7 and the non-aligned countries as it had emerged in the context of The proposal for the formulation of a more detailed strategy in the movement came to an end. the fields of education and culture, adopted at the conference in Havana in 1979, was developed further at the subsequent meetings 2 Osolnik, Jugoslavija v gibanju neuvrščenih, p. 43. 5 Poročilo o znanstveno-tehničnem, prosvetnem in kulturnem sodelovanju [...] v letu 3 SI AS 1149, t. e. 107, a. e. 1539/7, Medjusobna saradnja nesvrstanih i zemalja u razvoju 1980, p. 15. u oblasti obrazovanja i kulture, p. 1. 6 Ibid., p. 16. 4 Ibid., p. 2. 7 Ibid., p. 18. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED ALEŠ GABRIČ through the appointment of a working group whose objective was This was the international context in which the Non-Aligned to draw up a proposal for a joint approach by the members of the attempted to develop a unified platform. A draft action programme movement in the aforementioned fields. The ten countries in the was to be jointly endorsed at the UNESCO World Conference on working group included Yugoslavia. Their first meeting was called Cultural Policies in July and August of 1982 in Mexico City, Mexico. at the UNESCO headquarters in Paris by Cuba, the presiding mem-Yugoslavia proposed expanding the programme, so that in addition ber of the Non-Aligned Movement, on the 8 and 9 October 1981. to the general principles, it would also include some concrete ac-At the second meeting in January 1982 in Paris, they elected to tions. Yugoslavia’s own contribution was to take over the operation discuss the draft action programme at the meeting of experts and of the Josip Broz Tito Gallery of Art of the Non-Aligned Countries, high-ranking national representatives for the fields of education which was established in Titograd (modern-day Podgorica) and was and culture that was hosted by Cuba between 26 and 20 April 1982 also due to be presented at the conference in Havana.10 in its capital Havana. Yugoslavia’s starting point was a programme The basic principles of the cultural policy action programme that had been approved by the Federal Executive Council in August of the Non-Aligned Movement (and, by extension, of Yugoslavia) 1980. Involved in its preparation, in addition to the competent state were that each country has its own cultural dimension, which de-authorities, were the Federal Institute for International Scientific, fines its specifics in accordance with its economic, political, social Educational, Cultural, and Technical Cooperation and the Yugo slav and cultural characteristics. It should strive to preserve its cultural National Commission for UNESCO.8 Another reason that Yugo sla-identity and thus demonstrate a break with the past by embracing via was given an important role in shaping the cultural and poli tical RAL HORIZON LTU cultural diversity and cultural pluralism as phenomena worthy of positions of the Non-Aligned Movement was that Belgrade hosted recognition in modern times. By acknowledging the equal worth the UNESCO General Assembly in September and October 1980, IAN CU and interdependence of different cultures, the need would arise to VEN with a Yugoslav representative subsequently assuming the presi-improve intercultural communication, and programmes of mutual E SLO dency of the UN for the next three years. H cultural cooperation should accordingly be developed within the 114 Yugoslavia’s platform was thus to a large extent shaped by the ES ON T framework of UNESCO and other international organisations. In 115 cultural policy positions of the Non-Aligned Movement, who also TRIN the draft action programme, the non-aligned countries highlight-hoped to secure more favourable positions in the drawing up of the ed their anti-colonial and anti-imperialist character, as well as their ED COU UNESCO budget. At the UNESCO General Assembly in Belgrade, struggles against apartheid and racism, all forms of aggression and representatives of non-aligned and developing countries had ALIGN attempts at domination and hegemony. They pointed to the Dec-already advocated certain common principles, including in parE NON-H laration of Human Rights, which defines education and culture as ticular the need to increase UNESCO’s budget, the bulk of which a basic human right, and cited the high degree of illiteracy and the RE OF T would, in line with UNESCO’s primary mission, be devoted to the LTU high number of children around the world who did not have access educational, scientific and cultural development of less deve loped E CU to education. Accordingly, the non-aligned countries sup ported TH countries. Leaders in the Yugoslav Commission for UNESCO re-UNESCO’s actions to eradicate illiteracy and other UN acti ons in ported that representatives of developed countries were strongly the field of education and culture.11 opposed to increasing the organisation’s budget and were striving The Non-Aligned Movement was to promote bilateral and mul-to narrow UNESCO’s focus on fewer tasks. They were, for example, tilateral cooperation between the non-aligned countries and deve-not moved by the less developed countries pointing out that more loping countries. Cultural exchange between themselves would than 90% of scientists were working in developed countries, where act as a kind of bulwark against the importation of cheap Wes tern their scientific and technological achievements are subsequently products that represented a channel for the spread of the “Ameri-retained, and are not willing to share the latest findings with the can way of life”. In education, they were to foster mutual exchange, world.9 organise joint seminars and scientific conferences, and, most importantly, take care of the training of cadres for the least developed 8 SI AS 1140, t. e. 107, a. e. 1539/1, Platforma za rad jugoslovenske delegacije na sastanku 10 SI AS 1140, t. e. 107, a.e. 1539/1, Platforma za rad jugoslovenske delegacije na sastanku eksperata i visokih funkcionera za obrazovanje i kulturu nesvrstanih zemalja u Ha-eksperata i visokih funkcionera za obrazovanje i kulturu nesvrstanih zemalja u Ha-vani od 26. do 30. IV 1982 godine, pp. 1–2. vani od 26. do 30. IV 1982 godine, pp. 1–5. 9 Učešće Jugoslavije na XXI zasedanju Generalne konferencije Uneska, pp. 436–437. 11 Ibid., pp. 6–10. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED ALEŠ GABRIČ countries. Yugoslavia had by that time less of a need for concrete The non-aligned countries’ demands in the cultural, political actions in the field of education, as it no longer had to contend with and economic spheres introduced a number of new elements that mass illiteracy, the introduction of primary education or education went against the principles driving the cultural industries of the de-in general, having already solved the fundamental problems regard-veloped world. The repeated demands for funding for an increasing ing the school system in the preceding decades.12 number of international educational, scientific and cul tu ral pro-With respect to cultural cooperation, the members of the Non-grammes within the UNESCO framework, of course, boosted the Aligned Movement referred to the part of the Universal Declaration flow of funds from the developed countries to the underdeveloped of Human Rights that affirms the right of everyone to participate in world in this area, as well. Repeated calls for the establishment of the cultural life of the community. They often referred to the right new evaluation criteria represented a rejection of the domination to one’s own cultural identity, rejecting both attempts to establish of the Western cultural canon and the developed world’s precon-domination through multinational industries and the stereotypical ceptions in which “high” culture is contrasted against the “folkloric” assessments (“exported” by the developed Western world) of cul-character of cultural goods from the less deve loped world, and of tural values. High on the list of priorities for the Non-Aligned were the cultural dominance of the Christian part of the world on the the finalisation of the decolonisation process by promoting res-international scene. Another way that the developed world main-titution or the return of cultural property to the country of origin tained and extended its advantage was through new scientific ad-and combating the illicit trade in cultural property. In the area of vances, which it was unwilling to share freely for the purposes of exchange of experiences, they advocated cooperation at the in-RAL HORIZON LTU accelerating the development of less developed and developing ter-regional level among culturally related traditions, counting on countries. An even more delicate matter was the demand for resti-UNESCO’s assistance in this endeavour. Member States were to fa-IAN CU tution—this was about the cultural artefacts of the less developed VEN cilitate the training of indigenous cultural cadres; once again, this countries that had in the past been expropriated by the developed E SLO was something that Yugoslavia already had experience with, unlike H countries or former colonisers without regard for the needs and 116 many of the—until recently—less developed colonies. They were ES ON T wishes of the locals. Returning cultural goods would entail dimin-117 mainly referring to bilateral cooperation projects. News-sharing TRIN ishing the cultural institutions in the developed countries, which is was also to be handled bilaterally, with a special role reserved for why this issue is still a difficult one for their leaders to face today. ED COU the Non Aligned Countries Documentation Centre (NAMDC) in Sri Lanka. In proposing concrete actions they limited themselves to ALIGN Scientific and cultural cooperation between those not requiring too much financial investment, such as book E NON-H Slovenia and the non-aligned countries translations, guest appearances at festivals and fairs, and exchang-The actual practice of establishing contacts with members of the RE OF T ing films, both fiction and documentary.13 LTU Non-Aligned Movement belied the declared principles of Yugoslav Yugoslavia suggested that countries include in their agree-E CU foreign policy. Scientific and technological cooperation, especially TH ments as many concrete actions as possible, in addition to general in terms of foreign students studying at Yugoslav universities, cer-principles. Cooperation in the field of fine arts would, for example, tainly played a greater role than cultural cooperation.15 The de tailed be in the remit of the Gallery of Art of the Non-Aligned Countries in annual report on Slovenia’s international cooperation for 1982, Titograd, and the possibility would be explored of setting up a joint which is when the Non-Aligned Movement’s action plan on cultural translation and publishing association and organising a film fes-cooperation was drawn up, yields some insight into what the sci-tival for the non-aligned countries. Finally, Yugoslavia reiterated a entific and cultural cooperation with the Non-Aligned Movement principle that had been pervasive throughout the period of draft ing really looked like. The statistics only show trends, not an exact pic-the action programme for the cultural cooperation of non-aligned ture, as the non-aligned countries were not recorded as a separate countries, namely that all actions should be coordinated within the category. Instead, the figures summarised from the tables refer to UN system, in particular within the framework of the UNESCO pro-cooperation with developing countries in ge neral. Slovenia hosted grammes.14 328 scholarship holders from developing countries. Of those, 154 received scholarship from Yugoslavia, 35 held scholarships from 12 Ibid., pp. 11–15. 13 Ibid., pp. 16–18. 14 Ibid., pp. 19–20. 15 Strani državljani na studijama i usavršavanju u Jugoslaviji, pp. 247–250. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED ALEŠ GABRIČ their countries of origin, and 139 held private scholarships. Roughly musical exchanges with Cuba, Colombia and Ecuador did not end two-thirds of the scholarship holders were from African countries, up improving the final assessment, which was that “cooperation followed by Arab (15%) and Asian (13%) countries, with a few from with developing countries is unsatisfactory, especially in terms of Latin America and Cyprus. The students’ choices of study pro-individual exchanges, and in the field of culture we are yet to move grammes were commended as suiting both their countries of origin beyond individual exhibitions and ensemble performances”.17 and Slovenian companies in terms of establishing economic con-Only a few Slovenian scientific and cultural institutions ended tacts with partners. 149 experts from developing countries came to up intensively pursuing programmes of scientific, technical, edu-Slovenia for study trips and training, as well as international sciencational and cultural cooperation with the Non-Aligned Movement tific meetings, courses or seminars organised in cooperation with member countries. Among them were the two Slovenian univer-international organisations. On the other hand, there were also sities of Ljubljana and Maribor, both of which hosted many students 136 Slovenian specialists who travelled to the developing coun-from the non-aligned countries and whose professors often helped tries for work, short-term missions, or UN missions, or to attend in the development of particular disciplines in those countries. Spe-international scientific conferences. In Libya and Kuwait, Slove-cific to Slovenia within Yugoslavia was the long-term cooperation nian specialists helped to organise hospitals and medical services, of the Alpine Association with Nepal, where they conducted cours-while in Angola, there were experts from Splošna plovba Piran, who es and training for mountain guides. In terms of exposing people to cooperated with the Angolan marine company and marine agen-literature from less developed countries, the Pomurska Publishing cy. Slovenian experts also assisted Sudan in the development of a RAL HORIZON LTU House from Murska Sobota and its book collection Mostovi (Bridg-marine company. In Guyana, within the framework of Inter-Ameri-es) were highlighted. Among the dozens of foreign authors invited can Development Bank projects, experts from the Urban Planning IAN CU to the International Writers’ Meeting in Bled, effort was made to VEN Institute of SR Slovenia assisted the locals with project planning. In include representatives from less developed or non-aligned coun-E SLO Cyprus and Ethiopia, Slovenian consultants provided assistance in H tries. Accordingly, the invitees in 1982 included two Cypriots. While 118 business management; they also participated in the development ES ON T guest performances by Slovenian musicians or theatre artists in 119 of poultry farming in Yemen and Tunisia, fishing in Tanzania, mining TRIN developing countries were a rarity, Slovenia did host a few foreign in India, cement production in Algeria and mountain climbing in individual artists or ensembles every year. In 1982, visitors to Slo-ED COU Nepal. Most of the projects represented the culmination of several venia had the opportunity to see performances of Indian theatre years of cooperation, but the lack of funds forced the cancellation ALIGN (in Ljubljana, Maribor and Bled) and Nepalese theatre (in Ljubljana of some of the missions.16 E NON-H and Maribor), as well as Cuban Ballet and Indian shadow puppet In the cultural field, there were no major changes compared to theatre (in Ljubljana). Slovenian audiences were also treated to RE OF T previous years, and the assessment that cooperation with African LTU performances by folklore groups from Guinea and Ghana. Slove-countries was least developed was not new. Cooperation with Arab E CU nian film production was more prominently represented in the less TH countries was equally modest, with a few Slovenian films screened developed world than music and theatre. In 1982, per intergovern-at the Week of Yugoslav Film, while Slovenian institutions were, as mental agreements, screenings of Yugoslav films were organised usual, present at certain traditional events, such as the Cairo Interin eleven foreign countries, which included no less than five NAM national Book Fair and the New Delhi World Book Fair, or at the Al-member countries, and in each of them, at least one Slovenian exandria Biennale. Cooperation in the fine arts was somewhat more film was screened. Less was happening in the reverse direction, as extensive, with an exhibition of works by France Slana organised in films from countries where cinema was still in its infancy were quite Syria under an intergovernmental agreement and Slovenian artists rare. In terms of exhibitions and museum activities, the Museum of participating in the Fifth Triennale in New Delhi. Slovenia hosted an Non-European Cultures in Goričane had a marked focus on Third-exhibition from the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea and, as World cultures. Each year, it organised several ethnographic exhibi-usual, the International Festival of Sport and Tourist Films included tions that introduced Slovenians to previously unfamiliar cultural several titles from the non-aligned countries. A few exhibitions and environments (in 1982, for example, exhibitions on the art of the DPR of Korea and Ecuador were orga nised). Participation of artists 16 Poročilo o znanstveno-tehničnem, prosvetnem in kulturnem sodelovanju [...] v letu 1982, pp. 25–29. 17 Ibid., p. 48. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED ALEŠ GABRIČ from the Third World was also a consideration in the preparation tions, partly due to the fact that in the expansion of cinema in the of the International Biennial of Graphic Arts in Ljubljana and the underserved African world they faced competition from the world’s international sculpture symposium Forma viva in Kostanjevica na most powerful cinematic industries, which were able to offer more Krki, where six artists were hosted in 1982, including one each from financially favourable conditions.21 India and Venezuela (although at the time, the latter had not progressed beyond the status of observer in the Movement). A model example – the publishing project of In searching for the reasons for such a modest record of cul-Pomurska založba tural cooperation with non-aligned countries, ZAMTES staff noted Yugoslavia’s foreign policy orientation gave rise to numerous trans-the following: lations, exhibitions, expert exchanges and the establishment of cooperations with the resulting expansion of horizons, despite the nu-Naturally, the implementation and planning of this cooperation has merous factors constraining cultural cooperation. The Non-Aligned been beset by a number of objective problems, and organisational diffi-Movement member countries were diverse in terms of culture, lan-culties have accompanied the realisation of individual actions. We are guage, religion and level of development, and for the majority of insufficiently informed about the cultural and other achievements in the population, these distant countries were completely unknown. these countries, and about their education policies. Another factor that often influenced the (in)ability to cooperate was geographical distance, with the steep financial requirements Organising art and other exhibitions, music tours and other events in RAL HORIZON LTU associated with hosting larger ensembles or exhibitions a constant these countries is accompanied by problems involving transport and impediment to familiarisation. The 1980 ZAMTES annual report stat-communications, inadequate venues, difficult climatic conditions and IAN CU ed that “the policy of educational and cultural cooperation of the SR VEN long distances, all of which lead to high costs. Also evident is a neces-of Slovenia with developing countries has not yet been sufficiently E SLO sity for greater involvement of our diplomatic, consular and other mis-H defined. It needs to be taken into account that developing coun-120 sions in these countries in the planning and realisation of the projects.18 ES ON T tries need primarily educational experts, scientists and technology, 121 TRIN as well as assistance in the formation of their cultural institutions.” Analysts at ZAMTES did not delve into the more subjective circum-They added that “the least amount of cooperation has been with ED COU stances, such as the degree of interest in cooperation with these African countries” and that cultural cooperation has seen most de-countries, or how much improvement could be expected in terms ALIGN velopment “mainly in the field of fine arts [...] and literary activity”.22 of cultural cooperation if at least some of the objective barriers that E NON-H In the latter case—literary cooperation involving translations had hindered deeper cultural cooperation with third world coun-of foreign works into the languages of the Yugoslavian nations— RE OF T tries were removed. Even in the simplest form of cooperation—the LTU Yugoslav publishing houses extended their translation repertoire translation of books—publishers were faced with a shortage of E CU from the countries of the West and East to the Third World coun-TH translators for languages of small nations. In the case of art exhibi-tries, with a particular focus at that time being the countries of tions, it was certainly not encouraging for further networking that Latin America. This was as early as the 1950s, before the establish-many of the works exhibited abroad were found to be kept in inap-ment of the Non-Aligned Movement. This was an easier endeavour, propriate conditions, returning damaged or even destroyed.19 That of course, as translating books written in Spanish by Latin Amer-said, the Western-art-based standards for evaluating works of art ican authors was not as difficult as translating books by writers had not been shaken off in the preparation of exhibitions in Slove-from some of the other countries of the Non-Aligned Movement. In nia, with the consequence that works from the non-aligned coun-the four decades after the war (1945–1985), 89% of all foreign works tries were often given a subordinate position compared to works published in Yugoslavia were translated from five languages (En-from the Western world.20 Even in film, where cooperation was glish, French, Russian, German and Spanish). There simply weren’t better developed, the Yugoslavian organisers of cooperation found enough translators available to enable learning about the litera-that the results after several years of effort fell short of expecta-ture of smaller nations, especially non-European ones. The reading 18 Ibid . , pp. 48–49. 21 Vučetić, Uspostavljanje jugoslovenske filmske saradnje sa Afrikom, pp. 77–79. 19 Merhar, Mednarodno kulturno sodelovanje, p. 55. 22 Poročilo o znanstveno-tehničnem, prosvetnem in kulturnem sodelovanju [...] v letu 20 For more see: Piškur and Merhar, Tretji svet, p. 165. 1980, p. 33. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED ALEŠ GABRIČ repertoire did start expanding beyond the major literary traditions six translated works for the 1977 year included two by authors from that the regular reader would have been familiar with, but in terms Non-Aligned member countries (Cuba, Nigeria) and one that origi-of literature from countries who were members of the Non-Aligned nated from an observer country (Mexico). Printed in enviable runs Movement, this was limited to individual works. The best oppor-of several thousand copies, the books met with critical and popular tunity to explore previously lesser-known literary horizons was acclaim, going a long way to changing people’s views of an unfamil-offered by the numerous anthologies. In terms of countries with iar world. Alejo Carpentier, a Cuban writer already well known in significant influence on the Non-Aligned Movement, Yugoslav pub-the Western world, was now available to Slovenian readers for the lishers had, since the second half of the 1950s, been the most re-first time with a translation of his novel Explosion in a Cathedral. ceptive to translations of Indian literature.23 Through a chronicle of a revolutionary who had brought the ideas In the aforementioned ZAMTES report from 1982, as well as in of the French Revolution to the Caribbean, it introduced the read-several other places, a publishing project undertaken by Pomurska er to the unfamiliar setting of the Antilles, and descriptions of the založba from Murska Sobota has been highlighted as an example gains and wrong turns of the revolution offered an opportunity to of good practice. Established in 1954, Pomurska založba was reflect on the temptations faced by the new political elite. Arrow not a major publishing house. It took on the challenge, however, of God was the second work by the Nigerian writer Chinua Achebe differentiating itself by paying particular attention to the translation to be translated into Slovenian—a translation of his debut novel of literature from the Third World. In 1976, it expanded its core tasks Things Fall Apart was published in 1964 by the publishing house Ob-of publishing literary works by authors from north-eastern Slovenia RAL HORIZON LTU zorja. Achebe’s second novel once again focuses on the confronta-and cultural mediation between Slovenian and Hungarian culture tion between a traditional African village and Western civilisation, by introducing the collection Mostovi (Bridges). It was edited by IAN CU and the conflict between the older generation, portrayed through VEN the translator Jože Hradil, author of several Hungarian–Slovenian the character of a tribal leader opposed to innovations, and the E SLO dictionaries. In the first year, the collection still adhered to the H younger generation, which includes one of his sons, who realises 122 core mission of the publishing house, publishing a translation ES ON T the need for changes in their local environment. On the one hand, 123 of Ivan Cankar’s work into Hungarian and a translation of the TRIN there is the desire to be faithful to tradition and old patterns; on the Hungarian poet Zoltán Csuka into Slovene. But when he conceived other, the desire to break free—not only from colonial dependence, ED COU the collection, the editor Jože Hradil had a broader view in mind but also from the self-imposed shackles of rejecting modernity in from the start, writing: “The direct impetus was, of course, the ALIGN the name of tradition. In the text accompanying the release, the realisation that the great efforts of the Yugoslav foreign policy— E NON-H publishing house described Achebe as representing “the true im-offering the right hand to all the nations of the world who can age of his homeland, unlike the one we have been accustomed to, RE OF T abide a comradely, egalitarian dialogue—need to be supported LTU which was of an exotic world as mediated by interpreters”.25 This is and complemented in publishing as well.” Every year, the new E CU also how it was received by the critics, who also took into account TH book collection was to publish six translated works from literary the successes that the authors had already achieved with transla-traditions that, due to cultural cooperation traditionally being tions into the languages of major nations. On the occasion of the oriented towards larger nations, had not yet received the attention first translations into Slovene, France Forstnerič, the cultural sec-of Slovene publishing houses. “These are nations suffering from tion correspondent for the main Slovenian daily newspaper Delo, the same fate as Slovenians, namely that they cannot present wrote that “Mostovi represent more than just a moral cultural debt themselves in other linguistic guises due to language and other to the Third World and to minor, lesser-known literary traditions; barriers”, Hradil said, subsequently explaining where the editor’s the works are for the most part modern and artistically interesting, focus was: “Understandably, works from the non-aligned countries offering a glimpse into cultures little known to us.”26 have become one of the main components of the collection.”24 In 1978, the six works in the collection once again included In its second year, the Mostovi collection already featured two novels from NAM member countries, written by authors from translations from literatures less familiar to Slovenian readers. The Mali and Zaire, and one from an observer country, Uruguay. 1979 23 Prevodi strane književnosti u Jugoslaviji, pp. 460–466. 25 Knjiga, 1977, No 12, p. 578, Chinua Achebe, Božja puščica. 24 Hradil, Od prve knjige do desetih zbirk Pomurske založbe, p. 15. 26 Forstnerič, Svet in domačija, p. 7. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED ALEŠ GABRIČ brought translations of Malawian and Indonesian novelists and The Mostovi collection has been repeatedly cited as an exam-notably—from the perspective of familiarisation of readers with ple of good cultural cooperation with the less developed world. It the otherness of Africa—the translation of the South African writ-was certainly a remarkable project within the context of Slovenian er and anti-apartheid activist Nadine Gordimer, which was also the publishing. Further deepening of contacts was hampered not only first Slovenian translation of a book by the eventual winner of the by the lesser willingness of publishing houses in Yugoslavia to take 1991 Nobel Prize for Literature. The trend of publishing translations on financially risky projects at a time of economic crisis, but also by writers from the Third World or the non-aligned countries was by the broader cultural and political problems faced by the less de-maintained—indeed, strengthened—and in 1982, five out of the six veloped world. In April 1980, a book exhibition opened in Zagreb novels were from non-aligned countries: Algeria, Colombia, Paki-that featured publishers from some Sub-Saharan African countries, stan, Sri Lanka and Egypt. The books featured a foreword through namely Senegal, Cameroon and Kenya. It showed the legacy of co-which Slovenian readers could learn about the author, the coun-lonial times in publishing, which was only slowly dying. It was only try’s literary tradition and the social changes that were often the in recent decades that literacy had started to expand, and with it subject of the novels, i.e. the consequences of colonialism, the the need for books. Even so, books in the languages of the former changes after gaining independence and the tragic fate of people colonial powers, French, English and Spanish, still dominated, with on the precipice between the primordial past on the one hand, the indigenous African languages struggling to gain a foothold. A and the challenges of the modern times on the other. Authors comparative analysis by UNESCO shows that between 1955 and from other countries were also selected in line with the intent of RAL HORIZON LTU 1976, the number of book titles published more than doubled world-presenting the issues of disadvantaged people and ethnic groups wide and in the developing countries, more than tripled in Africa as lacking equal rights within their countries. In addition to the afore-IAN CU a whole, and more than quintupled in the Sub-Saharan Africa. The VEN mentioned Gordimer, for example, the collection included no vels very low starting point of the developing countries, however, clearly E SLO by a Catalan author, as well as the first Maori writer. After the first H showed that the gap between the developed countries and the un-124 few years of the collection, its editor and the editor-in-chief of the ES ON T derdeveloped Africa was also evident in the cultural field, with 565 125 Pomurska Publishing House, Jože Hradil, pointed out proudly that TRIN books per million inhabitants published in Europe in 1976 and only “it frequently represented the first literary encounter with one of 27 in Sub-Saharan Africa. The distribution of books in the former ED COU these countries, or the first translation into Slovene”.27 colonies was still dominated by multinational publishing houses, Throughout the 1980s, the Mostovi collection continued enrich-ALIGN and it was difficult for local publishers and retailers to make a name ing Slovenian bookshelves with around six works of lesser-known litE NON-H for themselves in the face of such competition and the flood of im-erature every year. Published in it were translations of novels by writ-ported literature.29 RE OF T ers from Cuba, Cameroon, Peru, Senegal, Bangladesh, Benin, Guinea, LTU Yugoslavia’s efforts to boost the numbers of translations India, Indonesia, Nicaragua, etc. Between 1977 and 1990, 65 trans-E CU from friendly countries were also demonstrated by the exhibition TH lations in total of novels by writers from literary horizons that had “Non-Alignment and the Non-Aligned Countries in the Publishing previously been poorly known or almost unknown to Slovenes were Activity of Yugoslavia”, which was organised in 1978 as part of the published in the collection, 27 of them from NAM member countries; International Belgrade Book Fair, and was subsequently hosted in adding writers from observer countries and minority ethnic groups Cairo, where roughly 600 works were presented. Foreign language in larger countries, we exceed more than half of the works in the col-translation figures for the late 1970s still show a marked dominance lection.28 The changing cultural policy and the reversal in Slovenia’s of the world’s major languages. Arabic and the languages of the In-foreign policy also brought major changes both in publishing policy dian subcontinent accounted for the largest share of translations and Slovenian publishing as a whole. First, the Mostovi collection from the languages of non-aligned countries.30 As this part of the dried up in 1990; within a few years, the Pomurska publishing house world and culture—stretching from the Middle East to South-East was privatised and ended up in bankruptcy proceedings. Asia—was comparatively more familiar to Slovenians than the African world, it was the books by authors from Sub-Saharan Africa 27 Hradil, Od prve knjige do desetih zbirk Pomurske založbe, p. 15 28 Data are summarised by individual lists in: Brumen, Bibliografija Pomurske založbe: 1954–1978, p. 172 and Brumen, Bibliografija Pomurske založbe: 1979–1988 in 1989– 29 Potokar, Knjiga v Afriki [Books in Africa], pp. 271–272. 1993, pp. 82–84 and 169–170. 30 Prosvetno-kulturna saradnja Jugoslavije p. 122. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED ALEŠ GABRIČ that were the biggest novelties. It is estimated that in the three SOURCES AND LITERATURE decades after the founding of the Non-Aligned Movement, some 40 books received Slovenian translations, with the collection Mostovi LITERATURE being particularly noteworthy, having published 12 titles from this Babnik, Gabriela. Roman Chinua Achebe Razpad kot odgovor na negativno prezen-part of the world.31 Judging by the reports of the federal or nation-tacijo Afričanov [Chinua Achebe’s novel Things Fall Apart as a response to the nega-al institute for scientific, technological and cultural cooperation, tive representations of Africans]. Ars&Humanitas 3, No 1–2, (2009), pp. 88–109. book publishing houses, in this case Pomurska, needed to show Brumen, Niki. Bibliografija Pomurske založbe: 1954–1978 [The Bibliography of the Po-con siderable initiative, as the records regarding cooperation in the murska Publishing House: 1954–1978]. Murska Sobota: Pomurska založba, 1979. fields of visual, musical, theatrical and film art are much more detailed, suggesting that these fields received much more generous Brumen, Niki. Bibliografija Pomurske založbe: 1979–1988 in 1989–1993 [The Bibliography of the Pomurska Publishing House: 1979–1988 and 1989–1993]. Murska Sobo-support. By introducing readers to a foreign, unknown world, how-ta: Pomurska založba, 1994. ever, books influenced the thinking of Slovenes in many ways. Chinua Achebe’s writings were intended to influence and change the Forstnerič, France. Svet in domačija. Delo, 19, No 49, 1 March 1977, p. 7. negative presentation of Africans.32 He was certainly not an excep-Gabrič, Aleš. Kulturno in znanstveno sodelovanje neuvrščenih držav v senci političnih tion, however. Through other similar works, stories told through the dilem [Cultural and scientific cooperation among the Non-Aligned countries in the eyes of the natives—quite different, naturally, from the narratives shadow of politics]. In: Predan, Barbara (ed.). Robovi, stičišča in utopije prijateljstva: RAL HORIZON spregledane kulturne izmenjave v senci politike [Margins, junctures and utopias of of the colonisers—found their way onto Slovenian bookshelves. LTU friendship: the overlooked cultural exchanges in the shadow of politics]. Ljubljana: Institute of Contemporary History, Academy of Fine Arts and Design, 2022, pp. 9–27. IAN CU VEN Gacoin-Marks, Florence. Uvodnik v tematski sklop »Podsaharska Afrika« [Sub-Saha-E SLOH ran Africa - Introduction]. Ars&Humanitas 3, No 1–2, (2009), pp. 7–9. 126 ES ON T Hradil, Jože. Od prve knjige do desetih zbirk Pomurske založbe [From the first book 127 TRIN to the ten collections of Pomurska publishing house]. In: Brumen, Niki. Bibliografija Pomurske založbe 1954–1978 [The Bibliography of the Pomurska Publishing House: ED COU 1954–1978]. Murska Sobota: Pomurska založba, 1979, pp. 13–23. ALIGN Merhar, Teja. Mednarodno kulturno sodelovanje Jugoslavije z državami članicami E NON-gibanja neuvrščenih [Yugoslavia’s International Cultural Cooperation with the Non-H Aligned Movement Member Countries]. In: Južna ozvezdja: poetike neuvrščenih [Southern Constellations: The Poetics of the Non-Aligned]. Ljubljana: Museum of RE OF T LTU Modern Art, 2018, pp. 43–68. E CUTH Osolnik, Bogdan. Jugoslavija v gibanju neuvrščenih [Yugoslavia within the NonAligned Movement]. Ljubljana: Education Institute of the SR of Slovenia, 1981. Piškur, Bojana, and Teja Merhar. Tretji svet: grafike iz neuvrščenih držav na medna rodnih grafičnih bienalnih razstavah v Ljubljani med letoma 1961 in 1991 [The Third World: visual art from non-aligned countries at the Ljubljana Biennale of Graphic Arts between 1961 and 1991]. In: Južna ozvezdja: poetike neuvrščen ih [Southern Constellations: The Poetics of the Non-Aligned]. Ljubljana: Museum of Modern Art, 2018, pp. 163–166. Poročilo o znanstveno-tehničnem, prosvetnem in kulturnem sodelovanju [...] v letu 1980 [Report on the scientific, technical, educational and cultural cooperation [...] in 1982]. Ljubljana: Institute for International Scientific, Technical, Educational and Cultural Cooperation of the Socialist Republic of Slovenia, 1981. Poročilo o znanstveno-tehničnem, prosvetnem in kulturnem sodelovanju SR Slovenije s tujinov letu 1982 [Report on the scientific, technical, educational and cultural co-31 Gacoin-Marks, Uvodnik v tematski sklop “Podsaharska Afrika”, p. 8. operation of SR Slovenia with foreign countries in 1982]. Ljubljana: Institute for Inter-32 For more see: Babnik, Roman Chinua Achebe Razpad kot odgovor na negativno pre-national Scientific, Technical, Educational and Cultural Cooperation of the Socialist zentacijo Afričanov. Republic of Slovenia, 1983. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED Potokar, Tone [T.P.]. Knjiga v Afriki [Books in Africa]. Knjiga, No 5, 1980, pp. 271–272. Prevodi strane književnosti u Jugoslaviji, 1945–1985. Jugoslovenski pregled, 31, p. 10 (1987), pp. 459–474. Prosvetno-kulturna saradnja Jugoslavije s inostranstvom 1978–1979. Jugoslovenski pregled, 24, No 3, 1980, pp. 113–122. Ramšak, Jure. Neuvrščenost, jugoslovanska diplomacija in ustvarjanje transkulturnih vezi z Afriko [Non-Alignment, Yugoslav Diplomacy and the Establishment of Transcultural Links with Africa]. In: Predan, Barbara (ed.). Robovi, stičišča in utopije prijateljstva: spregledane kulturne izmenjave v senci politike [Margins, junctures and utopias of friendship: the overlooked cultural exchanges in the shadow of politics]. Ljubljana: Institute of Contemporary History, Academy of Fine Arts and Design, 2022, pp. 189–210. Strani državljani na studijama i usavršavanju u Jugoslaviji. Jugoslovenski pregled, 24, p. 6 (1980), pp. 247–250. Učešće Jugoslavije na XXI zasedanju Generalne konferencije Uneska. Jugoslovenski pregled, 24, pp. 11–12 (1980), pp. 435–444. Vučetić, Radina. Uspostavljanje jugoslovenske filmske saradnje sa Afrikom. Godišnj-ak za društvenu istoriju 24, No 2 (2017), pp. 57–81. PERIODICALS 128 Knjiga, Slovenian publishers’ newsletter, 1978–1982. 129 Mitja Velikonja 06 Analysis of artworks, ethnological and applied arts gifts from non-aligned countries to the President of SFRY, Josip Broz Part I and II 130 131 Part 1: Analysis of artworks as gifts from non-aligned countries to the President of SFRY, Josip Broz We must give back more than we have received. Mauss, The Gift, p. 136 The act of gifting is one of the fundamental conventions on both an individual and a social level: from the most personal sphere to international politics, where giving presents is part of diplomatic protocol. The gift establishes a social relationship between its giver and its receiver, underlines their symbolic and actual position, which is based on mutual respect and honour, and promotes committing to cooperation. In my part of the research titled Models and Practices of Global Cultural Exchange and NonAligned Movement: Research in the Spatio-Temporal Cultural Dynamics, I deal with the visual language of artworks presented to the Yugoslav President Josip Broz by the countries of the Non-Aligned Movement, which are stored in the repositories of the Museum of * The article is a result of the research project J7-2606, Models and Practices of Global Cultural Exchange and Non-Aligned Movement: Research in the Spatio-Temporal Cultural Dynamics, which is financed by the Slovenian Research Agency (ARRS). THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED Yugoslavia in Belgrade.1 Tito’s diplomatic activity was, as the Belgrade curator Aleksandra Momčilović Jovanović notes, “so prolific that a monography could be written to describe relations between Yugoslavia and each specific country”.2 In order to strengthen the role of his country as one of the founding members of the Movement, Tito “spent an enormous amount of time making contacts with statesmen who—in the protocol exchange of gifts at the highest state level—gave him objects of different purposes, times, and places of origin that carry rich layers of meaning”.3 Initiatives to explore this relatively narrow and less known aspect of this cultural history have come from several quarters: first, due to the growing interest in cultural and artistic exchanges between Yugoslavia and the members of the Non-Aligned Movement, which, in recent years, has become prominent in the fields of art and science;4 second, because of my previous research on Yugonostalgia, “Titostalgia” and nostalgia for socialism in gene ral;5 and third, because of my frequent and fruitful collaboration with the staff of the Belgrade-based museum, which has been ongoing for more than fifteen years. The Movement, which was based on the “five principles of peaceful coexistence” (mutual respect for territorial integrity and 132 sovereignty; non-aggression; non-interference in the internal af-133 fairs of other countries; equality and mutual benefit; peaceful coexistence), promoted and strengthened, first and foremost, the political and economic ties between the majority of the recently decolonised countries as well as their search for a third way 6 in the 1 Occasionally, some of these exhibits are lent and included in various exhibition arrangements; for example, in September 2021 they were part of the exhibition Prometheans of the New Century, which focused on cooperation with India. 2 Momčilović Jovanović, Darovi Titu, p. 67. 3 Panić, Yugoslavia and India, p. 116. 4 To mention just a few examples of more recent exhibitions on this subject: Southern Constellations: The Poetics of the Non-Aligned (Museum of Contemporary Art Metelkova, Ljubljana, 2019), Southern Constellations: The Poetics of the Non-Aligned – It is not Enough to Write a Revolutionary Poem (“Drugo more” gallery, Rijeka, 2021), which is a similar exhibition by the same curator but with an extended title, and the already mentioned exhibition Prometheans of the New Century, which was arranged to mark the sixtieth anniversary of the foundation of the Non-Aligned Movement (Museum of Yugoslavia, Belgrade, 2021, curated by Ana Panić and Jovana Nedeljković). The historical and political studies on which I relied in particular were conducted by Jakovina ( Treća strana Hladnog rata, Dinkel ( The Non-Aligned Movement) and Stubbs ( Socialist Yugoslavia and the Antinomies of the Non-Aligned Movement and The Emancipatory Afterlives of Non-Aligned Internationalism). 5 Titostalgia – A Study of Nostalgia for Josip Broz. Lost in Transition: Nostalgia for Socialism in Post-Socialist Countries. Rock’n’Retro – New Yugoslavism in Contemporary Popular Music in Slovenia. The Past with a Future: The Emancipatory Potential of Yugonostalgia. Edsel Moscoso (Philippines), Talipapa (Market Scene), 1979 6 Ideological discourse is marked in italics throughout the text. Courtesy of Museum of Yugoslavia, collection “4 May”, inv. no. 470 THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED MITJA VELIKONJA tense Cold War constellation of powers between the West and the on the representational function of the gift in diplomatic proto-East, between the American and the Soviet blocs. Although cultur-col. Due to the comprehensive nature of the topic, my analysis is al, artistic and scientific cooperation between non-aligned coun-divided into two independent parts, which only together form an tries was overshadowed by political and economic cooperation,7 integrated whole. In Part I of the present chapter I provide a brief it was vibrant and diversified, with Yugoslavia playing a significant description of the collection (of mostly paintings), develop the the-role.8 This fact is also demonstrated in a unique way by the artworks oretical and methodological approaches and classify the collected presented as gifts to the Yugoslav president. artworks according to what they represent. Then I use the meth-Before the start of empirical work, I asked myself the follow-od of social semiology to analyse and interpret these artworks as ing basic and open-ended question with a focus on cultural as-gifts, i.e. no longer only in terms of their content. In Part II I apply pects: What are these gifts conveying, what ideological messages the same theoretical and methodological approach to a much larg-are encoded in their content, how do they operate – to use Stuart er number of ethnological and applied arts gifts that Tito received Hall’s phrase – “in discursive chains, in clusters, in sematic fields, from the representatives of the non-aligned countries. At the end I in discursive formations”,9 what are their “maps of meaning”? How make comparisons between these two groups of gifts, pointing out do they represent the gift-giving countries? Do these works share notable similarities and significant differences. any common characteristics despite the extraordinary diversity of creative techniques, formats, genres, motifs, provenance, author-Brief description of the collection ship, time of creation and mode of gift presentation? Instead of The collection of paintings, sculptures, drawings, etc. which is sub-approaching this extremely interesting topic from a classical per-ject of this analysis has been made accessible to me through the spective of art history, I adopt the cultural studies perspective, kind cooperation of the curator of the Museum of Yugoslavia, Ana being more interested in the social and ideological connotations Panić, to whom I would like to express my sincere thanks. We met IP carried by the artworks’ motifs than in their aesthetic dimensions: DSH in January and July 2021; before, during and after that we also kept 134 What do they reveal about the gift givers and the politics and cul-EN in touch via e-mail. At the beginning, she presented me with a clear 135 ture of the Non-Aligned Movement in general? In short: I am inter-and thoroughly prepared list of artworks in the collection, which ested in this type of cultural or artistic “texts” in their broader his-GES OF FRI she had compiled herself, and then led me through the museum’s torical and political “context”. IMA two carefully arranged repositories where these works are stored. The collected artworks were analysed using the method of In the first part of this chapter I refer to this list, the complete title visual social semiology, which deals with “the ways in which the of which is “Nesvrstani – likovna” (Non-Aligned – fine art). Related meanings of signs are made socially”,10 as well as on the basis of collections of gifts that Tito received from non-aligned countries Hall’s theory of representation, defined as production of meaning are arranged in a similar way: the ethnographic collection “Nes-through language,11 and Mauss’s concept of the gift as a material vrstani – etnografska” (Non-Aligned – ethnographic; consisting of and spiritual bond that fosters friendship and cooperation between 278 items), the collection of applied arts objects “Nesvrstani – pri-the giver and the recipient.12 I connected these theoretical and menjena (Non-Aligned – applied; 296 items) and the collection of metho dological starting points building upon my own reflections decorative objects “Nesvrstani – volonteri” (Non-Aligned – volunteers; 579 items in total). Some of these gifts are featured on the Museum of Yugoslavia website (https://www.muzej-jugoslavije.org/ 7 See, for example, Piškur, Southern Constellations, p. 15. The similarity with today’s forms and dimensions of cooperation within the European Union, where political and lista-eksponata/), while Tito’s photo library (http://foto.mij.rs/site/ economic issues once again take precedence over all others, is more than significant. galleries) contains approximately 170,000 photographs. 8 In this context, I will not approach the dimensions, potentials and limitations of Yugoslavia’s cultural and artistic activities, conventions and programmes in relation to My topic of interest was first limited to the fine art collection, these countries; they are covered in articles by Merhar, International Collaboration for which I provide some basic information below. The list con-in Culture between Yugoslavia and the Countries of the Non-Aligned Movement and tains 43 artworks, of which four are missing (for unknown reasons). Cartography of SFR Yugoslavia’s International Collaborations in Culture with Developing Countries, with an accompanying map on p. 98. It provides the main information: author, title of the work, year of 9 Hall, Kulturne študije 1983, p. 169. creation, artistic technique, dimensions, manner of acquisition and 10 Rose, Visual Methodologies, p. 135. eventual remarks (and, of course, signature, inventory number and 11 Hall, Delo reprezentacije, p. 36. 12 Mauss, Esej o daru in drugi spisi. location in the collection). Unfortunately, not all data is available THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED for some of the works. They originate from various members of the Non-Aligned Movement (and China as an observer): mostly from Asia, 23 in total (nine from India, three from Bangladesh, two each from Indonesia and Vietnam, in addition to the works from the Philippines, North Korea, Iraq, Pakistan and China), followed by Africa (Egypt, Algeria, Congo, Tunisia, Guinea-Bissau, Ethiopia and Ghana) and the Americas (two each from Panama and Cuba, followed by Chile, Bolivia and Guyana). The provenance of two of the works is unclear; moreover, due to the subject matter, the collection also includes the works Founders of the Non-Aligned by the Montene-grin-born, Croatian-based sculptor Stevan Luketić (1925–2002) and Emperor Haile Selassie I by Antun Augustinčić (1900–1979).13 Most of the paintings date back to the second decade of the Non-Aligned Movement (1971–1980; fifteen in total), followed by the first decade (1961–1970; nine in total). The date of creation is uncertain for ten paintings, while four were produced before 1961 and one after 1980. The President of Yugoslavia (and his office) received these gifts in various ways: during visits to the member countries (from hosts, i.e. political leaders, senior politicians or representatives of the visited cities, regions and institutions); during visits from political leaders of these countries to Yugoslavia; from member countries’ embas-136 sies in Belgrade and, in some cases, directly from artists (often as a 137 token of gratitude from those who had received their artistic training in Yugoslavia).14 The authorship of these works is also worth noting: fourteen of them are unsigned, i.e. the author is completely unknown; others are not well-known and consequently I found (almost) no useful information about them in scientific and specialist literature; others studied at Yugoslav art academies or even worked in Yugoslavia.15 A few, however, were very well-known and respected in their time and milieu, and were closely linked to the political regimes in their countries. Below are some examples. The award-winning and decorated Alfredo Sinclair (1914–2014) was a pioneer of abstract painting in Panama as well as founder of the Academy of Fine Arts, a lec-13 It is interesting to note that following the invitation of the Ethiopian Emperor, he erected three very impressive monuments in Ethiopia: to the victims of Italian fascism (1955, as Tito’s gift to the Ethiopian nation), to the Ethiopian partisans and to Ras Makonnen, the Emperor’s father. The sculpture in the collection was probably created during Augustinčić’s stay in Ethiopia, at the time when the first of the three monuments was being erected. 14 The exact register of individuals who presented gifts (politicians, diplomats and artists) is included in the list mentioned in the introductory part of the paper. 15 Especially artists from India (Vidya Bhushan, Animesh Nandi, Ghulam Jellani and Gangadhar Balkrishna Vad), but also from elsewhere; Carlos Fernandez, for example, Alfredo Sinclair (Panama), Grand Event, 1975 came from Bolivia. Courtesy of Museum of Yugoslavia, inv. no. 1-2-332 THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED MITJA VELIKONJA turer and curator.16 The French-educated Faeq Hassan (1914–1992) In the field of the visual arts, cultural exchange between Yu-earned the nickname “The Father of Contemporary Iraqi Art”, be-goslavia and other members of the Non-Aligned Movement was ing the founder of several progressive art groups, who in his works extremely vibrant, reciprocal and well documented, and has re-brought together Iraqi heritage and traditional art, on the one hand, cently been the subject of numerous exhibitions.21 Artworks from and experimental and abstract contemporary art on the other. The the countries of the Non-Aligned Movement produced during this Indian Padmashree Singannachar Narasimha Swamy (1911–1983) period are not only kept in the Museum of Yugoslavia but, among was close friends with the most important political figures of the others, also in the Belgrade Museum of African Art (in existence (post-)colonial era (Jawaharlal Nehru, Mahatma Gandhi, Lord Lou-since 1977), the Podgorica Centre for Contemporary Art of Monte-is Mountbatten, etc.), who he portrayed in his works. Moreover, negro (established in 1984 as the “Josip Broz Tito” Art Gallery of the he also managed several art institutions and won multiple state Non-Aligned Countries in then Titograd), and the Koroška Gallery awards. Augusto Fausto Rodrigues Trigo (1938) from Guinea-Bissau of Fine Arts in Slovenj Gradec, Slovenia (founded in 1957 as the began his career as a painter of motifs from his own environment, Art Pavilion). Elsewhere, these artworks are rare or non-existent: and later, from the seventies onwards, established himself as a it could be expected that the artifacts dating back to the height world-renowned comic book illustrator. of the Movement would be included in the table of selected works The life and work of Huang Zhou (1925–1997) was turbulent from museums in Yugoslavia, yet it does not contain a single one.22 and full of vicissitudes: he started his career as a war painter and held a series of prominent positions in the artistic field, winning Theoretical background and methodological several awards for his work and exhibiting widely; during the Cul-approach tural Revolution he was demoted, becoming a manual labourer. The source for my research was data acquired through careful ob-Following his rehabilitation, he was almost incapable of painting servation of all these works (from both sides, front and back, where IP due to the sustained physical strain, but he still produced some DSH some useful information about the painting, notes about the recep-138 paintings, which the state presented to important guests.17 Ban-EN tion, comments from protocol office staff, etc. were often included 139 gladeshi artist Mohammad Syful Islam (1946) studied in Moscow on a label; I photographed all these artworks for my archive). Fur-and was particularly drawn to Renaissance and Socialist Realist GES OF FRI ther information was gathered through conversations and corre-art: he became a world-renowned portraitist, portraying local and IMA spondence with the curator of these works, Ms Panić (and other international artists and politicians.18 The Pakistani Sheikh Ahmad curators in charge of related collections), as well as on the basis was a representative of Social Realist painting and the founder of of primary sources (archival sources, various original documents, the Karachi Institute of Applied Arts.19 After graduating in painting the web) and secondary sources (previous research on cultural in India, Animesh Nandi (1940–2020) continued his studies in Yu-exchanges between the countries of the Non-Aligned Movement, goslavia, where he earned his master’s degree and worked as an articles, catalogues, records of cultural exchanges during the ex-independent artist for more than a decade.20 The previously men-amined period, texts on local art scenes, etc.). tioned Yugoslav sculptors were also among the most well-known The collected artworks were examined both in terms of their and prominent artists of their time. content (what they represent) and function—as received gifts. To understand this latter component, I initially drew on the classical theory of the gift by the French sociologist and anthropologist Mar-16 See, among others, Angel, A Century of Painting in Panama, pp. 12–13. 17 His artworks were presented to the Japanese Emperor, the American President and cel Mauss. He points at the reciprocity of the gift as its intrinsic President Tito, for whom, in 1978, he painted an eagle symbolising the strength and characteristic: the gift “commits” the recipient to give something ambitions of the old hero. For more information about his work, see Zhangshen, Chinese Masters of the 20th Century Volume 3. back to the giver. In a profit-oriented economy founded on private 18 From the poet Rabindranath Tagore and the musician and poet Kazi Nazrul Islam, to Queen Elizabeth II, the Japanese imperial couple and the Malay royal couple, Kurt Waldheim, Ronald Reagan, Indira Gandhi and, of course, Tito. 21 See catalogues of recent exhibitions (and the exhibitions themselves) by Tamara So-19 For more information on the emergence of contemporary art movements in Pakistan, ban and Ana Panić. see Arshad, Artists who created art movements in Pakistan. 22 Srejović and Jeremić, Muzeji Jugoslavije. The table, on the other hand, contains ex-20 In spring 2021, the organisers of the “Sarajevo Winter” festival curated a special examples of prehistoric, antique and medieval art produced on the territory of Yugosla-hibition in his honour. Retrieved 8 January 2022 from https://www.glartent.com/BA/ via, as well as artworks by contemporary artists, both domestic and foreign (such as Sarajevo/166682320559632/Sarajevo-Winter-Festival-Sarajevska-zima. Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Paul Gauguin, Alfred Sisley, Edgar Degas, etc.). THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED MITJA VELIKONJA property, objects are disposed of through sale to a new owner. In a The choice of gift is another complex issue, which similarly gift economy (which he understands as a triple obligation: the obli-concerns different levels, from the personal to the protocol sphere. gation to give, to receive and to reciprocate the gift), in the system However, what is undoubtedly true is that it must be a “precious of “total services” as he defines them, it is the exact opposite. The object”, which, according to Godelier, is characterised by the these given object not only pleases the receiver, but also remains linked three elements: it has no practical application or is not meant to to its giver: instead of being disposed of, it guarantees a “return gift” be used in everyday life, is abstract and meets the prerequisite of to the giver. In such an exchange, objects “are never completely being beautiful.29 The “abstract” character mean that these ob-detached from those carrying out the exchange. The mutual ties jects “‘embody’ social relations and thought systems and then […] and alliance that they establish are comparatively indissoluble”.23 re-present them […] to the social actors in a form which is material, The anthropologist Maurice Godelier, who adopted and extended abstract and symbolic”,30 while “beautiful” is “defined by the cultur-Mauss’s conception of the gift, defines it as a voluntary, individual al and symbolic universe of the societies that use and make these or collective act, which may or may not be prompted by the person objects”.31 Works of art can therefore be more than suitable proto-or persons receiving it.24 At the same time, he adds that the act col gifts: they embody—to use the expression of both mentioned of giving seems to create a twofold relationship between giver and sociologists—“spiritual mechanisms”, having a moral, symbolic, in-receiver: a relationship of solidarity (horizontal relationship) and of tangible and prestigious value. superiority (hierarchical relationship). The specificities relating to protocol gifts presented at the In this study, I am not only trying to answer the question of highest, i.e. state, level are addressed in a series of studies in the what “force impels one to reciprocate the thing received”,25 focus-field of international relations and are part of a broader field dealing on the dynamic symmetry of gift-giving that creates opposing ing with the functioning of “soft power”. The Ljubljana-based polit-tendencies of mutual solidarity and domination, but I go a step fur-ical scientist Jana Arbeiter notes that “diplomatic protocol in this IP ther. I primarily observe the ways in which givers represent them-DSH sense also represents a source of symbolic power and prestige 140 selves by their gifts, what image of themselves they offer or literally EN in international relations and diplomacy, since actors—despite 141 “give” to another person. “[T]o make a gift of something to someone their multitude—put strong emphasis on diplomatic protocol, by is to make a present of some part of oneself;26 while Godelier notes GES OF FRI which other actors in the international community recognise their that “what is present in the object, along with the owner, is the en-IMA desired protocol and ceremonial position”.32 This requires a set of tire imaginary of society, of [their] society.”27 A gift is neither a mere related skills and knowledge—from rules on diplomatic behaviour “gesture of goodwill” nor only “a mere object”, but always and above and etiquette to broader cultural insights, from ways of commu-all a (representative) part of the giver that is accepted by the receiv-nicating and adopting appropriate rhetoric to knowledge of po-er. The gifted object possesses two powers: the power to create a litical and historical background. “Diplomacy is very sensitive to mutual bond between the giver and the receiver, and the power to any display of power and status symbols”, states the Uzbek politi-represent. I therefore also understand the gift as one of the funda-cal scientist and diplomat Alisher Faizulayev, and goes on to say: mental human and social means of self-representation: we use gifts “[e] xpressions of status and power – such as greetings phrase and to present ourselves to others in the best light, with something that gifts – have traditionally been symbolic”.33 Furthermore, mutual is most ours, the most outstanding and typical. This applies to per-exchange of gifts in line with the protocol “constitutes a universal sonal, intimate gifts but also to protocol gifts presented by political model by which cultural differences are neutralised through com-communities. In short: the gift “communicates culture”,28 creating munication”.34 The gift—although not always a necessary ele ment and recreating ideological representations of ourselves in relation to others. 29 Godelier, Uganka daru, pp. 195–198. 30 Ibid., p. 196. 31 Ibid., p. 198. 23 Mauss, Esej o daru in drugi spisi, p. 63. 32 Arbeiter, Symbolic importance of diplomatic protocol, p. 161. 24 Godelier, Uganka daru, p. 22. 33 Faizullaev, Diplomacy and Symbolism, p. 109. The same is also observed by Arbeiter 25 Mauss, Esej o daru in drugi spisi, p. 12. and Brglez in Prednostni vrstni red, p. 18: “[d]iplomacy has to be analysed through the 26 Ibid., p. 26. prism of symbolism and symbolic power, which is one of the main forms of soft power 27 Godelier, Uganka daru, p. 120. and the foundation of diplomacy in general”. 28 Momčilović Jovanović, Darovi Titu, p. 76. 34 Momčilović Jovanović, Darovi Titu, p. 68. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED MITJA VELIKONJA of the protocol—honours the receiver in a particular way, strength-semiological point of view, a painting (or sculpture, relief, etc.) is ens the bond between the receiver and the giver, suggests an ex-in itself a representation of content, and similarly, the act of giving change and establishes a symbolic positioning of both parties (ac-a painting qualified as a gift is a representation of the relationship cording to the previously mentioned ambivalence of solidarity and between the giver and the receiver. The present study, therefore, hierarchy). At the same time, it exhibits the best of what the giver addresses two representations: the content of the painting and possesses and what they are proud of, creating their best possible the painting as gift. The content of painting is first observed using representation.35 In diplomacy, the gift—even if given by a political Hall’s method (concept– language–code) and then analysed as a leader/politician to another political leader/politician merely as a protocol gift (since it is no longer only a painting but becomes a “personal gift”—always and unavoidably represents a wider com-gift and should be considered as such). Therefore, in the first step, I munity (a country, a region, etc.) and is collective and political in explain how the painting creates meanings and in the second step, all cases. how the act of presenting the painting as a gift creates meanings: In the following paragraphs I pass from the theory of the gift in order to understand the “language of the gift”, we need first to to the theory of its ideological significance. In explaining the ideo-understand the “language of the painting” itself. logical significance, I rely on the theory of visual representation, The following questions are therefore examined: What is the which “examine[s] in detail how certain institutions mobilise spe-self-representation of a state in the presented artworks, what are cific forms of visuality to see, and to order, the world”.36 According its “kernels of imaginary material”—to quote Godelier—which were to Hall, in fact, “[w]e always need systems through which we repre- “necessary to its formation and reproduction”?42 How did these “desent what the real is to ourselves and to others”.37 He understands veloping countries” represent themselves through gifts to Yugosla-representation as “the process by which members of a culture use via, which was nevertheless perceived as a “more developed devel-language (broadly defined as any system which deploys signs, any oping country”; in other words: how did the “Global South” appear to IP signifying system) to produce meaning”.38 As such, representation DSH a country that was somewhere at the tail end of the “Global North” 142 provides grounds for the conditions regarding the social existence EN based on its gifts? What do we find in these paintings? 143 of individuals and groups: it creates ways in which the group can be I grouped the collected artworks according to their systems formed inwardly and presented outwardly. Gifts to various guests GES OF FRI of representation (indicating for each the artist, the provenance, are one of the most effective and frequent ways in which ideolo-IMA the serial number included in the previously mentioned list and the gy as a system of representation of a given group materialises, be-main motif or image).43 The first system is the system of “concepts” comes tangible and concrete.39 or “conceptual maps” or “mental representations”. I listed six of them. The second system of representation is language, in this case “visu-Content of the painting as representation al language” or the visual image of concepts, which refers to how The understanding of the gift as self-representation—i.e. the gift not artists imagine these six concepts/mental representations and being only an object of exchange or an indicator of (asymmetrical) how they draw/paint/model them. These two systems are connect-social relations—is still a relatively unexplored topic, especially ed by a cultural code, which translates between the concepts and in the field of diplomacy.40 The constructivist approach to repre-the language and consolidates the relationships between them. In sentation explains that “things don’t mean: we construct meaning, the following, I list the artworks in order of identified groups: using representational systems – concepts and signs”.41 From the 1. First system of representation: nature, landscape, animals. 35 See the study by anthropologist Nikolai Ssorin-Chaikov for a particularly interesting − M. Rodriguez (Cuba, entry no 5) – second system of repre-insight into the Soviet and international “gift economy” in the context of the celebration of Stalin’s 70th birthday, which was commemorated in 1949 by the “exhibition of sentation: image of flowers and fruit (and small human figures). birthday gifts to Stalin”. − Unknown author (Bangladesh, entry no 11) – second system of 36 Rose, Visual Methodologies, p. 10. representation: image of a tiger in a thicket. 37 Hall, Kulturne študije 1983, p. 169. 38 Hall, Delo reprezentacije, p. 82. In other words: “The relation between ‘things’, concepts and signs lies at the heart of the production of meaning in language.” (ibid., p. 39) 39 Cf. Hall, Kulturne študije 1983, p. 168. 40 This is also pointed out by Ssorin-Chaikov among others ( On Heterochrony, p. 358). 42 Godelier, Uganka daru, p. 45. 41 Hall, Delo reprezentacije, p. 46. 43 See Hall, Delo reprezentacije, pp. 37–42, 49. MITJA VELIKONJA − Unknown author (Chile, entry no 14) – second system of representation: image of a girl leading a horse. − Unknown author (Vietnam, entry no 16) – second system of repre sentation: image of a river with floating boats. − H. Zhov (China, entry no 18) – second system of representation: image of an eagle perched on a branch. − R.D. Saleh (Indonesia, entry no 22) – second system of representation: image of a wooded wilderness and a river. − R. Savory (Guyana, entry no 24) – second system of repre sentation: image of leafy trees in the wind. Cultural code: strong attachment to nature, idealisation of its beauty and the fact of being untouched by development, pollution and modernisation: on the one hand, it is wild, dangerous, powerful, but on the other, it is also already tamed, domesticated—in the traditional way and in symbiosis with the natives. 2. First system of representation: individual natives. − A. Nandi (India, entry no 2) – second system of representation: stylised images of three natives. − J. T. Sursock (Egypt, entry no 3) – second system of represen-IP DSH tation: image of a sitting girl. 144 EN − J.B. Jeanine (Panama, entry no 4) – second system of represen-145 tation: image of a banana picker. GES OF FRI − Unknown author (India, entry no 8) – second system of repre-IMA sentation: image of a mother and child in a field. − Unknown author (India, entry no 13) – second system of representation: image of three female dancers. − Unknown author, probably Fidgie Ngombe (Congo, entry no 14) – second system of representation: image of two peasant women carrying jugs. − Unknown author (Tunisia, entry no 14) – second system of repre sentation: image of a sitting princess. − G. B. Vad (India, entry no 25) – second system of representation: an image of a mother breastfeeding a black and a light-skinned newborn. − K. Yahto (unidentified East Asian country, entry no 38) – second system of representation: image of a female dancer (and a male observer). − S. Ahmad (Pakistan, entry no 39) – second system of representation: image of a local female. − G. Jellani (Pakistan, entry no 44) – second system of repre sentation: image of Maya (the queen of the Shakya tribe), Buddha’s mother. Unknown author (Vietnam), Red River, 1957 Courtesy of Museum of Yugoslavia, inv. no. 1-2-135 146 147 Juan Bautista Jeanine (Panama), Banana Picker, 1974 Yahto, K. (East Asia), Dancer, 1962 Courtesy of Museum of Yugoslavia, inv. no. 1-2-469 Courtesy of Museum of Yugoslavia, inv. no. 1-2-534 THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED Cultural code: pronounced patriarchalism with classical female roles (workers, mothers, seductresses), and, to a lesser extent, representation of women in superior positions, the positions of (religious, political) power; a strong component of traditionalism (clothes, appearance, activities) as if modernisation—even that of colonial times—had not yet begun; social conservatism in the sense of the absence of any liberation, vertical mobility and cultural pluralism. 3. Fir − st system of representation: society, community, culture. − E. Moscoso (Philippines, entry no 6) – second system of represen tation: image of people in the marketplace. − K. A. Hossain (Bangladesh, entry no 10) – second system of representation: image of a boating village. − Unknown author (India, entry no 21) – second system of representation: image of a celebration, a crowd of people gathering at the foot of a magnificent shrine. − Unknown author (Indonesia, entry no 10) – second system of representation: image of a group of people building a junk (a local type of sailboat). − Vidya Bhushan (India, entry no 21) – second system of repre-148 sentation: image of a bodhisattva (enlightened being) in a 149 group of people. − E. Michaelsen (Cuba, entry no 27) – second system of representation: image of a horse race through the village attended by an enthusiastic crowd. − F. Hassan (Iraq, entry no 34) – second system of representation: image of a group of Bedouins with horses in the desert. − Unknown author (Ethiopia, entry no 40) – second system of representation: image of a mansion on the riverbank. − Unknown author (Ghana, entry no 41) – second system of repre sentation: image of a group of people at the royal court associated with the Ashanti people. Cultural code: depictions featuring traditional social structure, division of labour, religious affiliation and ancient culture: an arca-dian idealisation with no sign of modernisation; the emphasis is on the strength of the rural community (chores and activities performed by the community as a whole, common celebrations—all hallmarks of a Durkheimian society of “mechanical solidarity”). 4. First system of representation: political and military struggle. − Unknown author (Algeria, entry no 9) – second system of re-Unknown author (Ghana) – A scene from pre sentation: image of ancient warriors around a hearth in the the tradition of the Ashanti people, 1970. wilderness. Courtesy of Museum of Yugoslavia, inv. no. 1112 P MITJA VELIKONJA − Unknown author (Vietnam, entry no 17) – second system of representation: image of a battle (from the Vietnam War) in the river reeds. − A. Sinclair (Panama, entry no 19) – second system of representation: image of student demonstrations at the Panama Canal border. − A. F. R. Trigo (Guinea-Bissau, entry no 33) – second system of representation: image of a battle from the war of independence. Cultural code: very graphic and dramatic depictions of the recent anti-colonial and anti-imperialist revolts (almost in the sense of socialist realism); traditionalism is less present, but the emphasis remains on the power of community, represented in this case by armed or politically engaged peoples. 5. First system of representation: Josip Broz Tito as guest. − Unknown author (North Korea, entry no 7) – second system of representation: portrait of Presidents Tito and Kim Il Sung shaking hands. − S. Islam (Bangladesh, entry no 28) – second system of representation: portrait of President Tito. IP DSH − Hassaine (unknown provenance, entry no 29) – second system 150 EN of representation: portrait of President Tito. 151 − C. Fernandez (Bolivia, entry no 37) – second system of repreGES OF FRI sentation: portrait of President Tito. IMA Cultural code: contemporary and very realistic depictions of a distinguished guest, President Tito (portrayed as a seasoned statesman and not as a young Partisan leader, which is characteristic of Titostalgia).44 6. First system of representation: host or leader of the host country. − P. S. N. Swamy (India, entry no 32) – second system of representation: portrait of Gandhi. − M. Majumdar (India, entry no 35) – second system of representation: portrait of Gandhi and Nehru (with the globe). − S. Luketić (Yugoslavia, entry no 42) – second system of repr-sentation: portrait of the founders of the Non-Aligned Movement (Nehru, Nasser, Nkrumah, Sukarno and Tito). − A. Augustinčić (Yugoslavia, entry no 43) – second system of repre sentation: portrait of the Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie. Cultural code: patriarchal ideology of the “founders”, “founding fathers” and important personalities of the Non-Aligned Move ment Augusto Fausto Rodrigues Trigo (Guinea-Bissau), Battle, 1976 Courtesy of Museum of Yugoslavia, inv. no. 1-2-331 44 Velikonja, Titostalgia, pp. 115–116. 152 153 Carlos Fernandez (Bolivia), Portrait of Josip Broz Tito, 1981. Mani Majumdar (India), Portrait of Nehru and Gandhi, 1954 Courtesy of Museum of Yugoslavia, collection “4 May”, inv. no. 244 Courtesy of Museum of Yugoslavia, inv. no. 1-2-655 THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED MITJA VELIKONJA in general; anti-colonial counter-hegemony—highlighting the which was able to consolidate or strengthen political alliances, to glo bal importance of these figures and thus the prominence of the emphasize loyalty or at least to show mutual respect, but also to alter native idea of non-alignment and its practice in the world. pursue concrete representation and power strategies”,45 and “have To summarise the analysis of the representation of reality in always been an essential pillar of the political order, an effective these artworks and to correlate their cultural codes (based on two political means of communication for sealing contracts, renewing systems of representation, concepts and language): the first char-coalitions etc”.46 Part II of the research concentrates on the com-acteristic is the marked presence of traditionalism. In the analysed parison of the contemporary artworks received by the Yugoslavian paintings, people live in rural communities and engage in tradition-President, which are analysed in detail in the previous part, with al activities; what exists is only a pre-capitalist economy, with no other ethnological and applied arts gifts presented by the leaders signs of modernisation. The second characteristic is strong patriar-or delegations of non-aligned countries. chalism: in these artworks, women are portrayed in typical and tra-This part of the research opens by posing two questions that ditional roles. A better position can only be innate and not acquired are theoretically related to the analytical apparatus from Part I. The or gained through emancipation. The third trait is the corporate or-first question is semiological: What do these gifts intrinsically con-ganisation of society: everyone is assigned their own (hierarchical) vey; what is their aesthetic and ideological language; how do they position and performs the tasks expected of them in the existing represent the non-aligned countries? The second question is com-archaic social structure. The fourth distinctive aspect is, as ex-parative: What are the similarities and differences between the mopected, the (self-)mythologising of the fathers of the Non-Aligned tifs of these gifts and the artworks discussed in the previous part; Movement, who establish their legitimacy either alone or through do these gifts reinforce or undermine the representations and, relations with each other, or by referring to “significant others” from consequently, cultural codes present in the paintings and reliefs the history of their countries. And fifth, the military and political that the Yugoslav President received as gifts from the Third World 47 IP struggles against the colonial powers nevertheless suggest the be-DSH during his thirty-five- or thirty-six-year rule? 154 ginning of progress, which, however, is not (yet) perceivable in the EN During this period, he met 350 heads of state and government 155 images of modernisation and post-war construction—what these and other high-ranking officials, some more than once, visited 73 images dramatically convey is more a “no” to the present than a GES OF FRI countries and made 169 state visits; most of these activities con- “yes” to the future. IMA cerned non-aligned countries as non-alignment was one of the foundations of Yugoslav foreign policy. Non-alignment “became a global performative strategy for Yugoslav policy-makers to ‘world’ Part 2: the country – for the consumption of both internal and external Analysis of ethnological and applied arts gifts from publics – as a sovereign space located outside the Cold War’s non-aligned countries to the President of SFRY, hostile ‘European theatre’”.48 Part of the protocol of these meet-Josip Broz ings was the exchange of gifts; Tito was known for giving and receiving personal gifts, in addition to official presents.49 All of this [A] gift presented in the right spirit, at the right moment, by the right was recorded in approximately 4,300 files kept in relation to this person, may act with tenfold power upon him who receives it. matter since 1953. The Museum of Yugoslavia in Belgrade holds French diplomat François de Callières, around two hundred thousand objects, divided into twenty-four The Practice of Diplomacy (1919, p. 25), first published in 1716. collections, consisting mostly of various gifts that Tito received The mutual exchange of gifts during diplomatic meetings and visits 45 Hatschek, The Blessing and Curse of (Military) Diplomatic Gifts, p. 20. has become a legitimate topic of study only in recent years; con-46 Ibid., p. 24. sequently, there is still a paucity of relevant theoretical, his torical 47 See the critique of the reductionist notion of the Third World, which attempts to vio-lently homogenise the diversity of the non-Western world, in Young, White Mytholo-and comparative literature. This prompted me to under take regies, pp. 114, 159, 167 and 168. search on the gifts received by the president of socialist Yugoslavia 48 Kilibarda, Non-Aligned Geographies in the Balkans, p. 27. Josip Broz Tito from non-aligned countries. In general, diplomatic 49 The first gift that Tito received from a monarch was an ancient Corinthian bronze helmet (from the late 7th/early 6th century BC), which was given to him in 1954 by gifts “represent a sophisticated form of political com munication, King Paul I of Greece (1901–1964). THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED MITJA VELIKONJA from the federal states and from abroad: from the most mundane, The semiological language of gifts mass-produced objects to items that are unique and valuable The protocol gifts discussed in these pages are artistic products or from an aesthetic and archaeological point of view (as well as in cultural artefacts51 in which individual initiatives and social struc-monetary terms). This second part of the research focuses exclu-tures of artists, gift-givers and receivers are linked in ever-specific sively on the ethnological and applied arts gifts presented to Tito ways. As such, “a gift is always considered one of the indi spensable by non-aligned countries, either during his visits or during the vis-attributes of international politeness and expresses, on the one its by political leaders or delegations to Yugoslavia. A total of 1,153 hand, the national specifics of its country, and on the other hand objects meeting these criteria are included in three collections. it is a response to the personified features of someone to whom it These items come from virtually all non-aligned countries and are is intended to be given”.52 For this reason, I started the analysis by of the most diverse shapes, colours, materials and sizes, feature trying to answer the question: How do non-aligned countries rep-different production techniques and bear a wide range of mean-resent themselves through ethnological and applied arts gifts and ings. In relation to the provenience of the objects, the countries what is their aesthetic and ideological language? Using Barthes’53 that stand out are those that had the most genuine relations with and Hall’s54 semiological methods, the gifts were classified into four Tito.50 groups (descriptive level or denotation). At the end of each group, I In recent years, the most precious gifts have been included in identified their distinctive cultural code (the “language of the gift”, various well-attended exhibitions that have drawn media atten tion, its ideological connotation, the “cultural grammar”55 of the group and have been featured in catalogues published on these occasions. presenting the gift) as “abstract notions always conceal a sensible In 2008, the Museum of Yugoslavia in Belgrade held the exhibition figure”.56 “World of Silver”, displaying more than 200 different gifts made of The first and most numerous group encompasses gifts linked this precious metal that Tito received during his visits around the to contemporary cottage industry and objects from the recent past IP world. Five years later, it was followed by “Imperial Gifts”, which was DSH (early 20th century, 19th century). It is difficult to provide a sum-156 displayed in the same venue and presented approximately 70 ex-EN marised overview due to the diversity and multitude of objects com-157 hibits that the Yugoslav President received between 1954 and 1979 posing the three analysed collections of the Museum of Yugoslavia; from monarchs, both from the non-aligned world and Europe (a year GES OF FRI for this reason, I divided the gifts into thirteen major subgroups: later, the exhibition was moved to the City Museum in Sombor). In IMA There is a vast array of (1) decorative crockery and cutlery, vases, 2015, the exhibition “Gifts to Josip Broz Tito” was opened in Villa decorative plates, trays, tea and coffee services. These objects are Kumrovec, which is part of the Old Village (Staro selo) Museum in followed by (2) decorative fabrics, carpets, tablecloths, cushions, Kumrovec. The exhibition presented a total of about one hundred napkins, etc., and (3) clothing items, such as hats, embroidered items previously held at Villa Zagorje, originating from various parts scarves, overcoats, turbans, carnival costumes and folk costumes, of the world, including the non-aligned world, which Tito received as well as exquisitely made bags and suitcases. The collections also in the 1960s and 1970s. What is also worth mentioning is the publi-include a considerable number of (4) different dolls and figurines, cation on Serbian-Egyptian cultural and political exchanges, which mostly dressed in folk costumes, as well as sculptures and masks includes valuable information on mutual gifts and was published made by locals. There are also some examples of (5) local musical at the beginning of the last decade by the Belgrade Museum of Af-instruments, but a much better represented group consists of (6) rican Art. The vast majority of these gifts are either stored in re-various antique weapons and warrior equipment (sabres, swords, positories, exhibited in collections or on permanent display at the previously mentioned museums in Dedinje and Brijuni. 51 Wolff in The Social Production of Art (p. 139) writes that a cultural artefact is “the complex product of economic, social and ideological factors, mediated through the formal structures of the text (literary or other), and owing its existence to the particular practice of the located individual”. 52 Vinogradova and Porodina, Weapons as Ambassadorial Gifts in the Collection of the Central Armed Forces Museum of the Russian Federation, p. 181. 53 Barthes, Elementi semiologije. 54 Hall, Delo reprezentacije. 50 These countries are: India, Egypt, Ethiopia and Cambodia, followed by Indonesia, Bur-55 The term was coined and effectively used by Giordano in his analyses of intercultural ma/Myanmar, Algeria, Chile, Mongolia, Mali, Zambia, Nigeria, Iran, Cuba, Pakistan and contacts, Ogledi o interkulturnoj komunikaciji, see in particular pp. 25–39. North Korea. 56 Derrida, Bela mitologija, p. 7. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED MITJA VELIKONJA daggers and shields) and decorative weapons. Other groups of gifts The second group of gifts from the leaders of non-aligned that stand out are (7) objects related to smoking, such as cigarette countries comprises objects from the distant past or their replicas. cases, tobacco or cigar boxes and ashtrays, in addition to (8) pre-In 1960, the abovementioned King of Afghanistan presented Tito cious chess sets and (9) various pieces of filigree jewellery and or-with a 16-centimetre Buddha head (4th century BC) from the Ka-nate walking sticks. These are followed by (10) stationery sets, small bul National Museum.58 Similarly, the Cambodian Prince Norodom tables, mirrors and decorated table lamps, and (11) decorated boxes Sihanuk gave him a fragment of a pilaster kept in the National Mu-in various sizes and shapes. seum of Cambodia, decorated with a relief of an apsara, a celestial A relatively large category is composed of (12) numismatic dancer, which was originally embedded in the walls of the Angkor gifts, either in the form of old or commemorative gold and silver Thom sanctuary, the former capital of the Khmer Empire.59 The Tu-coins or collections of contemporary banknotes and coins of the nisian President Habib Bourguiba (1903–2000) presented him with local currency. The last major group includes (13) other symbol-a medallion of a nymph on a centaur dating from the 2nd century ic markers of statehood, i.e. collections of postage stamps of the BC. From Egypt Tito received three alabaster vessels found during time, coats of arms and flags of the host countries. the excavations of the Step Pyramid of Djoser in the necropolis of The most valuable presents were protocol gifts received from Saqqara, and, in addition, a bronze statue of the god Osiris (from crowned heads: Prince Sihanouk presented Tito with a metal and 6th century AD), which was presented to him by President Anwar wooden model of the emperor’s carriage, two decorated wooden el-Sadat (1918–1981).60 A golden copy of the harp belonging to the vases, a richly embellished silver tea service with floral motifs and Sumerian queen/high priestess Shubad (or Puabi, circa 2450 BC), stylised images of the Hindu demigod Garuda, and ornamental sil-engraved with scenes from the mythical Epic of Gilgamesh, was ver tableware. The Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie (1892–1975) given to him by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr (1914–1982), a senior Iraqi was particularly generous when it comes to gifts to Tito (and his politician, holding the positions of Prime Minister, President of the IP wife Jovanka Broz): his favourite presents were precious items DSH State and Secretary General of the Ba’ath Party. 158 from the imperial goldsmith’s and jewellery workshop at his court EN The distinctive cultural code linked to these archaeological 159 in Addis Ababa, all engraved with his monogram (gold and silver gifts is the recollection of a glorious pre-colonial past, i.e. invoking jewellery – bracelets, necklaces, decorative hair comb, silver box-GES OF FRI the ancient foundations of modern states. es, cigarette cases, gold coins, gold tray with a goblet, etc.). Items IMA The gifts in the third group combine domestic and foreign el-that stand out in particular include a writing set, which is actual-ements, local traditions and the Western chic that only monarchs ly a model of the imperial throne decorated with all the dynastic could afford. On the occasion of the 2500th anniversary of the symbols dating back to Biblical times (imperial crown, angels, Star Persian Empire in 1971, the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahla-of David, etc.).57 A magnificent example of an Arab dagger was re-vi (1919–1980), presented Tito with a replica of the clay document ceived from the Yemeni King Ahmad bin Yahya (1891–1962), while a known as the Cyrus cylinder (the first document on human rights, silver gilded jewellery box was a gift from the Afghan King (Shah) religious tolerance, freedom of choice and the abolition of Jewish Mohammed Zahir (1914–2007). The last ruler to give Tito a precious slavery), published by the Persian ruler Cyrus II (the Great) in 539 gift was Saad Al-Salim Al-Sabah (1930–2008), the Sheikh of Kuwait, BC. In addition, Tito was also given a precious porcelain vase and who in 1979 presented the Yugoslav President with a silver model of a commemorative porcelain plate with the Shah’s coat of arms a sailing ship symbolising this Gulf state, accompanied with a lux-surrounded by gold overlay and enamel, whose author was Har-urious silver tea and coffee service bearing the state coat of arms. old Holdway, the famous British ceramics designer for the Spode The cultural code of this group of gifts to Tito can be defined brand. King Hussein bin Talal of Jordan (1935–1999) presented Tito as strength and beauty of the native and unspoiled heritage of the with a silver and partly gilded 12 cm sculpture of a warrior on a gift-giving countries and described as the pinnacle of the local artisans’ craftsmanship. 58 Paradoxically, by giving these objects to Tito, he actually saved them from being destroyed by the Taliban, who, in the decades to come, systematically targeted all of the country’s non-Muslim heritage sites. 57 Among all the leaders of non-aligned countries, Tito met most frequently with Haile 59 The original inventory numbers from the museums have been preserved in both cases. Selassie I, Norodom Sihanuk (1922–2012) and the Egyptian President Gamal Abdel 60 For insightful details and anecdotes about the gifts Tito received from Egypt, see Nasser (1918–1970). Epštajn, Egipat u sećanju Srbije/Egypt Remembered by Serbi a. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED MITJA VELIKONJA camel, installed on an onyx base and made by the Asprey company, nature; social conservatism with a patriarchal attitude towards London, while King Hassan II of Morocco gave him a unique gold women; traditionalism and Arcadian idealisation; depictions of an-cigarette case bearing the Moroccan coat-of-arms and studded ti-colonial resistance or struggle; realistic depictions of President with brilliant-cut diamonds and sapphires, which was produced by Tito; and, finally, the glorification of the founding fathers or modern the Paris-based company Marchak. political leaders of non-aligned countries. The question that poses The cultural code of these gifts could be defined as glocal—to itself is: What are the similarities and differences between these use a term by Roland Robertson. In this case, global homogeneity cultural codes? and local heterogeneities are not mutually exclusive, but are, in I will first address the similarities. In paintings and reliefs pre-fact, “complementary and interpenetrative”.61 sented as gifts as well as in other gifts from non-aligned countries, The fourth group of gifts from non-aligned countries includes nature plays an important role: motifs are taken from the natural various animal trophies, such as decorated or raw elephant tusks, environment, whether wild and untouched or cultivated and at the taxidermied animals, ostrich eggs, antelope and buffalo ant-service of man. A similar observation can also be made about the lers, rhinoceros horns, big cat and zebra pelts, and even fossils. materials of these gifts, being the most valuable examples of the Particularly impressive are the huge, two-metre-long elephant local natural riches, such as precious stones and precious metals, tusks received from Mobutu Sese Seko (1930–1997), President of ebony and other noble woods. Another similarity is obsessive tra-the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The second sub-group ditionalism: typical of gifts from both groups is that they neither con sists of precious stones: from the President of the Central exhibit the present, nor traces of the recently ended colonial pe-African Republic Tito received three boxes of diamonds varying in riod, let alone any prospects for the future; what can be observed size from large to small. The gifts also include samples of precious is only an intact ancient, pre-colonial culture, linked to old beliefs ores, minerals and corals. From inanimate to animate nature: the and its (religious) symbols. Ethnological motifs and their basis— IP Guinean Prime Minister Ahmed Sékou Touré (1922–1984), the Indian DSH the “ideology of home”63—are evident in nativist motifs (natives 160 Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964) and Emperor Haile EN wearing national costumes, performing rural activities, following 161 Selassie provided exotic animals (antelopes, wild cattle, zebras, ancient beliefs and remaining immobile when it comes to class and etc.) for Tito’s zoo in Brijuni. The famous Asian elephant Sony, which GES OF FRI gender hierarchies), in aesthetic choices (ancient ornamentation lived till 2010, was, for example, given to the Yugoslav President in IMA and modalities of artistic representation) and in ancient symbols, 1970 by another Indian Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi (1917–1984). which are either engraved or drawn. Some gifts (the Buddha’s head And to close this section, the most unusual gift: Tito was given a from Afghanistan, Cyrus cylinder from Iran, etc.) are the result of four-hectare estate and a villa in Marrakech by the Moroccan King the appropriation of the cultural, ethnic and religious past of the Hassan II.62 earlier societies inhabiting the territories of the present countries; These gifts are characterised by a particularly naturalistic on the other hand, this also reflects the cosmopolitan openness cultural code: the richness of (unspoiled) nature being perceived and cultural inclusiveness of the former colonies experiencing the as the most important asset that these countries have to offer to process of modernisation. Motifs that are absent are just as mean-such a distinguished guest. ingful as those that are present: the third similarity between the gifted paintings and other gifts is their non-political nature. There Comparison are hardly any signs of modern post-colonial statehood, in either This part of the research explores whether the cultural codes re-the first or second group of items (with the exception of, for exam-lated to these ethnographic and applied arts gifts are comparable ple, money, stamps and national coats of arms or flags, which in to the codes of the contemporary artworks (mostly paintings) re-some rare cases appear in combination with the Yugoslav flag). The ceived by Tito from non-aligned countries and discussed in detail last similarity is the almost complete absence of the signs of prog-in Part I of the chapter. Let us briefly summarise the codes pertain-ress, modernisation and secularisation, despite the fact that all of ing to the analysed artworks: a strong connection with (un)tamed these countries were referred to as developing countries, a newly 61 Robertson, Glocalization, p. 40. 63 The term is used by both Robertson, Glocalization, p. 35, and Said, Oblasti povedati 62 Panić and Cvijović, World of Silver/Svet od srebra, p. 149. resnico, p. 108. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED MITJA VELIKONJA coined term at that time. Likewise, there is only a scare number of els abroad or from foreign leaders and delegations at home opens items commemorating anti-colonial rebellions, struggles and rev-up possibilities for a series of other comparisons and provides olutions. These objects appear as if they were presented as gifts a starting points for further studies. Namely, social life, in fact, entails few centuries ago, not in the dynamic world of the 1950s, 1960s and a complex cycle of exchanges, and diplomatic protocol, or, more 1970s, a period marked by the information revolution, unprecedent-generally, “soft power” in international relations, is no exception to ed urbanisation, the explosion of communication tec hnologies, the this. In the gift economy, the presented gift, in which “obligation world becoming a global village, the space race, new social move-and liberty intermingle”,66 “obliges a person to reciprocate the pres-ments, popular culture and the mass media. ent”.67 Godelier describes the logic behind the gift with the words: However, there are also some significant differences between “Give more than your rivals, return more than your rivals: this is the the cultural codes of the presented artworks and other gifts. The recipe, and it relentlessly drives the system to its limits.”68 The gifts paintings tend to largely follow aesthetic currents which are con-of Non-Aligned countries which are mentioned here were certain-temporary to the period of their creation; their appearance is es-ly followed (or were preceded) by other “reciprocated” gifts, gifts sentially hybrid, combining local art with the contemporary artistic presented in return by the Yugoslav or Tito’s Protocol. What kind of production from other parts of the world (such as various forms of artworks were presented as gifts to other political leaders of non-modernism, but also postmodernism and naïve art; there are also aligned countries; who are their authors; where, when, on what instances of a documentary approach or, in the case of artworks occasion and how were they presented; what is their fate today; from socialist countries, socialist realism). On the other hand, the where are they exhibited or stored? I hope that we will be able to design of ethnological or applied arts gifts is almost entirely folk-continue the project in order to also thoroughly examine this set of loristic, as if they had not been created in the middle of the 20th questions. century. While paintings often portray political leaders and the Then, it would be interesting to explore the similarities and dif-IP guest, President Tito, such items are particularly scarce in the cat-DSH ferences with the gifts received from the Western world,69 Europe-162 egory of ethnological and applied arts gifts. The most notable ex-EN an socialist countries which were members of the Warsaw Pact and 163 ceptions are the depictions of the Egyptian President Nasser and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance as well as from other the North Vietnamese President Ho Chi Minh (full name Nguyễn GES OF FRI socialist countries. Moreover, it would be possible to explore how Sinh Cung, 1890–1969). Especially in the case of gifts from precious IMA gifts varied over time and what gifts were “fashionable” in different metals, gift-givers very often chose to engrave a dedication to Tito, decades of Tito’s receptions abroad and at home. Another topic the occasion and year when the President received the gift and, of that could be addressed concerns the structure of the gift-givers course, their own name. Furthermore, even a superficial observer (presidents, monarchs, prime ministers, ministers, military leaders, can notice the pronounced exclusivity and high value of some of religious dignitaries, representatives of parties and organisations) the gifts made of gold, precious stones and other rare materials, and the political ideologies and systems they represented. Numer-especially as they came from poor countries. On the one hand, this ous state decorations awarded to Tito by various non-aligned coun-undoubtedly reflects the fact that in the non-aligned world “Josip tries,70 ceremonial documents conferring him the title of “Honor- ‘Tito’ Broz enjoyed enormous popularity to the degree of a person-ary Citizen” of their capitals, honorary docto rates, etc., would also ality cult”.64 On the other hand, consumer excess is often a way of compensating for a disadvantaged social position: classic sociol-66 Godelier, Uganka daru, p. 135. ogist Thorstein Veblen described this phenomenon long ago with 67 Mauss, Esej o daru in drugi spisi, p. 18, see also p. 38 and pp. 83–86. the term conspicuous consumption.65 68 Ibid., p. 179. 69 Kastratović Ristić and Cvijović note that the gifts received from European monarchs The analysis of the artworks, ethnological and applied arts were significantly more modest than the objects presented to Tito by Asian and Afri-gifts that Tito received from non-aligned countries during his trav-can monarchs: the latter were much more authentic, had historical value and embodied typical national characteristics ( Royal Gifts/Carski darovi, p. 15). 70 In total, he received 47 state decorations, from some countries even more than one. 64 Panić and Cvijović, World of Silver/Svet od srebra, p. 149. Kilibarda argues that Tito is In the descending order: from Afghanistan, Bolivia, Burma/Myanmar, Central African a good example of “post-Revolutionary Dandyism” (Non-Aligned Geographies in the Republic, Chile, Ethiopia, Guinea, Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Jordan, Cambodia, Cameroon, Balkans, pp. 29–31). Kenya, Colombia, Congo, North Korea, Kuwait, Liberia, Libya, Mali, Morocco, Maurita-65 Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class – An Economic Study of Institutions, pp. 68– nia, Mexico, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Panama, Senegal, Syria, Somalia, Sudan, Togo, 101, but also elsewhere. Tunisia, Venezuela and Zambia. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED MITJA VELIKONJA deserve research attention. And last but not least: the act of pre-false authenticity that makes newly invented practices autochtho-senting gifts is a specific performative act, a social ceremony—in nous, indigenises them, makes them old. I call this phenomenon this case a protocol event—involving a well-defined dramaturgy, “neo-traditionalism”;72 it does not mo der nise something tradition-mise en scène, speeches, direct act of handing over/receiving the al, but rather traditionalises the modern. On the one hand, the na-gift, music, protagonists’ entourage (delegations, guard of honour, tivist return to the (supposedly) good old days is understandable, national costumes, etc.), followed by official communiqués and as it brings a radical break with the traumatic colonial, racist and media reports about the visit from both countries; all of this could Eurocentric past, riddled with multiple and long-lasting injustices, also be a legitimate subject for future analyses. and re-affirms the local and hardly liberated culture. On the other hand, traditionalism in its re- or neo- version ignores the indelible Conclusion: Ideology of postcolonial colonialism mark that was inevitably left by the colonial period and offers cul-The Non-Aligned are a very heterogeneous community of countries tural autarky instead of a dynamic amalgamation of cultures and a in terms of geographical location, size, population, history, religious fixation on the past rather than a future-oriented view. and cultural traditions, economic power and influence, process of At this point, I can draw meaningful parallels with similar re-decolonisation, and their current ideology and political system.71 gressive processes in the former socialist societies of Eastern Eu-One of the few common features of these countries is their post-co-rope: re-patriarchalisation, religious integralism, world-view and lonial position, which, at the beginning of the Movement in the moral conservatism, neo-racism, turbo-folk culture, the rustication 1960s, was still fresh and only recently acquired through struggles, of aesthetics, etc. Boris Buden describes these phenomena with but is today well consolidated. Their first decades of independence terms “regressive re-essentialisation” and “repressive infanti li-were marked by the process of modernisation in different fields, a sation”.73 I understand neo-traditionalism in this part of the world Great Leap Forward, social experimentation and political, cultural, as a cultural logic pertaining to the post-socialist transition, as a IP economic and general social emancipation from the subordination DSH concrete political consequence arising from the predominance of 164 to the colonial metropolises, which had been their reality for the EN the ideologies and concrete practices associated with the inse-165 last few centuries, or at least decades. One could expect that such parable pair – neoliberalism and ethno-nationalism. The new tra-deeply transformative social dynamics would influence postcolo-GES OF FRI dition created and essentialised by ethno-nationalism is a reflex-nial artistic creativity and design to critically synthesise pre-colo-IMA ive reaction to the effects of neoliberalism, which, in fact, destroys nial traditions and the inevitable imposed colonial innovations, cre-tradition. In other words, neo-traditionalism builds an image of tra-ating fresh, progressive and future-oriented cultural currents. ditional society that neoliberalism simultaneously obliterates. The However, the contemporary artworks, ethnological and applied new tradition is in no sense a renaissance of heritage, a return to arts objects presented to Tito as gifts hardly reflect this. The gap the old times, but exactly the contrary—a post-traditional phenom-between the imperative of social modernisation and the folkloristic enon, a new pragmatic reality. Folkloristic fetishism con ceals the essence of the gifts could hardly be wider. In the majority of these neoliberal destruction of the community and serves as a its substi-gifts, cultural autochthonism and nostalgic turning to the past as tute, as a compensation for it. conservative responses to new social dynamics are manifested in Back to the visual self-representations of the Non-Aligned as two ways: by re- and neo-traditionalisation. First, by a raw return to manifested in their gifts to President Tito: the development of art old motifs, ornaments, materials, colours, appearance and other in these countries is characterised by two factors. First, the very means of visual expression, and by re-traditionalisation and per-concept of art “arrived in the non-European worlds with Western sistent returning to the roots, to the pre-colonial times of Durkheimian “mechanical solidarity” as if nothing has happened or changed 72 Velikonja, The New Folklore: Neo-Traditionalism as the Cultural Logic of the Post-between then and now. Primordialism understands future perspec-Socialist Transition. tives as mere reproductions and at best as actualisations of distant 73 Buden, Cona prehoda, pp. 138 and 36. For a concrete example of such neo-traditional cultural production, see the analysis in Stanković, Simbolni imaginarij sodobne slov-beginnings. And second, by fabricating tradition (“fakelore”), by a enske narodnozabavne glasbe. But to stay in the field of protocol gifts: completely in the spirit of the “regressive re-essentialisation” and significant in this sense are three of the gifts that the British monarchs received from Slovenia in the 1990s and 2000s. 71 For a critical reflection on the global centre and periphery after the capitalist para-Queen Elizabeth II was presented with a Lipizzaner, while Prince Charles received a digm became predominant, see Amin, Evrocentrizem, pp. 153–156. large beehive featuring ten painted beehive panels and a Slovenian hayrack. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED MITJA VELIKONJA colonisation”.74 And second, the overall diversity of non-aligned same essentialist, totalising and exotic image of these countries’ countries certainly contributed to the fact that “there were hetero-societies that colonial masters created decades or centuries ear-geneous artistic productions, different cultural policies and exten-lier to justify their ideological domination and political power over sive cultural networks that enriched the cultural landscape of the them: as backward, pre-modern, ossified, inert, particularistic, de-members of the Non-Aligned Movement and allowed for debates pendent on nature. As Young notes, the nativist cultural strategy of on the meaning of art outside the Western canon”, but at the same non-aligned countries “simply reproduces a Western fantasy about time “there were no specific NAM-related modernisms, no com-its own society now projected out onto the lost society of the oth-mon tissue that could create a new international narrative in art”.75 er and named ‘the Third World’”.80 The current self-representations However, what draws attention is that almost none of the gifted of recently decolonised societies—and, in the colonial period, their objects, with the exception of a few paintings, exhibit progressive, representations by Westerners—have become their reality accord-non-Eurocentric intellectual and cultural currents, such as négri-ing to the logic of self-fulfilling prophecy. In other words, they do not tude (Africa), tropicália (Brazil) or créolité and anti llanité (Carib-escape from the formerly forced, now voluntary entrapment in the bean). All of these—and many others parallel currents76—provide essentialist universalism of “white mythology”.81 Perhaps two obvi-a trenchant critique of colonialism and the Eurocentric historical ous facts related to gifts to Tito contributed to this: (1) Yugoslavia paradigm, affirming new and original hybrid cultural forms, social was the most industrially developed of the non-aligned countries emancipation and alternative modernisation. In contrast, these and had won the liberation war, making it more than an obvious gifts express another cultural triumph of colonialism: the fact that success story, an inspiration for these countries; and (2) it was prac-the neo-colonial ideological capture of Europe’s “silent Other”77 is tically the only European, i.e. white, country in this community.82 clearly more powerful than its post-colonial emancipation. The ideological hegemony of colonialism continued after de-In short: the gift, a material object, always expresses some-colonisation; its source, however, were no longer the Western colo-IP thing immaterial: the identity, the ideological self-image of the DSH nial centres, but the liberated countries themselves, which contin-166 giver. It is a way of the giver’s self-representation: a performative EN ued to symbolically represent themselves in the same way as their 167 display showing the best of what they are, what they own and what masters did before decolonisation and who, in fact, still see them they can produce. In simple words: show me what you give, and I GES OF FRI as inferior. The cultural self-traditionalisation of the Non-Aligned will tell you who you are. Protocol gifts are not only “a token of a IMA goes hand in hand with ideological self-inferiorisation and politi-contract between two states”78 but also “represent the country of cal self-peripheralisation83—as if they did not want to symbolically the gift giver”,79 co-creating its official symbolic image. The majority break free from the grip of the colonial past. The protocol gifts ana-of such gifts presented to Tito by non-aligned countries are tradi-lysed in these pages, which symbolically represent the giving coun-tional in terms of aesthetics, socially and culturally conservative, tries and their attitude towards the presented object, more than and associated with nature. They do not critically question the ex-obviously show that in this field the colonial ideology of the old isting and coherent conservative, pastoral and naturalistic notions European masters has been preserved and modified into a neo-co-about these countries, but rather cement and internalise them. The lonial form, which seems to be consciously recreated by the new paradoxical conclusion of my study is that the analysed artistic, elites in the decolonised countries. To paraphrase Wittgenstein: ethological and applied arts gifts persistently express exactly the the limits of their post-colonial world are still the limits of their internalised colonial folklorism. 74 Šuvaković, Nacionalni realizam i medijska snaga tehno-kapitalizma, p. 4. 75 Piškur, Southern Constellations, p. 21. 76 Cf. the discussion on the aesthetics of “nonaligned modernism” in Yugoslav art or on “socialist postcolonial aesthetics” in Videkanić, Nonaligned Modernism. She, however, argues that “[n]onaligned modernism borrowed from Western ideas of modernism 80 Or: “the figure of the lost origin, the ‘other’ that the colonizer has repressed, has itself in the manner of Glissant’s forced poetics – it used them because it was forced to been constructed in terms of the colonizer’s own self-image”; ibid., p. 168. do so by the infrastructure of the international art world; however, it created its own, 81 Derrida, Bela mitologija, pp. 13–14. See also the interesting discussion on the “white more political aesthetic forms” (p. 9). racial unconscious” in American popular culture (the “potent fantasies of the black 77 Said, ibid., p. 98. body [in] the white Imaginary”) in Lott, Black Mirror, p. 120. 78 Godlewski, Diplomatic Gifts from the Era of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 82 Except for Malta, which was a member from 1973 until it joined the EU in 2004. the Collection of the Polish Army Museum in Warsaw, pp. 145–146. 83 Orientalism thus continues in self-Orientalisation, just as Balkanism often continues 79 Kastratović Ristić and Cvijović, Royal Gifts/Carski darovi, p. 22. in self-Balkanisation, especially in popular culture. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED MITJA VELIKONJA SOURCES AND LITERATURE Godlewski, Jarosław. Diplomatic Gifts from the Era of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Collection of the Polish Army Museum in Warsaw. In: Michał Dziewulski (ed.). The Ambassadors of Dialogue – The Role of Diplomatic Gifts and Works ARCHIVAL SOURCES of Arts and Crafts in Intercultural Exchange. Krakow: National Museum in Krakow, 2016, pp. 141–155. MJ – Museum of Yugoslavia: MJ – collection “4. maj” (4 May) Hall, Stuart. Delo reprezentacije [The Work of Representation]. In: Breda Luthar, Vida MJ – collection “Nesvrstani – etnografska” (Non-Aligned – ethnographic) Zei and Hanno Hardt (eds.). Medijska kultura: kako brati medijske tekste. Ljubljana: MJ – collection “Nesvrstani – likovna” (Non-Aligned – fine art) Študentska založba, 2004, pp. 33–96. MJ – collection Nesvrstani – primenjena (Non-Aligned – applied) MJ – collection “Nesvrstani – volonteri” (Non-Aligned – volunteers) Hall, Stuart. Kulturne študije 1983 – Teoretska zgodovina [Cultural Studies 1983: A Theoretical History]. Ljubljana: Založba Fakultete za družbene vede, 2018. LITERATURE Hatschek, Christoph. The Blessing and Curse of (Military) Diplomatic Gifts. In: Michał Dziewulski (ed.). The Ambassadors of Dialogue – The Role of Diplomatic Gifts Amin, Samir. Evrocentrizem: kritika neke ideologije [Eurocentrism: A Critique of an and Works of Arts and Crafts in Intercultural Exchange. Krakow: National Museum in Ide o logy]. Ljubljana: Sophia, 2009. Krakow, 2016, pp. 19–30. Angel, Felix (ed). A Century of Painting in Panama. Washington, D. C.: Inter-American Jakovina, Tvrtko. Treća strana Hladnog rata. Zagreb: Fraktura, 2011. Development Bank – Cultural Center, 2004. Kastratović Ristić, Veselinka and Momo Cvijović. Royal Gifts/Carski darovi. Belgrade: Arbeiter, Jana and Milan Brglez. Prednostni vrstni red: sredstvo pozicioniranja ali (ne) Muzej istorije Jugoslavije, 2013. Video material released on the occasion of the exhi-uporabna simbolika? [Priority Order: Positioning Tool or (Un)Useful Symbolism] . Ljub-bition: www.youtube.com/watch?v=6sCYGj-QJKE. ljana: Založba Fakultete za družbene vede, 2017. Kilibarda, Konstantin. 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The Past with a Future: The Emancipatory Potential of Yugonostalgia. In: Srdja Pavlović and Marko Živković (eds.). Transcending Fratricide – Political Petja Grafenauer 07 172 173 This paper examines the cultural artistic links between India and the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) in the 1960s and 1970s, focusing in particular on the links connecting Indian artists to the institution of the Ljubljana-based International Biennial of Graphic Arts (IBGA), as well as on the systemic arrangements for the exchange of other cultural events between the two countries. Studying the case of participation by the Indian graphic artist Krishna Reddy in the IBGA—who almost certainly entered the Biennial via the Western art world, paving the way for many of his compatriots—and concentrating on other institutional routes established with India (e.g. Lalit Kala Academy), we investigate how Yugoslav cultural agreements and programmes but also the self-initiative of artists influenced the processes of artistic exchange between India and the SFRY, and how, in the case of the IBGA, this was reflected at the level of procedures adopted for inviting Indian artists and exhibiting their works. The paper is based on the analysis of the archival material deposited in the Archives of Yugoslavia, the Archives of the Republic of Slovenia and the archives of the International Centre of Graphic * This paper is a result of the research project J7-2606, Models and Practices of Global Cultural Exchange and Non-Aligned Movement: Research in the Spatio-Temporal Cultural Dynamics, financed by the Slovenian research agency (ARRS). THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PETJA GRAFENAUER Arts in Ljubljana, as well as on the study of the literature to the remained unnoticed during this era, as Francois Lyotard points out. present date. The most extensive portion of the studied material is These characteristics were nationality, power and hegemony. The held in the Archives of Yugoslavia, Belgrade, and for the purpose of problem of hegemony—without realising, Europe conceives and the research a substantial proportion of its fonds “AJ 319 Savezni presents its culture as a universal fact—is also the problem of the savet za obrazovanje i kulturu 1967–1971” [Federal Council for Edu-TS IBGA.4 At this point, we are entering an area where, at the cultural cation and Culture] and “AJ 559 Savezna komisija za kultur veze sa IC AR level and in the period of the bipolar world, the struggle for the dom-inostranstvom 1953–1971” [Federal Commission for Cultural Rela-inance of ideas was fought once again. In this field, the SFRY did tions with Foreign Countries] were analysed. It is important to note not actually succeed in establishing its own criteria but followed IAL OF GRAPH that during the NATO bombing of Belgrade (1999), four fonds were N EN the predominant hegemonic (Western) trends—which created the destroyed and one partially damaged, including the fond “Solidarity conditions for following a single and increasingly global influence— with Non-Aligned and Developing Countries”, which would be rele-TIONAL BI rather than tending towards the dispersion and diversity of multiple vant for the present research. TERNA perspectives and equal opportunities for interaction that constitut-The thesis of the research is that the cultural policy of the SFRY NE IH ed the conceptual foundations of non-alignment. in the sphere of fine and visual arts—which could be conceived as Y OF T completely individual, founded on anti-imperialism and decoloni-DTU Period prior to the agreements on cultural sation, non-interference and peaceful co-existence, in addition to SE SA cooperation (1955— 1960) Yugoslav self-management—is in practice not identifiable in the s: A C In 1957, before the signing of the Cultural Convention with India, activities of fine and visual arts organisations or, at least, its impact the SFRY Embassy in New Delhi described the cultural relations be-is not considerable, even in the case of the IBGA, which was val-D 1970 tween the two countries as follows: s AN ued primarily for bringing together art from all over the world. “The International Biennial of Graphic Arts, with its Western-centrism E 1960H India remains a peaceful non-bloc country. The aim is to achieve a bal-174 and unreflected understanding of quality in art and art’s autonomy, N T ance between the two blocs, which is sometimes loosened in favour 175 VIA I seems to have moved more visibly away from the search for new A of the West and sometimes in favour of the East. According to the Em-cultural policies based on the socialist principles of equality, free-bassy, these are tactical moves to identify internal and external needs dom, self-management and solidarity”.1 Although concepts often in order to strengthen India’s position. Tactical leniency towards the occupy a significant part in manifestos included in speeches, com-BLIC OF YUGOSL West does not yield the best results for India. Consolidation and im-mentaries, invitations and letters, practices reveal different trends, provement of political and other ties are occurring at a faster pace, de-reflecting the great influence of Western modern art and its search spite the re-ignition of the Cold War. Many leaders are coming to India for individual freedom and autonomy, disengagement from politics T FEDERAL REPU (Chou En-lai, Georgy Zhukov, etc.). Nehru’s visit to the US was another and the establishment of so-called objective criteria of quality. Al-important event, as India interpreted it as a major bridge for smoothing ready at the level of selection procedures, these criteria were estab-E SOCIALISH relations between the US and non-bloc countries as well as with the lished as the authority of predetermined conditions necessary for D T East. India entered, albeit to a limited extent, into the politics of the big the artist’s success. The success, in turn, depends on the perspec-DIA AN nations. Its role was specific because it kept its doors more open than N tive and the intensity of establishing the authority of the adopted any other big country. India sought to avoid strong integration with perspective, which tends towards “truth” or “factuality”.2 The aim is the East, while the Western bloc policy was a major barrier to better to establish a totality (Western modernism), which can only emerge contacts due to its colonial attitudes and racial discrimination. Conse-by placing a specific particularity in the position of an absolute, ATION BETWEEN I quently, India’s relations with the West were at a proportionally low lev-and this is inevitably linked to the elimination of other particulari-el, while the country was striving to meet the conditions to obtain aid ties.3 The canon of Western modernist art was formed as a result RAL COOPER and loans as soon as possible. of certain intrinsic characteristics of the modernist period, which LTU CU In the 1950s, Yugoslav-Indian relations were mainly determined by the attitude reflected in Indian politics; India aimed to become an equal 1 Tepina, Umetniška stičišča – utopije – neuvrščenost, p. 89. 2 Feyerabend, Znanost kot umetnost, p. 68. 3 Welsch, Unsere postmoderne Moderne. 4 Ženko, Totaliteta in umetnost; Lyotard, Jameson and Welsch. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PETJA GRAFENAUER partner of the big countries, and therefore also tried to keep non-bloc symposium and an exhibition held in 1965 on Yugoslav-Indian cultural and friendly countries at a certain distance: advising rather than con-contacts through the centuries, which provided interesting insights for sulting them, expecting support for its actions rather than displaying the wider cultural public on our cultural achievements related to the willingness for joint actions as equal partners. However, it should be great culture of India—Sanskrit, the presence of the spiritual culture pointed that among the non-bloc countries India maintained the best TS of India.6 relations with Yugoslavia. According to the Embassy, this is mainly due IC AR to the importance of Yugoslavia in global politics, which other smaller Due to the distance between the two countries and historical cir-non-bloc countries lack, the respect for principle in our foreign policy cumstances, cooperation and integration at the level of cultural IAL OF GRAPH and, as an important factor, Nehru’s5 personal respect for Comrade N EN relations had to be developed anew, and in 1968 the Yugoslav diplo-President. matic-consular missions provided the following assessment: TIONAL BI Later on, the Federal Executive Council (SIV) and the Federal Com-Translation of works had an instrumental role, and over the last ten to TERNA mission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries in their in-NE I fifteen years there has been noticeable progress, as previously interac-H formation notices, reports and evaluations of cultural cooperation tions were non-existent due to different contexts and distance. Con-Y OF T repeatedly emphasised that relations between the two countries DTU versely, political relations are at a high level and there is a long-term ori-had been good since the beginning of the cooperation and were SE S entation towards the expansion of economic connections. In this way, A rapidly strengthening and that, at the same time, cultural contacts culture and art, if they become better acquainted with each other, can s: A C constituted an important field and an incentive for the develop-also mutually enrich each other and become an object of interest and ment of political and economic relations. In its report on cooper-D 1970 creative inspiration for cultural operators and artists in Yugoslavia and ation between Yugoslavia and India between 1953 and 1966, the s AN India, which are objective reasons for expanding cultural relations with Federal Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries E 1960H India in the future. Cultural cooperation lags behind political relations 176 states: N T and increasingly stronger economic cooperation—this is what emerg-177 VIA IA es from all the reports prepared up to three or four years ago. This area These are two nations that emerged after the Second World War and received less attention and, consequently, fewer resources were allo-fought for their freedom and independence—therefore contacts were cated to it. Even when the Cultural Convention was signed with India in established very soon and have been genuine and fruitful from the very BLIC OF YUGOSL March 1960, this did not change.7 beginning. Usual activities: diplomatic missions in New Delhi and Belgrade were established immediately after the war. At the cultural level, Krishna Reddy at the Ljubljana Biennial there was an exchange of information, publications from the sphere T FEDERAL REPU of Graphic Arts (1957—1963) of cultural life—cultural propaganda. Before the meetings of the rep-The Indian printmaker Krishna Reddy (1925–2018) exhibited at the resentatives of Yugoslavia and India, meetings of “goodwill missions” E SOCIALISH IBGA even before the beginning of a greater influx of Indian artists took place, which, in addition to their political character, also had the D T and prior to the conclusion of agreements by the Commission for function of cultural missions; on these occasions, representatives of DIA AN Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries. The thesis is that RedN cultural and educational life had, for the first time, the opportunity to dy reached the IBGA through another route, the Western world art directly encounter the cultural achievements of our nations and be-route, and that the same is true for as the vast majority of Indian come acquainted with the level of their cultural development. These re-artists who followed him. lations are not accidental and are the result of the impressions that the ATION BETWEEN I Reddy, born into a family of farmers, fought injustice all his life, members of our “goodwill mission” brought back from India. The Chair participating in protests, including Mahatma Gandhi’s Quit India of Indology in Zagreb was established in 1962/63. This was followed by RAL COOPER movement.8 the organisation of Indological educational research, as well as by a LTU CU 6 AJ559_57_126 Savezna komisija za kulturne veze sa inostranstvom. Opšti material. Veze sa Azijom. Veze sa Indijom 1953–1966: Information notices on cooperation with 5 AJ 837_KPR-I-5b/39 (1–12), Kabinet predsednika republike. India: Iz izvještaja jugoslo-India in the fields of education and culture. Petar Mihailovski. vanske Ambasade u New Delhi-u o spoljnoj politici Indije i jugoslovansko-indijskim 7 AJ 319_49 _65 Kulturno-prosvetne veze sa inostranstvom: Ocene i predlozi naših dip-odnosima, 11 October 1957. lomatsko-konzularnih predstavništva, May 1968. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PETJA GRAFENAUER In fleeing the colonial police for his involvement in this revolutionary in the catalogue mentions “numerous exhibitions in Paris, Europe-movement, Reddy came to Santiniketan, West Bengal, where he spent an cities and America” and the prize he won at the International his formative years at Visva-Bharati University’s Kala Bhavana (Institute Exhibition held in Philadelphia.14 The archival material of the Inter-of Fine Arts) founded by Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore. While at national Centre of Graphic Arts for 1961 is non-existent, but other Santiniketan, Reddy trained to be a sculptor and watercolorist, and TS sources15 indicate that in October 1961 Reddy not only exhibited at came to be influenced by key figures such as Nandalal Bose, Ram Kink-IC AR the Biennial but also at the gallery Mala galerija in Ljubljana, selling er Baij and Benode Behari Mukherjee—artists now characterized as two prints, which also emerges from his correspondence, dated in forming the school of contextual modernism in India.9 1963, with the head of the IBGA Zoran Kržišnik.16 The Indian AmIAL OF GRAPHN EN bassador was unable to attend the opening of the exhibition,17 al-He graduated in 1946 and was head of the art section at Kalakshet-though, in the same year, the Serbian art historian and critic Lazar ra Foundation until 1949, while also teaching art at the Montessori TIONAL BI Trifunović stressed the importance attached to participation in the Teacher Training Institute in Madras, where he took up painting for TERNA Biennial by artists from all parts of the world.18 the first time.10 NE IH In 1963 Reddy received a personal invitation to exhibit at the Relevant for our research is his move to London in 1949 to IBGA, to which he responded with a letter and prints.19 Three othY OF T study sculpture at the Slade School of Fine Arts under the super-DTU er Indian artists, i.e. Krishna Kanwal, Bishamber Khanna and Kaiko vision of Henry Moore, who himself exhibited several times at the SE SA Moti, exhibited their works alongside Reddy. Reddy’s presentation IBGA, and Lucian Freud. In 1950, Reddy moved to Paris on a schol-s: A C is described by Alexander Bassin in the journal Sinteza, where he arship, where he met Constantin Brâncuși, who introduced him to describes his prints as follows: “the lace-like sequence of graphic the artistic life of the city. Here, Reddy studied sculpture under Os-D 1970 lines in Reddy’s work already represents a departure from the ac-sip Zadkine at the Academie Grande Chaumiere and etching under s AN quired practices, and, on the whole, an attempt to merge Oriental Stanley William Hayter at Atelier 17. Hayter, who regularly received E 1960H and European art”.20 The catalogue of the 1963 Biennial of Graphic 178 personal invitations to participate at this Ljubljana-based event, N T Arts already mentions Reddy being co-director of Atelier 17 in Paris 179 was also a frequent guest of the IBGA.11 VIA IA and lists numerous exhibitions in Europe, America and India that In 1957, Reddy left for the Academia Di Belle Arti Di Brer in displayed his artworks, highlighting once again the prize he won in Milan in order to study under Marino Marini. During this period, Philadelphia.21 Reddy exhibited two prints from 1963, Water Forms in 1957, 1961 and 1963, he exhibited his prints at the IBGA, but the BLIC OF YUGOSL and Sunset. In this period, he was already renowned for his mastery archival material revealing how his works were admitted to the Bi-of intaglio printing and had been co-director at Hayter’s Atelier 17 ennial is scarce. at least since 1962. Hayter founded this thriving workshop in Paris In 1957, artists were either invited in person or submitted their T FEDERAL REPU in 1927, moved it to New York in the period from 1939 to 1940 and works themselves, which were then selected by a jury.12 That year, re-established it in Paris in 1950. Originally located on the Rue Mou-Reddy, whose biography in the catalogue lists his studies in India E SOCIALISH lin Vert, the workshop’s name was derived from its later location and under Moore, Zadkine and Hayterwas, was the only Indian art-D T at 17 Rue Campagne Premiere, Paris, where Hayter settled at the ist to exhibit at the Biennial.13 On this occasion, he exhibited a co-DIA AN beginning of the 1930s. Atelier 17 is known for numerous celebrated N lour aquatint Fish. In 1959 he did not participate, while in 1961 he exhibited three colour etchings, i.e. Water Lilies, Pastoral and River, 14 Ibid. the first two dated 1960 and the third dated 1961. The biography 15 Hayter, Krishna. ATION BETWEEN I 16 SI MGLC 1963/F2, 5th International Exhibition of Graphic Arts: Competition: Applications and invitations. Krishna Reddy’s letter, 8 February 1963. 17 SI MGLC 1963/F1, 5th International Exhibition of Graphic Arts 1963: Invitations. 8 Krishna Reddy 1925–2018. RAL COOPER 18 SI MGLC 1963/F1, 5th International Exhibition of Graphic Arts: Minutes of the 1st LTU 9 Sumesh Sharma. Krishna Reddy and Atelier 17: A “New Form” Takes Shape. meeting of the Organisational Committee for the 5th International Exhibition of CU 10 Krishna Reddy 1925–2018. Graphic Arts, 21 December 1962. 11 SI MGLC 1963/F2, archive relative to the 5th Biennial of 18 May 1962: List of exhibitors, 19 SI MGLC 1963/F2, 5th International Exhibition of Graphic Arts: Applications for partic-18 May 1962. ipation: Krishna Reddy’s response to the invitation and SI MGLC 1963/F2, 5th Interna-12 SI MGLC, 1957/F1, 2. IBGA 1957: Minutes of the 1st ordinary meeting of the Committee tional Exhibition of Graphic Arts: Minutes: Personal invitations. for the 2nd International Exhibition of Graphic Arts, 2 March 1957. 20 Bassin, Peta mednarodna grafična razstava, p. 59. 13 Krishna Reddy 1925–2018. 21 Krishna Reddy 1925–2018 THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PETJA GRAFENAUER artists who worked there and were encouraged by Hayter’s insis-influential art studio Atelier 17, including Zarina Hashmi. A gentle tence that printmaking was not simply a method of reproduction soul with sharp political beliefs, his roots combined Tagore and but rather a form of artistic creation. The artists of the atelier often Gandhi with a good dose of the French left,” says photographer and worked directly on the plate and were in a constant search for new curator Ram Rahman. He adds: experiences and techniques. Paris-based Atelier 17 was considered TS a meeting place, which provided a space for artistic experimenta-IC AR He also mentored me when I had just moved to New York and he got me tion for a number of artists, including Joan Miró, Pablo Picasso, Al-to teach design at NYU. Always very generous with his time, guidance berto Giacometti, Juan Cardenas, Constantin Brâncuși and Zarina and even loans to young students, his loft was always filled with people IAL OF GRAPH Hashmi:22 N EN of every continent and he made it a point to interact with black artists in the US. Bob Blackburn was one such artist he was extremely close Notable among the innovations of Atelier 17 is the method of simulta-TIONAL BI to.26 neous color printmaking, an etching technique involving several colors TERNAN on the same plate. It offers artists increased possibilities for experimen-E I First agreements on cultural cooperation H tation and innovation. Collaboration between experienced and novice (1960—1965) Y OF T artists created a spirit of creative research. Each day an assistant or DTU Institutional links between the IBGA and the countries from which collaborator/assistant helps and advises the artists. However, each SE SA the exhibitors came were also formed in other ways. The path lead-works according to his own rhythm and creates his own personal works s: A C ing to the expansion of contacts and cooperation was established of art.23 with the Agreement on Cultural Cooperation signed in March 1960, D 1970 which produced concrete results—from this point on, cultural re-s AN Technique and style distinguish Reddy as an important printmak-lations actually began developing. What can be referred to as the er. His prints are abstract, consisting of subtle grid-like designs on E 1960H second period lasted until the signing of the Programme of Edu-180 pla tes with intricate textures, even reliefs. The myriad of complex N T cational and Cultural Cooperation in July 1965, which contribut-181 VIA I colours introduced into his prints reveal a contemplative approach A ed to raising the level of cultural cooperation. The Commission to the infinite mysteries of nature. His work at Atelier 17 played a for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries described as major key role in developing a new printing process to produce multi-co-achievements of this period the visits of important personalities loured prints using a single printing matrix and exploiting the vis-BLIC OF YUGOSL from Indian cultural life, i.e. Khwaja Ghulam Saiyidain (Secretary cosity and tackiness of the inks; this method was subsequently at the Indian Ministry of Education), Devi Presad (artist, activist named “viscosity printing”. and publicist) and Humayun Kabir (Indian Minister for Education), During the Paris demonstrations in May 1968, Reddy also creT FEDERAL REPU as well as the anniversary celebration dedicated to the humanist, ated a print entitled Demonstrators, which is considered one of his writer and artist Rabindranath Tagore, which was organised in sev-most famous works.24 “His unique vision was the startling combi-E SOCIALISH eral cultural centres throughout the SFRY in 1961. In the academic nation of his pastoral nature studies from Santiniketan, with the D T year 1962/63, the Chair of Indology was founded at the Faculty of darker cosmic view of French surrealism. His plate-making was DIA AN Arts in Zagreb. Five scholarships were offered for studying in India N sculptural, carved with styluses and tools into the copper.”25 and five for studying in Yugoslavia. According to the Commission In 1976, Reddy moved permanently to the United States. “A real reports, the artistic field saw major achievements in the fine arts, guru and teacher, Krishna mentored generations in France and the music, performing arts and literature. An exhibition of contempoUS and always kept his links with India. He did many print work-ATION BETWEEN I rary Yugoslav painting was hosted in India in 1962,27 followed by a shops here with art students and taught many Indian artists in the solo exhibition by Peter Lubarda in 1963.28 Indian artist Bishamber RAL COOPER Khanna, who, as stated above, also participated at the 5th edition LTU CU of the IBGA in 1963, refers to Lubarda’s exhibition in his correspon-22 Atelier 17. 23 Ibid. dence. In a letter dated 27 March 1963 to Zoran Kržišnik, director 24 Krishna Reddy 1925–2018. 25 Kalra. A real guru, he always kept his links with India. The art fraternity remembers eminent sculptor and printmaker Krishna Reddy, who died in New York at the age 26 Ibid. of 93. 27 Sodobno jugoslovansko slikarstvo, p. 91. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PETJA GRAFENAUER of the Museum of Modern Art (Moderna galerija) and head of the tional obstacle but expressed the belief that over a longer period IBGA in Ljubljana, he apologised for the delay and communicated of time and with continued cooperation, these differences would that Lubarda’s exhibition was being held in Delhi at the time of his eventually diminish, which was a mutual desire. In its opinion, sig-writing, describing it as an important contribution for Indian artists nificant results had been achieved in all sectors (cooperation in and art critics.29 In 1962, India organised an exhi bition held in the TS the fields of education, fine arts, music and stage art, literature and SFRY featuring works of two painters who were recipients of schol-IC AR film).32 arships granted by the Government of Yugoslavia, where they had In 1965, New Delhi hosted an international painting exhibition also undertaken their specialisation. In April 1964, an exhibition of with twenty-one participating countries. The exhibiting artists from IAL OF GRAPH twenty-five exhibits by the Indian sculptor Amar Nath Sehgal was N EN the SFRY included, among others, Andrej Jemec, Ljubo Lah, Ibra-presented in Belgrade.30 him Ljubović, Slavko Šohaj, Nikola Reiser, Aleksandar Tomašević, The implementation of the Cooperation Programme, which TIONAL BI Đorđe Pravilović and Trajče Jančevski.33 The event was part of art was signed on 7 July 1965, took place mainly in 1966, as the pro-TERNA exhibitions exchanges—in return, India arranged an exhibition of gramme did not enter into force until the second half of the year. NE IH miniature painting in Belgrade and Zagreb, which was held for the This complicated the dynamics of its implementation, as the coop-first three weeks of November 1965, while in December 1965,34 the Y OF T eration between the two states was disproportionate and unbal-DTU fifth international art exhibition was organised in New Delhi by the anced. Another problem arose at the end of the programme, as it SE SA All India Fine Arts & Crafts Society. Yugoslavia participated in the was not extended and therefore expired on 31 March 1967; however, s: A C international exhibition with four artworks, and the catalogue also for the rest of 1967, the activities that experienced delays remained includes an overview of contemporary Yugoslav art. Subsequent-ongoing in the attempt to complete all their phases. A new cultural D 1970 ly, the exhibition travelled to Calcutta, Jaipur, Hyderabad, Bombay, s AN cooperation programme was signed only at the beginning of 1968, Chandigarh, Ahmedabad and Amritsar.35 which did not interrupt the exchanges, but delayed and extended E 1960H 182 the time for the completion of activities, allowing the full realisa-N T First biennial agreement on cultural cooperation 183 VIA I tion of the previous programme.31 This period of intense cooperA (1965—1967) ation represents realistic terrain where the process of adaptation On 7 July 1965, the first biennial programme on cultural and edu-of both countries to the needs and interests of their own cultures cational cooperation with India was adopted. Cultural activities took place, manifesting not only as a desire but also considering BLIC OF YUGOSL began to be conducted in a completely systematic way. In January the material possibilities. The Commission expressed strong con-1967, a delegation consisting of Dušan Vejnović (chairman of the cern in relation to the geographical factor affecting cultural cooper-Commission), Petar Mihailovski, Dušan Štrbac and the Secretary ation, since the considerable distance between the two countries T FEDERAL REPU of the Embassy of the SFRY in New Delhi, joined by the President required additional adjustments. It also noted that the distance and Vice-President of the Republic of India, the Indian Minister of reduced the possibility for a more intense and frequent coopera-E SOCIALISH Education and the Secretaries for Culture, came to New Delhi. One tion, which became evident after 1964. Moreover, it recognised the D T of their activities was a visit of the Lalit Kala Academy.36 The pro-differences between the two specific national cultures as an addi-DIA AN gramme was usually renewed every two years, but as mentioned be-N fore, there were delays in its implementation; consequently, the new programme for the period 1968–1969 was signed only in January 28 AJ 559_57_126 Federal Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries. General material. Relations with Asia. Relations with India 1953–1966: Information notices on cooperation with India in the fields of education and culture. Petar Mi-ATION BETWEEN I hailovski (senior councillor on the Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries). 29 SI MGLC 1963/F2, 5th International Exhibition of Graphic Arts 1963: Correspondence RAL COOPER 32 AJ 559_57_126 Petar Mihailovski. from individual exhibitors. LTU 33 Kronika, p. 109. 30 AJ 559_100_221 Izložbe stranih umetnika u Jugoslaviji 1962–1964. Letter from the Em-CU 34 AJ 559_100_222 Exhibitions of foreign artists in Yugoslavia (1965–1966), Corres pon-bassy of the SFRY to the Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries on dence between the Embassy of the SFRY and the Commission for Cultural Relations Nath Segal’s arrival, 20 December 1963. with Foreign Countries, 19 April 1965. 31 AJ 559_57_126 Federal Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries. 35 AJ 559_100_222 Exhibitions of foreign artists in Yugoslavia (1965–1966), Correspon-General material. Relations with Asia. Relations with India 1953–1966: Information dence between the Embassy of the SFRY and the Commission for Cultural Relations notice on cultural cooperation between India and Yugoslavia, 15 October 1966. with Foreign Countries, 24 August 1965. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PETJA GRAFENAUER 1968 (its signing coincided with the visit of President Tito’s delega-Karanović, Albert Kinert, Zlatko Prica, Marjan Detoni, Aleksander tion to India between 22 and 24 January 1968). Lukovič, Božidar Jakac, Mario Mascarelli, Mihajlo Petrov, Mersad In the meantime, the structure of the Federal Executive Coun-Berber and Miroslav Šutej among others. Triennial-India was concil (SIV) in the SFRY changed; the Federal Commission for Cultur-ceived by Dr Mulk Raj Anand, the then President of the Lalit Kala al Relations with Foreign Countries was formed as a special so-TS Academy in New Delhi, and it was in 1968 that the Triennial opened cio-political body at the federal level, which merely coordinated IC AR its doors for the first time. the international cultural and educational activities of the SFRY In its documents, the Federal Commission draws attention to in cooperation with the newly established republican Commis-the lack of knowledge of Indian culture in the SFRY and suggests IAL OF GRAPH sions for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries, as well as with N EN placing greater emphasis on the importance of learning the lan-self-governing institutions and organisations, which were active in guage and translating as well as on learning about Indian classical the field of culture and also cooperated with foreign institutions TIONAL BI music, which had captured the interest of the West, exploring the accor ding to their own interests. In 1967, republican Commissions TERNA ancient sculptures, which were unrivalled in terms of their rich-were formed in Montenegro, Macedonia and Slovenia. In the same NE IH ness and preservation, studying the best works of literature, etc. year, biennial programmes were reaching their end and new ones Moreover, the Commission also attaches great importance to the Y OF T were being drafted for the period 1968–1969. Preparations and DTU scholarships awarded by the Federal Institute for International Cul-discussions on programmes signed in the SFRY with fifteen counSE SA tural, Educational and Technological Cooperation.39 It noted that in tries were in progress, which is one of the reasons why the signs: A C 1968 relations between the two countries were sound and that the ing of the 1967 agreement with India was delayed until 1968, as it SFRY was striving to open up to all the countries across the globe was connected to funding arrangements. Given the importance D 1970 but also to integrate into the international scene, as was evident s AN attached to the continuity of cooperation, this caused widespread from a number of conventions and programmes signed worldwide. discontent.37 The possibility for cooperation was no longer the do-E 1960H In 1968, the SFRY cooperated in the field of culture with 100 coun-184 main of the Federal Commission but was extended to local com-N T tries, concluded cultural conventions with 46 countries and signed 185 VIA I petent authorities and included coordination of all the activities A cultural biennial programmes with 21.40 of publishing houses, writers, fine arts, music and dramatic arts The financing of cultural cooperation was shaped according to academies as well as of individual visual and other artists in rela-a structure that changed considerably over the 1960s (in 1966 the tions with foreign countries. The main visual arts manifestations, BLIC OF YUGOSL Federal Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries which had been successfully approved at that time by the Federal still included the Republican Commissions for Cultural Relations Commission, were a solo exhibition by the painter Peter Lubarda with Foreign Countries). After 1966, the Federal Executive Council and a representative exhibition dedicated to the Yugoslav graphic T FEDERAL REPU (SIV) continued to finance and organise presentations of Yugoslav arts (which was planned to be opened in June 1967, displaying 100 artists at international art manifestations. Throughout this time, prints38). Prints also proved to be the most sensible choice, as they E SOCIALISH there was a tendency towards decentralisation, but the SIV could did not require a lot of resources for transport and the technical D T not be completely excluded from financing cooperation with de-equipment was provided by India, but they had nevertheless the DIA AN veloping countries; in order to maximise the devolution of compeN potential to leave a big impact. tencies to the Republics and the direct promoters of cooperation, Particularly important is also the participation at the Trienni-the Commission proposed to diminish the role of the Federation al of Art in Delhi, which exhibited works by Riko Debenjak, Boško and to concentrate its powers on only two categories: developing ATION BETWEEN I countries and the “joint actions”.41 While most of the artistic coop-36 AJ 559_57_127 Federal Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries. eration with the above-mentioned countries remained founded by General material. Relations with Asia. Relations with India 1967–1971: Report on the RAL COOPER the Federation, the responsibility of the Republics was limited to LTU visit of the Yugoslav delegation to India in order to sign the Programme of Educational CU rare instances. It was also proposed that the Federation retain a and Cultural Cooperation for the period 1968–1969. 37 AJ 319_49 _65 Cultural and educational relations with foreign countries: report of the Federal Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries for the year 1967, 39 AJ 319_49_65 Cultural and educational relations with foreign countries: Evaluations Belgrade, May 1968, pp. 3–4. and proposals of our diplomatic and consular missions, May 1968. 38 Merhar, Mednarodno kulturno sodelovanje Jugoslavije z državami članicami gibanja 40 AJ 319_49_65 Cultural and educational relations with foreign countries: Analysis of neuvrščeni, p. 64. cultural relations: considerations 1968. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PETJA GRAFENAUER role in providing financial and material support for artistic exchangin a situation of strict centralisation of foreign currency, as was the es with developing countries and that the Republics gra dually be-case in India, it was not possible to count on unplanned exchanges, come involved in the financing of cooperation (for the first two to which affected the fruitfulness of cooperation: three years it was envisaged that the Republics would cover half of the total costs). The SIV furthermore proposed that joint actions— TS In the difficult foreign currency situation that India is facing, the budget those related to major artistic manifestations and the organisation IC AR of the Ministry of Education and Culture planned for cultural exchanges of major representative art exhibitions, through which the cultures with foreign countries is the first to be impacted by cuts as it occurred of nations and ethnic groups of the SFRY affirmed themselves in a couple of months ago when India’s budget was drastically reduced. It IAL OF GRAPH the world—continue to be supported materially and financially by N EN is therefore important that the Programme is adapted to our needs and the Federation, while the Republics would have the responsibility capacities as realistically and appropriately as possible.44 to organise the exhibitions on a proportional basis, according to TIONAL BI the activities of individual territories.42 In addition to expanding the Self-governance TERNA biennial programmes, the Federal Commission also aimed to in-NE IH The development of self-management in the field of Yugoslavia’s crease the number of direct connections and initiatives of individu-cultural relations with foreign countries did not keep pace with othY OF T al institutions, which were either foreseen but not yet implemented DTU er social processes in terms of its intensity. The old forms of peror insufficiently realised. It assumed that the financing problems in SE SA forming work and decision-making on cultural cooperation, which India were even greater: s: A C were tied to a single decision-making centre, were pre served. The goal, however, was to decentralise the Federation’s competences D 1970 The budget of the Ministry of Culture and Education has been con-regarding its international cultural activities, but the attempts did s AN siderably reduced, and given the economic situation, it is improbable not yield much success. The Commission expressed the need to that significant funding will be allocated for cultural cooperation. The E 1960H focus on substantive rather than organisational processes, espe-186 question which arises in these circumstances is whether our compaN T cially on the realisation of the constitutional rights of the Republics 187 VIA I nies should be more actively involved in financing cultural activities A and the pursuit of their interests. It argued that cultural relations and contribute to elevating the prestige of Indian companies active in could not be consolidated without self-governing bodies. Its mem-this field. The main problems are financial resources and the great geo-bers wanted to promote the self-governing pro cesses relevant to graphical distance, which implies that in cases where the costs are lim-BLIC OF YUGOSL cultural links, which were supposedly more suitable for the func-ited, everything has to be done to ensure cultural exchanges between tioning of a self-governing system, presuming that the elements in institutions and cultural operators.43 common would crystallise. They recognised the need to develop T FEDERAL REPU an awareness of the interconnectedness of the world among the It can be deduced that the financial aspect was one of the key obsta-working population, labour organisations and their associations cles to the development of cultural cooperation, and despite there E SOCIALISH with the purpose that these actors would concentrate their efforts being high interest in deepening cultural contacts with deve loping D T on building the broadest possible cultural connections. The devel-countries, it long lagged behind political and economic interests DIA AN opment of self-management in the field of culture and education N and relations. From 1960, when the SFRY signed the first convention, should have enabled working people to assess and identify their until the signing of the Cooperation Programme, the Commission’s interest in cultural exchange and facilitate the development of re-evaluations of the cultural exchanges with India pointed out that sponsibility awareness among all the parties involved. The Federal they were carried out in a haphazard manner, with no organised work ATION BETWEEN I Council hoped that with the self-managed development of culture from either side, causing cultural cooperation to lag behind political in general, cultural contacts with foreign countries would become relations and economic links. Attention was drawn to the fact that RAL COOPER a matter managed by working people and individual communes, LTU CU pursuing their interests and opening up processes in which individ-41 AJ 319_50 _66 Cultural and educational relations with foreign countries: Questions uals would freely and directly realise their interest in exchanging regarding financing cultural cooperation, SIV, 17 July 1970, p. 4. 42 Ibid., pp. 14–17. 44 AJ 559_5 _12 Opšti poverljivi materiali 1965–1966. Comments by the Embassy of the 43 AJ 319_ 49_65 Cultural and educational relations with foreign countries: Evaluations SFRY in New Delhi to the Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries and proposals of our diplomatic and consular missions, May 1968. on the proposals of the Yugoslav-India Cultural Cooperation Programme. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PETJA GRAFENAUER creativity and learning about the creativity of others. At the same, Cultural Cooperation Programme and the IBGA the Federation was expected to be vigilant and direct resources to-The IBGA was rarely discussed by the Commission for Cultural Re-wards the overlooked interests of society.45 The Federal Commis-lations with Foreign Countries, but Zoran Kržišnik and the creators sion for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries emphasised that of the Biennial ensured from the very beginning that informal con-in cultural exchanges with foreign countries it had to be considered TS nections with this important body were maintained. In 1955, the that these were not merely exchanges but also produced effects, IC AR Organising Committee decided to form a permanent secretari-which, through the involvement of countries, occurred in the East at of the International Exhibition of Graphic Arts, to which Zoran as well as in the West. In 1968, it suggested that cultural coopera-Kržišnik personally invited Ivo Frol (Secretary of the Commission IAL OF GRAPH tion should be integrated into the whole system of cultural develop-N EN for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries from 1953 to 1958, ment in Yugoslavia in a more organic way to be a genuine reflection Assistant Chairman of the Commission for Education and Culture of the country’s progress. The Commission’s members underlined TIONAL BI of the SIV from 1958 to 1961), as the Committee considered this their awareness that closing could not prevent the effects, and TERNA essential for the international and therefore also absolutely Yugo-that they had to concentrate on what would benefit Yugoslavia, i.e. NE IH slav character of the Biennial.48 Already at the Committee meeting a clearer formulation of a differentiated conception of the policy held in June 1955, at the time of the catalogue’s publication, the Y OF T on its cultural relations with foreign countries, which included the DTU IBGA decided to invite as patrons Rodoljub Čolaković, Marko Ristić great powers, neighbouring countries and regions (the Balkans, the SE SA (Chairman of the Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Mediterranean, Europe) as well as developing countries.46 In the s: A C Countries), Juš Kozak, Boris Kraiger, Marijan Dermastia, Dolf Vogel-contacts with Eastern European countries they wanted greater vis-nik, Boris Kocjančič and the ambassadors of all the participating ibility of Yugoslavia’s contemporary successes in the area of cultur-D 1970 countries.49 Contacts with the Commission for Cultural Relations s AN al production. They stressed that a more critical attitude should be with Foreign Countries and others actors therefore also occurred adopted towards art originating from these coun tries. As regards E 1960H through “unofficial” channels. 188 developing countries, the Commission argued that future coopera-N T In 1957, the IBGA asked for sponsorship, proposing a request 189 VIA I tion and Yugoslav interest should be clearly defined and conceived A for the funds from the President of the country either through the for the long term. Most of these countries seemed interested, and Marshal’s Office, Moša Pijade or Rodoljub Čolaković.50 During these the Commission recognised the great importance of Yugoslavia in years Ivo Frol was still on the Secretariat Committee. At a meeting cultural cooperation with them. Furthermore, it reckoned that it BLIC OF YUGOSL of the Secretariat for the Organisation of International Exhibitions was important to also find ways to cooperate through international on 26 November 1958, the Secretariat proposed an expansion and organisations such as UNESCO and the OECD, and to understand the inclusion of Bogdan Osolnik, secretary of the Committee on In-culture and education in the context of development. For the fu-T FEDERAL REPU formation in Belgrade, and Dušan Popović, secretary of the Com-ture, the Commission thus saw the need for a stronger cultural and mission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries and member educational policy and a policy on cultural cooperation with foreign E SOCIALISH of the Ideological Commission of the Central Committee of the countries. It also pointed out that with the participation of all interD T League of Communists of Yugoslavia, as its members,51 which was ested factors, it would be necessary to consider the potential ways DIA AN realised in January 1959 at the request of the People’s Organisa-N of conducting foreign policies in line with the internal policies of tional Committee in Ljubljana. Another interesting fact about the these countries.47 48 SI MGLC 1955, 1st International Exhibition of Graphic Arts, box F1, Correspondence ATION BETWEEN I between Kržišnik and Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries (Frol), Letter, 28 October 1955. 49 SI MGLC 1955, 1st International Exhibition of Graphic Arts, box F1, Minutes of the RAL COOPER meetings for the organisation of the 1st IBGA, Minutes of the meeting of the Commit-LTU tee for the 1st International Exhibition of Graphic Arts, 8 June 1955. CU 50 SI MGLC 1957 2nd International Exhibition of Graphic Arts, box F1, Minutes of ses-45 AJ 319_ 49_ 65 Federal Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries sions and meetings, Minutes of the 1st ordinary session of the Working Committee for 1967–1971: Considerations of the Federal Council for Education and Culture: analysis the 2nd International Exhibition of Graphic Arts, 2 March 1957, p. 6. of Yugoslavia’s cultural relations with foreign countries, 14 November 1968, p. 5. 51 SI MGLC, 1959, 3rd International Exhibition of Graphic Arts, box F1, Minutes of meet-46 Ibid., p. 7. ings, Minutes of the meeting of the Secretariat for the Organisation of International 47 Ibid., p. 9. Exhibitions of Graphic Arts, 26 November 1958, p. 2. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PETJA GRAFENAUER third edition of the IBGA (1959) is that President Tito took over the ticipate in the 9th edition of the Ljubljana Biennial of Graphic Arts patronage of the event, to the great satisfaction of the Secretari-in 1975. At India’s request, Yugoslavia participated with one artist at.52 In the same year, Tito also visited the IBGA, and the patronage in each of the colonies for sculptors and painters organised by the continued in the following years, e.g. it is mentioned in the 1975 in-Lalit Kala Academy. This was the youngest of the three similar na-formation notice on the 11th edition of the IBGA. TS tional organisations, founded in New Delhi in August 1954. It was After the third edition of the IBGA (1961), the organisational IC AR inaugurated by the Minister for Education Maulana Abul Kalam structure of the Biennial no longer involved a direct representa-Azad. The Lalit Kala Academy was the materialisation of the dream tive of the Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Coun-of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of independent IAL OF GRAPH tries. An example emerges from the correspondence relative to the N EN India, who aspired for the cultural and national identity of India. The preparations for the fifth edition of the IBGA between the Commis-Academy focused on activities in the field of visual arts. In his open-sion and Zoran Kržišnik asking it for participation in the prize fund TIONAL BI ing speech, Kalam Azad emphasised: “The Academy must preserve (with a contribution amounting to 300,000 of the former dinars).53 TERNA the glorious traditions of the past, enriching them with the work of Besides the programmes with Egypt and Tunisia, the pro-NE IH our modern artists. It also must strive to improve the standards and gramme on cultural cooperation between the SFRY and India was public taste.”55 Y OF T one of the most extensive programmes signed with developing DTU countries. It developed a very wide range of cooperation at the SE SA Indian representatives at the IBGA and level of education—including university cooperation and the ex-the Lalit Kala Academy s: A C change of scholarships for specialisation and post-graduate stud-The Committee meeting minutes from 24 January 1955 on the first ies—and comprised the exchange of art exhibitions, exchan ge D 1970 IBGA report that in relation to the Indian artists, the best course s AN of theatre and music companies, and exchange of cul tural ope-of action would be to write to the Indian Ministry of Education. rators, writers, artists and music professionals, as well as cooper-E 1960H However, apart from the official communication channels, the 190 ation in the field of sport. N T correspondence was also personal, as is evident from Reddy’s and 191 VIA I The cooperation continued in the 1970s. The discussions on A Bishamber’s letters. From the available sources emerges that Krish-the programme for the 1973–1974 period were chaired by Krsto na Reddy exhibited at the second Biennial in 1957 and at its fourth Bulajić, director general of the Federal Institute for International edition in 1961 as the only Indian representative, but at the fifth Bi-Educational, Cultural and Technical Cooperation, who also wel-BLIC OF YUGOSL ennial in 1963, he was joined by three other representatives, one of comed the visiting Indian delegation, led by State Secretary Mohan whom was Bishamber, who was in personal contact with both the Mukherjee deputising for the Minister of Culture. In the field of fine Embassy and Zoran Kržišnik. The group of Indian artists exhibiting arts, the plans provided for exchanging art exhibitions, inviting In-T FEDERAL REPU in 1965 consisted of Kaptain Perez, Kanwal Krishna, who participat-dian artists to visit the art colonies in Strumica and Prilep and, for ed again, and Moti Kaiko. In 1967, India participated with just one the first time, inviting artists from the SFRY to participate in the art E SOCIALISH representative, Bhavsar Natyar, while in 1969 the exhibiting Indi-colonies organised by the Lalit Kala Academy.54 The programme, D T an artists were three (Bhalt Jyoti, Hore Somnath and Krishna Designed in Belgrade in January 1975, stipulated that the two coun-DIA AN vayani, all of whom participated in the first Triennial in New Delhi, N tries would exchange one art exhibition each, accompanied by one where Bhalt and Hore won three national awards each, and Krishna expert, whose visit could last up to three weeks. Moreover, it was was awarded the grand prize). Chopra Jagmohan and Dutt Lakhsmi specified for the first time that Yugoslavia would invite India to par-exhibited their works at the 9th edition of the Biennial in 1971, while ATION BETWEEN I 10th anniversary edition of the Biennial was attended by as many as 52 SI MGLC, 1959, 3rd International Exhibition of Graphic Arts, box F1, Minutes of meet-seven exhibiting artists from India: Agrawal Jai Krishna, Banerjee ings, Minutes of the meeting of the Secretariat for the Organisation of International RAL COOPER Dipak (who, like Krishna Reddy, studied with Hayter), Ghosh Tapan LTU Exhibitions of Graphic Arts, 11 April 1959. CU (studied with Hayter and trained in Atelier 17), Pasricha Anjula, Sel-53 SI MGLC 1963, 5th International Exhibition of Graphic Arts, box F2, Personal invitations and List of invited embassies and consulates general. Request for contribution vam Panner (studied with Hayter), Shaw Lalu Prosad, Sud Anupam to the prize fund. (like Krishna Reddy, studied at Slade School of Fine Arts). Ghosh, 54 AJ 465_619 Kulturna suradnja sa Indijom 1976–1977: Information notice on the Yugoslav plan for the programme of cooperation in the field of education and culture between the SFR Yugoslavia and the Republic of India for the period 1975–1976, p. 4. 55 Lalit Kala Akademi. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PETJA GRAFENAUER Shaw, Selvam and Pasricha were invited, while Agrawal and Sud at-well as to Sankho Chaudhuri, a sculptor who, among others, exhib-tended the event on the basis of a competition.56 What becomes ited at Forma Viva in Kostanjevica na Krki, Slovenia, and that year apparent is the importance of the Indian artists’ route through acted as an intermediary by recommending three Indian artists for their studies in France, which was opened by Reddy and followed the IBGA.62 by a number of exhibitors. In 1975, Agrawal Jai Krishna, Banerjee TS Dipak and Sud Anupam exhibited again, along with Reddy Dubbaka IC AR Findings Laxminarsimha and Devraj Dakoji, both winners of Indian national It emerges that the IBGA’s cooperation with Indian artists and awards, who studied in Hyderabad and Baroda.57 their entourage is varied and occurs through institutional and IAL OF GRAPH The question of the role of the Lalit Kala Academy in relation to N non-institutional channels to an almost comparable extent. The EN the IBGA remains unanswered. The Academy appears on the list of cultural contacts between India and the SFRY were much more intermediaries for the fifth IBGA, which was organised in 1963, and TIONAL BI genuine than with some other non-aligned countries, as the polion the list for the following two biennials.58 At that time, as emerg-tical and economic connections were considerably more stable TERNA es from the IBGA archives, Krishna Reddy was personally invited NE I and balanced than was the case with most other members of the H to attend the exhibition, along with the Indian Ambassador in Bel-Non-Aligned Movement. Several artists who exhibited at the IBGA Y OF T grade, Jagan Nath Khosla (Ambassador between 1961 and 1964).59 DTU established personal contacts with its organisers, especially with Khosla is also mentioned in one of the Commission’s dispatches, in SE S Zoran Kržišnik; this also resulted in closer contacts and more in-A which Bhabesh Chandra Sanyal, director of the Western Division of depth presentations through additional exhibitions, such as Krish-s: A C the Ministry of Education in India, blames him for the fact that none na Reddy’s exhibition hosted in October 1961 at the Mala galerija, of the ministers of the Indian government met with Krsto Cerven-D 1970 Ljubljana, or the colony in Kostanjevica na Krki, which Sankho s AN kovski when he was on a visit to India.60 Chaudhuri, a sculptor and selector of Indian artists for the IBGA, According to archival material of the International Centre of E 1960H attended during his visit to the SFRY. Similarly, federal cultural co-192 Graphic Arts (MGLC), on 7 December 1970, the IBGA organising N T operation with India in the field of the fine arts was also very var-193 VIA I committee sent a request to the Lalit Kala Academy asking for A ied, ranging from scholarships for specialisation in printmaking in provision of artists from India, as also emerges from Kržišnik’s re-Yugoslavia to exchanges of exhibitions and longer visits, as in the minder of 19 January in which he seeks information from Lalit Kala case of Peter Lubarda, who exhibited in New Delhi, where he stayed Academy regarding the participation in the 9th IBGA.61 But it was BLIC OF YUGOSL for several months (1963; see, for example, the exhibition “Promet-only then, in 1971, that the Indian selector—the Lalit Kala Acade-heans of the New Century”, Museum of Yugoslavia, Bel gra de 2021, my—was thanked in the catalogue by the IBGA Secretariat for the curated by Ana Panić and Jovana Nedeljković). Parti cipations in the first time; it appears as if it was only then that this Indian academy T FEDERAL REPU Triennial in New Delhi were also important, as well as participations officially became the selector of Indian artists, although, as already in other international exhibitions across India, at which Yugoslavia mentioned, it was included in the IBGA’s lists of interme diaries as E SOCIALISH was present with the represented artists. early as in 1963. The acknowledgement appears again in the cata-D T Most of the contacts at the level of the SFRY, especially after logue of the 11th IBGA (1975), in which thanks are expressed to the DIA AN 1961, were, however, conducted according to the Convention and N selector for India, i.e. the secretary of the Lalit Kala Academy, as Programme; what was lacking was countries’ own engagement and the search for links from the core, as Yugoslavia and India were in 56 SI MGLC 1973/F2, 10th International Exhibition of Graphic Arts, box F1, Jury: Embassy reality miles apart, geographically, politically and historically as well ATION BETWEEN I interventions, invitations, confirmations, Competition list. as culturally. The authorities were aware of the geographical and 57 Kržišnik, 12. mednarodni bienale grafike. 58 SI MGLC, 1963, box F2, 5th International Exhibition of Graphic Arts, New Year’s card cultural distance and were taking steps towards mutual educa-1964 and addresses, List of New Year’s cards recipients 1963/64 for exhibitors at the RAL COOPER tion and building mutual acquaintance. In this way, the authorities LTU 5th International Graphic Art Exhibition and its mediators. CU strived to establish a cultural policy which would be complementary 59 SI MGLC, 1963, box F1, 5th International Exhibition of Graphic Arts, Personal invitations and List of invited embassies and consulates general. to stronger political and economic relations. With this in mind, we 60 AJ 559_ 67_149, Federal Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries General material, Dispatches 1960–1963, ŠTK dispatch n. 841, 7 June 1963. 61 SI MGLC, 1971, box F1, 10th International Exhibition of Graphic Arts, Invitations to par-62 SI MGLC, 1977, box F1, 12th International Exhibition of Graphic Arts, Invitations list, 11 ticipate, Letter from Kržišnik to B.C. Sanyal of the Lalit Kala Academy, 19 January 1971. November 1976. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PETJA GRAFENAUER can see that the cultural exchanges and collaborations that origi-SOURCES AND LITERATURE nated from the channels of political bodies and cultural institutions often served the prestige of abundance and generated manifest ARCHIVAL SOURCES openness, and, at least at the level of the IBGA, also created more genuine ties and co-influences. The establishment of new artistic TS AJ – Archive of Yugoslavia: AJ 319 – Savezni savet za obrazovanje i kulturu [Federal Council for Education landscapes did not occur to a large extent, as the venue itself was IC AR and Culture] established as a carrier of prestige, at least for a while. “The dis-AJ 559 – Savezna komisija za kulturne veze sa inostranstvom [Federal Commis-play of artworks, however, is neither an innocent process nor one in sion for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries] IAL OF GRAPH AJ 837 – KPR-I-5b/39 (1–12), Kabinet predsednika republike [Office of the Presi-which some sort of neutral evaluative criteria are applied by those N EN dent of the Republic] who are in charge of these events. Rather, it is always dependent on the larger politics that those who occupy key positions in these in-SI MGLC – International Centre of Graphic Arts (MGLC): TIONAL BI stitutions, the government, the funders, the curators or the artistic SI MGLC – Biennial of Graphic Arts archive, 1955, 1957, 1959, 1963, 1971, 1973, TERNA 1977 directors, wish to express them.”63 At the level of the IBGA, these NE IH policies were represented by self-governing bodies, which followed Y OF T the already existing and established criteria, reflected at the time in D LITERATURE TU the cultural policies of the West. SE SA 4. Mednarodna grafična razstava, Ljubljana: Moderna galerija, 1957. s: A C 5. Mednarodna grafična razstava, Ljubljana: Moderna galerija, 1963. D 1970 Bassin, Aleksander. Peta mednarodna grafična razstava [Fifth International Exhibiti-s AN on of Graphic Arts]. Sinteza: revija za likovno kulturo I (1964), pp. 58–67. E 1960H Feyerabend, Paul. Znanost kot umetnost [Science as Art]. Ljubljana: Sophia, 2008. 194 N T 195 VIA IA Hayter, Stanley William. Krishna, Ljubljana: Moderna galerija, 1961. Kompatsiaris, Panos. The Politics of Contemporary Art Biennials. Spectacles of Critique. London: Routledge, 2017. BLIC OF YUGOSL Kronika [The Chronicle]. Sinteza: revija za likovno kulturo, IV (1965), p. 109. Kržišnik, Zoran et al. 12. mednarodni bienale grafike. Ljubljana: Moderna galerija, 1977. T FEDERAL REPU Merhar, Teja. Mednarodno kulturno sodelovanje Jugoslavije z državami članicami gi ba nja neuvrščeni/International Collaborations in Culture between Yugoslavia and E SOCIALISH the Countries of the Non-Aligned Movement. In: Južna ozvezdja, Poetike neuvr-D T ščenih/Southern Constellations: The Poetics of the Non-Aligned. MG+ MSUM, Ljubljana: MG+MSUM, 2019, pp. 43–70. DIA ANN Sodobno jugoslovansko slikarstvo: Revija razstav. Likovna revija 1, No 3 (1962), p. 91. Tepina, Daša. Umetniška stičišča – utopije – neuvrščenost. In: Predan, Barbara ATION BETWEEN I (ed.). Robovi, stičišča in utopije prijateljstva – Spregledane kulturne izmenjave v senci po li tike. Ljubljana: Inštitut za novejšo zgodovino: Akademija za likovno umetnost in oblikovanje (collection: Vpogledi/Perspicacités), 2022, pp. 77–90. https://doi. RAL COOPER org/10.51938/vpogledi.2022.25.6 LTU CU Welsch, Wolfgang. Unsere postmoderne Moderne. Berlin: AkademieVerlag, 1987. Ženko, Ernest. Totaliteta in umetnost; Lyotard, Jameson in Welsch. Ljubljana: Založba ZRC, 2003. 63 Kompatsiaris, The Politics of Contemporary Art Biennials. Spectacles of Critique, pp. 27–28. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED DIGITAL SOURCES Atelier 17, 2018. Available at: Atalier contrepoint, http://www.ateliercontrepoint. com/17index.html (accessed on 18 March 2022). Kalra, Vandana. A real guru, he always kept his links with India. The art fraternity remembers eminent sculptor and printmaker Krishna Reddy, who died in New York at the age of 93, 24 August 2018. Available at: Indian Express, https://indianexpress. com/article/lifestyle/art-and-culture/a-real-guru-he-always-kept-his-links-with-india-5322150/ (accessed on 18 March 2022). Krishna Reddy 1925–2018, 2018. Available at: Artforum, https://www.artforum.com/ news/krishna-reddy-1925-2018-76425 (accessed on 18 March 2022). Lalit Kala Akademi. Available at: Lalit Kala, https://www.lalitkala.gov.in/showdetails. php?id=39 (accessed on 30 September 2022). Sharma, Sumesh. Krishna Reddy and Atelier 17: A “New Form” Takes Shape, 2018. Available at: Met museum, https://www.metmuseum.org/blogs/ruminations/2016/ workshop-and-legacy-krishna-reddy-a-new-form (accessed on 18 March 2022). 196 197 Daša Tepina 08 198 199 The paper explores how the Non-Aligned Movement influenced the cultural relations between Yugoslavia and Egypt1 in the 1960s and 1970s and examines the reception of fine art originating from the non-aligned countries in the former Yugoslavia (FPRY/SFRY). It starts by looking into the activities of two artistic intersections—the International Biennial of Graphics Arts in Ljubljana (MGB) and the Alexandria Biennial for Mediterranean Countries (both founded in 1955). They served as central art intersections that brought together works from both sides of the Iron Curtain, as well as those from the so-called Third World, which was in the process of establishing itself as a counterpoint to the bipolar relations of the Cold War. The International Biennial of Graphic Arts in Ljubljana was or - ga nised into individual presentations by the participating coun t ries (modelled on the Venice Biennale) and featured prints from all the * The article is a result of the research project J7-2606, Models and Practices of International Cultural Exchange of the Non-Aligned Movement: Research in the Spatio-Temporal Cultural Dynamics, which is financed by the Slovenian Research Agency (ARRS). 1 Throughout its turbulent history, Egypt had often been part of Arab states of various forms. Between 1958 and 1961, it existed as the United Arab Republic, a name it continued to use at MGB as late as in 1971, despite merging with Libya and Syria in 1972–1977. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED DAŠA TEPINA participating countries. From its very founding, the Biennial began ment resonated with individual artists and curators, as well as in extending invitations to the non-aligned countries. Yugoslavia was the organisational processes themselves. In addition to examining a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and a promi-the individual premises of non-alignment through the examples nent player in this field; its cultural politics were accordingly orient-of Egypt’s cultural policies, we will also be taking an in-depth look ed towards integration and cultural exchange with the non-aligned at a specific example, namely the trajectory of the artist Menhat countries, a fact that was also reflected at the art venues. Accord-Allah Helmy, the most frequently featured Egyptian artist at the ing to semi-structured interviews,2 as well as archival mate rial, ar-MGB, and the only participant at the Biennial from a non-aligned tistic styles other than Western modernism aroused little interest. country to receive a special mention from the organising commit-The analyses corroborate that, showing that the prints by authors s tee. We are starting with the thesis that art venues like the MGB in from the NAM at the MGB were largely overlooked (the rest of the its early period (1955–1970), which attracted artists from the Glob-D 1970 authors had a similar experience, as attested to by the works by s AN al South, were strongly influenced by Western criteria of quality.4 Cuban3 or Indian authors that were also examined). The paper thus This is also apparent in the case of the Egyptian artist who, while offers an overview of the political background of the biennials, E 1960H trained in Egypt, was introduced to high modernism during her speN T which we examine mainly through an analysis of archival materials cialisations in the UK. Her art is not especially typical of her place from the Archive of Yugoslavia and the archives of the Internation-DRIA I of origin, and is instead strongly influenced by Western modernism. al Centre of Graphic Arts in Ljubljana. Our fin dings are based pri-Our assumption is that she got in contact with the MGB through D ALEXAN marily on the material from the Commission for Cultural Relations studios and artists from Western Europe, and that this was perhaps with Foreign Countries fund, the analysis of the established cultur-ANA AN the reason she received an honorary award, since her artistic ex-al programmes, and the cultural agreements and conventions on BLJ pression was based on high modernism that was seen at the time cooperation established between Yugoslavia and Egypt. We also N LJU as the pinnacle of quality graphics. draw on the aforementioned semi-structured interviews with peo-TIONS I 200 ple who were active participants at the time, as well as the existing Cultural Policies and Exchanges between Yugoslavia 201 TERSEC literature on the topic. NT I and Egypt In the international sphere, the mid-1950s saw the newly es-We trace cultural policies by examining three premises that char-tablished countries of the Global South begin to establish links Y OF ARD acterise both the politics of Yugoslavia and the politics of the Non-TU among each other. The stand-out example of such international SE S Aligned Movement. These are anti-colonialism, anti-imperialist A integration was the Non-Aligned Movement, which was founded struggles and decolonisation; the politics of non-involvement and in 1961 in Belgrade. As one of the founding members of the Non-peaceful coexistence, and finally the Yugoslav self-management. In Aligned Movement, the country known at the time as FPRY was ATIONS: A C light of these principles, we observe how cultural exchanges and gaining increasing importance and prestige in the international poRAL REL interactions were being established at policy level at the biennials litical arena through its international policies. In the paper we seek LTU in the form of artistic practices. to understand how the fundamental principles of the Non-Aligned IAN CU Movement were expressed in the area of artistic practices in indi-YPT Anti-colonialism, Anti-imperialist Struggle and the vidual artistic intersections, namely Ljubljana and Alexandria. –EGPVA Questions of Decolonisation Our central focus will be the 1960s and early 1970s, which is We try to examine anti-colonialism, anti-imperial struggles and is-when the founding and the bulk of the activities of the Non-Aligned YUGOSL sues of decolonisation through the thesis that, in the context of Movement took place. We will be examining the case of two cen-culture, these were reflected in struggles over the idea of what contral art venues that served as important intersections of cultural, stituted the art of the period. In the cultural sphere, a parallel race as well as political international relations between Egypt and Yu-was going on regarding which direction would flourish in the world goslavia. We will be taking a deeper look into the impact of cultural of art, and here, the biennial exhibitions played an important role in policies, since we are interested in how the principles of non-align-shaping global trends. Analysing the MGB, for example, shows that, while following Western modernist trends, it also included graphic 2 Testimony by Ž. Š. V. 3 See Grafenauer, Umetnost, gibanje neuvrščenih in mednarodni grafični bienale v Ljubljani, pp. 91–104. 4 Ibid., p. 95. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED DAŠA TEPINA prints from all round the world. Even so, they did not receive the it was easier to secure funds—credit, guarantees, foreign exchange same level of acknowledgement and appreciation as the art by inflow through tourism, film co-productions, commercial use of ra-well-known European graphic artists.5 Modernism coincided with dio, and so on.9 the general trend of pursuing modernity, which is fundamentally The cooperation with Yugoslavia was based on a different rela-about “the imperial regulation of land, the discipline of the soul, tionship—one that was based on friendship and a political alliance, and the creation of the truth”.6 This discourse, Ashcroft asserts,7 which were important for both countries at the time, as evidenced made possible the large-scale regulation of human identity with-by archival material. The focal points for cultural exchanges were in the boundaries of Europe and its colonies. The emergence of the two biennials. Yugoslavia had participated in the Alexandria Bi-modernism in art spread from Europe at a time of colonial collapse, s ennial continuously since its inception. Starting with 1961, with the establishing itself as a new attempt at hegemonic cultural unity in exceptions of 1965 and 1973, UAR artists also participated at the D 1970 the world and manifesting as a new form of colonialism. We want s AN MGB in Ljubljana. to explore this paradigm by looking at cultural intersections and In 1955, arrangements began for the ratification of a conven-by performing a comparative analysis to give us an idea of the role E 1960H tion on cultural cooperation between the FPRY and the UAR. Cul-N T played by the periphery in these processes. tural cooperation began intensively as early as 1956. In 1957, the The archival material shows that the cooperation between the DRIA I first agreement on cultural cooperation was signed in Cairo, and UAR and Yugoslavia from the mid-1950s onwards was very diverse on 22 December 1958, a cultural cooperation plan was signed. The D ALEXAN in nature. Egypt was a cultural centre of great interest to the West, signatories were Krste Crvenkovski, Minister of Culture of the FPRY, which saw it as an important starting point for the spread of mod-ANA AN who represented Yugoslavia, and the Minister of Education of the ern art in the Arab world and more widely in Africa. In addition, the BLJ UAR. The plan entered into force on 9 February 1959.10 Crvenkovs-country had a keen interest in ancient Egyptian art and its mani-N LJU ki played a key role in forging cultural links on the Yugoslav side, festations in Europe.8 Despite the strong Western presence dating TIONS I being more than just a signatory. He visited Cairo several times 202 back centuries, the period under study also brought rich and qual-during that time (a 10-day stay in 1959 and then at least two more 203 TERSEC ity cooperation in the field of cultural exchanges with Yugoslavia, NT I times in the following years). Each time, the visits were reciprocal which was considered one of Egypt’s closest friends. The questions in 1960, for example, the Yugoslav visit was followed by a visit by a we wish to raise here are how these contacts were reflected in the Y OF ARD delegation of Egyptian cultural workers, whose tour, in addition to TU cultural exchanges between the two countries in the context of the SE S Belgrade and other cities, included Ljubljana.11 In addition to politi-A Non-Aligned Movement, how the relations between the UAR and cians’ trips, this period was thus also characterised by frequent and Yugoslavia influenced the West and the East, and whether the be-fruitful exchanges of cultural manifestations and guest appearanc-ginnings of a different cultural policy, one based on an anti-colonial ATIONS: A C es by cultural workers. perspective, could have been established. RAL REL The archival materials show that by 1964, the modest results The UAR, and Egypt in particular, with its rich and long histori-LTU began to be acknowledged.12 As in other countries, the Commis-cal and cultural tradition, made use of its prominent cultural role to IAN CU sion for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries (CCRFC), as the expand its international affiliations. Success in the area of cultural YPT central body for cultural exchanges of the SFRY, showed interest policies was very important for the country, as it often represent- –EGPVA in Egyptology. The Western European and other, richer countries, ed the starting point for better political and economic internation-however, had more success in this respect. On the other hand, the al relations. The state strongly encouraged the spread of culture YUGOSL modest results were also, in part, a consequence of the acrimony from the narrow circles of the initiated to the broader classes of the between Egypt and Israel. Despite the complications in the previous people, from intellectuals, workers and youth to agrarian workers. editions, the programme of artistic cooperation for 1964 and 1965 Using this approach, the UAR was able to create a climate in which 9 AJ 559_511_Obči poverljiv material 1964, Kulturni odnosi UAR sa instranstvom. 5 Testimony by Ž. Š. V. (s. a.) or Stepančič, Zgrešene klofute, p. 39. 10 AJ 559_55_122-123 Egipat (UAR) 1956–1966, Plan izvršitve kultunega in znanstvenaga 6 Turner, Theories of Modernity and Postmodernity, p. 4. sodelovanja med FNRJ in ZAR. 7 Ashcroft, Post-Colonial Transformation, p. 211. 11 AJ 559_55_122-123 Egipat (UAR) 1956–1966, Commission for Cultural Relations with 8 Tatomir, “Egyptomania in antiquity and in modern world literature. imaginary, inter-Foreign Countries, 21 October 1960. cultural context and mentality”, pp. 556–581. 12 AJ 559_55_122-123 _Magreb i Levant, Egipat (UAR) 1967–1970. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED DAŠA TEPINA (in the latter year, the UAR did not participate in the MGB) was still as a consequence of the 1967 Six-Day War, a conflict between Israel, rich. Visual arts presentations were subsequently scaled down in Egypt, Syria and Jordan that had resulted in the Israeli occupation accordance with the financial capacity of both countries, and were of Palestine, Sinai and the Golan Heights. The announced visit of fewer in 1966 than in previous years. In 1967, the SFRY waited for the the Minister of Culture Yusuf Sibai to Belgrade was cancelled that UAR’s response to the draft agreement.13 That same year, the Com-year, for example. In the art sphere, however, the cooperation was mission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries in the SFRY still quite robust (SFRY artists participated in the Alexandria Bienni-noted that cultural exchanges were no longer going smoothly and al, and while Egypt did not attend MGB that year, there were other that many of the planned cultural activities had not been carried small exhibitions on tour).19 out. Even so, the participation in both biennials, the MGB in Ljublja-s In its cooperation with Egypt, Yugoslavia took on a different na and the Alexandria Biennial, was carried through.14 Trouble was role than the imperial powers; Egypt’s cooperation with the latter in D 1970 mounting, however. Despite its previous intent, Egypt did not send s AN the field of culture was mainly due to the financial and political ben-an exhibition entitled 5000 Years of Egyptian Ceramics to the SFRY, efits. This part of the cooperation with the West ran in parallel with replacing it with an exhibition of contemporary works. Comment-E 1960H the cooperation with the SFRY and the ideas of the Non-Aligned N T ing on this development, the Commission wrote that Egyptian art Movement. Despite the UAR’s position as the focus of cultural had “already approached Western art to such a degree that this is a DRIA I interest for the countries of the Western bloc, it saw cooperation sensible decision”.15 This confirms the thesis that the Commission with the SFRY as very important and thus laid the groundwork for D ALEXAN itself saw Western modernism as the benchmark of quality, and the exploration of different cultural policies. It was, evident, howev-shows a degree of acceptance of the given situation. ANA AN er, that the attitude of both Egypt and Yugoslavia towards the val-In 1968, the Yugoslav Embassy in Cairo was visited by Hasan BLJ uation of works of art in this period was heavily influenced by the Boulbola, the Egyptian Undersecretary for Cultural Exchange. He N LJU criteria of Western modernism. According to Gardner and Green, acknowledged that, while the SFRY had implemented 90 per cent of TIONS I most of the works on display were comfortably figurative, and their 204 the programme, Egypt had only managed 50 per cent. The reasons, creators in many cases trained in Western European art schools, 205 TERSEC he argued, were of purely financial nature—especially after the so-NT I often with links to the Ecole de Paris—an institution that also had called Six-Day War with Israel—and not a lack of desire to cooperate a significant impact on the MGB. With this argument, Gardner and with the SFRY. In the same year, the SFRY again sent an invitation Y OF ARD Green rightly try to draw attention to the pitfalls of judging aesthet-TU to the UAR to participate in the MGB, as Yugoslavs had also been SE S ics through a Western or North-Atlantic lens.20 In a broader sense, A invited to the Biennial in Alexandria.16 The new programme was modernism was one of the major challenges at the time, but also announced by Boulbola at the end of February 1969 and signed in one to which insufficient attention was paid at the level of the cul-Yugoslavia by the Egyptian delegation in April.17 In comparison to ATIONS: A C tural policies of the so-called Third Way. Modernity, Maha Samman the previous years, there were few agreements on cultural exchang-RAL REL cautions, does not by itself construct culture; rather, it transforms es of artefacts during that time, with cultural policy focusing more LTU indigenous culture through the processes and forces of globalisa-on scholarships for exchange students and education in general. IAN CU tion. This process leaves commerce as the sole driving force, with There had also been fewer trips by officials and delegates to Egypt, YPT the consequence that the same characteristics begin emerging as well as a general decline in cultural cooperation.18 In the cultural –EGPVA in different parts of the world. Samman thus finds that, by all ac-programme for 1975 and 1976, the Commission’s analysis of relations counts, modernisation is not concerned with the impacts of the until that time noted that in 1973, the scope of cultural relations with YUGOSL colonial perspective, but rather with ignoring the specificities of a the Arab Republic of Egypt had been limited due to the events that place, its characteristics and its needs, and helping to make sure took place in the Middle East in October of that year. In October that the world is unifying under the same cultural model. 1973, the Arab-Israeli War took place between Israel, Egypt and Syria 13 Ibid. 19 AJ 465_608_Kulturna suradnja s Egiptom_1975-76, Review of realisation in the cultural 14 Ibid. programme for educational and cultural cooperation with the Arab Republic of Egypt 15 AJ 559_55_122-123_Magreb i Levant, Egipat (UAR) 1956–1966. for 1973 and 1974 and evaluation of past cooperation, with proposals for further 16 Ibid. cooperation and the drafting of a Yugoslav proposal for a programme for educational 17 AJ 559_ 69_153–156 Dispatches, Dispatch No 214, 19 February 1968. and cultural cooperation with the ARE for 1975 and 1976, 4 December 1974, pp. 1–2. 18 AJ 559_55_122-123 _Magreb i Levant, Egipat (UAR) 1967–1970. 20 Gardner and Green, Biennials, Triennials, and Documenta, p. 90. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED DAŠA TEPINA The Politics of Non-involvement and Peaceful strengthening relations in the Middle East and counterbalancing Coexistence the alliances with the two superpowers.24 Within the Middle-East, the UAR was an area of great interest, The policies of non-interference and peaceful co-existence, de-where Israeli, French, British and American interests clashed with spite being one of the cornerstones of the NAM, often proved in-the interests of Arab countries (Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Sau-effective or remained unrealised in practice, as can be seen in the di Arabia). The nationalisation of the Suez Canal by Egypt on 26 case of NAM members in the Middle East. But how were these pol-July 1956 set in motion a series of events that culminated in a icies manifested through artistic intersections and were they able joint invasion on Egypt by Israel, France and Great Britain, which to develop a space for multiple, plural and diverse subjectivities? ended in the occupation of Gaza and Sharm El-Sheikh. This was s In terms of culture, the political and economic level in the not supported by the US at the UN, leading France and the UK to 1960s and early 1970s were distinctly pragmatic. Interest was ex-D 1970 withdraw. Eventually, after lengthy negotiations and US mediation, s AN pressed frequently and eagerly, and the importance of cooperation Israel withdrew from the occupation as well, on the condition that between Yugoslavia and the UAR was emphasised often. The big-E 1960 the UN Emergency Force (UNEF) take control of the area. In 1957, H gest obstacle was the lack of financial resources, which was felt N T the US froze Egypt’s assets under their control, leading Nasser to especially strongly during the conflicts with Israel in which the UAR DRIA I turn towards Moscow. On 1 February 1958, the United Arab Rewas involved. Egypt was the centre not only of the Arab world, but public was proclaimed—a Syrian-Egyptian union lasting three and also of Africa (both culturally and in terms of education, with more D ALEXAN a half years until September 1961, when Syria left due to Egypt’s than 30,000 students from African countries studying there), and dominant influence. The Syrian-Egyptian split had many repercus-ANA AN the UAR sought to maintain this primacy. For financial reasons, sions and led to mistrust and resistance, all of which contributed BLJ its cultural affiliations at that time were with the USA and the UN, to the outbreak of war in 1967.21 A number of other conflicts were N LJU which mostly financially covered all cultural manifestations. They taking place in parallel, with alliances in the Arab League changing TIONS I were also developing links with the Soviet Union, Great Britain, 206 rapidly. In 1958, North Yemen joined the UAR. It remained part of France and Italy, as well as the DDR and Czechoslovakia, because 207 TERSEC it until 1961. Relations with Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Leba-NT I Egypt had a very important cultural value and these countries had non were unstable, fluctuating between escalating conflicts and the means to ensure its representation, which UAR accepted. The the building of short-lived alliances. Nasser sought to maintain his Y OF ARD UAR also worked with a number of Asian countries (India, Pakistan, TU primacy within the Arab League throughout that time. Syrian sup-SE S China, Indonesia and Japan). A port for Palestinian Fatah established a pattern of Arab-Israeli and Yugoslavia, fully aware that its lack of financial resources inter-Arab relations that played a crucial role in the outbreak of would make it difficult for it to compete, was among the less inwar in 1967.22 In the 1960s, US support for Israel continued to grow, ATIONS: A C teresting countries in terms of cultural links. Despite the scarcity while the Soviet Union increasingly supported the Arab states, RAL REL of resources, however, the friendship between Nasser and Tito, which it saw as part of the “anti-imperialist camp”. Egypt occupied LTU along with Nasser’s recognition of Yugoslavia as one of his closest the UNEF-controlled areas of Sinai and imposed a blockade on IAN CU friends and supporters, ensured that cultural cooperation between the Straits of Tiran to prevent the passage of Israeli shipping. In YPT the two countries remained prioritised and was oriented towards response, Israel occupied Sinai, then the Old City of Jerusalem, the –EGPVA long-term cooperation.25 The political alliance between the two West Bank and the Golan Heights. Unstable alliances doubtlessly countries was an extremely important link that the two leaders contributed to the outcome of the so-called Six-Day War in June.23 YUGOSL shared in their similar vision of the Near East and of building an The situation strengthened role of the Soviet Union in the region. alliance that would succeed in transcending the alliances with the Yugoslavia, which took a strongly pro-Arab stance in the war, like-two superpowers. wise increased its influence. This was demonstrated by the visit In the cultural sense, both Yugoslavia and the UAR were open of Tito and the leaders of the Warsaw Pact states to Moscow and to the entire world. The conflicts in the Middle East, despite going the severing of diplomatic relations with Israel with the aim of against the policy of peaceful coexistence, had brought the two countries together. The international cultural policies between 21 Smith, Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, pp. 178–180. 22 Ibid., p. 188. 24 Bielicki, The Middle East in Yugoslavia’s Foreign Policy Strategy in the 1970s, p. 398. 23 Ibid., pp. 195–201. 25 AJ 559_ 69_153–156 Dispatches, Dispatch No 346, 25 March 1968. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED DAŠA TEPINA Yu go slavia and the UAR were also reflected in their agreements. Biennial, which had been received from the Governor of Alexandria. We can see that, while the conflict had a considerable impact on They were told that the best option was contacting the organisers the relations—mainly from a financial point of view, according to of the Biennial—the Museum of Modern Art in Alexandria—directly. the Commission—it had not shaken the ideological foundation. They were also advised that it would be a good idea to send copies We could, in part, perceive it reflected in the cultural venues them-of correspondence to the Embassy in Cairo, which would intervene selves. The fact that Israel did not participate in any of the Biennials if necessity arose.26 in Alexandria is likewise conspicuous. By contrast, it had continuAt the same time as the process of decentralisation of cultural ously participated at the MGB (alongside UAR, even) since its 3rd contacts with foreign countries was taking place in the SFRY, the edition, sending several artists at a time. s UAR was also undergoing many changes in its organisations and committees. This was in addition to the international tensions with D 1970 Introduction of Self-Management in the Socialist s AN Israel, which made the work even more difficult. The environment Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1967 was thus not favourable to the implementation of the pro-In the study of cultural links between Egypt and the SFRY, the prin-E 1960H gramme, and in the end it was because of the conflict with Israel N T ciples of Yugoslav self-management are especially important from that a large part of the programme remained unrealised.27 the perspective of the exploration of different models of cultural-po-DRIA I Alongside the changes in the system towards decentralisa-litical action and even innovations that had, among other things, tion—representing a new form of social action—the cultural polD ALEXAN significantly shaped art in the post-war period. This was most ob-icies were also changing, with cultural institutions becoming the viously manifested at the tail end of the 1960s with the complete ANA AN main drivers of cultural exchanges. In this transfer of mandates, transformation of the political system, which began moving towards BLJ the biennials were in fact highlighted as examples of good prac-decentralisation and democratisation. At the level of cultural orga - N LJU tice, since even previously, the exchanges had taken place largely nisation and policies, this was reflected in changes to how inter-TIONS I via cultural institutions. Critically speaking, examples of their work 208 national cooperation took place at the institutional level. With the also served as an entry point for Western modernist values. 209 TERSEC introduction of self-management, the Commission for Cultural Re-NT I lations with Foreign Countries, which was based in Belgrade and The Alexandria Biennial for Mediterranean was responsible for the execution of all cultural conventions, agree-Y OF ARD Countries and Yugoslav Participation TU ments and programmes, began to be disbanded as an umbrella SE S The Alexandria Biennial for Mediterranean Countries served as the A body, with its work being delegated to the republican commissions. central intersection for cultural cooperation between Egypt (UAR) These, in turn, delegated the realisation of cultural exchanges to pro-and the FPRY/SFRY. It was founded in 1955 to celebrate Revolution fessional organisations, associations and other cultural institutions, ATIONS: A C Day on 26 July. It was inaugurated by Hanna Simaika, the Direc-which became responsible for the implementation of intergovern-RAL REL tor of the Museum of Fine Arts, who was also one of the initiators mental agreements in the field of culture. In 1969, the Commission LTU and organisers of the Biennial. On 10 May 1955, the Embassy of the for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries was finally dissolved IAN CU FPRY in Cairo informed the Commission for Cultural Relations with and re-established as a Federal Commission that merely coordinat-YPT Foreign Countries that they had been notified by the Director of the ed the international cultural cooperation, with implementation dele- –EGPVA Museum of Fine Arts, Simaika, that a Biennial for Mediterranean gated to the Republics and, by extension, the cultural organisations. Countries was being organised in Alexandria, and that Yugosla-The contacts were thus passed on directly to the commissions of YUGOSL via was invited to participate.28 This was confirmed by Yugoslavia the individual Republics, which, through the relevant cultural organ-through the Commission and the Embassy of the FPRY in Cairo. A isations or associations of artists, made direct contact with, for ex-commission headed by the then Secretary Ivo Frol chose the art ample, the Embassy in Cairo and the Egyptian organisations respon-critic Radoslav Putar to be the Commissioner for the organisation sible for the implementation of cultural acti vities under the cultural 26 AJ 559_93_208_Bienale u Aleksandriji 1955–1969, Notice from the CCRFC to the cooperation programme between Yugo slavia and the UAR. Repre-Union of Fine Artists of Yugoslavia, 12 July 1969. senting an example of such transfer is the message of 12 July 1969 27 AJ 559_55_122-123 _Magreb i Levant, Egipat (UAR) 1967–1970. from the CCRFC to the Union of Fine Artists of Yugoslavia, which 28 AJ 559_93_208_Bienale u Aleksandriji 1955–1969, Notice by the Mission of the FPRY in Egypt to the Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries, 10 May included as an attachment a copy of the invitation for the Alexandria 1955. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED DAŠA TEPINA of the Alexandria Biennial. He, in turn, selected painters and sculp-Yugoslavia continued to win top prizes in subsequent Bienni-tors from all over Yugoslavia, who would participate in the Biennial als in Alexandria. The rest of the text covers the Biennials that took with 25 paintings and 22 sculptures. The Biennial took place be-place up to the dissolution of the Commission for Cultural Relations tween 26 July and 28 September 1955, with the opening attended with Foreign Countries in 1969. At the Third Biennial in 1959, the Yu-by the Commissioner, who was responsible for the the exhibition goslav pavilion was organised by the Commissioner Boris Vižintin, layout planning, promotion, and setting the prices of the works, as president of the Fine Arts Gallery in Rijeka. Prizes were awarded to well as all matters directly related to the organisation of the Yugo-Miodrag Miša Popović (2nd prize for sculpture) and Vladimir Makuc slav pavilion. The transport of the works was arranged by the Fine (1st prize for prints/graphic designs). At the 4th Biennial in 1961, the Arts Gallery of Rijeka, Croatia. In Cairo, Yugoslavia achieved outs Acting Commissioner was Dragan Djordjević, and Yugoslavia end-standing success, winning three prizes (1st prize for sculpture went ed up winning the 2nd prize for painting (Mladen Srbinović) and two D 1970 to Drago Tršar with his sculpture “The Bull”, 3rd prize for sculpture s AN prizes for sculpture, which were awarded to Olga Jančić and Jovan to Vojin Bakić, and 2nd prize for painting to Ljubo Ivančić).29 Kratohvil. The Head Commissioner for the 5th Biennial in 1963 was The Second Alexandria Biennial took place between 28 Decem-E 1960H Željko Grum (art critic and director of the Museum of Modern Art N T ber 1957 and 15 March 1958. Nine countries participated (Albania, in Zagreb). Once again, Yugoslavia was awarded some of the high-Egypt, FPRY, Greece, Lebanon, Morocco, Syria, Spain and Tunisia, DRIA I est prizes (1st prize for graphics went to Janez Boljka, 2nd prize for with Italy represented through the works of Italian artists living in painting to Ljubo Ivančić, 3rd prize for sculpture to Slavko Tihec, D ALEXAN Egypt). The Commissioner of the FPRY was Zoran Kržišnik, Director and the Purchase Award to Dimitar Kondovski). In 1965, at the 6th of the Museum of Modern Art in Ljubljana and, most importantly, a ANA AN Biennial, the Yugoslav pavilion was organised by the curator of the key figure and Secretary of the MGB. We will therefore devote some BLJ Gallery of Contemporary Art in Zagreb, Boris Kelemen, and the priz-more attention to the visit. Kržišnik selected 27 canvases, 10 sculp-N LJU es were awarded to Bogdan Meško (1st prize for graphics) and Krs-tures and 14 prints for the exhibition. He noted in his report that TIONS I to Hegedušić (2nd prize for painting). At the 7th Biennial (1968), the 210 Yugoslavia had been given the nicest exhibition spaces.30 SFRY Commissioner was Nikola Kusovac, curator of the National 211 TERSEC The Yugoslav Information Centre in Cairo, which operated as NT I Museum in Belgrade, and Yugoslav artists received two prizes (1st part of the Embassy of the FPRY, reported on the occasion of the prize for graphics went to Mersad Berber and 3rd prize for sculpture 2nd Biennial that the jury of the 2nd Mediterranean Biennial had Y OF ARD to Peter Černe).33 In reviewing these fifteen years of participation TU again awarded three prizes to Yugoslav artists (1st prize for paint-SE S at the Alexandria Biennials, it becomes clear that Yugoslavia had A ing to France Slana, 2nd prize for sculpture to Karel Putrih, and 2nd been particularly successful in the field of graphics, winning four prize for prints/graphic designs to Živka Pajić). They wrote that the consecutive first prizes for graphics. Yugoslav pavilion was one of the most varied and interesting, and ATIONS: A C The costs of participation at the Mediterranean Biennial were that the first prizes for sculpture and graphic design, which went RAL REL shared, with Yugoslavia covering transport, packing and securing to Spain and Greece, were likely intended more as a compromise.31 LTU of the works, as well as other costs related to the organisation of The Yugoslav pavilion was also reported to be highly popular and IAN CU the Yugoslav selection, and Alexandria covering the transport to well attended. The first prize for paintings and statues was 200 YPT the gallery and the costs of the exhibition and promotion, as well Egyptian pounds, the second prize 100 Egyptian pounds and the –EGPVA as insurance and all the other expenses connected with the exhibi-third prize 50 Egyptian pounds. The prizes for prints were more tion itself. The biggest problems encountered were damage to the modest: 100, 50 and 25 Egyptian pounds.32 YUGOSL works and frequent delays in returning the works to Yugoslavia. In addition, especially at the first few Biennials, the payment of prizes 29 AJ 559_93_208_Bienale u Aleksandriji 1955–1969, Letter by the Embassy of the FPRY in Egypt to the Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries, 2 October was a major problem due to the different currencies. This was co-1955. ordinated by the Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign 30 AJ 559_93_208_Bienale u Aleksandriji 1955–1969, Report by the Yugoslav Information Countries and the Embassy in Cairo, and the process was most Centre in Cairo to the Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries about the 2nd Biennial in Alexandria, 9 February 1958. often very protracted, which heavily delayed the authors’ receipt 31 AJ 559_93_208_Bienale u Aleksandriji 1955–1969, Notice by the Yugoslav Information of the prizes. Exchanges of cultural workers—likewise an integral Centre in Cairo to the Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries, 11 March 1958. 33 AJ 559_93_208_Bienale u Aleksandriji 1955–1969, Biennials in Alexandria – list appen-32 Ibid. ded to the report. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED DAŠA TEPINA part of the programmes—were often coordinated with the Com-organisers bought the statue of Drago Tršar and placed it in front missioners’ trips to Alexandria. The latter stayed in Alexandria and of the town hall. The jury selected some of the works from the port-Cairo longer, providing additional training, building networks of ac-folio, which Kržišnik changed at the last minute, so that the portfo-quaintances, visiting artists’ associations and studios, and making lio ended up featuring 14 works by Božidar Jakac, Riko Debenjak, contacts of all kinds. Ankica Oprešnik, Josip Restek, Frano Baća, Maksim Sedej, Boško As Gardner and Green note, bringing together artists from Karanović, Živka Pajić, France Mihelič and Oton Gliha. Kržišnik felt both sides of the Iron Curtain, as well as from countries oppressed that this line-up represented a high-quality presentation that did by post-fascist dictatorships and subjected to isolationism and full justice to FPRY’s painting and sculpture. In addition, Yugoslavia despair, was a major achievement. They highlight Hussein Sobhi, s was assigned what was in his view the nicest exhibition hall, which the Head Commissioner of the Alexandria Biennial, for whom regio-allowed them to make the Yugoslav presentation aesthetically D 1970 nalism meant a way of transcending geopolitical divisions and en-s AN complete. He also wrote that even the authorities had told him that suring that “the Biennial re-establishes friendly relations among “the Yugoslav pavilion is by far the most consistent and homoge-the Mediterranean countries”.34 E 1960H neous and at the highest level of quality in general”,36 and that he N T was expecting prizes in all three areas. Zoran Kržišnik and the Alexandria Biennial DRIA I That the response to the Yugoslav pavilion by critics and auThe participation of Egyptian artists at the MGB—led by Zoran thorities alike was indeed tremendous was already apparent at the D ALEXAN Kržišnik, art historian and director of the Museum of Modern Art reception held by the Yugoslav Ambassador on the day after the in Ljubljana between 1948 and 1986—was reciprocated by sending ANA AN opening to celebrate the Biennial. A desire was expressed there to works by Yugoslav artists to the Biennial in Alexandria. Here, too, BLJ bring the works from the Yugoslav pavilion to Cairo, and the Embas-the Director of the Museum of Modern Art and the MGB played N LJU sy was tasked with seeking exhibition opportunities and funding, to an important role. In his report on the visit to Egypt on 12 January TIONS I be reported on at a later date. 212 1958, which he submitted to the Commission for Cultural Relations Kržišnik’s report to the Commission continues with a descrip-213 TERSEC with Foreign Countries as the Commissioner of the exhibition, he NT I tion of the other participants at the Biennial, noting that France, describes travelling to Cairo on 21 December 1957 and reporting for obvious political reasons, did not participate, and that while It-to the Embassy’s Information Office, where he met with the office Y OF ARD aly did, it was only through Italian artists living in Egypt. He found TU director Ljubo Drndić and his assistant. The following day at the SE S Spain’s response particularly disappointing; while prolific, it was in A office, they met with selected Egyptian newspapers and art critics. his estimate very low in quality. He also highlighted his conversation The office director informed Kržišnik that the exhibits had arrived with Tunisia’s Commissioner, who had expressed the desire to have in Egypt, with the exception of Putrih’s work. The director and his ATIONS: A C Yugoslavia exhibit and lecture in Tunisia. The same wish was also assistant also informed Kržišnik that the Secretariat of the Alexan-RAL REL expressed by the Moroccan representative, as well as the Spanish dria Biennial, where he represented the FPRY as an exhibition com-LTU representative Maria Revenga. According to a conversation with missioner, had lost his introductory text and asked him if he could IAN CU the latter, Spanish artists were keen to establish close contact with provide a new one.35 YPT the Yugoslav cultural sphere. He passed these contacts on and ex-When Kržišnik arrived in Alexandria from Cairo, he immediate- –EGPVA pressed his interest in following up. ly met with the museum’s director, Hanna Simaika, and they sort-The Syrian Ambassador, who was also hosted in Alexandria, ed out the problems with the text and the missing work by Putrih. YUGOSL asked Kržišnik to inform the Commission for Cultural Relations Kržišnik wrote in his report that other countries had also sent prints, with Foreign Countries that he was interested in a touring exhibi-but that Yugoslavia’s were far superior. Simaika told him, as he had tion (preferably easily transportable) that could be realised in Da-done at the embassy before, that he wished to award the first prize mascus. At the Academy in Egypt, Kržišnik received a request for to one of Yugoslavia’s most prominent printmakers. That year, the guest lectures by art teachers from the SFRY, especially in the field of sculpture and printmaking. The Egyptian art circles and their 34 Gardner and Green, Biennials, Triennials, and Documenta, pp. 84–85. organisations wished for direct exchanges of exhibitions with the 35 AJ 559_93_208_Bienale u Aleksandriji 1955–1969, Report by the Yugoslav Information Centre in Cairo to the Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries 36 AJ 559_93_208_Bienale u Aleksandriji 1955–1969, Report by Zoran Kržišnik to the about Yugoslavia’s participation in the 2nd Biennial in Alexandria, 9 February 1958, p. 1. Commission for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries, 12 January 1958, p. 3. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED DAŠA TEPINA galleries of the FPRY, wanting to highlight their paintings in particu-Kržišnik (SFRY), Jean Leymarie (France), Giuseppe Marchiori (Italy) lar, which they said had increased in quality in recent years. Kržišnik and Miodrag B. Protić (SFRY).40 Whether the jury was attrac ted by was also a member of the jury for the Egyptian pavilion, of which the Western modernist visual code in which she worked, the signif-role he wrote the following: “the principle I followed in awarding icance of the cultural and political links with the UAR, or something prizes to Egyptian artists quite clearly overlaps with the principles else is not known. that have been employed in setting up of our most representative Only Helmy participated in the 5th Biennial (1963), and there exhibitions to date”.37 We can see here that the criteria for quality were no Egyptian representatives at the 6th Biennial (1965), as the Kržišnik was referring to aligned with those of the hegemonic West-UAR was already experiencing strong social and political unrest. ern modernism. s At the 7th Biennial, Helmy was again the only exhibitor. The representation at the 8th MGB (1969) was stronger (Hussein Al Geb-D 1970 The Biennial of Graphic Arts in Ljubljana and s AN ali, educated and based in Cairo, Mariam M. Abdel Alim, who also Egypt’s participation: the case of Menhat Helmy participated at the 32nd Venice Biennale, Mohsein Charrara, an ar-Zoran Kržišnik, as a representative of the post-war generation of E 1960H chaeologist based in Cairo, and Farouk Chehat and Ahmed Maher N T art historians, suspected that the key question they were facing Raif, who had both studied in Cairo, with Raif having also exhibit-was “how do we escape the grip of socialist realism?”38 Thus, the DRIA I ed at the biennials in Sao Paulo and Venice). According to records MGB, of which he was one of the main founders, adopted a posi-from the Yugoslav archives, the Egyptian Ministry of Culture sent D ALEXAN tive attitude towards contemporary modern art, creating socialist five graphic artists to the MGB in Ljubljana that year, at its own ex-aestheticism that drew on Western modernism. Alongside MGB, a ANA AN pense, who arrived in Belgrade by airplane on 20 August 1969. They variant of high modernism in graphic art was developing that later BLJ stayed there for two days, socialising with local graphic designers, came to be known as the Ljubljana School of Graphic Art, which N LJU before continuing their journey to Ljubljana. The Slovenian Artists’ emphasised the criteria of exceptionalism and formal perfection of TIONS I Association was responsible for their visit and hosted their presen-214 the graphic sheet. In terms of juries, installations and prizes MGB tation at the MGB.41 215 TERSEC also largely followed the tradition of Western modernism, with Riva NT I At the 9th MGB (1971), Egypt was still exhibiting under the acro-Castleman writing in 1993: nym UAR (United Arab Republic), again represented by the archae-Y OF ARD ologist Charrara Mohsein. The 10th MGB (1973), however, again TU Inevitably, it was the artists of the capitalist countries whose artistic SE S lacked Egyptian representatives. This coincided with the conflicts A expression was honoured by the Biennial jury. This was, of course, due in the Middle East, which also shook up cultural policies. It was not to the fact that art represented state policy, and the method of selec-until the 11th edition (1975) that the country, this time as Egypt, tion (by country) perpetuated this situation.39 ATIONS: A C again participated in the MGB. It was again represented by Menhat RAL REL Helmy, this time joined by Farouk Shehata. Helmy went on to exhib-Egypt’s first appearance at the MGB in Ljubljana was at its 4th LTU it at the 12th (1977) and 16th (1985) editions of the MGB, making her edition in 1961, where it participated as the UAR with three artists IAN CU the most frequently exhibited Egyptian artist at the Biennial. This is (Mandooh Ammar, Amin Awad Kamal and Menhat Allah Helmy). All YPT also the reason we delve deeper into her participation at the MGB of them initially studied in Cairo and then continued their studies in –EGPVA in terms of her career trajectory, collaborations and reception. Europe (Awad in Urbino and Helmy at the Slade School of Fine Arts Menhat Helmy (1925–2004) was a pioneer of Egyptian printin London). Helmy also received an honourable mention from the YUGOSL making. She was born in Helwan, Egypt, into a family of nine chil-Organising Committee at the MGB that year, which represented an dren. As the daughter of a legal advisor at the Ministry of Edu-unusual and unique recognition for a representative from a Non-cation, her exposure to fine arts was minimal, yet despite this, she Aligned country. The jury at the time was chaired by Jacques Las-managed to stand out with her artistic expression.42 In 1949, she saigne (France) and its members were: Fjodor Davidov (USSR), Gus-graduated from the High Institute of Pedagogic Studies for Art in tave von Groschwitz (USA), Gunnar Jungmarker (Sweden), Zoran 40 SI MGLC, šk. 1963/F1, Work Records of the International Jury from 7 to 9 June 1961, 37 Ibid., pp. 1–4. p. 3. 38 Žerovc, Kržišnik, Zoran, p. 24. 41 AJ 559_ 69_153–156 Dispatches, Dispatch No 1224, 25 August 1968. 39 Castleman, p. 236. 42 Zidan, A grandson’s quest to preserve his grandmother’s artistic legacy. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED DAŠA TEPINA Cairo. Her remarkable talent earned her a state scholarship, allow-Helmy’s pioneering work had not gone unnoticed, either. After the ing her to continue education at the prestigious Slade School of Slade Prize, she took part in numerous international exhibitions Fine Art in London in 1953—one year after the July 1952 military and, starting in 1956, in most of the exhibitions in Egypt. In 1966, coup that overthrew the Egyptian monarchy—where she studied she held her first private exhibition of etchings. She participated from 1953–1955 with a focus on drawing, painting and etching.43 in numerous international etching biennials in West Germany, Po-During her three years at university, she studied under sculptor land, Italy, Japan and India. In 1959 and 1960 she was awarded the Henry Moore and others, such as Graham Sutherland and William Salon du Caire prize, in 1957 the Cairo Production Exhibition prize Coldstream. Helmy’s focus was on painting and printmaking, and and in 1961 a honorary prize at the 4th MGB in Ljubljana (honorary she eventually settled on etchings. She started experimenting with s prize bestowed by the Organising Committee). The work she ex-different plates, using copper, zinc and wood to make black and hibited at the MGB later earned her the title of professor emeritus D 1970 white prints. And, as Karim Zidan writes: s AN at the prestigious Accademia delle Arti del Disegno in Florence. In Egypt, she became a lecturer at the Cairo College of Fine Arts, a E 1960 She journeyed across England during her three years at Slade, exploring H Professor of Fine Arts at Helwan University in Cairo and a member N T London’s parks, churches, and rivers, and traveling to places like the Isle of the UK Printmakers Council. She also participated in the Venice DRIA I of Wight and to small towns along the countryside. She carried a small Biennale in Italy. sketchbook, which she used to lay the foundations for her later prints. In the late 1960s, Helmy thus established herself as an D ALEXAN Her dedication to the craft of printmaking did not go unnoticed, as the award-winning printmaker acclaimed both internationally and at Egyptian artist—one of the first to attend the prestigious school—went ANA AN home, and decided to abandon the black-and-white etchings that BLJ on to win the Slade Prize for Etching in 1955.44 had characterised her work in favour of powerful political paintings N LJU and abstract prints that were ahead of their time on the Egyptian Helmy returned to Egypt in 1956, when the country was engulfed TIONS I art scene. In 1972, she returned to London and completed her turn 216 in social and economic turmoil, geopolitical tensions and revoluti-to abstraction, producing several pieces that had since become 217 TERSEC onary fervour. Armed with the newly acquired skill of etching, she NT I some of her signature works. Her black and white prints became a documented the social changes taking place around her, including thing of the past, replaced by conceptual prints with complex geo-the Suez crisis, the historic parliamentary elections of 1957 and the Y OF ARD metric structures and bright colours, inspired by her fascination TU construction of the Aswan Dam. In her works, she captured the SE S with space, space exploration, technological advances and modern A country’s invisible majority: the fishermen on the Nile, the work-machines. She also studied at Morley College in London from 1973 ers in the brick factories and animal markets, and the peasants to 1979: who tilled the fields. She was one of the first artists to capture the ATIONS: A C rapidly changing Egyptian state through female eyes—whether RAL REL While Helmy’s earlier works were influenced by European masters such campaigning in elections, breastfeeding in newly built clinics, or LTU as Spain’s Francisco Goya and Germany’s Albrecht Dürer, her later work living as prominent members of society who worked just as their IAN CU was uncompromisingly architectural in its use of geometrical abstrac-male counterparts. Her work from this period cemented her repu-YPT tion, something she was likely predisposed to through her exposure tation as a pioneer of Egyptian printmaking. Her black-and-white –EGPVA to Islamic art. She experimented with techniques that required both etchings were critically acclaimed for their complexity, but also for craftsmanship and artistry, adding depth of space and texture to her their challenging execution. She was one of the first Egyptian art-YUGOSL work that did not previously exist.45 ists to include entire scenes in her work, reproducing the effects of sketches and intricate drawings on zinc plates before transforming Unfortunately, Helmy’s second tour to the UK, which ended in 1979, them into prints. would eventually be seen as the twilight of the artist’s career. In Having participated in most of the local exhibitions since 1978, she held a critically acclaimed solo exhibition of her abstract 1956, she won a prize at the Cairo Production Exhibition in 1957 works in London, returning to Cairo for another solo exhibition the and the Salon du Caire prize in 1959 and 1960. Internationally, following year. Being only 54 at the time, Helmy bought a printing 43 Ibid. 44 Ibid. 45 Zidan, Menhat Helmy. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED DAŠA TEPINA press and studio space in Cairo, where she planned to continue Yugoslav self-management. Economic dependence, however, often creating more works. Her career then came to an unexpected end. prevented the development of such policies, and thus, on many lev-Helmy’s lungs began to suffer the consequences of the many years els, including artistic language, both often submitted themselves she had spent inhaling fumes from the printing process. Her last to Western criteria, even in the field of culture and fine arts, and print dates from twenty-one years before her death in 2004. found themselves at the centre of Western cultural imperialism. Her involvement in the MGB in the 1960s and 1970s reveals Under the modernist criteria of quality, new forms of colonialism several facts. The first is that she almost certainly did not come to were concealed, primarily in the cultural sphere. the MGB via embassies, or perhaps merely used them to administer the participation in an internationally renowned exhibition. s At the same time, other Egyptian graphic artists came to the MGB through official channels, via the Commission for Cultural Rela-D 1970 s AN tions with Foreign Countries and the Yugoslav Embassy in Cairo. Unfortunately, there is no record in the MGLC archives of why E 1960H Helmy’s work convinced the jury, which consisted of distinguished N T critics mainly from Western Europe and the USA. The fact that she DRIA I was awarded a special honorary award by the Organising Committee, could be seen as political on different levels—good relations D ALEXAN with the UAR; a response to the political and cultural process of ANA AN awarding the prizes in Alexandria and a gesture of gratitude for the BLJ awards received by Yugoslavia there; or a matter of an aesthetic N LJU preference for a modernist work. Certainly, in the case of the Yugo-TIONS I 218 slav-Egyptian connections, there was a positive attitude on both 219 sides towards the contemporary modernist canon, which at the TERSECNT I time was not yet seen as a part of Western cultural colonialism. Y OF ARD Reflections on Cultural Policies and the Culture’s TU SE S Broader Social and Political Role A In conclusion, the cultural and political relations between Yugoslavia and Egypt in the 1960s and 1970s were very intertwined and ATIONS: A C the internal political situations were complex. Internationally, the RAL REL two countries, as political allies, cooperated well in all areas and LTU invested heavily in cultural exchanges and links between them. IAN CU Under the auspices of the Non-Aligned Movement, of which both YPT were founding members, they sought their own expression and –EGPVA pragmatic political paths beyond the bloc divisions, but it was precisely in the field of culture that they were the two centres and at YUGOSL the same time the two areas of the periphery where cultural colonialism, through the modernist criteria of the West, was able to develop and also to spread further. Both Nasser’s Egypt until 1970 and Tito’s Yugoslavia (until 1980) sought different policies of international integration, based on the principles that were part of the manifest of non-alignment—anti-imperialism and decolonisation, a policy of non-interference and peaceful co-existence, and a search for different approaches to social organisation, such as the THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED DAŠA TEPINA SOURCES AND LITERATURE DIGITAL SOURCES Zidan, Karim. A grandson’s quest to preserve his grandmother’s artistic legacy of-ARCHIVAL SOURCES fers an insightful and instructive look at how to manage the estate of an artist, Art & Object. Available at: https://www.artandobject.com/articles/menhat-helmy-AJ – Archive of Yugoslavia: reclaiming-legacy-egyptian-modernist AJ 559 – Savezna komisija za kulturne veze sa inostranstvom. (accessed on 20 May 2022). AJ 4–5 – Savezni zavod za međunarodnu naučnu, prosvetno-kulturnu i tehničku sa rad nju Zidan, Karim. Menhat Helmy. Uncovering the Legacy of the Egyptian Pioneer, RAWI Egypt’s Heritage Review. Available at: https://rawi-magazine.com/articles/menhat-SI MGLC – International Centre of Graphic Arts: helmy/ (accessed on 20 May 2022). SI MGLC – Archives of the Biennial of Graphic Arts. s D 1970 ORAL SOURCES LITERATURE s AN Testimony by Ž. Š. V., Ljubljana, 15 August 2021 (correspondence held by the author). E 1960 Ashcroft, Bill. Post-Colonial Transformation, London: Routledge, 2001. H N T Castleman, Riva. In: 20th International Biennial of Graphic Art. Ljubljana: MGLC, 1993, DRIA I p. 236. D ALEXAN Bielicki, Paweł. The Middle East in Yugoslavia’s Foreign Policy Strategy in the 1970s, Istorija 20. veka 2, No 39 (2021), pp. 397–414. ANA AN BLJ Gardner, Anthony and Charles Green. Biennials, Triennials, and Documenta: The Exhi bitions that Created Contemporary Art, Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2016. N LJU Grafenauer, Petja. Umetnost, gibanje neuvrščenih in mednarodni grafični bienale v TIONS I 220 Ljubljani. Primer kubanske grafike Félixa Beltrána [Art, the Non-Aligned Movement 221 TERSEC and the Ljubljana Biennale of Graphic Arts. Example of Cuban Graphics by Félix NT I Beltrán], In: Predan, Barbara (ed.). Robovi, stičišča in utopije prijateljstva: spregledane kulturne izmenjave v senci politike [Margins, junctures and utopias of friendship: Y OF AR the overlooked cultural exchanges in the shadow of politics]. Ljubljana: Institute of DTU Contemporary History, Academy of Fine Arts and Design (Collection: Vpogledi), 2022. SE S DOI: 10.51938/vpogledi.2022.25.7 A Samman, Maha. Trans-Colonial Urban Space in Palestine: Politics and Development, London and New York: Routledge, 2012. ATIONS: A C Smith, D. Charles. Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, New York: St. Martin’s Press, RAL REL LTU 1996. IAN CU Stepančič, Liljana. Zgrešene klofute: sodobna umetnost Sovjetske zveze in držav YPT tretjega sveta na ljubljanskih grafičnih bienalih [Slaps that Missed: Modern Art of the –EGP Soviet Union and Third World Countries at the International Biennales of Graphic VA Arts in Ljubljana]. Likovne besede: glasilo Zveze društev slovenskih likovnih umetnikov 22, No 81/82, (2007), pp. 32–45. YUGOSL Tatomir, Renata. “Egyptomania in antiquity and in modern world literature. imaginary, intercultural context and mentality”, Discourse as a Form of Multiculturalism in Literature and Communication, Arhipelag press XXI (2015), pp. 556–581. Turner, S. Bryan. Theories of Modernity and Postmodernity, London: Sage, 1990. Žerovc, Beti. Zoran Kržišnik: O kombinacijah [On Combinations], Likovne besede: glasilo Zveze društev slovenskih likovnih umetnikov 22, Nos 81/82 (2007), pp. 24–31. Petra Černe Oven 09 222 223 Introduction This paper provides insights into the area of design that deals with the visualisation of science. It has become clear that in the modern society, in which science plays an important role in the development of many different fields, the power of knowledge depends equally on its presentation and dissemination as on other aspects of its production. To ensure that scientific discoveries are presented in an understandable way, scientists need to use suitable channels, and do so in a way that makes content accessible to a certain target audience. Often, this is the general public, which lacks in-depth knowledge on the particular domains that are the subject of the communication. It is the responsibility of the researchers to convey their findings in an understandable and credible manner, since detailed presentation of the subject matter is a vital component of scientific communication. These chal lenges have recently intensified, especially when it comes to the natural sciences. Expert opinions struggled for traction on the social networks and in the public media and often ended up losing out due to unclear * The article is a result of the research project J7-2606, Models and Practices of International Cultural Exchange of the Non-Aligned Movement: Research in the Spatio-Temporal Cultural Dynamics, which is financed by the Slovenian Research Agency (ARRS). THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PETRA ČERNE OVEN messaging, which resulted in pseudoscience and conspiracy the-overwhelmed with information and in which modern digital tools ories causing a lot of harm. and means of communication offer access to virtually unlimited In science, too, the increasing recognition recently of the fact amounts of data, the answer is, of course, right in front of us. As that humans are visual creatures has led to scientists beginning to early as October 2008, Hal Varian, the chief economist at Google, increase the share of content that is communicated visually. After said in an interview that: the last three decades in particular, with digitalisation leading towards the democratisation of media and tools and consequently The ability to take data [...] to visualize it [...] that’s going to be a hugely to the increase in the use of visual means of communication, it is E important skill in the next decades, not only at the professional level thus imperative that visual means of knowledge representation in BUT but even at the educational level for elementary school kids, for high TRI science are deeply understood, methodologically developed and school kids, for college kids. Because now we really do have essential-professionally applied. Robert E. Horn went so far as to define the AN CON ly free and ubiquitous data. So the complimentary scarce factor is the integration of words, images and shapes into a consolidated unit of ability to understand that data and extract value from it.1 communication as an entirely new language that he called visual OFESSION C language. He singled out the increasing complexity of the world, Scientific journals— Nature, for instance—have likewise long been with mounting problems, along with the ambition to solve them, as publishing calls promoting the use of visuals in science, arguing well as the development of media and technologies in the 1990s, as E DESIGN PRH that a clear and convincing image is “of crucial importance in sci-T T the forces driving the development of this language. ence communication”.2 The aim of the paper is not to present the historical achieveD WHA ments in the area of visualisation, which is something the author TS AN The neurological basis and the dominant role of visual EC has written about in detail elsewhere, but to try to present the po-OJ information in perception and understanding tential problems that can arise when introducing visualisation con-ITIES PR In modern society, we strive to research, understand, stimulate and 224 cepts in the humanities. In doing so, the author hopes to prompt re-MAN utilise all the senses. Neuroscientific findings, however, have long 225 flection within the framework of the research project “Models and ago confirmed that visual information plays a dominant role in hu-TAL HU practices of international cultural exchange of the Non-Aligned man cognition. Half of the neural fibres in our brains are associated Movement: researching the spatio-temporal cultural dynamics”, N DIGI with vision, and when our eyes are open, vision accounts for two which also encompasses the development of a visualisation tool ATION I thirds of the brain’s electrical activity. The brain needs a mere 150 that will facilitate the analysis of the material being examined. ALIS milliseconds to recognise an image, and only 100 more to ascribe With technology playing a major role, the historical principles and meaning to it.3 There are studies claiming that the human brain is methods of visualisation were completely different from what we capable of fully processing an image seen for a mere 13 millisec-HODS OF VISU have today, and this is the origin of the difficulties we face in the ET onds. In a study, the researchers showed the participants a series of visualisation process. The insights can aid in the establishment of NG M pictures that were visible for 13 to 80 milliseconds each. The view-a new methodology in the field of digital humanities covered in the ers successfully identified scenes such as “picnic” or “a laughing project (design, visual arts, architecture and cultural/art history) couple” despite the incredibly short time they were shown for.4 Da-and, in the process of thorough examination, indicate some of the vid Rock (of the NeuroLeadership Institute) likewise demonstrated problems that can arise in the process. that using visual images reduces the energy required to process E CHALLENGES OF DEVELOPI information and consequently maximises the energy available to The Case for Visualising Complex Topics TH think and act effectively.5 It makes sense in the beginning to ask ourselves whether we are This is about more than just perception, of course. Information capable of identifying those types of information that are partic-presented visually instead of through words or numbers is more ularly suited to visual presentation and those that are better conveyed verbally. Certainly, the field of rhetoric continues to be highly 1 Manyika and Varian. rele vant, especially when communicating concepts that cannot be 2 Cheng and Rolandi, Graphic design for scientists. visualised in any meaningful sense, or in cases where visualisation 3 Raworth, Doughnut Economics, p. 13. 4 Potter et al., Detecting meaning, p. 270. might even be an unwelcome distraction. In a society that keeps us 5 See Rock, Your Brain at Work. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PETRA ČERNE OVEN readily processed by the brain. The right hemisphere recognises now build their arguments in a visual way. Even in politics, rhetoric shapes and colours. The left hemisphere, by contrast, processes in-is increasingly combined with visual elements. President Obama, formation analytically and sequentially and is therefore more active for example, in his annual State of the Union Address in 2015, com-when people read or examine spreadsheets. Whereas studying a bined rhetoric with visualisations for better results. For certain number table demands considerable mental effort, infor mation pre-data, the best—the only, even—way it can be presented to the pub-sented visually can be understood in seconds, since the brain rec-lic is through moving, interactive kinetic visualisation. ognises patterns, relations and relationships between visual values. Major breakthroughs in the understanding of statistics through Since at least as early as the Enlightenment, vision has been E interactivity in modern times were made, for example, by the phy-recognised as the most objective of the senses and thus associat-BUT sician, academic and lecturer Hans Rosling (1948–2017) as part of TRI ed with the mind, reason, rationality and logic. Vision is our domi-his Gapminder project.7 Examples such as these demonstrate that nant sense, and our perception of the world is primarily visual. AN CON one of the key influences in the field of visualisation over the last 30 years has been technological progress: the development of in-More than just sight is measured in terms of visual acuity; vision is the OFESSION C formation technologies has enabled the development of tools that pro cess of deriving meaning from what is seen. It is a complex, learned have had a profound impact on the field of visualisation, allowing and developed a set of functions that involve a multitude of skills. Re-both active participation and innovative data processing. E DESIGN PR search estimates that eighty to eighty-five percent of our perception, H Visualisations allow users to look at quantitative and qualiT T learning, cognition, and activities are mediated through vision.6 tative data from a different perspective, encouraging interpreta-D WHA tion of data in ways that a textual presentation cannot. Diagrams, This paper is dealing with a very specific area: the deliberate transTS AN EC charts and other forms of visualisation can stimulate compara tive fer of information and understanding. We can therefore stick to the OJ in ter pretations, model new ways of understanding and indicate premise that visual perception is extremely important in the field ITIES PR emerging categories, patterns and potential deviations from the 226 of science. MAN expected, thus facilitating new insights. 227 The development of what can broadly be defined as the digital Visualisation in the field of digital humanities TAL HU humanities has led to a number of pioneering explorations into the While pioneering work in the field of visualisation has been done N DIGI possibility of using digital tools in the humanities. As this is the field by individual authors in the past, the field is developing continuATION I covered by the project this paper is a part of, it is logical to include ously under the influence of technology (digitalisation) and social ALIS a reflection on innovative ways of integrating visual material based changes (democratisation, the struggle for minority rights, the on the tools offered by the digital realm. environmental catastrophe, political movements). Likewise, disci-Digital humanities cover many different fields. Each of them is HODS OF VISU plines making use of visualisation—as the most potent tool in the ET covered by many of the commercial and open-source tools avail-age of social networks—may be driven by business interests, in ad-NG M able in the modern world: from text analysis (Voyant, Juxta, Hathi-dition to transmitting new knowledge or empowering society. Use Trust, LitViz), spatial analysis (CartoDB), network analysis (Onodo, of infographics is universal in the modern media ( New York Times, Gephi, Palladio) and image analysis to timeline generation (Knight-The Guardian, Reuters, Corriere della Sera, USA Today, to name lab Time line, Tiki-Toki), map generation (StoryMapJS, MapHub, only those most awarded), and there are numerous awards and in-MyMaps), infographic generation (Piktochart, Canva), and data stitutions that raise awareness and educate on the subject (exam-E CHALLENGES OF DEVELOPI visualisation (RAWGraphs, Mondrian, Many Eyes, Tableau Public, ples include Information is Beautiful, with its website, educational TH Prefuse). Many tools also exist that facilitate basic programming books and the eponymous awards, and the Malofiej Awards for in-without previous knowledge of programming (Processing, Scratch). fographics in newspapers). We are also witnessing the emergence Some of these tools are already integrated into operating systems of a new profession: “visual journalism”. (e.g. Excel, Numbers, Google Docs, OpenOffice). Others, likewise Many companies, too, have made remarkable progress, if we aimed at the lay user, are available on the web (e.g. Venngage.com look at the use of charts in annual reports in the 20th century, and and Visme.co). 6 Politzer, Vision Is Our Dominant Sense. 7 See Gapminder. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PETRA ČERNE OVEN As mentioned in the second section of this paper, visualisa-underlying data. A chart might show the increase or decrease of a tions can be a very powerful aid in creating understanding. If this particular value on a timeline, but in interpreting it, we rely on our knowledge is supported by the ability to create visualisations rela-pre-existing knowledge. If the author of the chart reverses the time-tively easily, their usage, of course, increases immediately. Drucker line so that it progresses from right to left (in cultures using the cautions that we are, in fact, too trusting of visualisations occa-Latin alphabet, we are used to reading from left to right), so that sionally: “we seem ready and eager to suspend critical judg ment in we are actually looking at a decrease rather than an increase in a a rush to visualization”,8 continuing given quantity, the audience is of course being misled. Such exam-E ples abound, especially when it comes to political coverage in the At the very least, humanists beginning to play at the intersection of BUT media. TRI statistics and graphics ought to take a detour through the substantial The phenomenon of time itself can also serve as a good exam-discussions of the sociology of knowledge and its developed critique of AN CON ple of something we have to pay attention to if we want to maximise realist models of data gathering. At best, we need to take on the chal-the utility of visualisation. Time can be conceived of as something lenge of developing graphical expressions rooted in and appropriate to OFESSION C given, as a space in which individual events happen by chance, or interpretative activity.9 it can be conceived of as a web of causally interconnected events. In our project, we opted for the latter approach. In doing so, we en-Controversial as it may sound, the use of freely available visualisa-E DESIGN PRH countered a potential problem: in order to produce a successful T T tion tools can (as is the case with all tools that are potentially not visualisation, we would need to show the temporal relationships in the right hands) also raise the problem of data transparency and D WHA between documents (their dates of origin) of quite heterogenous thus the possibility of misinterpretation. In the modern era, when TS AN EC nature (articles have a story, some of the documents are more no-everyone is free to interpret information and knowledge, the key OJ table than others, some reflect time to a much greater extent than question is how to establish visualisation methods that will follow ITIES PR others). Since the research team consists of many members, with 228 the concepts and comply with the standards in the field of human-MAN each trying to cover their own field, the temporality of historical 229 ities research. Naturally, this must be backed up by theoretical events does not always coincide with the timing of the documents TAL HU considerations and argument-based decisions. Recognising that ( when is it that an influence of something is seen, and what is af-all knowledge is interpretive in nature and that the visual represen-N DIGI fected). In addition, the interpretations found in the documents are tation itself must be consistent with this is already a positive step ATION I themselves influenced by the times in which they were produced in this direction. There is no ultimate truth—the visual expression ALIS (which cannot always be accurately evaluated in retrospect, nor is a particular interpretation that someone has augmented through can they be assigned all the necessary variables or information for graphical/visual means. This negates the common notion regarding the database). In network visualisation in parti cular, the choice and HODS OF VISU the display of quantitative information, namely that it represents ET application of selection filters, as well as their presets, can have a “the truth”. NG M crucial impact on how effective and understandable the visualisation is. The Difficulties and the Non-Objectivity of Visualisation One of the most basic examples of bias or even deliberate exploita-Data visualisation and information design tion of mistaken notions regarding visualisation are charts. Charts The broader field that we discuss in this paper could be termed employ simple (albeit often misleading) geometric shapes suitable E CHALLENGES OF DEVELOPI information design.10 This is an umbrella term for an area of visu-for producing easily legible comparisons of values and relation-TH al communication that centres on clear and comprehensible pre-ships, as well as displays of a change in state through time. Lines, sentation of data-derived information using visual tools (example: bars, columns and pie charts are common and familiar examples of such shapes. While capable of depicting quantitative relation-10 In 2009, on the occasion of the 22nd Biennial of Industrial Design, the Museum of Architecture and Design, in cooperation with the Pekinpah Association, organised ships in a transparent way, they can also completely distort the a series of lectures on information design featuring lecturers from abroad, and the exhibition Service and Information Design: Examples of Good Practice. They also published a book of the same name (Černe Oven, Predan, 2010) on the subject. In 8 Drucker, Humanities Approaches to Graphical Display. our texts at the time we already stressed the importance of good data visualisation 9 Ibid. in light of the general information overload in society. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PETRA ČERNE OVEN an underground railway diagram). We all encounter situations ev-different perspectives or views on a topic are extremely important. ery day where the information we need is not conveyed in an un-In any case, both information design and data visualisation trans-ambiguous way. This is especially often the case when it comes to form data into a visual whole through the use of a visual language. complex information. Information design is therefore an activity Even experts such as Lev Manovich admit that it is not an easy in which disorganised and unstructured complex data is translat-task to formulate a definition that would apply to all types of data vi-ed into useful and understandable information. In the process, we sualisation projects emerging today, yet at the same time maintain prioritise the readability and comprehensibility of the documents, distinction from other related fields such as scientific visu alisation along with their usability for the end use.11 While the field of inforE and information design.13 He defines information visu alisation as mation design is by nature very broad, a common thread can easily BUT “the mapping between discrete data and their visual representa-TRI be identified. Information designers make decisions about the se-tion”.14 This is why information visualisation also includes artistic lection, structuring and presentation of the message, whose deliv-AN CON projects whose interest in displaying data is not in under standing ery must be consistent with the reasons, knowledge, expe rience, or explaining information and concepts, but in using the data pure-preferences and circumstances of the intended users. OFESSION C ly as aesthetic parameters and experiments to create attractive or What is it, then, that links information design and data visuali-interesting visualisations (which do not necessarily have the obsation? In data visualisation, we typically make use of databases far jective and informative content that we attribute to information larger than would be practical in an analogue pre sentation, and the E DESIGN PRH design). T T tools used for data visualisation are nearly always tied to particu-We typically distinguish between two- and three-dimensional lar software. This allows both static and interactive displays, where D WHA visualisations (the latter are often interactive). Manovich explains processes are presented in relation to the time in which they take TS AN EC that two-dimensional visualisations often belong to the field of in-place, and the viewer can take an active role in the process—even OJ formation visualisation and were developed in the 1990s in the field manipulating the visualisations according to their own information ITIES PR of design. They received a marked boost with the democratisa-230 needs. MAN tion of the use of personal computers and later, around 2005, with 231 At this stage we can employ another useful definition, which the emergence of social networks and freely accessible databas-TAL HU indicates the function of the visualisation. F. Frankel and A. De-es, which served as the basis for the generation of visualisations, Pace divided visualisations into explanatory and exploratory ones. N DIGI and with new programming languages. Information visualisations Explanatory visualisations communicate findings (answers to reATION I use graphical elements (points, lines, curves and other geometric search questions), pointing out patterns, exceptions and con cepts. ALIS shapes, often combined with textual information). Three-dimen-Exploratory visualisation, by contrast, invites the user to explore sional visualisations generally fall under scientific visualisation, are the information on their own, providing an individual perspe c tive often interactive and were developed in the 1980s alongside the HODS OF VISU and giving insight into the data. This can stimulate thin king about ET field of 3D computer graphics.15 At that time, large computer sys-the subject of the research and offer new research questions.12 NG M tems—specialised graphics workstations—were already relatively When understanding depends on the observer—even when based powerful, but not yet accessible to individuals for personal use. In on data—the observer can generate conclusions that are entirely the last ten years, the situation has, naturally, changed somewhat, their own. This can be a double-edged sword, since observers may so the precise definition, implementation and functionality actually bring different perspectives into the process: the intent behind the depend on the individual project. interpretation, as well as their initial knowledge of the topic, may E CHALLENGES OF DEVELOPI vary, or they might have a different level of visualisation ability. TH The conceptual approach and deciding the type of Information design projects could therefore mostly fit into the visualisation on the basis of intent “explanatory” category, with most data visualisation projects con-Research on how people read (and misread) various types of visu-versely fitting into the “exploratory” category. In the context of the alisations helps identify which types and features of visualisation latter, the openness of entry into interaction and the possibility of are best at conveying information understandably and effectively. 13 Manovich, What is Visualization. 11 See Černe Oven, Predan, Service and Information Design. 14 Ibid., p. 2. 12 Frankel and DePace, Visual Strategies. 15 Ibid., p. 4. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED Interpreting overly complex information requires considerable cognitive effort. For this reason, it’s important to know the intent of communication, as well as who the intended recipient is and what kind of reaction the communication is expected to engender. In exploratory visualisation—where the viewer is invited to discover the information they’re interested in on their own—the visualisation itself must make clear what possibilities it provides to the user, both on the level of the user experience and in terms of data acquisition prior to that. In the case of explanatory visualisation, by contrast, what is essential and what is additional information included at the secondary level needs to be decided prior to designing the visualisation. It is only on this basis that we can start deciding on the tools, methods and type of the visualisation. The visual elements or visual building blocks (more on those later) will depend on our content-level priorities. In addition to the database, the project “Models and Practices of Global Cultural Exchange and the Non-Aligned Movement: Research in the Spatio-Temporal Cultural Dynamics” offers visual display of geolocations and networks of related content from the database. Changing the size of the grid can help us understand the data 232 differently. When the user zooms out in order to view the entire net-233 work, they can access the nodes at the centre of the network comprised of the interconnected people, institutions, and other variables. The user can thus work out the desired information quickly. By zooming in, we can either explore many of the smaller nodes or pan across the structure to examine overlapping between the points. Users can also select individual nodes to access additional information on the link, or move a node across the grid, rearranging the grid so that it is most useful to them. Visualisations help us discover patterns that cannot be dis-cerned from textual inputs of empirical data which cannot by themselves provide insights into the theories that could be developed from them. Visualisation can thus facilitate sensory access to tangible representations of locations, time, historical perspective and, above all, the links between particular events, places or even periods in history. The so-called exploratory method of visualisation was used, which at the same time allows for subsequent generation of new understandings, provided that this transformation of data takes place at the level of many users and a large amount of data. Geolocations of exhibitions in the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). Based on project database. (screen capture, author’s personal archive) 234 235 Network visualisation showing persons, magazines, publications and magazine editions. Based on project database. (screen capture, author’s personal archive) 236 237 Network visualisation showing persons and institutions. Based on project database. (screen capture, author’s personal archive) THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PETRA ČERNE OVEN Methods, types and attributes of visualisations spatial components, widely used in thinking about and conceiving Data visualisation aids understanding and improves effective ness. messages, gradually became dominant. Spatial variables (position, The human mind learns quicker from visual content than from text size, shape, movement) are central to the development of the reand tables. As in the case of speech, one of the dimensions of vi-search question we are trying to construct, as well as to the plan-sualisation is persuasiveness, as it often aims to influence people’s ning (design) of the visualisation itself. ideas, beliefs and attitudes. It is more than just a communication Despite having roots in statistics, the field of visualisation tool, since it can use the form of the message to create meaning. is inherently associated with visual presentation—with the pre-Visualisation can thus combine aesthetic and strategic aspects, E sentation of the visual elements, to be more exact, also referred BUT since it has both a narrative and a functional level. New methods to as graphical elements due to the historical development of the TRI are being sought that combine a planned, staged approach to proj-field (media used to be in print). These also serve as the basic tools AN CON ect management with the iterative, intuitive and creative approach of graphical design, which is part of the broader field of visual com-of de signers. The most important method, which can already be munication design, alongside photography, illustration and typo - evi denced in historical visualisations, is reduction. OFESSION C graphy. Each of these areas are, on the one hand, a subject of visual art theory and perception, and contingent on the medium and the Reduction technology through which the visualisation is present on the other E DESIGN PRH Although data visualisation is the most discussed topic in today’s hand. The field of information visualisation in its entirety must thus T T technology-dominated world, and we will look at it in more detail combine information technology, science and design. Especially D WHA in the context of the project for which this methodological frame-important in the segment of the field that includes de sign is the TS AN work is intended, it is important to underline the fact that there are EC theory of perception, which makes use of Gestalt psychology and OJ many types of visualisation. Common to all of them is the method visual art theory, the latter includes the theoretical laws relevant to of reduction, which is evident in scientific illustration, charts, info-ITIES PR visual components in general. 238 graphics and data visualisation (it is also found, of course, through-MAN A quick analysis of the principal morphological elements of 239 out the wider field of art history in the form of mosaics, frescoes, visual language, which include words (individual words, phrases, TAL HU stained glass artworks, on geographical maps, woodcuts, engrav-sentences, bodies of text), shapes/graphical elements (points, N DIGI ings and so on). It might sound counterproductive, but re duc tion lines, abstract shapes, negative space) and images (illustrations, ATION I already takes place during the selection and acquisition of data. photographs—images that carry semantic meaning) tells us that ALIS This is because the diversity of visualisations will depend on the all these elements feature diverse attributes that are controlled by research question of the viewers or users of the database. If there variables: thickness, texture, colour (hue, saturation, value), orien-are many of them, or if they have different requirements, we need tation, size, position within 2D or 3D space, motion, etc. Com bined HODS OF VISUET to use a small quantity of curated data, or the data need to be dis-into a whole, these elements constitute a visualisation. Variables NG M played in a functional way, with their relationships reflected, or evi-are supremely important; in addition to their inherent value they dent, in the structure of the display. Selectivity with respect to data also influence one another. Accordingly, they must be chosen senis also important due to the technical limitations of databases. sibly, both in terms of their functional transformation and their visual image. Spatial dimensions Elements of visual language can roughly be categorised into The second most important tool for visualising information accord-E CHALLENGES OF DEVELOPI static (largely, but not exclusively, two-dimensional, for example TH ing to Manovich are spatial dimensions, which, in human visual icons, pictograms, diagrams, charts, maps, spreadsheets, info grap - perception, are privileged over other visual attributes (colour, tonal hics) and interactive (allowing us to better utilise three-dimension-value, opacity, texture, symbols and so on).16 While this fact could al space; examples include interactive graphics and data visualisa-have neurological underpinnings, it could also be—as has been tions). Depending on the intent and/or the rese arch question, a lot the case throughout history—a consequence of technological of information can be displayed through visuali sation: when some-evolution. Since colour printing used to be an expensive rarity, the thing started, the position of something in time, how long something took; the quantity of something, what proportion each quan-16 Ibid., p. 5. tity represented in relation to the whole; we can show the order, the THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PETRA ČERNE OVEN sequence of things; we can categorise them according to specific Criteria of excellence parameters or show them in a hierarchy; we can arrange them in In general, the same criteria apply to data visualisation as to visual space (geographical, political, cultural); we can show the trajectory, communication in general. They can be divided into three groups the process or the development of a particular movement, as well according to: relevance (how well does the result serve a specific as the causal relationships between the elements we are interest-purpose), which is also about functionality; excellence of individed in. ual components; and excellence of all the elements as combined into a whole. The criteria can be subdivided further according to Interdisciplinarity E the three phases of the process: design, planning and execution/ BUT Indeed, it is in the field of science that we can often spot very basic implementation. TRI errors in the use of colour, form and hierarchy. These errors stem In design, it is important to analyse the problem thoroughly AN CON from a lack of familiarity with visual language, so it is crucial that and plan the concept sensibly based on the content that we want such projects are approached in an interdisciplinary way. It is also to convey; to choose the medium of communication based on the true that even scientists are increasingly aware nowadays of how OFESSION C context; to ensure originality, innovativeness, inclusivity and sus-important it is to be familiar with the tools used to create quality tainability in planning and to be as thorough as possible in man-visualisations. This is evidenced by the publication of articles on art aging data. As each dataset in the research project could poten-E DESIGN PRH and art theory in natural science-focused journals. One such article tially be incomplete, we need to introduce certain safeguards, or T T was published in the journal Nature Communications. It discussed have suitably customised sets of research questions ready. In the D WHA how colour maps can visually distort the data due to uneven co-absence of input data, certain research questions may not be cor-TS AN lour transitions, or how they cannot be used by people with defi-EC rectly presented, or may be incomplete or even incorrect. OJ cits in colour vision.17 Different media (digital, analogue, spatial) During planning, we can evaluate aesthetic and artistic consis-demand different areas of expertise, which necessitates collabo-ITIES PR tency, adherence to genre and support of content, quality of indi-240 ration by interdisciplinary teams. This is likewise important in the MAN vidual elements (e.g. legibility of typefaces, appropriateness of oth-241 field of data visualisation, which combines visual aspects with sta-er visual elements/graphic elements, potentially illustrations and TAL HU tistics and art with science. The visualisation envisioned within the photographs), the consistency of the combination of pictorial and N DIGI framework of the research project “Models and Practices of Global typographic language, linguistic appropriateness, functionality of ATION I Cultural Exchange and the Non-Aligned Movement: Research in the design (clarity, rationality), navigation through the material and ALIS the Spatio-Temporal Cultural Dynamics” will therefore necessarily its hierarchical structure, appropriateness of the testing methods, have to involve at least three fields of expertise: building, manag-and the quality of the iteration, or refinement, of the prototype. ing and maintaining databases (architecture, design, art history), In the execution phase, we focus on technical quality (user HODS OF VISUET maintenance of digital databases and algorithm development experience, quality of the user interface in terms of functionality, NG M (information and computer sciences), and the field of visual com-complexity of the application) and the use of interdisciplinarity. muni cation (information design, which develops visual ele ments of user interfaces and ensures the readability of the data collected, Possible Further Steps based on the definition of the users). Only through collaboration The truth is, unlike analogue printed books, a digital project, even will we be able to visualise the patterns and structures contained once published, is never truly finished. It can always be built upon, in the data obtained in the project (people, institutions, locations, E CHALLENGES OF DEVELOPI new lay ers ad ded. New information can always expand the field of TH dates), as well as the relationships between these ele ments. The under standing. Here I will outline some options for future develop-visualisation should ideally permit the comparison, matching, dis-ments or approaches that ought to be taken in similar projects. tinguishing, arranging, aggregation by variables and adding new The project as it stands is not externally linked. Interaction connections between elements. with other databases created in similar projects and the interconnection between them is something that should probably have been considered before the project started, as that is when many of the factors for capturing, recording and visualising data were be-17 Crameri et al., The misuse of colour. ing defined. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PETRA ČERNE OVEN An extended testing phase would also be necessary—if re-co-creation and co-design and how to continually adapt them to searchers were given more time in advance in the project pro-the situation at hand”.19 It is precisely because of this apparently gramme to use the tool in-depth over a longer period of time, they open approach that co-design can be effective in interdisciplinary would be better able to observe the interaction and give better projects like ours. feedback to the tool developers and designers on what is needed. Part of the principle of rational planning is that it links design The result would be an even closer alignment of the tool with the with science, which in modern times likewise has an extremely im-research objectives of the project. In an even more ideal scenar-portant responsibility to communicate clearly and understandably io, during the course of the project, the interactive visualisation E both to professionals and to the general public. Considering that could already allow the project participants to adjust the research BUT it might well be visual language that is their common point, which TRI process and enrich the individual teams of researchers during the “increases learning speed”, “decreases learning errors”, “contextua-process. AN CON lises inter pretations” and “allows for more complex expression”,20 I Opening up the access to the visualisations to other potential see care ful planning of all steps in interdisciplinary projects of dif-scientific users would also be welcome, as a broader view would OFESSION C ferent professions as the only possible approach. allow interdisciplinary enrichment of the task. To make this possible, a different project design would be required, which would financially allow the construction of two different models that could E DESIGN PRH T T be tested with different users. They would look at the models, use them and reflect on their experiences and potential improvements D WHA in informal focus groups. The improvements would then be inte-TS AN EC grated in collaboration with the users active on the project. OJ The process of collaboration itself could be improved by elim-ITIES PR 242 inating the jargon that is so pervasive in professional silos, espe-MAN 243 cially in the field of information and communication techno logies. TAL HU Especially in international collaborations, it can be a distraction, complicating ongoing communication. In addition, the introduc-N DIGI tion of plain language18 into the interactive environment is of para-ATION I mount importance, as verbal components, regardless of their visuALIS al design, are a key carrier of information for the user. It is clear that well-conceptualised content is one of the key el-HODS OF VISU ements of a project’s success. It is the same with visual content de-ET sign: if clearly conceived in the first place, the results will be better NG M and the project more usable. As for the conceptual approach to the whole project, many of the conundrums we have mentioned could certainly easily be solved by an effective co-design approach. This approach has long been present in design, and as Barbara Predan writes: “the numerous practices, methods and tools can be used E CHALLENGES OF DEVELOPI as a basis for establishing an operating framework and instruc-TH tions for tackling the individual steps in the process of collective 18 Abroad, the terms for easily understandable language used in information design literature are “clear language”, “plain language” and “simple language”, and are used to better communicate with a variety of users, but largely in the administrative and legal environment of government institutions. In Slovenia, however, the term lahko branje, “easy-to-read,” is gaining ground, especially in the field of special needs and 19 Predan, A Discussion of Processes, p. 4. pedagogy (See: A. To. 2021). 20 Horn, Visual Language, p. 249. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED PETRA ČERNE OVEN SOURCES AND LITERATURE Raworth, Kate. Doughnut Economics: Seven Ways to Think Like a 21st-Century Economist. 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Available at: Wikimedia, https:// commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=25092379 (accessed on 13 January 2022). The Gapminder project. Available at: Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:Gapminder-World-2015.pdf (accessed on 12 December 2021). Scheel, Christian, Francesca Fallucchi and Ernesto William De Luca. Visualization, Interaction and Analysis of Heterogeneous Textbook Resources. Future internet, year 12, No 10 (2020). Available at: https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/12/10/176 (accessed on 10 January 2023). The Economist. New ways of visualising data. Show me, 27 February 2010. Available 246 24 at: The Economist, https://www.economist.com/special-report/2010/02/27/show-me Prof. Dr Petra Černe Oven is a designer, theoretician and author 247 (accessed on 12 December 2021). with a special interest in typography, information design and the theory and history of visual communication design. She completed Walker, Sue and Mark Barratt. About: Information Design, 2009. Available at: Design Council, https://www.gdrc.org/info-design/XRM.pdf (accessed on 11 December 2021). her PhD at the Department of Typography and Graphic Communication at the University of Reading (UK). Černe Oven has initiated or co-organised over 40 conferences, workshops and exhibitions and has published extensively in academic and professional media. She has served as a member of numerous juries nationally and internationally (TDC NY, European Design Award) and is a country delegate and a board member at the Association Typographique Internationale (ATypI). Černe Oven teaches at the Academy of Fine Arts and Design, University of Ljubljana, where she currently serves as head of the Department for Theoretical Studies. Dr Aleš Gabrič, research counsellor at the Institute of Contemporary History in Ljubljana. His area of research is the contemporary cultural and political history of Slovenia. In 2001–2004 he was the editor of Kronika, a journal for Slovenian local history, and in 2009– 2019 he was the publishing editor for the Institute of Con temporary History. He worked for a long time as a lecturer at the Faculty of Social Sciences in Ljubljana, where he lectured on the subject of the history of Slovenian culture. In 2008–2020 he was the president of the National Committee for the General Matura for the subject THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED NOTES OF THE CONTRIBUTORS of History. Since 2018 he has been the president of the publishing (2023). Along with Dr Petra Černe Oven she has been the editor of house Slovenska matica (Slovene Society). Major scientific mono-Collection 42, a book series published under the auspices of the graphs: Slovenska agitpropovska kulturna politika [Slovenian Agit-Pekinpah Association, whose central thread is design. In 2020, she prop Cultural Policy] (1991), Socialistična kulturna revolucija [The was awarded for her work with the international prize Design Prin-Socialist Cultural Revolution] (1995), Slo venska novejša zgodovina: ciples & Practices International Award for Excellence: Award Win-od programa Zedinjena Slovenija do mednarodnega priznanja Rener for Volume 13. publike Slovenije [Slovenian Modern History: From the Program of Unified Slovenia to the International Recognition of the Republic Dr Jure Ramšak, is a senior research associate at the Science and of Slovenia] (2005; co-author), Šolska reforma 1953–1963 [School Research Centre Koper (Slovenia) and a former postdoctoral re-Reform 1953–1963] (2006), Slovenski zgodovinski atlas [Slovenian searcher at the University of Vienna. His main research interests Historical Atlas] (2011; co-author), V senci politike: opozicija komu-lie in the intertwining of the intellectual, political and economic nistični oblasti v Sloveniji po letu 1945 [In the Shadow of Politics: history of post-war Slovenia and Yugoslavia. Applying this re search Opposition to the Communist Authority in Slovenia after 1945] approach and a plurality of sources, he has published two mono- (2019). graphs (2015, 2019) and over two dozen research articles in journals such as The International History Review, Journal of Church Dr Petja Grafenauer, is an assistant professor at the Department and State, and Religion, State and Society. Since 2023, he has been for Theoretical Studies, University of Ljubljana, Academy of Fine managing a research project ‘Rendering a Globalization Otherwise’, Arts and Design (UL ALUO). Her speciality is regional art after the focused on the comparative and transnational aspects of the Yugo-Second World War. She participates in the ARIS projects J7-2606 slav non-aligned internationalism. Models and Practices of Global Cultural Exchange and Non-Aligned Movement: Research in the Spatio-Temporal Cultural Dynamics Dr Paul Stubbs is a sociologist and activist-researcher. He has a 248 and J6-3144 Protests, Art Practices, and Culture of Memory in the PhD from the University of Bath, UK, for a thesis on “The Repro-249 Post-Yugoslav Context. duction of Racism in State Social Work” and an MA (Ed) from the University of Leicester, UK, in The Sociology of Education and Mass Assoc. Prof. Dr Barbara Predan, theorist, researcher, author and Communication. His work focuses on policy translation, interna-vice-dean for research and development at the Academy of Fine tional actors in social policy and social development, poverty and Arts and Design of the University of Ljubljana. Among other things, social exclusion, new green-left municipalisms, and the history of she currently leads the research project Models and Practices of Yugoslav socialism, social welfare and the Non-Aligned Movement. Global Cultural Exchange and Non-Aligned Movement: Research He is the author of the book Making Policy Move: Towards a Politics in the Spatio-Temporal Cultural Dynamics. She has published proof Translation and Assemblage (with John Clarke, Dave Bainton and fessional and scholarly articles in the journals Design Issues, The Noemi Lendvai) published by Policy Press in 2015 and editor (with Design Journal, Design Principles and Practices, The International Rory Archer and Igor Duda) of the book Social Inequalities and Dis-Journal of Design in Society, and Filozofski vestnik. She is also a content in Yugoslav Socialism published by Routledge in 2016. His co-author of scientific monographs: Nazaj k oblikovanju: Antološ- latest edited book Socialist Yugoslavia and the Non-Aligned Move-ki pregled teorije oblikovanja v slovenskem prostoru [Back to De-ment: social, cultural, political and eco nomic imaginaries was pub-sign: an anthological overview of design theory on the Slovenian lished by McGill-Queens’ University Press in 2023. He is a Senior territory] (2007), Oblikovanje agende ali kako se izogniti reševanju Research Fellow at the Institute of Economics, Zagreb. problemov, ki to niso [Designing an agenda, or, How to avoid solv-ing problems that aren’t] (2013), Smrt v oblikovanju [Death in De-Dr Daša Tepina is an assistant researcher at the Department for sign](2017), Papiro-logía: krožno oblikovanje in uporaba papirja Theoretical Studies at UL ALUO and at the School of Humanities at v interierju [Papiro-logía: Circular Design and the Use of Paper in UNG. Her main areas of research are non-alignment, social move-Interior Design] (2019) and Zakaj je vaza podobna hiši? Od sistems-ments, autonomy, art and utopias. She is currently participating kega do fantazijskega z oblikovalko Janjo Lap [How is a Vase like in the following research projects: Models and Practices of Globa House? From Systems to Fantasy with Janja Lap, the Designer] al Cultural Exchange and Non-Aligned Movement: Research in the THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED Spatio-Temporal Cultural Dynamics and Protests, art practices and Abstracts culture of memory in the post-Yugoslav context. She regularly publishes articles about social movements, art, utopias, cultural exchanges and non-alignment, some of which have been published in the international scholarly journal Third Text. In autumn 2022, she had a scholarly monograph Revolutionary Utopias published by the Aristej publishing house. Prof. Dr Mitja Velikonja is a cultural theorist and head of the Research Centre for Cultural and Religious Studies at the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana. His main research fields include political ideologies of the post-socialist transition, graffiti and other subcultures, socially engaged contemporary art, collective memory and nostalgia. His monograph Post-Socialist Po litical Graffiti in the Balkans and Central Europe (Routledge, 2020) has been translated into five languages, with a Ukrainian version scheduled for spring 2023, while his last work The Chosen Few: Aesthetics and Ideology in Football-Fan Graffiti and Street Art (Doppel-House Press, 2021) was among the finalists of the American 2022 Next Generation Indie Book Awards. 250 Assoc. Prof. Dr Nadja Zgonik, art historian and art critic. Her re-01 Paul Stubbs 251 search focuses on the history and theory of modern and contempo-THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT AND THE NEW rary visual art, especially the study of national and other identities INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC AND INFORMATION in art ( Podobe slovenstva [The Images of Slovene National Identity], ORDERS: YUGOSLAVIA, THE GLOBAL SOUTH 2002), intercultural exchange, and issues of cultural hegemony. In AND THE UN 2016 she spent a semester as a visiting professor at the University With socialist Yugoslavia playing a leading role together with coun-of Humanities and Arts, National Chiayi University, Taiwan, and in tries of the Global South, the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), along 2018 she was a visiting scholar at Augsburg University, Minneapolis, with the G-77, turned, in the 1970s, much more towards econom-MN, USA. Since 2009, she has participated in the Theatre and Inter-ic themes, asserting “collective self-reliance” as an opposition to art Studies research programme at the Academy of Theatre, Radio, “neo-colonialism”. The most important results of this were the New Film and Television (AGRFT), University of Ljubljana, Slovenia; and International Economic Order (NIEO), passed at a UN Spe cial Ses-since 2020, she has also been part of the Models and Practices of sion in May 1974, and the New World Information and Communica-Global Cultural Exchange and Non-Aligned Movement: Research in tions Order (NWICO) passed at the UNESCO General Conference the Spatio-Temporal Cultural Dynamics project at the Academy of in Belgrade in October 1980. Both involved close colla boration with Fine Arts and Design, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia (UL ALUO), UN agencies including UNESCO and UNCTAD. The paper maps el-both funded by the Slovenian Research Agency (ARIS). She is also ements of these endeavours, tracing processes of the production a guest curator in Slovenia and internationally, associate professor and circulation of knowledge and addressing the ambivalences of art history at UL ALUO, a member of the International Associa-and contradictions of the NIEO and NWICO, not least in terms of tion of Art Critics (AICA), and a member of the Slovenian section slippery understandings of “culture”. The paper concludes with an of PEN. assessment of the reasons for the “failure” of the NIEO and NWICO, including the radical opposition to it marshalled by the United States, and whether some lessons can be learned from the period to challenge the hegemony of a globalising neo-liberal order today. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED ABSTRACTS KEYWORDS ments that provide a good basis for understanding geopolitical New International Economic Order (NIEO), New World relations in art today. Information and Communications Order (NWICO), Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), UNCTAD, UNESCO KEYWORDS Non-Aligned Movement, socialist modernism, cultural policy, cultural exchange, Yugoslav art 02 Nadja Zgonik EASTERN, WESTERN OR NON-ALIGNED MODERNISM? THE CASE OF YUGOSLAVIA 03 Jure Ramšak This article reviews the definitions used to describe the art pro-NON-ALIGNMENT, YUGOSLAV DIPLOMACY AND THE duced in socialist Yugoslavia in the post-World War II period until ESTABLISHMENT OF CROSS-CULTURAL LINKS WITH the collapse of the state in 1991. For almost two decades after the AFRICA fall of the Iron Curtain, the consensus to define this art as “East-For Yugoslav diplomats, the “Non-Aligned” African continent repre-ern” did not seem problematic. In the last two decades, however, sented a terrain where their country needed to demonstrate, there have been repeated pleas for a more precise definition, one through various engagements, its commitment to Non-Alignment, that is said to derive from the specific socio-political order of Yu-which was first and foremost a concept of a new, non-hierarchi-goslavia in comparison to other communist countries of the East-cal type of international relations. In addition to promoting polit-ern Bloc. The question arises whether and how the non-aligned, ical and economic cooperation, this involved cultural diplomacy, anticolo nialist and anti-imperialist politics of this multinational which—understaffed and insufficiently materially supported—was and cul tu rally diverse country, which took a leading role in the po-facing competitors from both the capitalist and socialist bloc in litical movement of the non-aligned countries, manifested itself in the newly created African countries. Drawing on materials from 252 its art system. With its policy of non-alignment, Yugoslavia gained the federal and republican foreign affairs bodies, this paper shows 253 po li tical prestige and strengthened economic cooperation, but in how Yugoslav diplomats in each of the highlighted Sub-Saharan the cultural sphere its strategies for self-expression on the inter-countries found themselves in the role of cultural mediators by way national stage were not so clearly defined. With exhibitions of pop-of analysing their understanding of post-colonial cultural realities ular and naive art, Yugoslavia emphasised the aspect of young, and tracing those cultural manifestations, on both sides, that they non-elitist socialist art in a multicultural society created by the helped organise. By shining a light on the work of a broader com-people and for the people. At the same time, by gradually turning munity of experts working in the field of cultural cooperation on away from socialist realism and toward Western modernism and the Yugoslav side, the discussion also focuses on the ambi guous abstract art, it presented itself as a non-(Eastern) bloc country that process of shaping the imaginary of African cultures within Yugo-allowed the same artistic freedom as Western democracies. The slavia and on the discourses reflecting the common aspira tions of event that most closely conformed to the concept of non-aligned the European-African peripheries towards cultural self-assertion modernism was the Ljubljana Biennial of Graphic Arts, founded in and transcending the established monopolies. 1955. Through its inclusive policy, which included countries from the West, the East, and the Global South and allowed both nation-KEYWORDS al and individual applications, the Biennial helped consolidate the Yugoslavia, Sub-Saharan Africa, non-aligned, decolonisation, idea of non-alignment. The second, more concrete result was the international cultural cooperation promotion of postcolonial collecting, which presented the artistic production of Third World countries in museums of non-European cultures and art galleries rather than in ethnographic museums. It 04 Barbara Predan can be noted that the Non-Aligned Movement did not lead to the THE IMPACTS OF NON-ALIGNED DESIGN elaboration of art programmes and manifestos that would have The central topic of this paper are the different postures adopted undermined the Western canon of art through the development by Slovenian designers when interacting with the Global North of a socialist globalism, but it did form a set of fundamental ele-and the Global South. In the first case, a desire for recognition and THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED ABSTRACTS active involvement on the part of the so-called advanced Other In 1976, it began publishing a book collection of translated litera-was evident, while in the latter, as one who possesses and selfless-ture entitled Mostovi (Bridges), which prominently featured writers ly shares knowledge, the approval was clearly inherent to the role from non-aligned countries and some other developing countries, itself. Using the historical method, the text illuminates two exam-as well as writers from ethnic groups that had not yet achieved ples that illustrate how, on the basis of the Yugoslav Non-Aligned equal status in their own countries. There were numerous works Movement and workers’ self-management in the 1970s and 1980s, by Sub-Saharan African authors, and many of the published works Yugoslav designers introduced to both the Global South and the represented Slovenians’ first exposure to literature from previously Global North the idea of decentralisation and questioning the epis-unknown cultures. The book collection Mostovi, along with con-temic colonialism, as well as highlighting the role of parti cipation temporary tran slations by other publishing houses, were a strong and the importance of listening to voices from the so-called periph-influence on the Slovenian readers’ shifting views of unknown cul-ery of design. The selected examples further show that Slovenian tures, as they introduced them to stories told by the locals. Pre- (and Yugoslav) designers, following the orientations of the Yugo-viously, their knowledge of unknown lands would have mostly been slav social order of the time, focused their international outlook on derived from the simplified descriptions by the colonisers. understanding and designing an integrated approach in a broader cultural, social and geographical space. KEYWORDS non-aligned, cultural cooperation, scientific cooperation, KEYWORDS translated literature, Pomurska publishing house non-aligned, industrial design, Janja Lap, Saša J. Mächtig, ICSID 06 Mitja Velikonja 05 Aleš Gabrič IMAGES OF FRIENDSHIP 254 THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED COUNTRIES ON Analysis of artworks, ethnological and applied arts gifts from 255 THE SLOVENIAN CULTURAL HORIZON non-aligned countries to the President of SFRY, Josip Broz The article outlines Yugoslavia’s position on the scientific, techno-Part I and II logical and cultural cooperation among the member states of the The present two-step research analyses the gifts stored in the repo-Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), who had an important influence sitories of the Museum of Yugoslavia in Belgrade that President Tito on the development of the positions that the members of the Mo-received from leaders and delegations of non-aligned countries. In vement jointly represented in international organisations. Due to the first step, I concentrate on the visual language—the cultural the numerous issues that the non-aligned states were facing—the breadth and ideological layers—of a total of 39 artworks presented varying levels of development, geographical remoteness and a legas gifts, while in the second step I observe the visual language of acy of colonialism—only a small part of the ideas were realised. Slo-more than 1,100 ethnological and applied arts gifts. The analysis is venia took in many students from these countries, most of them based on primary sources (the gifts themselves, interviews with cu-from Africa. They tried, and in many cases succeeded, to align their rators, archive materials, various original documents, exhibitions) study programmes and scientific cooperation with the demands of and secondary sources (previous researches on cultural exchang-economic cooperation with the students’ countries of origin. Cul-es between the countries of the Non-Aligned Movement). The col-tural cooperation was more modest in its extent. In Slovenia, art lected materials are approached using the theory of representation exhibitions and music events featuring artists from the non-aligned and the practical method of visual semiology. In Part I, I investigate countries were only held a few times a year, and a handful of writ-the meanings inherent to the motifs of the artworks, i.e. how non-ers were invited to the International Writers’ Meeting in Bled. Few-aligned countries presented themselves outwardly (along the axes er still were instances of Slovenian artists visiting the non-aligned of meaning relative to essentialism/constructivism, traditionalism/ countries. progressivism, exoticisation/emancipation, local/global, political/ Frequently mentioned as an example of good practice in the non-political, gender dichotomies, etc.). In addition, I preliminarily area of establishing contacts with the non-aligned countries was explore the artistic expressiveness of these works (figuration/ab-Pomurska založba, a publishing house based in Murska Sobota. straction, various techniques and materials, etc.). In Part II, I divide THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED ABSTRACTS the second, much larger group of ethnological and applied arts gifts ween India and the SFRY, and how, in the case of the IBGA, this was into four big sub-groups: gifts linked to contemporary cottage in-reflected in procedures for inviting Indian artists and at the level of dustry and gifts from the recent past (the cultural code is the beau-exhibiting and reception of their works. ty of tradition); archaeological gifts (the cultural code is glorious This paper is based on the analysis of the archival material de-pre-colonial past); gifts combining domestic and foreign elements posited in the Archives of Yugoslavia, the Archives of the Republic (cultural code is glocalisation); gifts consisting of a variety of animal of Slovenia and the archives of the International Centre of Graphic trophies, precious metals and stones (cultural code is natural rich-Arts in Ljubljana, as well as on the study of the literature to the pres-es). Subsequently, I compare the visual language of artworks pre-ent date. The most extensive portion of the studied material is held sented as gifts with the visual language of ethnological and applied in the Archives of Yugoslavia, Belgrade; a substantial proportion of arts gifts, noting similarities (nature, traditionalism, non-political its fonds related to the Federal Council for Education and Culture and anti-modernist character) and differences (aesthetics, ways of (1967–1971, AJ 319) and the Federal Commission for Cultural Rela-portraying political leaders, exclusiveness of ethnological and ap-tions with Foreign Countries (1953–1971, AJ 559) were analysed for plied arts gifts). In the final part of the chapter, I problematise the the purpose of this research. unexpected persistence of the colonial discourse in the post-colo-The thesis of the research is that the cultural policy of the nial period, which is expressed through the selection of gifts pre-SFRY at the level of visual arts and visual literacy—which could be sented by Non-Aligned leaders and delegations to Tito, and mani-conceived as completely individual, founded on anti-imperialism festations of the enormous disjuncture between the imperative of and decolonisation, non-interference and peaceful co-existence, social modernisation and the folkloristic essence of these gifts. as well as Yugoslav self-management—is in practice not identifiable in the activities of fine and visual arts organisations; that the KEYWORDS readings of the visual codes were, therefore, Western-oriented or Non-Aligned Movement, Josip Broz Tito, gift, gift-giving, the influence of the Non-Aligned Movement was small, even in the 256 traditionalism, colonialism, modernisation case of the IBGA, which was valued primarily for bringing togeth-257 er art from all parts of the world, but in reality, as the Indian artist Krishna Reddy discussed here, mainly relied on Western modern-07 Petja Grafenauer ism and its visual code. CULTURAL COOPERATION BETWEEN INDIA AND THE SOCIALIST FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF YUGOSLAVIA KEYWORDS IN THE 1960s AND 1970s: A CASE STUDY OF THE Non-Aligned Movement, Ljubljana graphic biennial, Krishna INTERNATIONAL BIENNIAL OF GRAPHIC ARTS Reddy, graphic arts, visual art The article explores the diversity of readings of artworks in different contexts. We discuss the case of the International Biennial of Graphic Arts (IBGA) and the cultural artistic links between India 08 Daša Tepina and the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the 1960s and YUGOSLAV–EGPYPTIAN CULTURAL RELATIONS: A CASE 1970s. Our interest is focused on the connections between Indi-STUDY OF ART INTERSECTIONS IN LJUBLJANA AND an artists participating in the IBGA, the systemic arrangement of ALEXANDRIA IN THE 1960s AND 1970s the SFRY cultural exchange with India and the biennial exhibition, The aim of the paper is to explore how the Non-Aligned Movement which testifies to the various codes of visual literacy. influenced the cultural relations between Yugoslavia and Egypt in Studying the case of participation by the Indian graphic art-the 1960s and 1970s and to clarify how this impacted the recep-ist Krishna Reddy in the IBGA—who almost certainly entered the tion of fine art originating from the non-aligned countries in the Biennial via the Western art world, paving the way for many of his former Yugoslavia (FPRY/SFRY). As one of the founding members of compatriots—and exploring other institutional routes established the Non-Aligned Movement, the country—then named FPRY—was with India (e.g. Lalit Kala Academy), which were aimed at visual de-gaining increasing importance and prestige in the international colonisation, we investigate how Yugoslav cultural agreements and political arena through its international policies. We will be trac-programmes influenced the processes of artistic exchange bet-ing cultural policies by examining three premises that characterise THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED ABSTRACTS both the politics of Yugoslavia and the politics of the Non-Aligned extent, but especially so in the field of scientific research, where be-Movement: anti-colonialism, anti-imperialist struggles and decolo-ing able to successfully present new discoveries and ex plain con-nisation; the politics of non-involvement and peaceful coexistence, cepts so that they are easily understood is of critical importance. and finally the Yugoslav self-management. In the text we demon-The last thirty years of scientific research in this area have brought strate how these fundamental principles of non-alignment were important advancements, since facilitating the under standing of expressed in the area of artistic practices in individual artistic in-scientists’ discoveries is not only desirable but crucial for the de-tersections, namely Ljubljana and Alexandria. mocratisation of society and the role of science within it. Our central focus will be the 1960s and early 1970s, which is This paper presents the broader context of the use of visual when the founding and the bulk of the activities of the Non-Aligned communication in the field of digital humanities and the impor-Movement took place. We will be examining the case of two centance of visualisation, as well as how tightly it is embedded in a tral art venues that served as important intersections of cultural, number of technological, social and theoretical currents that are as well as political international relations between Egypt and Yugo-constantly influencing the development of new fields of expertise. slavia. These artistic manifestations are the Ljubljana Internation-The boundaries of the latter are increasingly blurred and most al Biennial of Graphic Arts (MGB) and the Alexandria Biennial for successful projects in the field of visual presentation of complex Mediterranean Countries, both of which were founded in 1955. The information are interdisciplinary in nature. In modern working en-influence of cultural policies will also be explored in more depth, as vironments, the design tools that had in the past been used by the the focus of our interest is in how the principles of non-alignment professionals (artists, designers, architects) can and should be were reflected in the work of individual artists from the UAR who used by everyone. As a result, visualisation often fails to reach its exhibited at the MGB. With this in mind, we will be examining the full potential, since the users of the tools for the most part lack ed-opus of artist Menhat Allah Helmy at the MGB. ucation and training in the field of visual communication. The text presents an overview of the political background of The analysis of the material collected from research projects 258 the biennials, which it examines mainly through an analysis of ar-depends to a large extent on its accessibility, logical presentation 259 chival materials from the Archive of Yugoslavia and the archives and clear, understandable and aesthetic visual language. This is es-of the International Centre of Graphic Arts in Ljubljana. While it is pecially true for projects that feature complex materials, transcend mainly based on an analysis of material from the Commission for time periods and geographical areas and are inherently diverse Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries fund and the cultural in terms of their visual presentation. The paper aims accordingly agreements and conventions on cooperation established between to shed light on the possible approaches towards establishing a Yugoslavia and Egypt, it also draws on structured interviews with methodology, which can have an impact on all the interdisciplin-contemporary actors and the existing literature. ary sciences contributing to the project. In other words, the paper looks at the methodological approaches necessary to optimise the KEYWORDS presentation of the project’s results and points the way to possible Non-Aligned Movement, International Biennial of Graphic Arts future improvements of the project from which it originates. in Ljubljana, Alexandria Biennial for Mediterranean Countries, Egypt, Yugoslavia, Menhat Helmy KEYWORDS visual communication design, visual language, methods, data visualisation, information design, methods 09 Petra Černe Oven THE CHALLENGES OF DEVELOPING METHODS OF VISUALISATION IN DIGITAL HUMANITIES PROJECTS AND WHAT THE DESIGN PROFESSION CAN CONTRIBUTE Humans are visual creatures. Neuroscience has already shown that we comprehend verbal messages more quickly when they are complemented by visual elements. This is true everywhere to some POVZETKI Povzetki KLJUČNE BESEDE nova mednarodna gospodarska ureditev (NIEO), nova mednarodna informacijska in komunikacijska ureditev (NWICO), gibanje neuvrščenih (NAM), UNCTAD, UNESCO 02 Nadja Zgonik VZHODNI, ZAHODNI ALI NEUVRŠČENI MODERNIZEM? PRIMER JUGOSLAVIJE V članku so zbrane opredelitve, ki so se uveljavile za označevanje umetnosti, ki je od druge svetovne vojne pa do razpada države leta 1991 nastajala v socialistični Jugoslaviji. Skoraj celi dve desetletji po padcu železne zavese se pristajanje na definicijo te umetnosti kot vzhodne umetnosti ni zdelo problematično. V zadnjih dveh desetletjih pa se je začel proces zavzemanja za njeno natančnej- šo opredelitev, kar naj bi bilo posledica specifičnosti družbeno-politične ureditve v primerjavi z ostalimi komunističnimi državami vzhodnega bloka. Vprašanje, ki si ga postavljamo, je, ali in kako se je neblokovska, antikolonialistična in protiimperialistična politika te večnacionalne in kulturno raznolike države, ki je bila tudi vodil-na v političnem gibanju neuvrščenih, odrazila v njenem umetnost-260 01 Paul Stubbs nem sistemu. Z neuvrščeno politiko si je Jugoslavija pridobivala 261 GIBANJE NEUVRŠČENIH IN NOVE MEDNARODNE politični ugled, krepila je gospodarsko sodelovanje, na kulturnem EKONOMSKE IN INFORMACIJSKE UREDITVE: področju pa nje ne strategije samoprikazovanja v mednarodnem JUGOSLAVIJA, GLOBALNI JUG IN DRUŠTVO ZN prostoru niso bile tako jasno definirane. Z razstavami ljudske in S socialistično Jugoslavijo in državami globalnega juga v glavni vlo-naivne umetnosti je poudarjala vidik mlade neelitistične socia-gi sta se gibanje neuvrščenih in skupina G77 v sedemdesetih letih listične umetnosti v večkulturni družbi, ki nastaja med ljudstvom 20. stoletja v veliko večji meri usmerila h gospodarskim temam, pri in je ljudstvu namenjena. Obenem se je s postopnim odmikom čemer sta zagovarjala načeli »skupinske naslonitve na lastne sile«. od socialističnega realizma, sprejemanjem modernizma zahod-Najpomembnejša rezultata teh prizadevanj sta bili nova mednarodnega tipa in abstraktne umetnosti prikazovala kot izven(vzhodno) na gospodarska ureditev (NIEO), sprejeta maja 1974 na posebnem blokovska država, ki dopušča umet niško svobodo tako kot zahodne zasedanju ZN, in nova mednarodna informacijska in komunikacij-demokracije. Prireditev, ki se je najbolj približala pojmu neuvrščene-ska ureditev (NWICO), sprejeta oktobra 1980 na Generalni konfe-ga moder nizma, je bil Ljubljanski grafični bienale, ustanovljen leta renci Unesca v Beogradu. Obe sta nastali v tesnem sodelovanju z 1955. Z inkluzivno politiko, vklju čevanjem zahodnih, vzhodnih držav agencijami ZN, kot sta UNESCO in UNCTAD. Članek opisuje ele-in držav globalnega juga ter dopuščanjem tudi individualnih poleg mente teh prizadevanj ter sledi procesom produkcije in kroženja nacionalnih prijav je po magal utrjevati idejo neuvrščenosti. Drugi znanja, posveča pa se tudi dvoumnostim in protislovjem v NIEO oprijemljivejši rezultat je bila spodbuda postkolonialnemu zbiratelj-in NWICO, tudi v smislu izmuzljivega pojmovanja »kulture«. Članek stvu, ki je afirmativno predstavljalo umetniško produkcijo dežel zaključujemo z oceno razlogov za »neuspeh« NIEO in NWICO, tretjega sveta ne v etno grafskih, temveč v muzejih neevropskih kul-vključ no z radikalnim nasprotovanjem, pri katerem so imele glavno tur in umetnostnih ga le rijah. Ugotavljamo, da gibanje neuvrščenih vlogo Združene države, oceni pa sledi razmislek o morebitnih lek-ni spodbudilo pisanja umetnostnih programov in manifestov, ki bi z cijah iz tega obdobja, ki bi lahko pomagale izpodbijati hegemonijo razvijanjem socia lističnega globalizma spodkopali zahodni kanon v globaliziranega neoliberalnega reda. umetnosti, je pa oblikovalo mnoge nastavke, ki so dobra osnova za razumevanje geo političnih razmerij v umetnosti danes. THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED POVZETKI KLJUČNE BESEDE jugoslovanski oblikovalci na temelju jugoslovanskega gibanja neu-neuvrščeni modernizem, socialistični modernizem, vrščenih in de lav skega samoupravljanja v sedemdesetih in osem-jugoslovanska kulturna politika, jugoslovanska identiteta, desetih letih 20. stoletja tako na globalni jug kot na globalni sever umetnost globalnega juga pripeljali idejo decentralizacije in preizpraševanje epistemičnega kolonializma ter izpostavili vlogo participacije in pomen upošte-vanja glasov s tako ime novane periferije oblikovanja. Izbrana pri-03 Jure Ramšak mera še pokažeta, da so slovenski (in jugoslovanski) oblikovalci, NEUVRŠČENOST, JUGOSLOVANSKA DIPLOMACIJA IN sledeč usmeritvam takratne jugoslovanske družbene ureditve, svoj USTVARJANJE TRANSKULTURNIH VEZI Z AFRIKO pogled v mednarodnem prostoru usmerjali v razu mevanje in obli- »Neuvrščena« afriška celina je za jugoslovanske diplomate pred-kovanje celostnega pristopa v širšem kulturnem, družbenem in stav ljala teren, na katerem je bilo skozi različne angažmaje treba geografskem prostoru. dokazovati zavezanost svoje države neuvrščenosti, v prvi vrsti kon-ceptu nove vrste nehierarhičnih mednarodnih odnosov. To je poleg KLJUČNE BESEDE promocije političnega in ekonomskega sodelovanja vključevalo neuvrščeni, industrijsko oblikovanje, Janja Lap, Saša J. tudi kadrov sko in materialno sicer podhranjeno kulturno diplomaci-Mächtig, ICSID jo, ki se je na terenu novoustanovljenih afriš kih držav srečevala s konkurenti tako iz kapitalističnega kot iz socialističnega bloka. Prispevek na osno vi gradiv federalnih in republiških organov za 05 Aleš Gabrič zunanje zadeve prikazuje, kako so se v posameznih izpostavljenih KULTURA NEUVRŠČENIH V SLOVENSKEM KULTURNEM podsaharskih drža vah znašli jugo slovanski diplomati v vlogi kul-OBZORJU turnih posrednikov, in sicer na način, da analizira njihovo razumeV prispevku je orisano stališče Jugoslavije do znanstveno-teh no - 262 vanje postkolonialne kulturne stvarnosti in sledi tistim kulturnim loškega in kulturnega sodelovanja med članicami gibanja neuvr-263 manifestacijam na obeh stra neh, ki so jih pomagali organizirati. S šče nih, ki so pomembno vplivale tudi na oblikovanje skupnih pozornostjo na delu širše skupnosti strokovnjakov, ki se je na ju-izho dišč neuvrščenih, ki so jih članice zagovarjale v mednarodnih goslovanski strani ukvarjala s področjem kulturnega sodelovanja, organizacijah. Ker so se neuvrščene države soočale s številnimi se razprava osredinja tudi na dvoumen proces oblikovanja imagi-težavami, različno stopnjo razvitosti, zemljepisno oddaljenostjo in narija afriške kulture znotraj Jugoslavije in na diskurze, ki so odražali dediščino kolonializma, je bil uresničen le manjši del idej. Slovenija skupno periferno evropsko–afriško stremljenje h kulturni samobit-je sprejela na šolanje in študij veliko študentov iz teh držav, daleč nosti in preseganju ustaljenih monopolov. največ iz Afrike. Študijske usmeritve in znanstveno sodelovanje so poskušali in v veliko primerih tudi uspeli uskladiti s potrebami gos-KLJUČNE BESEDE podarskega sodelovanja z državami, od koder so prihajali študen-Jugoslavija, podsaharska Afrika, neuvrščenost, dekolonialnost, ti. Bolj skromno je bilo kulturno sodelovanje. V Sloveniji so v enem mednarodno kulturno sodelovanje letu pripravili zgolj po nekaj likovnih razstav in glasbenih prireditev umetnikov iz neuvrščenih držav, nekaj pisateljev je bilo povabljenih na mednarodno srečanje pisateljev na Bled, še manj pa je bilo gos-04 Barbara Predan tovanj slovenskih umetnikov v neuvrščenih državah. UČINKI NEUVRŠČENEGA OBLIKOVANJA Kot primer dobrega navezovanja stikov z neuvrščenimi je bila Prispevek se osredotoča na različni poziciji delovanja slovenskih pogosto omenjena Pomurska založba iz Murske Sobote, ki je začela oblikovalcev na globalnem severu in globalnem jugu. Pri prvem vi-leta 1976 izdajati knjižno zbirko prevodne literature Mostovi. V njej di ku se je odražala želja po priznanju in aktivni vključitvi s strani so dobili pomembno mesto pisatelji iz držav neuvrščenih, še neka-tako imenovanega naprednega Drugega, pri drugem pa je bilo odo-terih držav v razvoju in iz narodov, ki v svojih državah še niso uživali bravanje več kot očitno položeno že v zibko z vnaprej priznano po-enakopravnosti. Veliko del je izviralo iz podsaharske Afrike, mnoge zi cijo tistega, ki znanje ima in ga nesebično deli. Besedilo s pomoč- izdaje so bila prva literarna srečanja Slovencev z dotlej povsem jo historične me to de osvetli izbrana primera, ki pojasnita, kako so neznanimi kulturami. Knjižna zbirka Mostovi je ob sočasnih prevo- THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED POVZETKI dih pri drugih založbah zelo vplivala na spreminjanje pogledov slo-nega diskur za glede izbora daril neuvrščenih voditeljev in delegacij venskih bralcev na neznane kulture, saj so se seznanjali z zgodbami, Titu tudi v postkolonialnem obdobju, ki se kaže v ogromnem raz-ki so jih pripovedovali domačini, medtem ko so dotlej v večji meri koraku med imperativom družbene modernizacije in folklorističnim poznali le orise neznanih dežel iz opisov kolonialnih prišlekov. bistvom teh daril. KLJUČNE BESEDE KLJUČNE BESEDE neuvrščeni, kulturno sodelovanje, znanstveno sodelovanje, gibanje neuvrščenih, Josip Broz – Tito, darilo, darovanje, prevodna literatura, Pomurska založba tradicionalizem, kolonializem 06 Mitja Velikonja 07 Petja Grafenauer PODOBE PRIJATELJSTVA KULTURNO SODELOVANJE INDIJE IN SFR Analiza likovnih daril neuvrščenih držav predsedniku SFRJ JUGOSLAVIJE V ŠESTDESETIH IN SEDEMDESETIH Josipu Brozu LETIH 20. STOLETJA NA PRIMERU MEDNARODNEGA I. in II. del GRAFIČNEGA BIENALA Raziskave daril, ki jih je predsednik Tito dobil od voditeljev in dele-V prispevku proučujemo raznolikost branj likovnih del v raznorod-gacij neuvrščenih držav in ki so spravljeni v depojih beograj skega nih kontekstih. Obravnavamo primer Mednarodnega grafičnega Muzeja Jugoslavije, sem se lotil v dveh korakih. V prvem me je bi ena la (MGB) ter kulturne likovne povezave Indije in Socialistične zanimala vizualna govorica – kulturna širina in ideološke plasti fede rativne republike Jugoslavije v šestdesetih in sedemdesetih le- – likovnih daril (skupaj 39), v drugem pa govorica etnoloških daril tih 20. stoletja. Zanimajo nas vezi med indijskimi umetniki na MGB, in daril uporabne umetnosti (več kot 1100). V analizi sem posegal pa tudi sistemska ureditev izmenjave kulturnih dogodkov SFRJ z 264 po primarnih virih (darila sama, pogovori s kustosinjo, arhiv, raz-Indijo in MGB, ki priča o raznolikih kodih vizualne pismenosti. Ob 265 lična originalna dokumentacija, razstave) in tudi po sekundarnih primeru sodelovanja indijskega grafika Krishne Reddyja na MGB, ki (dosedanje raziskave o kulturnih izmenjavah znotraj gibanja neu-je na bienale skoraj gotovo prišel prek zahodnega sveta umetnosti vrščenih). Zbra nih materialov sem se lotil s teorijo reprezentacije in in pri tem odprl pot mnogim sorojakom ter razkrivanju drugih, in-konkretno metodo vizualne semiologije. V prvem delu sem raziskal stitucionalnih poti z Indijo (npr. Lalit Kala akademija), ki so težile k pomene, ki so vpisani v motiviko likovnih del, torej kako so se neu-vizualni dekolonializaciji, skušamo ugotoviti, kako so jugoslovanski vrščene države z njimi predstavljale navzven (vzdolž pomenskih osi kulturni sporazumi in programi vplivali na postopke likovnih izmen-esencializem/konstruktivizem, tradicionalizem/pro gre sizem, ekso-jav med Indijo in SFRJ ter kako se je to odrazilo na danem primeru tizacija/eman ci pacija, lokalno/globalno, politič nost/nepolitičnost, na ravni postopkov vabljenja, razstavljanja in recepcije del indijskih spolne dihotomije ipd.), uvodoma pa tudi nji hovo likovno izraznost umetnikov. (figuralika/abstrak cija, različne tehnike in materiali ipd.). V dru-Prispevek temelji na preučevanju arhivskega gradiva Arhiva gem delu sem drugo, veliko večjo skupino da ril razdelil na štiri ve-Jugoslavije, Arhiva Republike Slovenije in arhiva Mednarodnega like podskupine: darila aktualne domače obrti in tista iz nedavne grafičnega centra v Ljubljani ter dosedanje literature. Najobsež- preteklosti (njihov kulturni kod je lepota tradicije); arheološka dari-nejši del gradiv prihaja iz Arhiva Jugoslavije v Beogradu, kjer je la (kulturni kod je slavna predkolonialna preteklost); darila, ki pove-obdelan večji del fonda Zveznega sveta za izobraževanje in kultu-zujejo domače in tuje (kulturni kod je glokalizacija); različne živalske ro 1967–1971 (AJ 319) in fonda Zvezne komisije za kulturne stike trofeje in drage kovine ter kamni (kulturni kod je naravno bogast-s tujino 1953–1971 (AJ 559). Teza raziskave je, da kulturne politike vo). Nato sem medsebojno primerjal vizualno govorico likovnih SFRJ na ravni likovne umetnosti, vizualne pismenosti, ki bi gradila daril z govorico etnoloških daril in uporabne umetnosti: ugotavljam povsem lastno kulturno politiko, temelječo na protiimperializmu podobnosti (narava, tradicionalizem, nepolitičnost, antimodernost) in dekolonializaciji, politiki nevmešavanja in miroljubni koeksis-in razlike (estetske, glede upodabljanja političnih voditeljev, eksklu-tenci ter jugoslovanskem samoupravljanju, v praksi ni moč zares zivnost etnoloških daril in daril uporabne umetnosti). V sklepnem zasle di ti v dejavnostih organizacij likovne in vizualne umetnosti; delu pog lavja pro ble matiziram presenetljivo persistenco kolonial-da so bila torej branja vizualnih kodov zahodnocentrična oziroma THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED POVZETKI je bil vpliv gibanja neuvrščenih majhen, celo v primeru MGB, ki iz analize fonda Komisije za kulturne stike s tujino in vzpo stavljenih je bil cenjen predvsem zaradi združevanja umetnosti vseh delov kulturnih sporazumov ter konvencij o sodelovanju med Jugoslavijo sve ta, a se je v resnici, kot obravnavani indijski umetnik Krishna in Egiptom. Navezuje pa se tudi na strukturirane intervjuje s tedan-Reddy, napajal predvsem pri zahodnem modernizmu in njegovem jimi akterji in obstoječo literaturo. vizualnem kodu. KLJUČNE BESEDE KLJUČNE BESEDE gibanje neuvrščenih, Ljubljanski grafični bienale, Mediteranski gibanje neuvrščenih, Ljubljanski grafični bienale, bienale likovne umetnosti v Aleksandriji, Egipt, Jugoslavija, Krishna Reddy, grafika, vizualna umetnost Menhat Helmy 08 Daša Tepina 09 Petra Černe Oven JUGOSLOVANSKO-EGIPČANSKI KULTURNI ODNOSI IZZIVI VZPOSTAVLJANJA METOD VIZUALIZACIJE NA NA PRIMERU LIKOVNIH PRIZORIŠČ V LJUBLJANI IN PROJEKTIH DIGITALNE HUMANISTIKE IN KAJ LAHKO K ALEKSANDRIJI V ŠESTDESETIH IN SEDEMDESETIH TEMU PRISPEVA OBLIKOVANJE LETIH 20. STOLETJA Ljudje smo vizualna bitja in že nevroznanost je dokazala, da vizualne Cilj prispevka je preučiti vplive gibanja neuvrščenih v kulturnih komponente pomagajo hitreje razumeti vsebino verbalnih sporočil. odnosih med nekdanjo Jugoslavijo in Egiptom v šestdesetih in To velja za vsa področja, vendar je še posebej pomembno za pod-sedemdesetih letih ter razumeti, kako so ti vplivali na recepcijo ročje znanstvenih raziskav, kjer sta uspešna predstavitev novih likovne umetnosti neuvrščenih v nekdanji Jugoslaviji (FNRJ/SFRJ). odkritij ali jasna in razumljiva razlaga konceptov izjemnega pom-Tedanja FNRJ je kot ena izmed ustanovnih članic gibanja neu-ena. Znanstveno raziskovanje je na tem področju v zadnjih tride-266 vrščenih s svojimi mednarodnimi politikami vedno bolj prido bivala setih letih naredilo pomembne korake, saj je možnost razumevanja 267 pomen in ugled v mednarodnem političnem prostoru. Kulturnim dognanj, do katerih znanstveniki pridejo z raziskovanjem, ne samo politikam sledimo s preučevanjem treh premis, ki za zna mujejo želena, temveč tudi nujna za demokratizacijo družbe in vlogo zna-tako politiko Jugoslavije kot tudi politiko gibanja neu vršče nih. Te nosti v njej. so protikolonializem, proti imperialni boji in dekolonizacija; politi- Članek predstavi širši kontekst uporabe vizualnih komunikacij ka nevmešavanja in miroljubne koeksistence ter jugoslovansko na področju digitalne humanistike, predstavi pomen vizualizaci-samoupravljanje. V besedilu poka žemo, kako se ta temeljna načela je ter njeno vpetost v številne tehnološke, družbene in teoretične gibanja neuvrščenih izražajo na področju umetniških praks v posa-tokove, ki ves čas vplivajo na razvoj novih strokovnih področij. meznih umetnostnih stičiščih, v Ljubljani in Aleksandriji. Meje le-teh so vedno bolj zabrisane in večina uspešnih projektov, Zaradi ustanovitve in delovanja gibanja neuvrščenih so naš ki pomagajo vizualno predstavljati kompleksne vsebine, so inter-osrednji fokus šestdeseta in zgodnja sedemdeseta leta prejšnjega disciplinarne narave. Ker oblikovalska orodja, ki so jih v preteklosti stoletja. Obravnavamo primer dveh osrednjih likovnih prizorišč, ki uporabljali profesionalci (umetniki, oblikovalci, arhitekti), v sodob-sta pomembni točki prepletanja kulturnih, pa tudi političnih med na-nem delov nem okolju lahko in mora uporabljati vsak, vizualizacija rodnih odnosov med Egiptom in Jugoslavijo. Ti likovni manifestaciji pogosto ne doseže vseh potencialov, saj uporabniki orodij večino-sta ljubljanski Mednarodni grafični bienale (MGB) ter Mediteran ski ma niso poučeni in izobraženi na področju vizualnega. bienale likovne umetnosti v Aleksandriji, obe nastali v letu 1955. Analiza zbranega gradiva raziskovalnih projektov je v veliki Vpliv kulturnih politik preučimo tudi globlje, saj nas zanima, kako so meri odvisna od njegove dostopnosti, logične predstavitve ter jasnačela neuvrščenih odzvanjala tudi v delih posameznih umetnikov nega, razumljivega in estetskega vizualnega jezika. To velja sploh iz ZAR, ki so razstavljali na MGB. S tem namenom preučimo opus za projekte, ki imajo kompleksne materiale, presegajo ča sov na ob-umetnice Menhat Allah Helmy na MGB. dobja, geografska področja in so že v osnovi raznoliki v svoji vizualni Besedilo obsega pregled bienalnih politik, ki jih preučuje pred-prezenci. Članek poskuša zato osvetliti možne vzpo stavitve meto-vsem z analizo materialov arhivskega gradiva Arhiva Jugoslavije in dologije, ki lahko vpliva na vse interdisciplinarne vede, ki prispevajo Mednarodnega grafičnega likovnega centra v Ljubljani. Zlasti izhaja v projekt. Povedano drugače, članek se ukvarja z metodološkimi THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED pristopi, ki bi bili potrebni za optimalno predstavitev rezultatov pro-Index jekta, in nakazuje smeri možnih izboljšav projekta, iz katerega izhaja, v prihodnosti. KLJUČNE BESEDE oblikovanje vizualnih komunikacij, vizualni jezik, metode, vizualizacija podatkov, informacijsko oblikovanje 268 A Barnhisel, Greg 61, 76 269 Achebe, Chinua 123, 126, 127 Barratt, Mark 246 Adanja Polak, Mira 54, 57 Barthes, Roland 157, 168 Addo, Herb 36–37 Bassin, Aleksander 179, 195 Agičić, Damir 56 Bautista Jeanine, Juan 145–146 Ahmad, Sheikh 138, 145 Bedjaoui, Mohammed 28, 32, 36 al-Bakr, Ahmed Hassan 159 Benčin, Rok 104, 106 Al-Sabah, Saad Al-Salim 158 Berber, Mersad 68, 185, 211 Alim Abdel, Mariam 215 Berger, Mark 61, 76 Ambasz, Emilio 106 Bernik, Janez 68 Amin, Awad Kamal 214 Bernik, Stane 106 Amin, Samir 28, 36, 164, 168 Betts, Paul 78 Anjula, Pasricha 191 Bhushan, Vidya 136, 148 Anowar Hossain, Kazi 148 Bielicki, Paweł 207, 220 Anupam, Sud 191, 192 Bihalji-Merin, Oto 54 Archer, Bruce L. 96, 106–108 bin Talal, Hussein 159 Armarego, Jocelyn 244 bin Yahya, Ahmad 158 Arnautović, Ilija 106 Binder, Thomas 107 Ashcroft, Bill 202, 220 Birgin, Haydee 36 Atwood Lawrence, Mark 72, 76 Black, Alison 244 Azrikan, Dmitry 87–88, 106 Black, Misha 85, 96 Blackburn, Bob 181 B Bludau, Mark-Jan 245 Babnik, Gabriela 127 Blumenfeld, F. J. 48, 56 Babnik, Jaka 170 Bødker, Sussane 86 Baće, Frano 213 Bogetić, Dragan 62, 76 Bago, Ivana 53, 56 Boljka, Janez 68, 211 Bahde, Anne 244 Bonsiepe, Gui 89, 107 Bakić, Vojin 210 Borčić, Bogdan 68 Balkrishna Vad, Gangadhar 136 Bose, Nandalal 178 THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED INDEX Bott, Sandra 78 D Frankel, Felice 230, 244 Ivanšek, Marta 107 Boulbola, Hasan 204 Dakoji, Devraj 192 Freud, Lucian 178 Bourguiba, Habib 159 Davičo, Oskar 63 Friščić, Ivo 68 J Bovcon, Narvika 245 Davidov, Fjodor 214 Frol, Ivo 189, 209 Jagmohan, Chopra 191 Boyd Davis, Stephen 96, 107, 244 Day, Tony 61, 76 Jakac, Božidar 185, 213 Brâncuși, Constantin 178, 180 De Beukelaer, Christiaan 32, 36 G Jakovina, Tvrtko 43, 45, 56, 132, 169 Broz, Josip – Tito 17, 22, 25, 42–43, 51, de Callières, François 154, 168 Gabrič, Aleš 17, 111, 127 Jančevski, Trajče 183 54, 56, 62, 65, 72–73, 76, 78, 83, 115, 132, de Carvalho, Manecaso 73 Gacoin-Marks, Florence 126–127 Jančić, Olga 211 135–136, 138–139, 151–152, 154–156, De Luca, Ernesto William 246 Gandhi, Indira 25, 33, 73, 138, 160 Janković, Branimir Tori 68 158–167, 184, 190, 206–207, 218 Debenjak, Riko 184, 213 Gandhi, Mahatma 138, 151, 153, 177, 181 Jankowitsch, Odette 26, 36 Broz, Jovanka 54, 57, 158 Degas, Edgar 139 Gardner, Anthony 205, 212, 220 Jarh, Bor 103 Brüggemann, Viktoria 245 Delić, Stipe 69 Gauguin, Paul 139 Jazz, Paulo 73 Brumen, Niki 124, 127 DePace, Angela 230, 244 Gebali, Hussein Al 215 Jelić, Jordan 70, 75–76 Buchanan, Carrie 34–36 Dermastia, Marijan 189 Getachew, Adom 28–29, 36 Jellani, Ghulam 136, 145 Buden, Boris 165, 168 Derrida, Jacques 157, 167–168 Ghouse, Nida 56 Jemec, Andrej 183 Buitrago-Trujillo, Juan-Camilo 89, 107 Detoni, Marjan 185 Giacometti, Alberto 180 Jemuović, Rodoljub 65, 77 Bulajić, Krsto 190 Deu, Meta 82 Gilman, Nils 34, 36 Jollant, Françoise 92–93 Burton, Eric 63, 76 Devayani, Krishna 191 Giordano, Christian 157, 168 Jugovec, Marija 82 Byrne, Jeffrey James 62, 72, 76 Dimitrijević, Duško 62, 77 Gliha, Oton 213 Jungmarker, Gunnar 214 Byrne, Oliver 244 Dimitrijević, Mira Kolar 43, 56 Gnamuš, Marijan 85, 107 Jyoti, Bhalt 191 Dinkel, Jürgen 21–23, 36, 60, 62, 77, 132, Godelier, Maurice 140–141, 143, 163, 168 C 168 Godlewski, Jarosław 166, 169 K Camara, Sikhé 69 Dipak, Banerjee 191–192 Goodden, Robert 96 Kabir, Humayun 181 Cankar, Ivan 122 Dizdarević, Raif 73 Gordanić Balkanski, Ostoja 67 Kalam Azad, Maulana Abul 191 Cardenas, Juan 180 Djagalov, Rossen 61, 77 Gordimer, Nadine 124 Kalinovsky, Artemy M. 77 Carlsson, Ulla 32–33, 36 Djordjević, Dragan 211 Goya, Francisco 217 Kalra, Vandana 180, 196 Carpentier, Alejo 123 Dorfles, Gillo 85 Grafenauer, Petja 18, 52, 173, 200, 220 Karanović, Boško 184–185, 213 Castleman, Riva 214, 220 Dörk, Marian 245 Green, Charles 205, 212, 220 Kardelj, Edvard 53, 95 270 Charrara, Mohsein 215 Dragostinova, Teodora 61, 77 Greenbaum, Joan 86, 109 Kastratović Ristić, Veselinka 163, 166, 271 Chaudhuri, Sankho 193 Dragulj, Emir 68 Gristwood, Simone 96, 107 169 Chehat, Farouk 215 Drndić, Ljubo 212 Grum, Željko 211 Kaunda, Kenneth 25 Cheng, Karen 225, 245 Drobnjak, Miloš 22–24, 26, 30, 37 Guevara, Paz 56 Kavčič Božović, Ranka 65 Ciuha, Jože 68 Drucker, Johanna 228, 245 Gvardjančič, Božidar Janez 82 Kavčič, Bogdan 83, 107 Clarke, Alison J. 98, 107 Duda, Dean 45 Kelemen, Boris 211 Coldstream, William 216 Dürer, Albrecht 217 H Keller, Goroslav 84, 88, 107 Colner, Miha 170 Dziewulski, Michał 169, 171 Hagmann, Carl Erick 244 Khanna, Bishamber 179, 181 Comenius, Johann Amos 244 Hall, Stuart 134, 142–143, 157, 169 Khosla, Jagan Nath 192 Crameri, Fabio 240, 245 E Hardt, Hanno 169 Kilibarda, Konstantin 155, 162, 169 Cressonnières, Josine des 89 Eames, Charles 85 Hashmi, Zarina 180–181 Kinert, Albert 185 Cross, Nigel 86, 107 el-Sadat, Anwar 159 Hassan II 160 Kinker Baij, Ram 178 Crouwel, Wim 85 Emeršič, Vlado 82 Hassan, Faeq 138, 148 Kocjančič, Boris 189 Crvenkovski, Krste 203 En-lai, Chou 175 Hatschek, Christoph 155, 169 Kolešnik, Ljiljana 44–45, 56, 70, 77 Csuka, Zoltán 122 Engelhardt, Yuri 244 Hayter, Stanley William 178–180, 191, 195 Kompatsiaris, Panos 194–195 Cvijović, Momo 160, 162–163, 166, 169 Epštajn, Emilia 159, 168–169 Hegedušić, Krsto 211 Kondovski, Dimitar 211 Cvjetičanin, Biserka 64–65, 67–68, 70, Helmy, Menhat Allah 214–218, 221 Kosa, Bunama 73 75–76 F Herman, Edward S. 36 Kossou, Basile [Kosu, Bazil] 71, 77 Cyrus II, the Great 159 Fallucchi, Francesca 246 Heron, Philip J. 245 Kozak, Juš 189 Fanon, Frantz 53 Hilliard, Bruce 244 Kraiger, Boris 189 Č Featherstone, Mike 170 Hogan, Paul 89 Kramer, Olaf 245 Čavoški, Jovan 62, 77 Fernandes, Myra A. 244 Horn, Robert E. 224, 243–244 Kratohvil, Jovan 211 Čelebić, Marina 73, 76 Fernandez, Carlos 136, 151–152 Horvat, Jože – Jaki 68 Krippendorff, Klaus 96, 107 Černe Oven, Petra 11, 18, 105, 107, 223, Ferreira, Augusto 73 Hradil, Jože 122, 124, 127 Krishna, Agrawal Jai 191–192 229, 230, 244 Feyerabend, Paul 174, 195 Hutmacher, Fabian 245 Krishna, Kanwal 179, 191 Černe, Peter 211 Fiebrig, Steffen 60, 77 Križić Roban, Sandra 45 Čolaković, Rodoljub 189 Fischer, Jasna 57 I Krleža, Miroslav 53 Forstnerič, France 123, 127 Iacob, Bogdan Christian 70, 77 Kršić, Dejan 45 Ć Fosler-Lussier, Danielle 61, 77 Ivančić, Ljubo 210, 211 Kržišnik, Zoran 47, 49, 56, 179, 181, Ćelić, Stojan 68 Franke, Anselm 56 Ivanšek, France 107 189–193, 195, 210, 212–215, 220 THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED INDEX Kumar, Abhinava 169 Meade, Melissa E. 244 Papanek, Victor 89, 108 Robertson, Roland 160–161, 170 Kusovac, Nikola 211 Medosch, Armin 52, 56 Paulmann, Johannes 61, 77 Rock, David 225, 245 Menković, Mirjana 54 Peck, Jamie 34, 36 Rodrigues Trigo, Augusto Fausto 138, L Merhar, Teja 65, 77, 120, 127, 134, 169, Pečar, Veda 51 150–151 Lah, Avguštin 65, 77 184, 195 Pečar, Zdravko 51 Rolandi, Marco 245 Lah, Ljubo 183 Meško, Bogdan 211 Perez, Kaptain 191 Rosa, Aleš 102 Lakhsmi, Dutt 191 Messell, Tania 82, 84, 89, 108 Petrov, Mihajlo 185 Rosling, Hans 227 Lap, Janja 85, 95–103, 106–108 Mićunović, Veljko 48 Petrović, Vladimir 22, 37 Ruggie, John Gerard 27, 37 Lash, Scott 170 Mihailovski, Petar 177, 182–183 Phillips, Victoria 61, 77 Lasić, Stanko 53 Mihelič, France 213 Picasso, Pablo 180 S Lassaigne, Jacques 214 Mihurko Poniž, Katja 245 Pijade, Moša 189 Said, Edward W. 161, 166, 170 Laszlo, Ervin 29, 36 Miró, Joan 180 Piškur, Bojana 52, 73, 77, 81–82, 99, 108, Saiyidain, Khwaja Ghulam 181 Laxminarsimha, Reddy Dubbaka 192 Mobutu, Sese Seko 160 120, 127, 134, 166, 170 Salvador, Filipe 73 Lazić, Milorad 63, 77 Momčilović Jovanović, Aleksandra 132, Politzer, Thomas 246 Samman, Maha 205, 220 Lewis, Tanya 245 140–141, 169 Popović, Dušan 189 Sanders, Elizabeth B.-N. 86, 109 Leymarie, Jean 215 Moore, Henry 178, 216 Popović, Miodrag Miša 211 Sanoff, Henry 86, 108 Liem, Maya 61, 76 Moscoso, Edsel 133, 148 Popović, Vesna 91 Sanyal, Bhabesh Chandra 192 Lima, Manuel 244 Moti, Kaiko 179, 191 Porodina, Elena 157, 171 Sauvant, Karl P. 24, 26, 36, 38 Ljubović, Ibrahim 183 Mountbatten, Louis 138 Potokar, Tone 125, 128 Scheel, Christian 246 Loi, Daria 86, 109 Mugabe, Robert 67 Potter, Mary C. 225, 244 Scher, Philip W. 33, 37 Lord, Peter 92–93 Mukherjee, Benode Behari 178 Požar, Cvetka 244 Schiller, Herbert I. 31, 33, 36 Lott, Eric 167, 169 Mukherjee, Mohan 190 Prashad, Vijay 25, 37, 83, 108 Schumacher, E. F. 108 Lozoya, Jorge Alberto 36 Mullin, Mary 93 Pravilović, Đorđe 183 Sedej, Maksim 213 Lubarda, Petar 181–182, 184, 193 Murtić, Edo 68 Prebisch, Raul 23, 25, 28, 37 Sehgal, Amar Nath 182 Luketić, Stevan 136, 151 Predan, Barbara 17, 19, 81–82, 127–128, Selassie I, Haile 136, 151, 158, 160 Lukovič, Aleksander 185 N 170, 195, 220, 229–230, 242–244 Selinić, Slobodan 62, 78 Lund, Ole 244 Nabernik, Marija 105, 107 Presad, Devi 181 Senghor, Léopold Sédar 69, 78 Luthar, Breda 169 Nandi, Animesh 136, 138, 145 Preston, William Jr. 33, 36 Sharma, Sumesh 178, 196 272 Lyotard, Francois 175, 195 Nasser, Gamal Abdel 22, 151, 158, 162, Prica, Zlatko 185 Shaw, Timothy M. 28, 37 273 206–207, 218 Priestley, Joseph 244, 246 Shaw, Tony 61, 78 M Natyar, Bhavsar 191 Prosad, Shaw Lalu 191–192 Shephard, Grace E. 245 M’Bow, Amadou Mahtar 32, 70 Nazrul Islam, Kazi 138 Protić, Miodrag B. 215 Sibai, Yusuf 205 MacBride, Sean 29, 32–33, 36, 38 Nedeljković, Jovana 132, 169, 193 Put, Frans van der 92–93 Sihanuk, Norodom 158–159 Mächtig, Saša J. 84–93, 95, 102, 104, Nehru, Jawaharlal 21–22, 37, 138, 151, 153, Putar, Radoslav 209 Simaika, Hanna 209, 212 106–107 160, 175, 176, 191 Putrih, Karel 210, 212 Simon, Herbert 96 Madonga, Vitorio 73 Neto, Agostinho 68 Pyykkonen, Mikka 32, 36 Sinclair, Alfredo 136–137, 151 Maisonville, Derek 169 Ngombe, Fidgie 145 Singannachar Narasimha Swamy, Majaca, Antonia 56 Nkrumah, Kwame 22, 25, 28, 36, 151 R Padmashree 138 Majumdar, Mani 151, 153 Nordenstreng, Kaarle 32, 36 Radonjić, Nemanja 59, 63, 78 Singh, J. P. 32, 36 Makonnen, Ras 136 Nyerere, Julius 25 Rahman, Ram 181 Sisley, Alfred 139 Makuc, Vladimir 211 Nymoen, Marius Roska 27, 29, 38 Raif, Ahmed Maher 215 Slaček Brlek, Sašo 30, 34, 37, 61, 78 Maldonado, Tomás 85, 96 Raj Anand, Mulk 185 Sladojević, Ana 62, 78 Mandooh, Ammar 214 O Rajak, Svetozar 63, 78 Slana, France 118, 210 Manovich, Lev 231, 238, 246 Obama, Barack 227 Ramšak, Jure 17, 59, 75, 78, 111, 128 Smith, D. Charles 206, 220 Mansell, Robin 32, 36 Okai, Atukwei 69 Rancière, Jacques 90–91, 104, 106, 108 Smith, Karen 23, 37 Manyika, James 225, 246 Oprešnik, Ankica 213 Ravnikar, Edvard 85, 97, 107–108 Smith, Rachel Charlotte 107 Marchiori, Giuseppe 215 Osei-Opare, Nana 65, 77 Raworth, Kate 225, 245 Sobhi, Hussein 212 Marini, Marino 178 Osolnik, Bogdan 112, 127, 189 Reagan, Ronald 138 Soloviev, Yuri 92 Mark, James 77 Ovsenik, Mara 97–98, 108 Reddy, Krishna 174, 177–180, 191–193, 196 Somnath, Hore 191 Marung, Steffi 77 Ozsu, Umut 28, 36 Reichherzer, Frank 60, 77 Spacal, Jože 68 Mascarelli, Mario 185 Reilly, Paul 85 Spaskovska, Ljubica 28, 37, 69, 78 Matemera, Bernard 73 P Reiser, Nikola 183 Srbinović, Mladen 211 Mauss, Marcel 131, 134, 139–140, 163, Pahlavi, Reza Mohammad 159 Renoir, Pierre-Auguste 139 Stanković, Peter 165, 170 169 Pajić, Živka 210, 213 Repe, Božo 46, 57 Stappers, Pieter Jan 86, 109 Mbembe, Achille 99 Palaić, Tina 51, 56 Restek, Josip 213 Stepančič, Lilijana 50, 57, 202, 220 McCourt, Emily S. 244 Panić, Ana 132, 135, 139, 160, 162, 169, Revenga, Maria 213 Stubbs, Paul 16, 21, 30, 37–38, 77–78, McGill, Tanya 244 193 Ristić, Marko 63, 189 132, 171 McMahon, Robert 75 Panner, Selvam 191 Robek, Tanja 82 Sudac, Marinko 52 THE CULTURE OF THE NON-ALIGNED Suhadolc, Matija 82, 109 W Sukarno 22, 76, 151 Waldheim, Kurt 138 Susanka, Thomas M. 245 Walker, Sue 244, 246 Sutherland, Graham 216 Wammes, Jeffrey D. 244 Syful Islam, Mohammad 138, 151 Welsch, Wolfgang 174–175, 195 Wenzel, Jennifer 34, 37 Š Whelan, Daniel 23, 37 Šohaj, Slavko 183 Willetts, Peter 22, 25, 37–38 Šopov, Aco 78 Williams Jr., Hermann Warner 48 Španjol, Igor 57 Wittgenstein, Ludwig 167 Štrbac, Dušan 183 Wolff, Janet 157, 171 Štrukelj, Pavla 51 Wongsurawat, Wasana 61, 78 Šubic, Špela 82, 109 Woodham, Jonathan M. 84, 108 Šutej, Miroslav 185 Wulf, Andrew 61, 78 Šuvaković, Miško 166, 170 Wyble, Brad 244 Švob-Đokić, Nada 70, 75–76 X T Xu, Lanjun 61, 79 Tadić, Bojana 23–24, 26, 30, 37 Tagore, Rabindranath 138, 178, 181 Y Tapan, Ghosh 191 Yahto, K. 145, 147 Tatomir, Renata 202, 220 Young, Robert J. C. 155, 167, 171 Taylor, Ian 23, 37 Youngblood, Denise 61, 78 Tepina, Daša 18–19, 174, 195, 199 Thomas, Darryl C. 62, 78 Z Tihec, Slavko 211 Zabel, Igor 42, 57 Tomašević, Aleksandar 183 Zadkine, Ossip 178 Tommaseo Sursock, Justina “Cici” 145 Zahir, Mohammed 158 274 Touré, Sékou Ahmed 160 Zanuso, Marco 85 275 Trifunović, Lazar 179 Zedong, Mao 62 Tršar, Drago 210, 213 Zei, Vida 169 Tufte, Edward 245 Zgonik, Nadja 16, 41, 47, 49, 56–57 Turajlić, Mila 22, 37 Zhou, Huang 138, 171 Turk, Andrew 244 Zhukov, Georgy 175 Turner, S. Bryan 202, 220 Zidan, Karim 215, 216, 217, 221 Twyman, Michael 245 Zinchenko, Vladimir 87 V Ž Valentino, Fernando 73 Ženko, Ernest 175, 195 Varian, Hal 225, 246 Žerovc, Beti 214, 220 Vasile, Iolanda 53, 57 Žnidaršič, Rok 97, 108 Vaupotič, Aleš 245 Veblen, Thorstein 162, 170 Vejnović, Dušan 183 Velikonja, Mitja 17, 131, 151, 165, 170–171 Verma, D. P. 21, 37 Videkanić, Bojana 49, 52, 57, 61, 63–64, 78, 166, 171 Vienot, Henri 85 Vinogradova, Daria 157, 171 Vižintin, Boris 211 Vogelnik, Dolf 189 von Groschwitz, Gustave 214 Vrhovec, Josip 69 Vu, Tuong 61, 78 Vučetić, Radina 57, 60–61, 64, 78, 121, 128 Vukas, Božo 98, 109 276 277 Excerpt from the review by Dr Kaja Kraner In particular, the collection offers insights into the cultural and political foundations of cultural exchanges: the contributions analyse the strategic aspects of the formation of so-called Non-Aligned Modernism, describe in detail the exchanges between Yugoslavia and the individual countries of the Non-Aligned Movement, and critically evaluate Yugoslavia’s role as a mediator and facilitator of decolonisation in relation to several non-European countries through the lens of policies in the area of collecting and exhibitions. In addition to the analysis of heretofore underrepresented cultural areas, the collection’s chief original scientific contribution is a reflection on the increased attention given to the heritage of the Non-Aligned Movement within the contemporary art sphere in the last decade; as some of the contributions illustrate, when researching the culture of the Non-Aligned Movement, it is imperative that historical and art-historical analysis of (cultural) policies be supplemented from the perspective of the visual, the visual semiotics and art theory. In addition, the collection also makes an important contribution to the development of digital humanities, or the visualisation of scientific findings, which is underrepresented in the Slovenian scientific sphere. 278