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Geographical support for participatory river basin management: the case of the Temenica River
Abstract
Participatory river basin management, which requires the cooperation and active 
engagement of various stakeholders at different levels (local, sub-regional, national 
and international), is a key aspect of EU water management policy. In Slovenia, al-
though participatory river basin management is formally advocated, it has not yet 
been effectively implemented in practise, especially in smaller sub-basins where vari-
ous river initiatives tend to emerge from the bottom up. This paper examines a geo-
graphical approach to participatory management of the karst Temenica River basin. 
The geographical support focused on a comprehensive geographical analysis of the 
river basin, identification of key water management challenges, stakeholder analy-
sis and empowerment process, and impact assessment of the participatory activities 
(2020–2023). The results indicate that significant progress has been made toward par-
ticipatory management in the pilot area of the upper Temenica River basin. Beyond 
systemic support, the long-term success of participatory management and its exten-
sion to the entire Temenica River basin will depend on the ability of stakeholders to 
maintain and further develop the networks that have been established. 
Keywords: hydrogeography, sustainable water management, integrated river basin 
management, stakeholder networks, stakeholder collaboration, LEADER/CLLD, Di-
naric Karst, sinking karst river
COBISS 1.01
DOI: 10.4312/dela.62.5-64
GEOGRAPHICAL SUPPORT FOR 
PARTICIPATORY RIVER BASIN 
MANAGEMENT: THE CASE OF THE 
TEMENICA RIVER
Sara Mikolič*, Barbara Lampič*, Irma Potočnik Slavič*, 
Tajan Trobec*
*Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, Aškerčeva 2,  
SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
e-mail: sara.mikolic@ff.uni-lj.si, barbara.lampic@ff.uni-lj.si, 
irma.potocnikslavic@ff.uni-lj.si, tajan.trobec@ff.uni-lj.si
ORCID: 0000-0003-3984-7746 (S. Mikolič), 0000-0002-3802-1793 (B. Lampič), 0000-
0003-0606-9714 (I. Potočnik Slavič), 0000-0002-8784-4366 (T. Trobec)
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1 INTRODUCTION
Water management has emerged as an important topic in international political dis-
course and is acknowledged as one of the United Nations Sustainable Development 
Goals (United Nations, 2015). However, sustainable water management is becoming 
an increasingly pressing challenge, the importance of which is reinforced by the grow-
ing pressures of human activities (agriculture, industry, transport, urbanization, etc.), 
but also by climate change. Inadequate water management can lead to negative multi-
plier effects, potentially resulting in the loss of some fundamental functions of rivers, 
such as ecological, economic, social, recreational or cultural functions (Cerkvenik, 
2017).
The need for a comprehensive approach to understanding and managing water 
resources was already emphasized by Radinja (1955). He described river basins as 
complete units that encompass the entire physical and socio-geographical inventory 
(Radinja, 1955) and which are the most fundamental units for water management. 
Unfortunately, river basin boundaries often do not coincide with existing adminis-
trative units, making the practical implementation of river basin management more 
challenging (Plut, 1999). On the other hand, this is precisely the reason why water 
management is an area where cross-sectoral and interdisciplinary approaches, as well 
as new policy models and governance concepts for state, society and natural resource 
management have traditionally been tested and implemented (Berardo, Lubell, 2019; 
Berardo, Scholz, 2010; Fischer, Ingold, 2020; Lubell, 2013; Pahl-Wostl et al., 2010).
Water management can be described as both a process and an outcome (Jiménez et 
al., 2020). In the 2020s, a key objective of European water management policy (Direc-
tive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament…, 2000 and subsequent amendments) 
is to achieve better cooperation at the river basin level, also referred as bioregional 
approach (Huitema, Meijerink, 2017), and enhancing the involvement of lower ter-
ritorial levels, diverse local actors and stakeholders (Fischer, Ingold, 2020). Achieving 
this requires combining top-down governance approaches with bottom-up manage-
ment strategies. This multi-level governance is one of the key challenges in integrated 
water resources management (Watson, 2014). In Slovenia, for example, river basin 
management takes place at several levels: at the micro-local level (e.g. the spatial unit 
of a water mill or other economic activity near the river), at the local level (munici-
pality, local community), at the sub-regional level (e.g. local action group, fishing as-
sociation), at regional level (e.g. territorial projects of regional development agencies, 
cooperation projects, etc.), at national level (e.g. River Basin Management Plans), and 
at international level (e.g. the International Sava River Basin Commission, the Inter-
national Commission for the Protection of the Danube River).
For multi-level governance in the water sector, various participatory management 
models are continuously being developed and put into practice (Berardo, Lubell, 
2019; Jiménez et al., 2020). They are based on vertical and horizontal, formal and 
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Geographical support for participatory river basin management: the case of the Temenica River
informal networks of actors and stakeholders (Fischer, Ingold, 2020; Prell et al., 2016). 
The purpose of this type of networking is to share knowledge, skills and perspec-
tives between experts and national authorities that traditionally monitor, manage and 
maintain river ecosystems (Johannes et al., 2002) on the one hand, and stakeholders 
and actors living and working in the river basin on the other. The stakeholders in the 
river basin can be divided into two groups (Johannes et al., 2002): 1) communities of 
place and 2) communities of interest, between which it is not always possible to draw 
a sharp line in practice, as their roles are often intertwined and complementary. Par-
ticipatory management, also called co-management, integrative, inclusive or collab-
orative management, requires a high level of trust between the different stakeholders, 
an awareness of mutual benefit and interdependence, the ability to share knowledge 
and learn, critical self-reflection and mediation in cases of conflict (Mostert et al., 
2008). A key element of participatory water management is the active involvement 
of diverse stakeholders not only in the planning and implementation of strategies or 
measures, but also in decision-making (Emerson, Gerlak, 2014). This also entails a 
certain degree of delegation of responsibility to lower decision-making levels (Emer-
son, Gerlak, 2014; Hill Clarvis, Engle, 2015; Pahl-Wostl et al., 2010).
The challenges of multi-level governance involving multiple stakeholders arise 
from conflicting objectives, approaches and the partial interests of stakeholders oper-
ating at different levels (Fischer, Ingold, 2020). In practice, this most often manifests 
itself in conflicting top-down and bottom-up initiatives as well as conflicts between 
different groups, such as formal stakeholders and voluntary, informal, self-organized 
groups or initiatives (Berardo, Scholz, 2010; Watson, 2014). The participatory ap-
proach is now mandatory in many water policies; however, the extent of collaboration 
and the impacts of participatory processes on local water communities as well as on 
water quality and ecosystem health remain poorly understood and require further 
research (Van der Heijden, Ten Heuvelhof, 2012).
Slovenia is characterized by a dense river network, where larger and smaller wa-
tercourses connect numerous municipalities. The management of waters, water and 
riparian land in Slovenia is formally regulated by the Water Act (ZV-1, 2002), which 
emphasizes three key aspects: water protection, water regulation and decision-making 
regarding water use. The aim of managing water bodies, water and riparian areas in 
Slovenia is to achieve good quality water bodies and other water-related ecosystems, 
to ensure protection against harmful water impacts, to maintain and regulate water 
quantities, and to promote the sustainable use of water. This approach enables vari-
ous types of water use while considering the long-term protection of available water 
resources and their quality (ZV-1, 2002).
For the purposes of water management, Slovenia has adopted water management 
plans for the Danube and Adriatic basin districts for the period 2023–2027 (Načrt 
upravljanja voda na vodnem območju Donave..., 2023; Načrt upravljanja voda na 
vodnem območju Jadranskega morja..., 2023). However, these plans are too general 
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to meet the challenges of water management in smaller river sub-basins. The Regula-
tion on the Detailed Content and Preparation of Water Management Plans (Uredba 
o podrobnejši vsebini…, 2006) envisions the preparation of detailed water manage-
ment plans at the level of smaller sub-basins. However, this hierarchical approach to 
water management has not yet been put into practice. In response to inadequate, pre-
dominantly top-down water management, numerous local initiatives have emerged 
in smaller river basins that pursue a bottom-up approach (e.g. in the Temenica, 
Kamniška Bistrica, Reka, Sora, Kokra, Savinja and Sava Bohinjka and Sava Dolinka 
confluence river basins) (Varuhinje rek, 2023). These initiatives aim to influence river 
basin management. However, the functioning and scope of activities of such initia-
tives or movements have not yet been thoroughly researched.
Empowered stakeholders are the key to implementing a bottom-up river basin 
management approach. Their empowerment is a process (capacity building) that helps 
individuals, organizations or communities to develop greater capabilities, knowledge 
and skills to perform certain tasks, achieve goals or take responsibility (Simmons et 
al., 2011). An important group in river basin management are active and empowered 
(local) residents who are living with the river. Key factors that influence their engage-
ment and thus improve the effectiveness of water management include formal and 
informal education on water-related topics at all educational levels, participation in 
research and the interpretation of new knowledge, and the transfer of this knowledge 
to the local environment (Mikolič et al., 2024). Particular attention should be paid to 
young people, who will be the key drivers of change and creators of new approaches 
and ideas in water management in the future. Universities or related research and 
educational institutions can play an important role in empowering stakeholders and 
promoting new approaches in water management. These institutions house experts in 
water-related fields who are holders of cutting-edge knowledge and have access to the 
latest available data.
Water management falls within the remit of various disciplines: geography, hy-
drology, geology, biology, forestry, law, sociology, political science, economics, etc., 
which makes it highly interdisciplinary (Grigg, 2016). Geography strives for a ho-
listic approach in its research, based on a comprehensive analysis of the physical 
and sociogeographical characteristics of the landscape and the cause-and-effect 
processes taking place within it (Bobovnik et al., 2023). Such an approach, using a 
range of landscape diagnosis methods, enables the identification of the hydrogeo-
graphic constants of a river basin and the definition of the key water management 
challenges. Addressing these challenges has to be aligned with European, nation-
al, regional and local water management objectives (Brečko Grubar, 2007; Bricelj, 
2007; Draksler, Kušar, 2018; Prah, 2012).
This paper presents the geographical support for water management in the karst 
Temenica River basin. This support was provided between 2019 and 2023, with more 
intensive efforts in the period 2021–2023, when it was financially supported by the 
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Geographical support for participatory river basin management: the case of the Temenica River
LEADER/CLLD project Rusalka (Reviving Life Along and Within the Temenica 
River). The project activities were mostly limited to the upper Temenica basin (the 
section between the river’s source and its first sinkhole near Dolenje Ponikve in the 
Municipality of Trebnje), which was also studied in more detail. The upper Temenica 
reflects the trajectory of many Slovenian rivers, which have suffered from decades of 
unsustainable management, resulting in several water management challenges, most 
notably its poor ecological status (Ocena ekološkega stanja..., 2021). The geographical 
support for participatory management of the Temenica River basin is presented in 
three completed sections:
• a comprehensive geographical analysis of the basin, the identification of hydrogeo-
graphical constants and the definition of the key water management challenges in 
the upper Temenica River basin;
• a stakeholder analysis and a presentation of the stakeholder empowerment process 
(with a focus on young locals) in the upper Temenica River basin;
• evaluation of the impact of the participatory activities in the upper Temenica ba-
sin through a stakeholder interest and power matrix in two time periods (before 
and after the completion of the pilot project activities in the upper Temenica River 
basin).
2 METHODS
The study used a triangulation of research approaches (qualitative and quantitative 
research), methods, techniques and data sources. 
2.1 Geographical analysis of the Temenica River basin
We conducted a detailed geographical study of the Temenica River basin using a va-
riety of research methods. First, we collected and analysed various sources and litera-
ture (e.g. basic regional geographical and other literature, hydrological data on the 
discharge characteristics and water quality of the Temenica River and its subsurface 
flow, old and current cartographic and other data on the past and present use of water 
and riparian areas, the past course of the river, etc.), which provided us with basic data 
and information about the Temenica River and its basin. Subsequently, various spatial 
data layers were collected, converted, and analysed using GIS (e.g. geological, pedo-
logical, vegetative, climatic, and other thematic maps; population and settlement data; 
natural and cultural heritage data). These were used to supplement the findings from 
the literature. Additional information was obtained through fieldwork (e.g. mapping 
of water and riparian areas and anthropogenic interventions on watercourses, inven-
tory of natural and cultural heritage and other hydrological elements in the landscape, 
own longitudinal water quality measurements at selected sections of the Temenica 
River, survey of local population and 12 semi-structured interviews with various 
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stakeholders in the basin). The research covered a longer period (2019–2023) and in-
cluded contributions from three generations of students from the Department of Ge-
ography (Chair of Regional Analysis and Planning) at the Faculty of Arts, University 
of Ljubljana, who participated in the survey of the local population (in 2019, N=180) 
and in the mapping of the river and riparian areas. The results were finally evaluated 
and used to derive hydrogeographic landmarks of the upper Temenica River basin, 
which form the basis for river basin management. Based on these landmarks and the 
water management objectives, the main water management challenges were identified 
and priorities for action within the basin were set.
2.2 Stakeholder analysis
A stakeholder analysis was carried out in parallel to the analysis of the study area. The 
success of participatory river basin management depends largely on the methods of 
stakeholder engagement and the forms of cooperation. The stakeholder analysis was 
based on Mendelow’s Stakeholder Matrix (Mendelow, 1981), which was adapted to 
our needs. The analysis was carried out in three steps. The first and most important 
step was the identification and mapping of the stakeholders. Stakeholder mapping is 
a process that begins with the identification of stakeholders, followed by the assess-
ment of the frequency and strength of relationships between them, using primar-
ily qualitative methods (e.g. semi-structured interviews, workshops, focus groups) 
(Blázquez et al., 2021; Prell et al., 2016; Smrekar et al., 2023). To investigate stakehold-
er management (Freeman, McVea, 2000), 12 key stakeholder groups in the Temenica 
River basin were identified through informal discussions, literature, documents and 
online sources. In 2019, 12 semi-structured interviews were conducted with these 
Figure 1: Stakeholder’s Interest and Power Matrix (adopted from Mendelow, 1981). 
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Geographical support for participatory river basin management: the case of the Temenica River
Figure 2: Conceptual-methodological framework of the research.
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stakeholder groups. This was followed by three stakeholder workshops in 2020 and a 
series of project activities and workshops between 2021 and 2023. In addition to the 
national and (sub)regional stakeholders, local stakeholders from the central settle-
ment of Trebnje in the upper Temenica River basin were also identified. Once the 
stakeholders and their interrelations were identified and understood, the next step 
was to prioritize the stakeholders. The role of individual stakeholders, their level of 
influence and interest in activities that contribute to the sustainable management of 
the upper Temenica basin were assessed by experts. Based on the results of the inter-
views and workshops, the power and interest of each stakeholder was assessed and 
they were categorized into one of four quadrants: 1) high power and high interest, 2) 
high power and low interest, 3) low power and low interest, or 4) high interest and low 
power (Figure 1). The third step was to determine the most effective way to engage 
and empower stakeholders from each quadrant and to identify the most appropriate 
methods of communicating with them (Mendelow, 1991).
Finally, the impact of the participatory activities was assessed by comparing the 
two stakeholder networks classified in the interest and power matrixes before the 
implementation of different project activities (2020) and after the completion of the 
project (2023). This approach allowed us to assess the contribution to stakeholder 
empowerment and strengthening participatory management in the upper Temenica 
River basin.
3 GEOGRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF THE TEMENICA 
RIVER BASIN
The Temenica River is a karstic sinking stream that predominantly flows through the 
Low Dinaric Karst of the Dolenjska Elongated Lowland (Figure 3). Its surface stream 
is about 42 km long (GURS, 2018). It originates from two headwater branches on the 
southern slopes of the Posavje Hills, near the settlements of Javorje and Vrata. After 27 
km of flow, it first sinks near the settlement of Dolenje Ponikve and emerges again at 
the nearby karst spring of Zijalo in the Mirna Peč Valley. It sinks again near Goriška 
Vas and reappears as the Prečna Spring in the Luknja Steep-Head Valley on the Zalog 
Field, from where it continues its course to the confluence with the Krka River.
The entire basin is about 35 km long and 10 km wide. Due to the uncertain course 
of the watershed divide in the southwestern part of the basin (Habič, 1989, p. 17; 
Novak, 1960, p. 19), its exact area is not precisely known but is estimated at just over 
300 km2 (ARSO, 2023b). The Temenica basin is characterised by elevations predomi-
nantly between 200 and 400 meters above sea level. In the northern part, Triassic 
dolomite is the most presented (GeoZS, 2023). Due to its low water permeability, a 
fluviokarst relief with a sparse surface water network has developed on it. The south-
ern part of the basin is dominated by water-permeable Jurassic limestone, in which 
there are almost no surface waters. The most common soils are shallow rendzinas and 
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Geographical support for participatory river basin management: the case of the Temenica River
brown carbonate soils (MKGP, 2008), while deeper soils can be found on Pliocene 
and Pleistocene reddish-brown clays and silts, offering favourable natural conditions 
for agriculture along the entire valley. The climate in most of the basin is moder-
ately continental (Ogrin et al., 2023). The Temenica has a (sub)Pannonian rain-snow 
discharge regime with a pronounced summer low and autumn high flow (Frantar, 
Hrvatin, 2005; Stojilković, Brečko Grubar, 2024). The mean annual discharge for the 
period 1991–2020 at the Rožni Vrh water gauging station near Trebnje is 0.72 m3/s, 
while at the Prečna gauging station it raises to 4.03 m3/s due to the inflow of karst 
groundwater from eastern Suha Krajina (ARSO, 2023a).
Figure 3: The Temenica River basin.
The basin is administratively divided into seven municipalities, with the largest and 
central part belonging to the municipality of Trebnje. Around 23,000 people live in 
the basin (SURS, 2023), with a population density of 75 inhabitants/km2. The larger 
settlements (Trebnje, Ivančna Gorica, Stična with Šentvid pri Stični and Mirna Peč) 
are located at the bottom of elongated lowland or along the Temenica river, while 
the rest of the basin is sparsely populated and dominated by smaller settlements. The 
proportion of built-up area is around 6% and the proportion of forest is 56% (MKGP, 
2023). The economic and employment centres are the settlements of Trebnje and 
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Ivančna Gorica and, to a lesser extent, Mirna Peč, Straža and Prečna. Due to the high-
way and railroad connections to Ljubljana and Novo mesto, a large part of the popula-
tion migrates daily to work outside the Temenica River basin. Agriculture is also an 
important economic sector, with livestock farming predominating, which is reflected 
in the relatively high proportion of meadows (23.6%) and arable land (11%). From a 
landscape perspective, permanent crops (orchards and vineyards) are also important, 
accounting for 1.3% of the area (MKGP, 2023).
In the present study, we focused primarily on the upper Temenica River basin, 
which stretches from the source near Javorje to Dolenje Ponikve and accounts for 
about one third of the entire basin and two thirds of the total surface flow of the Te-
menica. The study focused on the valley floor along the river, with an emphasis on 
the wider Trebnje area. In this area, the pressure on the water and the riparian zone 
is the greatest due to population concentration, transportation routes and various ac-
tivities, which is also reflected in the poor ecological status of the Temenica (Ocena 
ekološkega stanja..., 2021).
4 HYDROGEOGRAPHICAL LANDMARKS OF THE UPPER 
TEMENICA RIVER BASIN
Due to the karst terrain with vertical drainage and a poorly developed river network 
dominated by shorter, less water-abundant, slower-flowing, intermittent (with the ex-
ception of the Temenica), non-sediment-bearing watercourses and losing streams, 
the upper Temenica River basin is very sensitive to anthropogenic pressures on the 
environment and thus on the water bodies.
The specific hydromorphological conditions of the valley floor make it a wetland 
and floodplain landscape, which in some places has been transformed by drainage 
channels into an intensive agricultural landscape, posing a considerable burden on 
the less water-rich watercourse. As the settlements are relatively well adapted to the 
frequent flooding and are mostly located outside the flood-prone areas, the natural 
course of the Temenica River has been largely preserved, with a slight gradient that 
allows the course of the river to meander strongly. Riparian vegetation is restricted to 
a narrow strip along the riverbed, which prevents it from providing its full ecosystem 
services and creating optimal conditions for the development of a rich biodiversity.
Most of the upper Temenica River basin is characterised by scattered settlement 
with smaller settlements, which is unfavourable for the provision of municipal in-
frastructure, especially sewage systems. Apart from the concentrated settlement in 
Trebnje (and its nearby surroundings) and Veliki Gaber with its wastewater collection 
and treatment system, the inhabitants of this area are forced to look for individual 
solutions. The area is development-oriented and economically relatively prosperous, 
with a well-developed industrial sector supported by its excellent transport links and 
accessibility. However, industry is also a significant consumer and polluter of water, 
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Geographical support for participatory river basin management: the case of the Temenica River
which affects water quality mainly through discharges in the Trebnje town area. 
The fluviokarst relief, which combines elements of karst and fluvial landforms, 
the transitional nature of an area, the tradition of permanent settlement in the area, 
and the development of some water-dependent crafts, make the water-related natu-
ral and cultural heritage in the river basin extremely diverse. Along with the Lju-
bljanica River, the Temenica River is one of the most characteristic and picturesque 
sinking rivers in Slovenia, with a whole range of different river features (blind val-
leys, dry valleys, meanders, oxbow lakes and sloughs, a branched system of sink-
holes and swallow holes, karst springs, caves, and more). It is protected as a hydro-
logical, geomorphological and ecosystem value of national importance (Pravilnik o 
določitvi..., 2004). In addition, the upper Temenica Valley is the longest blind valley 
in Dolenjska region (Gams, 1983) and one of the longest in Slovenia (Gams, 1962). 
The cultural heritage includes the former mills and the traditional water manage-
ment with dams and millraces, washing sites, a bathing area, Trebnje Castle, numer-
ous archeological sites, and the unique cultural landscape along the Temenica River 
(MZK, 2023). Consequently, the upper Temenica River basin has at least moderate, 
if not significant, tourism and education potential related to water. If appropriately 
utilized through the implementation of soft tourism practices, this potential could 
provide an additional development impulse and sustainable jobs.
Figure 4: The floodplain of the Temenica River in Trebnje (photo: Department of Geography, 
Faculty of Arts, UL, 2022).
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5 WATER MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES IN THE UPPER 
TEMENICA RIVER BASIN
The biggest water management challenge is the pollution of the upper Temenica River, 
which has a poor ecological status according to the results of national monitoring of wa-
tercourses (Ocena ekološkega stanja..., 2021). Due to increasing pressures, the sensitive 
karst basin, and the river’s limited self-purification capacity, water quality progressively 
deteriorates downstream (Dečman, 2025 – in press). Solutions must therefore be found 
in the future to reduce the degrading pressures and improve water quality.
In the context of climate change, the significant decline in the discharge of the 
Temenica river also poses a particular challenge. Its average discharge (Qs) at Rožni 
Vrh has decreased by 40% in the period 1956–2020 (Figure 5a) and its low discharge 
(Qnk) by as much as 80% (Figure 5b, ARSO, 2023b). The amount of water has de-
creased the most during the growing season between April and September (Figure 
5c), when water demand is highest. In recent decades, the decline in runoff due to 
climate warming and increasing evaporation, as well as the overgrowth of agricultural 
land with forest, which is a large consumer of water, has been typical for most Slo-
venian watercourses, but few have experienced such a sharp decline as the Temenica 
River (Ulaga, 2002). This pronounced decrease in discharge is probably also related 
to the collapse of mills and the associated abandonment of traditional water manage-
ment practises, including the clogging of sinkholes in the riverbed. Another reason 
is probably the water abstraction in the headwaters (near Radanja Vas and in the 
Bratnica Valley) for the water supply of settlements and industry in Trebnje (Letno 
poročilo 2022, 2023; Oskrba s pitno vodo, 2023). The significantly lower volume of 
water during low flows and its poor quality are, in addition to high summer water 
temperatures and low oxygen content, the main causes of frequent fish kills in the up-
per Temenica River catchment. The reduction of average and low discharge and the 
unfavourable changes of the discharge regime make it necessary to find appropriate 
measures to mitigate and adapt to the effects of climate change on water resources.
We assessed the population’s relationship with the river and their attachment to it 
by surveying the local community. The survey results revealed that people were signifi-
cantly more attached to the river in the past than they are today. In the past, they swam 
in the Temenica River, fished, and socialized along its banks. Today, the river is mostly 
neglected, and residents no longer perceive the riverside area as a space for gathering, 
recreation, or leisure. They have become alienated from the river and do not know it 
as well as they did decades ago when their lives depended on it to a much greater ex-
tent. The same applies to the diverse natural and cultural heritage associated with water, 
which is poorly recognized, and its potential remains underutilized for both educational 
and tourism-recreational purposes. Based on conversations and interviews conducted 
with local stakeholders in water management (including municipal representatives, as-
sociations, civil initiatives, the fishing society, and the interested public), most expressed 
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Geographical support for participatory river basin management: the case of the Temenica River
a desire for the development and revitalization of the river and its surroundings. How-
ever, due to insufficient awareness of contemporary sustainable practices in sustainable 
river management, each group of stakeholders envisions the implementation differently. 
Additionally, they are not sufficiently interconnected. Thus, it is necessary to unify a 
sustainable, nature-based vision for managing the river and its surroundings, one that 
aligns with modern research guidelines. This vision should aim to enhance river eco-
system services (such as blue-green infrastructure, ecoremediation, and nature-based 
solutions) while preventing further degradation of water quality and biodiversity. 
Figure 5: Trends in medium (sQs) and low flow (nQnk) during the period 1955–2020 and 
a comparison of river flow regimes for the periods 1961–1990 and 1991–2020 at the 
Rožni Vrh hydrological station.
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6 STAKEHOLDERS IN THE UPPER TEMENICA RIVER BASIN 
AND THE EMPOWERMENT PROCESS
In participatory river basin management, it is important to involve a wide range of rele-
vant stakeholders who can contribute to the co-management of the river ecosystem. At 
the same time, it is crucial to understand the roles of individuals and their relationships 
with each other. In the upper Temenica River basin, we identified 12 key stakeholder 
groups: three at the national level, two at the regional or sub-regional level and seven 
at the local level. These stakeholder groups form both formal networks (e.g. state–mu-
nicipality, state–development agency, municipality–primary school) and informal 
networks (e.g. farmers–fishermen, municipality–entrepreneurs, municipality–local 
association, local association–local residents). The networks develop both horizontally 
(e.g., municipality–primary school, municipality–local association, state–national as-
sociation) and vertically (e.g. municipality–state, state–development agency).
The upper Temenica River basin extends administratively over the territories of 
three municipalities. The middle and lower parts of the basin belong to the Mu-
nicipality of Trebnje, while the upper reaches belong to the Municipality of Ivančna 
Gorica and, to a lesser extent, to the Municipality of Šmartno pri Litiji. While the Mu-
nicipality of Trebnje has a strong interest in the management of the Temenica River, 
the development of water-related initiatives and the improvement of blue-green infra-
structure along the river, the Municipality of Ivančna Gorica focuses primarily on its 
better-known central watercourse, the Krka River. Although the upper reaches of the 
Temenica originate in the Municipality of Šmartno pri Litiji, this municipality shows 
little interest in managing the river. This lack of interest is due to the fact that the 
headwaters of the Temenica are difficult to access and heavily forested, and the river 
quickly crosses the municipal border after its source. It is therefore no coincidence 
that the Municipality of Trebnje was the initiator and lead partner of the LEADER/
CLLD project Rusalka, in the framework of which numerous activities promoting 
participatory river basin management were carried out (Figure 6). Although the Mu-
nicipality of Ivančna Gorica was not a formal partner of the project, it was indirectly 
involved, as some project activities were also carried out on its territory.
The administrative fragmentation of the upper Temenica basin is exacerbated by 
the division between the territory of the Local Action Group (LAG) Suha Krajina, 
Temenica and Krka (LAG STIK) and the LAG Heart of Slovenia, which covers the 
upper reaches of the Temenica in the Municipality of Šmartno pri Litiji. Local Action 
Groups (LAGs) are partnerships that bring together public and private stakeholders at 
sub-regional level to implement development projects in specific areas and local com-
munities. Both formal networks (e.g. with ministries) and informal networks (e.g. 
with various associations and individuals) are established within the LAGs (Potočnik 
Slavič et al., 2022). The LAG Suha Krajina, Temenica and Krka (STIK) has identi-
fied the Temenica River as one of its priority areas in two development documents 
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Geographical support for participatory river basin management: the case of the Temenica River
(for the periods 2014–2020 and 2021–2027) (SLR LAS STIK, 2014–2021; SLR LAS 
STIK, 2021–2027). So far, the Temenica has only been directly addressed once by a 
LEADER/CLLD project, namely by the above-mentioned project Rusalka (Reviving 
Life Along and Within the Temenica River, 2022–2023).
The upper Temenica basin is divided between two development regions: the Cen-
tral Slovenia Development Region and the Southeast Slovenia Development Region. 
Consequently, it falls under the jurisdiction of two different development agencies: the 
Agency for Regional Development of the Ljubljana City Region and the Novo Mesto 
Development Centre, which serves as the regional development agency for South-
east Slovenia. In the current programming period, neither agency has addressed the 
management of the Temenica River (RRA JV Slovenija, 2022; RRA LUR, 2022). Addi-
tionally, the upper Temenica basin is divided between two cohesion regions (Eastern 
and Western Slovenia), which further complicates the formation of partnerships and 
access to funding.
National authorities and agencies (e.g. the relevant ministry, directorates, agen-
cies and inspectorates) are responsible for implementing European directives (e.g. 
the EU Water Framework Directive) and drafting national water, environmental and 
spatial planning legislation. They also oversee the management and monitoring of wa-
ter resources (e.g. quality, use), with implementation often delegated to lower admin-
istrative levels or operational units. For example, municipalities may occasionally be 
tasked with cleaning smaller riverbeds. National institutions and authorities also act 
as “permitting authorities” for various interventions in water and riparian areas and 
guide sustainable development based on political decisions. These authorities form 
formal networks and work together both vertically (e.g. cooperation and delegation 
of tasks to municipalities) and horizontally (e.g. cross-sectoral cooperation between 
ministries and national authorities). The Temenica River basin falls within the juris-
diction of the Lower Sava sector of the Water Management Agency (Sektor..., 2024).
An informal form of networking at national level is various interest groups that 
aim to unite individuals around a common goal. Examples include raising public 
awareness, participating in media campaigns, pursuing legal action and pushing for 
social or political change. In the Temenica River basin, for example, the Association 
of Slovenian Geographers has been active together with its Hydrogeography Com-
mission. In cooperation with the Slovenian Environment Agency (ARSO), they led 
an initiative to install high-water level markers to raise awareness of flood risks along 
Slovenian rivers (Frantar et al., 2018).
At the invitation of the Municipality of Trebnje (as part of the preparatory activi-
ties and later the Rusalka project), the Department of Geography at the Faculty of 
Arts, University of Ljubljana (Department of Geography, FA UL) was involved in re-
search into the Temenica karst River and the management of its basin. The depart-
ment established both vertical networks (e.g. with the municipality, primary schools, 
local associations and the local action group) and horizontal networks (e.g. with the 
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Association of Geographers of Slovenia and the Commission for Hydrogeography). 
During the project activities, stakeholders in the Temenica River basin were empow-
ered with various methods and techniques, new insights and knowledge about the Te-
menica River and support in building networks for participatory basin management. 
The department contributed to the design of workshops for primary school students, 
conducted trainings for teachers and developed a manual for teachers (Mikolič et al., 
2023b). They also created a digital representation of Temenica River online (Mikolič 
et al., 2023a) and organised several participatory and educational workshops for dif-
ferent stakeholders and the public (Figure 6).
Primary school can raise pupils’ awareness of the importance of water conservation 
and sustainable use through regular lessons and additional activities (e.g. science days, 
elective courses), thus promoting a more responsible attitude of young people towards 
the environment. Primary schools can also serve as a hub for communities, local asso-
ciations and residents by creating formal and informal networks that facilitate knowl-
edge exchange and collaboration on local environmental projects. There are two main 
and four branch schools in the upper Temenica Basin. Trebnje Primary School, with 
around 1,100 students in the main school and the three branch schools, was directly 
involved in the participatory river basin management process. The Veliki Gaber Pri-
mary School and the Temenica Village Branch School were indirectly involved. In co-
operation with the teachers of these schools, the staff of the Department of Geography 
at the Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana developed four thematic workshops on 
integrated water management: Responsible Water Use, Water Reuse, Water and Ripar-
ian Spaces, Water Quantity and Quality. The workshops were tailored to children aged 
8 to 12 and were modular, allowing teachers to choose between one-hour and full-day 
activities. They were suitable for both classroom teaching and field work. Teaching ma-
terials were developed, including an illustrated map of the Temenica, various games, 
worksheets and more. Eight pilot workshops were held in four primary schools. A 65-
page didactic manual (Mikolič et al., 2023b) was produced for teachers and friends of 
the Temenica River and other watercourses, containing all the necessary information 
for independent use. The schools also received water analysis kits and an electronic 
conductivity metre. In addition, teacher training courses were held in the LAG STIK to 
enable teachers to incorporate local water issues into the educational process. Students 
also created a short film showing how they are exploring the Temenica.
An important stakeholder in participatory river basin management are local as-
sociations (cultural, sports, environmental, art, tourism associations, etc.) that orga-
nize workshops, lectures and events to raise awareness among residents about the 
importance of protecting water resources and their sustainable use. These associa-
tions also build and strengthen informal networks with other local actors such as 
schools, municipalities, entrepreneurs, farmers, fishermen and residents by acting as 
a bridge between formal decision-makers and the community. In the upper Temenica 
basin, local associations played an active role in organizing events on the tangible and 
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Geographical support for participatory river basin management: the case of the Temenica River
Figure 6: Project activities implemented in the upper Temenica River basin between 2021 
and 2023.
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intangible heritage of the Temenica River, designing excursions along the river, or-
ganizing art and photography competitions and hosting annual clean-up campaigns. 
Their commitment to the interests of the local water community is also an important 
aspect of their contribution.
Farmers, fishermen, entrepreneurs and local residents are important stakeholders 
who can contribute to the sustainable management of the river through their activi-
ties. Farmers in particular use the land directly adjacent to the river for agricultural 
production. Most of the valley floor in the Temenica basin, including the sensitive 
wetlands, consists of farmland that extends almost to the riverbank. Despite the pre-
scribed 5-meter buffer zone, which is supposed to protect the river’s ecosystem, it is 
insufficient due to the karst features of the Temenica River. Agricultural activities, 
especially fertilization and pesticide use, have a direct impact on water quality. As part 
of the participatory management process in the upper Temenica basin, farmers were 
targeted through public awareness workshops. These workshops focused on educat-
ing attendees about sustainable agricultural practices that reduce the environmental 
impact on the sensitive karst river, such as the responsible use of crops and fertilizers 
and the establishment of vegetative buffer strips along the river. This initiative helped 
to empower farmers and improve their practices and is therefore directly in line with 
the objectives of participatory management, where local stakeholders take responsi-
bility for the protection of natural resources and their sustainable use.
The fishermen were directly involved through consultations during the workshops, 
where they shared their extensive traditional knowledge of the river and fish habitats. 
This is in line with the theory of co-management, which emphasizes collaboration 
with local experts in identifying problems such as fish mortality due to pollution and 
low water. The fishermen also contributed by proposing technical solutions, including 
the restoration of fish habitats and the repair of cascade barriers, some of which they 
have already implemented as part of their regular activities on the Temenica River.
Entrepreneurs belong to a stakeholder group that can have a significant impact 
on water resources, as their activities often require water use. Through vertical and 
horizontal networking, socially and environmentally responsible entrepreneurs can 
contribute to efforts towards sustainable water use, both within their own industrial 
and business operations and by raising awareness among other stakeholders. An en-
trepreneur in the upper Temenica basin organized workshops on small wastewater 
treatment plants and educated the local population about technological solutions for 
wastewater treatment.
The local population participated in several activities, most notably Temenica Day, 
a newly established annual event aimed at raising awareness of the importance of the 
Temenica River for the local community and beyond. During this event, residents 
participated in educational workshops and activities led by local experts and research-
ers. In three public competitions (art, literature and photography competitions), the 
local population reflected on their relationship with Temenica. They were indirectly 
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Geographical support for participatory river basin management: the case of the Temenica River
involved through primary school students who participated in several educational 
workshops. This empowered the younger generations and their families to better un-
derstand and contribute to the protection of the river. Residents living near the river 
play a crucial role in the co-management of natural resources, as local knowledge is 
combined with modern sustainable practices, fostering mutual responsibility.
7 MATRIX OF STAKEHOLDER POWER AND INTEREST 
BEFORE AND AFTER THE PILOT PROJECT
In the participatory river basin management model, understanding the interests and 
power of different stakeholders is crucial for effective planning, collaboration, interac-
tion and implementation of interventions. To support the participatory management 
of the upper Temenica River basin, we conducted a stakeholder mapping exercise. 
Based on the results of interviews and focus groups and their willingness to partici-
pate in various project activities in the Temenica basin, we developed an interest and 
power matrix for key stakeholders. Stakeholders were categorised into four quadrants 
according to the combination of two parameters: their power to influence river man-
agement (low or high) and their interest to participate in participatory management 
(low or high). In order to bring about change, improve collaboration and strengthen 
communication, it is important to aim for a strong group of stakeholders with high 
influence and interest.
Figure 7: Matrix of stakeholder power and interest in the upper Temenica River basin before 
project activities (in 2020).
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The first quadrant contains stakeholders with high power and high interest in par-
ticipating. These stakeholders should be actively involved in the process of partici-
patory management of the upper Temenica River basin in order to find sustainable 
solutions, and they should feel that their contributions are useful and satisfactory. 
The second quadrant contains stakeholders with high power but little interest. For 
these stakeholders, efforts should focus on ensuring their satisfaction and encour-
aging their interest in greater participation, but without exerting excessive pressure. 
The third quadrant consists of stakeholders with low power and low interest. Their 
position should be monitored in case their power or interest changes. The effort re-
quired to communicate with them is minimal, but it is important to maintain contact 
through regular updates. The fourth quadrant contains stakeholders with low power 
but high interest. Active collaboration with these stakeholders is necessary to provide 
them with relevant information and keep them informed about opportunities to par-
ticipate. The stakeholders in this group often come up with innovative solutions.
Prior to the start of the pilot project (in 2020), a general lack of interest and power 
among local stakeholders for active participation in water management was observed. 
The results of the workshops and interviews showed that the stakeholders of the upper 
Temenica River basin were mainly divided into the following groups.
I.  Stakeholders with High Power and High Interest – Active Engagement
The Municipality of Trebnje and the Local Action Group (LAG) were key actors with 
sufficient interest and power to contribute to the project initiative for sustainable man-
agement of the upper Temenica River basin. Although their role was not very active be-
fore the year 2020, they had the authority to influence decisions and implement changes. 
These are two stakeholder groups that need to be actively involved in the decision-mak-
ing process and have a leading role in the implementation of measures. Consequently, 
they were also the main drivers of project activities between 2021 and 2023.
II.  Stakeholders with High Power and Low Interest – Satisfy and Encourage Interest
The identified stakeholders with high power but low interest include the state with its 
associated institutions and authorities as well as the regional development agencies. 
The state has considerable power through its institutions due to its formal role in wa-
ter management. However, it shows little interest in addressing water management at 
the level of smaller river sub-basins such as the Temenica basin. Its efforts are primar-
ily focused on drafting laws and guidelines for the management of larger spatial units 
(river basins) and it shows a lack of interest in taking a proactive role in addressing 
local water management challenges. There is also little to no interest in the manage-
ment of the Temenica catchment at the regional level (development agencies). From a 
stakeholder management perspective, these stakeholders were identified as those that 
need to be satisfied and only involved in the management process if this is necessary 
to achieve the project objectives. At the same time, efforts should be made to find 
ways to encourage their active participation.
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Geographical support for participatory river basin management: the case of the Temenica River
III. Stakeholders with Low Power and Low Interest – Monitor and Address Potential 
Changes
Before the project started, low-power and low-interest stakeholders included lo-
cal residents, farmers, entrepreneurs, local associations and primary schools. These 
stakeholders lacked both power and influence over the river basin management and 
showed no interest in participating in the management process. This can be partly at-
tributed to a lack of information and partly to a lack of incentives and concrete oppor-
tunities for participation. Dealing with these stakeholders involves monitoring their 
activities and engaging them through awareness-raising campaigns and participatory 
activities to encourage their interest and involvement.
IV. Stakeholders with Low Power and High Interest – Provide Relevant Information 
and Continuous Updates
Although the fishermen expressed a strong interest in improving the condition of the riv-
er, particularly fish populations, and a desire to participate in the protection of the river’s 
ecosystem, they were categorized as stakeholders with low decision-making power be-
fore the project began. Their influence was limited to local initiatives, which is why they 
had to be regularly informed about activities in the Temenica River basin and involved 
whenever possible. The Department of Geography at the Faculty of Arts, University of 
Ljubljana also focused primarily on research and educational activities, which limited 
its direct influence on management decisions. However, it showed great interest in the 
involvement and implementation of participative water management measures based on 
scientific findings. These stakeholders require consistent communication, access to rel-
evant information and efforts to involve them in the process whenever possible.
Figure 8: Matrix of stakeholder power and interest in the upper Temenica River basin after 
project activities (in 2023). 
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The implementation of the LEADER/CLLD pilot project, which included a se-
ries of workshops, training sessions, and stakeholder networking, has significantly 
changed the stakeholder interest and power matrix (as of 2023). The project activities 
helped to empower (local) stakeholders, increase their interest in participating and 
increase their influence on the process of managing the upper Temenica River basin. 
As a result, the number of stakeholders in Quadrant I (high power/high interests) and 
Quadrant IV (low power/high interests) increased.
I.  Stakeholders with High Power and High Interest
In addition to the Municipality of Trebnje and LAG STIK, the stakeholder quadrant was 
expanded with high impact and interest to include the local elementary school and the 
university (Department of Geography, FA UL). These stakeholders became key actors in 
the sustainable management of the upper Temenica River basin. The municipality and 
LAG recognised the importance of involving broader stakeholders and supported local 
initiatives. The Department of Geography, FA UL played an important role in empower-
ing local stakeholders through research and educational activities. The primary school 
increased its power and interest by involving students in educational and awareness-
raising projects about the Temenica River. These stakeholders should continue to be 
encouraged to actively participate and guide local initiatives. The LEADER/CLLD ap-
proach and the associated funding mechanism have proven to be effective in addressing 
the specific environmental needs of a particular area or local community (in this case 
the upper Temenica River basin). However, due to its structure and relatively limited 
financial support, the scope of activities it can support is limited.
II.  Stakeholders with High Power and Low Interest
There have been no changes in this quadrant. The state and its agencies and institu-
tions retained their formal power, but showed no interest in direct involvement in the 
management of smaller sub-basins, despite nominal support at local level. Its role re-
mains limited. The management of this actor in the Temenica River basin continues to 
focus on fulfilling formal requirements, with no significant activation to be expected. 
The situation is similar at the regional development level, where participation in the 
management of water catchment areas is not yet a priority.
III. Stakeholders with Low Power and Low Interest 
After the project activities, the number of stakeholders in this quadrant decreased, as 
most stakeholders developed a greater interest and shifted to another quadrant. The 
national interest groups and local residents remain in this quadrant. Due to the large 
number of similar river basins in Slovenia, the national associations are only margin-
ally involved in the management of smaller river basins. Despite efforts to raise aware-
ness through the project, not all locals have managed to get involved or recognize the 
importance of participatory management. Their participation should continue to be 
monitored to identify potential opportunities to increase their interest.
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Geographical support for participatory river basin management: the case of the Temenica River
IV. Stakeholders with Low Power and High Interest
After the project activities, several local associations, fishermen, farmers and entre-
preneurs showed a greater interest in participating. The fishermen and farmers began 
to better understand the impact of their activities on the river’s water quality and 
ecosystem and acquired new knowledge to mitigate this impact. At the same time, 
they made valuable contributions with their expertise and experience and enriched 
the knowledge about the Temenica River. A local entrepreneur organized educational 
workshops on small wastewater treatment plants and linked his product or service to 
the local environment. Local associations also became more active, participating in 
the organization of events and encouraging wider public participation. These stake-
holders should continue to be informed about future activities, receive relevant in-
formation about the river and its ecosystem and be encouraged to participate in the 
management of the upper Temenica River basin.
The pilot project led to considerable shifts in the matrix of interests and power 
of those involved. Local stakeholders such as the municipality, primary schools and 
LAG as well as the university — especially the geographers — gained more power and 
interest in participating in river basin management after the activities carried out. 
Primary schools and local associations have become vital pillars for future sustainable 
management, while farmers and fishermen showed increased interest due to concrete 
activities, they were able to carry out themselves. In the future, it will be crucial to 
continue to serve the most important stakeholders, to keep those with high interest 
but limited resources (financial and otherwise) well informed and to monitor those 
whose role is currently still limited.
8 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The pilot project on participatory management of the upper Temenica River basin 
has demonstrated that the involvement of local stakeholders and the application of 
interdisciplinary approaches based on collaboration and knowledge exchange play an 
important role in enhancing the sustainable management of small karst basins. These 
basins are particularly vulnerable to various anthropogenic pressures and climate 
change. Although there is strong support in principle for participatory river basin 
management at the national level, cross-sectoral activities have not yet been estab-
lished, leaving the management of smaller basins to local communities. These com-
munities often lack the necessary knowledge, data and approaches, prompting them 
to engage various experts for assistance. A geographical approach that focuses on a 
holistic analysis of the river basin, identifying hydrogeographic constants and water 
management challenges, combined with stakeholder engagement in the Temenica 
basin, proved to be effective. Only a comprehensive approach tailored to the unique 
characteristics of each river basin can effectively address multiple challenges simul-
taneously. Partial or segmented solutions run the risk of creating conflict between 
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stakeholders, leading to dissatisfaction. It is therefore important to address all aspects 
comprehensively and involve all stakeholders in the management process. However, 
stakeholder management is a long-term endeavor.
The upper Temenica River is in a poor ecological condition due to numerous 
anthropogenic pressures, the sensitivity of the river basin and its limited self-puri-
fication capacity, which urgently needs to be improved. Poor water quality, decreas-
ing water levels and frequent fish kills make it clear that immediate action is needed 
to solve these problems. This situation is exacerbated by the lack of support from 
local residents, who feel increasingly disconnected from the river and do not per-
ceive it as their own. As a result, improving the condition of the river is becoming 
a particular challenge. Educated and attentive young residents, together with other 
stakeholders, could play a crucial role in the transition to more sustainable river 
management.
Water management serves as a platform for innovation and testing new approaches 
to collaboration and decision-making. River basin management is effective when it 
addresses key water management challenges through a combination of bottom-up 
and top-down approaches. This allows the specific needs of each area to be addressed 
and encourages constructive interaction between stakeholders at different levels of 
governance, including government and civil society. In the Temenica River basin, the 
LEADER/CLLD approach, implemented through the Local Action Group (LAG), 
proved to be a suitable model. LAGs operate as spatial units on a sub-regional level, 
which we consider suitable for the implementation of activities in smaller river basins. 
Within LAGs, it is possible to address the specific needs and challenges of particular 
areas and local communities. The LEADER/CLLD approach is inclusive, encouraging 
participation and cooperation between different stakeholders. However, a major limi-
tation is the modest financial support available for LEADER/CLLD projects, which 
limits the scope of activities that can be carried out.
The Municipality of Trebnje was the initiator of the activities in the upper Temeni-
ca River basin, while the process of involving various stakeholders in the participatory 
management of the river basin was carried out with the expert support of the Depart-
ment of Geography, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana. Educational institutions 
and local associations have proven to be crucial pillars for sustainable river manage-
ment. Meanwhile, the interest of various stakeholders (farmers, fishermen, entrepre-
neurs and local residents) in sustainable, nature-oriented management of the Temen-
ica River has increased due to concrete activities they can carry out themselves. When 
local stakeholders and actors participate in the decision-making and management of 
the river basin management, a sense of ownership over decisions and actions is cre-
ated. This sense of responsibility motivates active engagement and improves under-
standing of the environmental challenges. In this context, empowerment means that 
residents not only accept decisions, but also actively participate in the implementa-
tion of measures and the solution of problems. This reduces the feeling of detachment 
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from their environment and increases support for environmental initiatives. Local 
residents gain valuable information and knowledge about the processes and chal-
lenges in their river basin. This collaboration goes beyond education and includes 
knowledge exchange between residents and experts (Mikolič et al., 2024). Experts can 
integrate this local knowledge into their analyses and planning, thus increasing the 
relevance and effectiveness of environmental measures. Participation promotes the 
co-creation of solutions and increases the likelihood that measures will be accepted 
and implemented in the long term.
For the long-term success of the integrated management of the Temenica River 
basin, it is essential to continue participatory activities and maintain strong networks 
between stakeholders at different levels. In the future, it will be crucial to steer the 
identified key stakeholders, including the municipality, the Local Action Group, the 
primary school and the supporting professional group of geographers. At the same 
time, it will be important to inform and engage those who have a strong interest but 
limited resources or authority, such as local associations, fishermen, farmers and en-
trepreneurs, while monitoring and addressing the needs of stakeholders at the nation-
al and regional levels who have not yet developed a systematic approach to managing 
smaller river basins. These sustained efforts will ensure continued collaboration and 
coordination among stakeholders and promote a more effective and inclusive water 
management process.
Comprehensive initiatives for participatory river basin management are rare in Slo-
venia, which underlines the importance of the Temenica River project. It is expected 
that a similar approach will gradually be adopted in other small river basins in Slove-
nia, as bottom-up participatory river management is gaining recognition worldwide. 
Given Slovenia’s headwaters character, numerous small watercourses and geographi-
cal diversity, this approach is very suitable for the country. However, the implementa-
tion of this approach faces certain obstacles due to the administrative fragmentation 
of water areas into several municipalities and local action groups, the lack of an active 
role of the regional level, and the division of responsibilities between municipalities 
and the state in water management and spatial planning. Overcoming these obstacles 
— possibly even through legislative changes — will be necessary to achieve a more 
efficient and integrated water management in Slovenia. Future river basin manage-
ment efforts must include knowledge transfer, exchange of best practices and scaling 
up of local initiatives within river basins, supported by broader political and financial 
mechanisms at national and (sub)regional levels. The objectives of participatory river 
basin management, community empowerment and a more integrated approach to 
natural resource management should also be included in legislation, e.g. the Water 
Act.
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Acknowledgements
The activities of the staff of the Department of Geography at the Faculty of Arts, Univer-
sity of Ljubljana, in the Temenica River basin were financially supported by the Munici-
pality of Trebnje. The research was also conducted within the framework of the research 
program Sustainable Regional Development of Slovenia (P6-0229), funded by the Slove-
nian Research and Innovation Agency. Special thanks go to the generations of geography 
students (2019–2024) who participated in the study of the Temenica River.
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